Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Novel and innovative pyrolysis and gasification technologies for

energy efficient and environmentally sound MSW disposal
Thomas Malkow*
Institute for Energy, JRC Petten, Postbus 2, 1755 ZG Petten, The Netherlands

Accepted 25 February 2003

Abstract
Within the context of European Union (EU) energy policy and sustainibility in waste management, recent EU regulations
demand energy efficient and environmentally sound disposal methods of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW). Currently, landfill with its
many drawbacks is the preferred option in the EU and many other industrialised countries. Within the waste management hier-
archy thermal disposal especially incineration is a viable and proven alternative. But, the dominating method, mass-burn grate
incineration has drawbacks as well particularly hazardous emissions and harmful process residues. In recent years, pyrolysis and
gasification technologies have emerged to address these issues and improve the energy output. To keep the many players in the field
comprehensively informed and up-to-date, novel and innovative technology approaches emphasising European developments are
reviewed.
# 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Abbreviations: ABFB, Atmospheric BFB; ACFB, Atmospheric CFB; AEE, Austrian Energy Energietechnik GmbH; APC, Air pollution con-
trol; ASR, Automotive shredder residues; BBP, Babcock Borsig Power GmbH; BCL, Battelle (Memorial Institute) Columbus Laboratory; BFB,
Bubbling fluidised bed; BGL, Britisch Gas Lurgi; BKMI, Babcock Krauss-Maffei Industrieanlagen GmbH; CCGT, Combined cycle gas turbine;
CEC, Commission of the European Communities; CFB, Circulating fluidised bed; CFBG, CFB Gasifier; CFD, Computational fluid dynamics;
CGC, Cold gas clean-up; CHP, Combined heat and power; CV, Calorific value; DBI, Deutsches Brennstoffnstitut R. u. A. GmbH; DEA, DEA
Mineraloel AG; DoE, US Department of Energy; EBU, EBU Energiebüro Umwelttechnologie GmbH; EC, European Commission; ECN, Ener-
gieonderzoek Centrum Nederland; ECS, ECS Energie Consulting und Service GmbH; EPA, US Environmental Protection Agency; EU, European
Union; FBC, Fluidised bed combustion; FBG, Fluidised bed gasification; FERCO, Future Energy Resources Corporation; FGC, Flue gas clean-up;
FGR, Flue gas recirculation; GEC, Global Environment Centre Foundation; GHG, Greenhouse gas; GSP, Gaskombinat Schwarze Pumpe; HCV,
High calorific value; HGC, Hot gas clean-up; HRSG, Heat recovery steam generator; HSR, Holderbank-Smelt-Redox; HTW, High-temperature
winkler; HZC, Hitachi Zosen Corporation; IFP, Institut Français du Pétrol; IGCC, Integrated gasification combined cycle; IPPC, Integrated pol-
lution, prevention and control; JSIM, Japan Society of Industrial Machinery Manufacturers; KPE, Kentucky Pioneer Energy, LLC; KSMF,
Kubota-surface-melt-furnace; LANL, Los Alamos National Laboratory; LHV, Lower heating value; MCFC, Molten carbonate fuel cell; MCV,
Medium calorific value; MDEU, Mannesmann Demag Energie- und Umwelttechnik GmbH; MFU, Mitteldeutsche Feuerungs- und Umwelttechnik
GmbH; MLEE, ML Entsorgungs- und Energieanlagen GmbH; MPG, Multi-purpose gasifier; MSW, Municipal solid waste; MTCI, Manufacturing
& Technology Conversion International, Inc.; NETL, National Energy Technology Laboratory; NTV, Niedertemperaturvergaser; OIT, Office of
Industrial Technologies; OSC, OSC Process Engineering Ltd; PAH, Polyaromatic hydrocarbons; PC, Pulverised coal; PCC, PC combustion; PCB,
Polychlorinated biphenyls; PCDD/F, Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxine/-Furan; PEC, Product en Energie Centrale; PEMFC, Polymer electrolyte
membrane fuel cell; PKA, PKA Umwelttechnik GmbH & Co. KG; PPC, Pressurised pulverised coal; PPFFS, Pressurized pulverized fuel firing
system; PVC, Polyvinyl chloride; RAVON, RegionalerAbfallverband Oberlausitz-Niederschlesien; RCP, Recycled clean products; RDF, Refuse-
derived fuel; RTD, Research, Technology & Development; RWE, RWE Energie AG; SHI, Sumitomo Heavy Industries Ltd; SNG, Synthetic natural
gas; SOFC, Solid oxide fuel cell; SVZ, Sekundärrohstoff-Verwertungszentrum Schwarze Pumpe GmbH; TDF, Tyre-derived fuel; TIT, Turbine inlet
temperature; TPS, TPS Termiska Processer AB; TRI, ThermoChem Recovery International, Inc.; UBA, Umweltbundesamt; UET, UET Umwelt-
und Energietechnik Freiberg GmbH; VEW, VEW Energie AG; VOC, Volatile organic compounds; WEEE, Waste of electrical and electronic
equipments; WGT, Waste Gas Technology UK Limited; WPLC, Wisconsin Power and Light Corporation; WTE, Waste-to-energy.
* Present address: Institut für Materialforschung III, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany. Fax: +49-7247-82-
3956.
E-mail address: thomas.malkow@imf.fzk.de (T. Malkow).

0956-053X/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0956-053X(03)00038-2
54 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79
1. Introduction
In recent years, the quantity of MSW has increased
significantly in the EU and other industrialised and
developing countries raising the question of its sustain-
able disposal management (Brereton, 1996; Sakai et al.,
1996; Hjelmar, 1996; Sakai, 1996; Vehlow, 1996; Sawell
et al., 1996; Johannessen, 1996; Berenyi, 1996; Kilgroe,
1996; Wiles, 1996; Ruth, 1998; Otoma et al., 1997;
Hunsicker et al., 1996). Within the waste management
hierarchy, thermal disposal especially incineration with
energy recovery is a desired, viable and an option often
used in industrialised nations (Rylander, 1997; Akehata,
1998; Price, 1996; Hjelmar, 1996; Vehlow, 1996). In the
EU, incineration of MSW lags currently behind another
more popular waste management option, landfill. How-
ever, the situation differs considerably between the
Member States. Given the EU landfill directive 1999/31/
EC (Anon., 1999a) and the the recent approval of the
new waste incineration directive 2000/76/EC (Anon.,
2000b, 2001), more stringent requirements are imposed
on the landfill option which turns waste management in
favour of incineration among preferential waste mini-
misation, reuse and recycling. Furthermore, the imense
experiences of the European waste incineration industry
driven in the past by regulatory as well as technical
issues may facilitate their commercial potentials outside
the Common market especially in highly populated
developing countries with scarce landfill sites.
Moreover, in the recent past and in the future, ther-
mal waste disposal is and can not only be seen as a
thermal treatment process for inertisation and the
reduction of the amount of MSW by weight and volume
with the disposal of the actual process (bottom, boiler
and fly ash) and Air Pollution Control (APC) residues
(gypsum, hydrochloric acid etc.) on landfill sites or their
use in the glass, ceramic, cement and/or construction
industry. Thermal disposal methods provide also for
recovery of the chemical energy of MSW demanded by
the Integrated Pollution, Prevention and Control
(IPPC) directive 96/61/EC (Anon., 1996). Thus, MSW is
to be seen as a valuable indigenous source of fuel
abundant especially in consumer-oriented societies able
to substitute or supplement fossil fuels in power gen-
eration and other industrial processes thus ensures the
security of energy supply1 (Wulf-Schnabel, 1999; Hupe
and Heyer, 1999; European Commission, 2000; CEC,
1995a; Anon., 1997a; Gustavsson and Johansson, 1994;
Neger and Spiegel, 1997; Akehata, 1998; Faulstich and
Jørgens, 2000; Wulf-Schnabel, 1999; Johnke and
Gamer, 2001; Albrecht et al., 1998; Hünlich and Bog-
danski, 1996; Pawlowski and Gierzatowicz, 1997).
Currently, incineration especially mass-burn grate fir-
ing mainly with energy recovery done to a great extent
1
One major goal in EU energy policy (CEC, 1995b).
in Waste-To-Energy (WTE) plants typically of 30-100
MWel capacity is the dominanting technology in the EU
(> 90%) (Anon., 2000d; Akehata, 1998; Price, 1996;
Haukohl, 2000; Smith et al., 2001; Bontoux, 1999; Har-
tenstein and Horvay, 1996). Unlike fossil-fired power
plants, MSW incinerators have significantly lower
energy efficiencies (13–24%) mainly due to lower steam
temperatures to prevent severe boiler corrosion, fouling
and slagging (fireside problems). This results in energy
efficiencies typically of about 15%. Additionally, higher
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) per kWh con-
verted energy are produced. On the other hand, waste
incineration reduces environmental concerns of the
production and uncontrolled release of GHGs (Blanco
Pedraza and Gaya i Fuertes, 1999; Smith et al., 2001;
Freed et al., 2001; Ayalon et al., 2000; Baldasano and
Soriano, 2000; Meyers et al., 1997; Junfeng et al., 1997;
Ackerman et al., 1998; Lethilä and Tuhkanen, 1999;
Streets and Waldhoff, 1999; Edmonds et al., 1996; Price
et al., 1999; Ruether, 1998; El-Fadel and Sbayti, 2000;
Pipatti and Savolainen, 1996; Aumonier, 1996; Bolin
and Kheshgi, 2001) on landfills ensuring partly envir-
onmental protection.2
Moreover, apart from the fireside problems (Gooch,
2000; Meadowcroft, 1994b; Meadowcroft, 1994a;
Haggblom and Mayrhuber, 1990; Elliott, 1993; Krause,
1994; Vaughan et al., 1975; Krause et al., 1994; Krause
and Wright, 1996; Albert, 1997; Bryers, 1996) causing
costly repairs and requiring expensive prevention to
avoid availibility and revenue losses (Moskal et al.,
1997; Slejko and Beller, 1985), harmful emissions (Por-
teous, 2001) of acidic gases (SOx, HCl, HF, NOx etc.)
and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) especially
polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-diox-
ine/-furans (PCDD/Fs)3 (Huang and Buekens, 2001;
Gullett et al., 2000; Gullett et al., 1990; Hunsinger et al.,
1997; Bruce et al., 2001; Gullett and Wikström, 2000;
Gullett et al., 1998; Gullett and Raghunathan, 1997;
Vogg, 1992; Stieglitz and Vogg, 1987; Kreisz et al.,
1996; Vogg et al., 1989) as well as heavy metals are
emitted while the final process residues constitute also a
major problem (Anon., 2000c). To-date, technologies
have been developed and are being improved to deal with
these issues although add significantly to the investment
(two-thirds) and operational costs of incinerators.
Despite the many Research, Technology & Develop-
ment (RTD) efforts made recently (Young and Hauser-
man, 1995; Quaak et al., 1999; Anon., 1996; Adlhoch et
al., 2000; Barducci, 1993; Helt and Mallya, 1988; Lin et
al., 1999; Niessen et al., 1996; Paisley et al., 1990; Por-
teous, 2000; Ruottu et al., 1992; Albrecht and Schel-
2
A second major goal in EU energy policy (CEC, 1995b).
3
Sometimes, brominates and mixed-halogenated dioxins/furans
are included (Weber and Greim, 1997; Lenoir and Leichsenring, 1996).
 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79
haas, 1999; Barducci et al., 2000; Lawson, 2000a; Man-
iatis, 1999; Morris and Waldheim, 1998; Reaven, 1994;
Rensfelt and Östman, 2000; Smith et al., 2001; Solan-
tausta et al., 1995; Sørum et al., 2001), novel disposal
technologies are in high demand by the industry and the
regulators able to address these issues more effectively
and provide for energy efficient, environmentally and
economically sound solutions (Anon., 1997b; Billig-
mann, 1997; Krupp, 1999; Anon., 1997a). Indeed, pyr-
olysis and gasification (McKendry, 2002a; McKendry,
2002b) are well proven technologies in energy conver-
sion (Young and Hauserman, 1995; Quaak et al., 1999;
Anon., 1996; Adlhoch et al., 2000; Barducci, 1993; Helt
and Mallya, 1988; Lin et al., 1999; Niessen et al., 1996;
Paisley et al., 1990; Porteous, 2000; Ruottu et al., 1992;
Albrecht and Schelhaas, 1999; Barducci et al., 2000;
Lawson, 2000a; Maniatis, 1999; Morris and Waldheim,
1998; Reaven, 1994; Rensfelt and . Ostman, 2000; Smith
et al., 2001; Solantausta et al., 1995; S•rum et al., 2001)
providing for co-utilisation and co-processing options.
2. Pyrolysis and gasification
MSW pyrolysis and in particular gasification is
obviously very attractive to reduce and avoid corrosion
and emissions by retaining alkali and heavy metals
(except mercury and cadmium), sulphur and chlorine
within the process residues, prevent largely PCDD/F
formation and reduce thermal NOx formation due to
lower temperatures and reducing conditions. Slagging
gasification may additionally provide for destructing
hazardous compounds and vitrification of various resi-
dues. However, Cl and S species such as HCl and H2S
may still occur in the fuel gas yielded. Advantageously,
smaller fuel gas volumes require lower dimensioned gas
cleanups saving investment costs while using oxygen,
raises these costs but also the fuel gas calorific value
(CV) and prevents thermal NOx formation.
The yielded fuel gas can be used in various applica-
tions energetically (lime and brick kilns, metallurgical
furnaces, dryers, steam-raising boilers, gas engines and
turbines, fuel cells etc) or as a raw material (i.e. syngas,
Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG), methanol synthesis, fuel
production etc) providing higher efficiencies. Oftenly,
thorough cold gas clean-up (CGC) or more demanding
hot gas clean-up (HGC) is required.
For MSW and refuse-derived fuel (RDF), pyrolysis
and gasification stand-alone applications that is to say
are in Europe still in a premature stage and expected not
to play a major role in the near future rather aiming to
meet the requirements of the Kyoto agreement
(UNFCCC, 2002; Nakicenovic, 1998; Price, 1996).
However, large-scale applications combined with com-
bustion are already in place (i.e. a 2.2 MWel pyrolysis
plant operates since 1983 in Burgau-Unterknöringen,
55
Germany (Bracker, 2001), or in construction (i.e. the
100 kt/year pyrolysis plant at the VEW Energie AG
(VEW) power station Westfalen in Hamm-Uentrop,
Germany (Hein, 2000), while several CFB Gasifier
(CFBG) demonstration projects are ongoing (e.g. the
dual 15 MWth gasifier by TPS Termiska Processer AB
(TPS) (Waldheim and Morris, 2000; Morris and Wald-
heim, 2000; Waldheim and Carpentieri, 1998; Morris,
1998; Rensfelt, 1997) of 200 t/day RDF capacity in
Grève-in-Chianti, Italy (Reimert and Setzer, 1996;
Young and Hauserman, 1995; Venendaal and Stassen,
1995; Higham et al., 2001; Hunsinger et al., 2000;
Rensfelt, 1997; Morris, 1998; Lundberg et al., 1997;
Maniatis et al., 1996; Rensfelt and . Ostman, 2000;
Beenackers, 1993; Beenackers and Maniatis, 1996;
Stambler, 1998; Maniatis, 1999; Benackers, 1999; Bar-
ducci, 1993; Anon., 1995); the 10 MWth biomass gasifier
by Babcock Borsig Power GmbH (BBP)’s subsidiary
Austrian Energy Energietechnik GmbH (AEE) at
DRAUKRAFT’s 137 MWel PC Combustion (PCC)
plant St. Andrä 2 in Zeltweg, Austria (Roos, 1998;
Anderl et al., 1999; Anon., 1995; Anderl and Mory,
1999; Anderl et al., 2000; Brändle et al., 2000; Roos,
1998; Hein, 2000; Overend, 2000; Maniatis, 1999); the
100 MWth RDF co-fuelled gasifier by Lurgi Energie und
Umwelt GmbH at the cement kiln of the Zementwerke
Rüdersdorf GmbH (Greil and Hirschfelder, 1995; Greil
and Vierrath, 2000; Anon., 1995; Greil and Hirsch-
felder, 1998; Albrecht et al., 1998; Young and Hauser-
man, 1995); the 6 MWel/9 MWth RDF co-fuelled
pressurised gasifier by Foster Wheeler Energia Oy at the
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) plant
of Bioflow Ltd. in Värnamo, Sweden (Young and Hau-
serman, 1995; Roos, 1998; Palonen et al., 1996; Ståhl
and Neergaard, 1996; Ståhl and Neergaard, 1999; Ståhl
et al., 1999; Higham et al., 2001; Maniatis, 1999); the
RDF co-fed 45 MWth gasifier by Foster Wheeler Ener-
gia Oy at the 167 MWel/240 MWth Kymijärvi Com-
bined Heat and Power (CHP) plant of Lahden
Lampovoima Oy in Lahti, Finland (Young and Hau-
serman, 1995; Higham et al., 2001; Raskin and Tillman,
2001; Nieminen, 1999; Greil and Vierrath, 2000; Niemi-
nen et al., 1999; Maniatis, 1999; Palonen et al., 1998;
Hein, 2000; Overend, 2000) and the high-temperature
Winkler (HTW) co-gasifier by Rheinbraun AG in
Hürth-Berrenrath, Germany (Greil and Hirschfelder,
1995; Young and Hauserman, 1995; Krupp, 1999; Klein
et al., 1998; Hein, 2000; Adlhoch et al., 2000; Schiffer et
al., 1995; Wischnewski et al., 1998; Maniatis, 1999).
Recently, advanced thermal waste treatment technol-
ogies combining pyrolysis (themolysis), gasification and/
or incineration in an integrated or modular approach
are growing from long lasting RTD activities into
demonstration and even commercialisation. The major-
ity of the technologies aim primarily on improving
environmental compliance mainly by effectively
56 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79
destructing air pollutants and vitrification of the solid
process residues partly with materials recovery using
high combustion or gasification temperatures thus sav-
ing disposal costs or raise additional revenue although
largely at the expense of overall energy output. How-
ever, some have the prospects of achieving higher elec-
trical efficiencies using other than steam-based power
generation cycles (i.e. gas turbines and fuel cells).
3. Advanced processes and technologies
An engineering approach to improve waste incinera-
tion efficiency is to separate the combustion processes
pyrolysis and gasification from the actual combustion
and burnout of the waste. External separation requires
pyrolysis reactors or gasifiers while firing the yielded
products (char, liquid and gaseous fuel) in an attached
furnace. Internally, separation is achieved by having a
furnace or boiler with different chambers.
The former approach is usually discontinuous allow-
ing for materials recovery (i.e. metals, incombustibles
etc.) and (co-)processing (i.e. char) as well as to meet
plant site needs while the latter requires sound balan-
cing of waste feeding, pyrolysis/gasification and actual
combustion to take full advantage of both, the sensible
and latent heat of the fuel.
3.1. Waste pyrolysis in co-combustion
The pyrolysis technology by Babcock Krauss-Maffei
Industrieanlagen GmbH (BKMI) a BBP subsidiary is
based on the combination of kilns and a combustion
chamber to treat MSW thermally while raising steam in
a Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) to generate
electricity using a steam turbine and/or to operate in
CHP mode (Bracker, 2001; Porteous, 2000; Heil and
Simons, 1996; Faulstich, 1996; Vrancken et al., 2001).
Shredded MSW is pyrolysed at 470–500  C (878–
932  F) for about one hour in a rotary kiln externally
heated using combusted pyrolysis gas. Up to 1.5% lime
is added as sorbent. Prior to its combustion with 30–
50% excess air in an attached combustion chamber at
about 1250  C (2282  F), the pyrolysis gas is dedusted in
an aerocyclon. The condensed pyrolysis residues are
quenched in a water bath before disposal.
After successful test trials in 1983, the technology has
been proven in a 2.2 MWel CHP plant in Burgau-
Unterknöringen, Germany since 1987 in 3 t/h of MSW
dual kiln operation to raise annually 400  C (752  F)
steam at 25 bar (363 psi) for 452 MWh of electricity and
1.5 GWh low-temperature heat for space heating
(Bracker, 2001). Currently, WasteGen (UK) Ltd is
marketing this technology for steam turbine applications.
The PYROPLEQ1 process (Bracker et al., 1998b;
Vrancken et al., 2001; Bracker et al., 1998a) by Man-
nesmann Demag Energie- und umwelttechnik GmbH
(MDEU) now part of the French engineering company
TECHNIP is, however, based on MSW pyrolysis at
450–500 (842–1022  F) in an externally heated rotary
drum and combustion of the gas at 1200  C (2192  F)
after HGC while integrated in existing or newly con-
structed power plants (Bracker et al., 1998a; Bracker et
al., 1998b). Several plants have been built and operated
in Austria, Germany, Italy, Korea and Switzerland
during 1987–1996 to treat wastes such as contaminated
soil, plastics, refinery and coke residues as well as oil
and sewage sludge (Vrancken et al., 2001).
The ConTherm1 technology by RWE Energie AG
(RWE), moreover, pyrolyses shredded fuels such as
MSW and automotive shredder residues (ASR) as well
as up to 50% post-consumer plastics at 500–550  C
(932–1022  F) in 100 kt/year rotary kilns supplied by
TECHNIP and combusts the gas directly in a pulverised
coal (PC)-fired boiler (Hein, 2000). The residues, how-
ever, are screened and sorted to recover materials
especially metals. The fine char fraction is co-fed into
the coal mills.
The first ConTherm plant will be built at the 769 MW
PC-fired power station Westfalen of RWE’s subsidiary
VEW in Hamm-Uentrop, Germany and is due to com-
mence in 2002 targeting a 10% coal substitution.
3.2. EDDITh process
The EDDITh1 process (Thide Environment, 2002a;
Vrancken et al., 2001) by Thide Environment S.A. of
France and the Institut Français du Pétrol (IFP) com-
prises a rotary dryer fuelled by hot air, a rotating tubu-
lar pyrolysis reactor (kiln) externally heated using flue
gas, a combustion chamber equipped with a low NOx
burner and char separators for metals recovery (Fig. 1).
MSW is fed to the dryer for reduction in moisture
(about 10%) using air preheated in a flue gas heat
exchanger. Subsequently, the fuel is conveyed via a pis-
ton into the kiln for its thermolysis at 450–550  C (842–
1022  F). Upon discharge of the pyrolysis products, the
gas is combusted at about 1100  C (2012  F) in the
combustor with air coming from the dryer while the
char undergoes separation and materials filtering. The
char, typical of about 16 MJ/kg (6878 MBtu/lb) CV is
marketed as a coke-like by-product, CARBOR1 or
may also be combusted. The flue gas, however, provides
heat to the double jacked sealed kiln and for preheating
air prior to its utilization in a HRSG.
In a typical mass balance, one ton of waste yields 400
kg gas of about 12 MJ/kg (5159 MBtu/lb) CV and 240
kg coke while 51 kg metals, 61 kg inerts, 10 kg salts
mainly CaCl2 and NaCl as well as 20 kg APC residues
are additionally recovered.
IFP operated a 500 kg/h pilot facility in Vernouillet,
France. Currently, a 1.25 t/h demonstration plant is
 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79
Fig. 1. Schematic of the EDDITh process (Thide Environment, 2002b).
built in Nakaminato, Japan by the licensee Hitachi Ltd.
A second plant of 20 kt/year capacity will be realised in
Itoigawa. For 2003, a 3 t/h plant is scheduled for oper-
ation in Arras, France to treat annually 50 kt.
3.3. Serpac technology
The P.I.T. Pyroflam process by the BS Engineering
S.A. affiliate SERPAC Environment of France (Serpac
Environnement, 2002; Vrancken et al., 2001) comprises
pyrolysis and gasification of MSW in an inclined reactor
with two interconnected chambers of cylindrical and
conical shape for the former and the latter, respectively
(Fig. 2) followed by the combustion of the yielded gases
in a steam raising boiler.
MSW is fed using a piston from the hopper via the
drying zone into the first chamber for pyrolysis at 600–
700  C (1112–1292  F) whereby the required heat is
supplied by the counter flowing fuel gas stemming from
downstream char gasification with air at about 800  C
(1472  F) in the second chamber. However, the pyrolysis
chamber is dimensioned to enable sufficient residence
time allowing for almost complete volatilisation of the
organic matter contained in the fuel while the (heavy)
metals will ideally be retained in the char. The pyrolysis
gas yielded leaves the drum together with the fuel gas
above the drying section for combustion at 1100–
1200  C (2012–2192  F) in an attached boiler to raise
57
steam. The char, however, is due to the drum inclination
directly conveyed into the second chamber. Upon ash
discharge at the smaller end, metals may be recovered.
At present, a 1 t/h plant operates at the airport in
Budapest, Hungary to treat industrial waste.
3.4. PKA technology
The technology by PKA Umwelttechnik GmbH &
Co. KG (PKA) (PKA, 2002; Vrancken et al., 2001)
comprises a modular pyrolysis and gasification concept
at high temperatures (Fig. 3). Previously, the pyrolysis
step was developed by Kiener (Kempin, 1996; Bracker,
2001; Heil and Simons, 1996) with modifications by
PKA’s its subsidiary Deutsches Brennstoffinstitut R.
u. A. GmbH (DBI) (PKA, 2002).
Starting with a pre-processing/conditioning basically
separation, screening and shredding of different kind of
wastes such as MSW, ASR, spent tyres, industrial and
plastic waste as well as contaminated soil, the pyrolsis
takes place at 500–550  C (932–1022  F) for about 45–
60 min in an externally heated rotary kiln. While the gas
is conveyed into a converter unit where at the glowing
zone hydrocarbons and organic volatiles are cracked at
approximately 1000  C (1832  F) to yield a dedusted
and homogenised CO/H2-rich fuel gas, the char con-
taining minerals and metals is conditioned by separating
ferrous and non-ferrous metals, reduced in moisture to
58 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79

Fig. 2. Schematic of the P.I.T. Pyroflam pyrolysis and gasification reactor (Serpac Environnement, 2002): 1=fuel; 2=hopper; 3=baffle; 4=piston;
5=fuel gas exit; 6=pyrolysis chamber; 7=rollers; 8=air supply fan; 9=gasification chamber; 10=inert solid residues; 11=ash discharger;
12=start-up burner.

Fig. 3. Schematic of the PKA technology (PKA, 2002).

< 10% and ground to < 2 mm before being used as a
fuel, a sorbent (i.e. activated carbon) or a raw material
in brick production.
Using the oxygen-blown gasification module, in a
high-temperature smelting reactor the char fines are
gasified at 1400–1500  C (2552–2732  F) to yield a
combustible gas and vitrified slag. The latter is granulated
to typically 1 mm for use in the cement and construction
industry or be disposed of while both the gases are
quenched and cleaned before utilised usually in gas
engines or small CHP plants.
Since 1999, a pilot plant of 24 kt MSW annual capa-
city operates in Aalen-Goldshöfen, Germany to gen-
erate electricity using a gas engine while a smaller
pyrolysis facility of 3 t daily capacity was used since
1994 for a 8 years testing period. Since 1993, a sewage
sludge drying plant of 8 kt/year capacity operates in
Bopfingen, Germany. Further, an aluminium produc-
 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79
tion plant in Freiberg, Germany uses since 2000 the
pyrolysis module for processing annually 12 kt of
industrial waste with high Al contents. The gas is used
to heat the smelting furnace. Moreover, licensee Tosh-
iba Corp. of Japan intends to market this technology.
In the Netherlands, this technology is marketed under
the name Product en Energie Centrale (PEC) by
Gibros PEC B.V. (Vrancken et al., 2001; Hazewinkel
and Zanting, 1999; Oudhuis et al., 2000; GOM
Antwerp, 2000; GOM Antwerp, 1999) claiming the
approval of a 150 kt/year plant having 3 lines of 4 t/h
capacity in Delfzijl. At the Energieonderzoek Centrum
Nederland (ECN), a 25 kWth pilot plant consisting of the
pyrolysis and the gasification modules is used since 1997
to treat different kind of biomass and wastes such as
wood waste, bark and yard clippings, willow, ASR, alu-
minium scrap, spent carpets and Waste of Electrical and
Electronic Equipments (WEEE) thermally in test trials.
3.5. PyroMelt technology
The PyroMelt process by ML Entsorgungs- und
Energieanlagen GmbH (MLEE) combines pyrolysis and
slagging combustion yielding an eluation-resistant,
recycable granulated slag (MLEE, 1995; Redepenning et
al., 1996; Faulstich, 1996). Basically, waste of different
kinds such as MSW, hazardous waste, post-consumer
plastics and ASR light fractions within a 8–18 MJ/kg
(3439–7737 MBtu/lb) lower heating value (LHV) range
is shredded to < 15 cm prior to pyrolysis at 1200  C
(2192  F) in a drum (Fig. 4). Adding sorbents allows for
in-situ desulphurisation/dehalogenation thus simplify-
ing flue gas clean-up (FGC).
However, the majority of the gas is combusted with
air to heat the drum while the flue gas and the remain-
ing pyrolysis gas are directed to a HRSG for steam
Fig. 4. Schematic of the PyroMelt process (Redepenning et al., 1996).
59
raising. However, prior to combustion, the pyrolysis gas
is subjected to multiple scrubbing steps using recycled
medium and light fractions of the pyrolysis oil. During
scrubbing, the gas cools from 500–600  C (932–1112  F)
upon leaving the drum down to 120–150  C (248–
302  F).
The char, however, is cooled from 500–550  C (932–
1022  F) to about 50  C (122  F) in a second drum using
water. Subsequently, sorting and shredding to < 5 cm
takes place while ferrous and non-ferrous metals are
separated using a fluid bed. The char particles are
jointly combusted with the CGC sludge composed of
dust and heavy pyrolysis oils in a Kubota-Surface-Melt-
Furnace (KSMF) reactor (Fig. 5) (JSIM, 1996b; GEC,
1997; Faulstich, 1996; Johnke and Gamer, 2001) using
preheated air.
In the secondary furnace chamber, the exhaust gas is
subjected to oxygen enrichment of up to 6 vol.% vitrifying
the ash containing (heavy) metals at about 1350  C
(2462  F) resulting in an alumino-silicate matrix which
is subsequently water quenched and granulated. The
heat of the oxygen enriched flue gas cooled down to
about 950–1050  C (1922–1742  F) upon exiting the
KSMF and that of the separately combusted pyrolysis
gas are utilised in different HRSGs.
3.6. SIEMENS Schwel-Brenn technology
The Schwel-Brenn (smolder-burn) technology (Ayu-
kawa et al., 1999; GOM Antwerp, 1999; Faulstich,
1996; Heil and Simons, 1996; Barin et al., 1996; Kem-
pin, 1996; May et al., 1991; May and Ahrens-Bolzong,
1998; Baumgärtel, 1993; May et al., 1991; Ashmore, 1996;
Lorson and Schingnitz, 1994; Tauber, 1995; Schmitz,
1996; Higham et al., 2001; Richers et al., 1999; Reimert
and Setzer, 1996) is a discontinuous carbonisation-
60 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79

Fig. 5. Principle of the KSMF reactor (JSIM, 1996b; GEC, 1997).

incineration process (Fig. 6) based on the Kiener pyr-
olysis (Bracker, 2001; Kempin, 1996). Basically, it con-
sists of a rotating drum indirectly heated by recirculated
flue gas and a high temperature furnace coupled HRSG.
For safety, the process operates below ambient pressure.
In the drum, the waste is dried and pyrolysed in an oxy-
gen-depleted atmosphere at 450  C (842  F) for about 1 h
before the residues are cooled to 150  C (302  F) in a water
bath for screening. The latter (> 5 mm size) is subse-
quently removed for recycling into ferrous, non-ferrous
and inert materials (glass, ceramics etc.) while the finer
carbon-enriched (30%) fraction is ground to 0.1 mm and
combusted together with the gas in the slagging furnace at
1300  C (2372  F) with excess air (1.2–1.3) to raise steam
to 400  C (752  F) at 40 bar (580 psi) for electricity gen-
eration at 24% efficiency (JSIM, 1996a). A low NOx
burner with multi-stage air and flue gas recirculation
(FGR) ensures the carbon burnout to > 0.2% of the

Fig. 6. Scheme of the Siemens/KWU Schwel-Brenn technology (Ebener, 1999; Richers et al., 1999).
 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79
water-quenched granulated slag. Also, the boiler and
the fly ash is returned for combustion. Moreover, excess
waste heat is used to vapourise the FGC water.
Given the mass balance of this process, 1 t of waste
with 8.4 MJ/kg (3611 MBtu/lb) CV constituting an
energy content of 24.6 MWh/t is converted to 330–600
kWh/t net electrical output while 28 kg of ferrous and 4 kg
of non-ferrous metals at > 90% purity (Ayukawa et al.,
1999), 17–20 kg hydrochloric acid, 6–9 kg gypsum as well as
140 kg slag are additionally recovered (Baumgärtel, 1993)
providing possibly a source of revenue. Energetically, 550
kWh electricity is generated from one ton of MSW.
Currently, a 200 kg/h pilot plant operates in Ulm-
Wiblingen, Germany since its commissioning in 1988
(May et al., 1991; Baumgärtel, 1993; Schmitz, 1996)
while a demonstration plant of 100 kt/year MSW capa-
city operated in Fürth, Germany until it ceased oper-
ation in summer 1998 shortly after its start-up in
autumn 1997 due to extended difficulties (UBA, 2002;
Bund Naturschutz in Bayern e.V., 1999a; Bund Nat-
urschutz in Bayern e.V., 1998; Bund Naturschutz in
Bayern e.V., 1999b; Richers et al., 1999; Schmitz, 1996)
and is now decommissioned.
In Japan, the licensee Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding
Co., Ltd (Ashmore, 1996; Schmitz, 1996; Higham et al.,
2001) operates since autumn 1994 a demonstration plant of
80 kt annual capacity in Yokohama and one of 220 t daily
capacity at the Yame Seibu Clean Center, Fukuoka pre-
fecture to treat primarily 70 kt MSW annually. In 1994, a
MSW plant of 1 t/h maximum capacity went into operation
at Shikine Sanitation Facility, Kokubu Region (Takaha-
shi and Motoda, 2001). Also, an ASR-fuelled plant of
25 kt annual capacity was launched in mid 1998 in
Fukuoka (Ayukawa et al., 1999) under the license to
Takuma Co., Ltd. Some more projects are in the con-
struction or commissioning stage (Mitsui Engineering &
Shipbuilding Co., Ltd., 2002a; Mitsui Engineering &
Shipbuilding Co., Ltd., 2002b; Leuschner, 1999; Ash-
more, 1996; Tauber, 1995; Schmitz, 1996).
3.7. Noell-KRC conversion process
The discontinuous conversion process by BBP sub-
sidary Noell-KRC Energie- und Umwelttechnik GmbH
(Schingnitz and Görz, 1999; GOM Antwerp, 1999;
Barin et al., 1996; Reimert and Setzer, 1996; Heil and
Simons, 1996; Kempin, 1996; Lamp et al., 1996; Tauber,
1995; Schingnitz and Göhler, 1996; Faulstich, 1996;
Jaeger and Mayer, 2000; Lorson and Schingnitz, 1994;
Leipnitz and Ponto, 1996; Richers et al., 1999; Sching-
nitz and Görz, 1998; Schingnitz and Seidel, 1998; Lor-
son and Schingnitz, 1994; Schingnitz and Görz, 1998)
consists of two thermal treatment steps, pyrolysis at
about 550  C (1022  F) in an externally heated rotary
kiln for about 1 h and subsequent gasification of the
dedusted gas, the cooled condensates and the water
61
quenched, screened and pulverised coke-like residues in
a slagging entrained flow using oxygen at flame tem-
peratures of 1400–2000  C (2552–3632  F) and 2–50 bar
(29–725 psi) pressure (Fig. 7). Besides MSW, other
feedstocks (industrial waste slurries, dried sewage slud-
ges and pulverised coal) may be co-gasified. After CGC,
the medium calorific value (MCV) gas can be used as a
syngas or combusted in a boiler, gas turbine or engine
(Richers et al., 1999; Leipnitz and Ponto, 1996) while a
part of the cleaned gas is used to heat the kiln.
Further, upon exiting the gasifier, the metals contain-
ing slag is water quenched and granulated for use in the
construction industry whereas the water is partly fed
into the gasifier, re-used in quenching or evapourated
using waste heat.
In an energy balance, an attached gas engine would
yield about 5.1 MWh electricity out of 35.85 MWh
MSW and 2.76 MWh sewage sludge having 10 MJ/kg
(4298 MBtu/lb) and 2.5 MJ/kg (1075 MBtu/lb) LHV,
respectively representing upto 13% efficiency common
for such small-scale applications.
Since 1979, a refractory lined/water-cooled 5 MWth
entrained flow gasifier of 0.5 t/h capacity operating at 26
bar (377 psi) pressure located at the DBI site in Frei-
berg, Germany has been sucessfully tested on different
kind of wastes (refinery and chemicals residues, waste
water and spent solvents). At the Sekundärrohstoff-
Verwertungszentrum Schwarze Pumpe GmbH (SVZ)
site, a reactor gasifies since 1984 orignally salt-rich lig-
nite for town gas production while since its conversion
in 1991, contaminated oils, tars, solvents and solids
containing waste water is gasified for methanol synthesis
and IGCC operation (see Section 3.11). Furthermore, a
13 t/h reactor is built to treat nitrogen containing resi-
dues at the Seal Sands caprolactam plant of BASF plc. in
Middlesbrough, UK to raise steam and provide gas for a
turbine (Schingnitz et al., 2000; Gaudig, 2001).
Moreover, a 40 kt/year pyrolysis plant of Salzgitter Pyr-
olyse GmbH, a Babcock Borsig AG subsidiary operated
from 1996 to 1999 at its smelting works to treat hazardous
materials (spent oils and PCB-containing waste).
Following startup in 1996, a 10 MWth facility of upto 700
kg/h capacity located in Freiberg is used to treat (sewage)
sludge and several residues and slurries for steam raising. In
1995, a demonstration plant of 100 kt MSW and 16 kt
dewatered sludge annual capacity started operating in
Northeim, Germany (Jaeger and Mayer, 2000; Lorson and
Schingnitz, 1994; Leipnitz and Ponto, 1996; BBP, 2002b).
3.8. THERMOSELECT process
Based on earlier work in 1985, the development of the
THERMOSELECT1 process4 (Fig. 8) (Gödeke, 2001b;
4
Earlier, a similar process has been proposed for the treatment of
hazardous waste (Gödeke, 2002; Lohs and Martinetz, 1983).
62 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79

Fig. 7. Scheme of the Noell-KRC conversion process (Richers et al., 1999).

Fig. 8. Schematic of the THERMOSELECT process (Thermoselect S.A., 2000).

Young and Hauserman, 1995; Barin et al., 1996; Faul-
stich, 1996; Heil and Simons, 1996; Kempin, 1996;
Reimert and Setzer, 1996; Porteous, 2000; Anon., 1996;
Niessen, 1997; Richers et al., 1999; Tauber, 1995; Cala-
minus and Stahlberg, 1998a; Stahlberg et al., 1995;
Calaminus and Stahlberg, 1998b; Higham et al., 2001;
Klein and Stahlberg, 1995; Gäng et al., 1996; Stahlberg,
1998; Vrancken et al., 2001; GOM Antwerp, 1999;
Venendaal and Stassen, 1995) started in 1989. A 1 t/h
MSW-fuelled pilot plant has operated for a total of
about 4000 h while in autumn 1992, a 4.2 t/h demon-
stration plant went into operation in Fontodoce, Italy
and ceased in 1999. The THERMOSELECT process is
continuous and based on pyrolysis followed by fixed
bed oxygen-blown gasification in slagging mode for
joint mineral and metal residue vitrification. Prior to the
pyrolysis, the unshredded MSW is compacted to about
a fifth of its original volume using a hydraulic press and
periodically pushed into an indirectly heated degassing
channel where at the lower end pyrolysis takes place at
about 600  C (1112  F) before entering a high-tempera-
ture reactor at a temperature of about 800  C (1472  F).
In it, the pyrolysis products are jointly gasified at tem-
peratures of 1200  C (2192  F) and 2000  C (3632  F) at
the top and bottom ensuring destruction of VOC and
PCDD/F’s and residue vitrification, respectively.
The CO- and H2-rich syngas yielded is water-quen-
ched to below 90  C (194  F), cleaned to remove con-
taminants (NH3, HCN, COS, CS2, HF, H2 S, HCl as
well as (heavy) metals) by two-stage (acid/alkaline) wet
 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79
scrubbing and the use of activated carbon. Finally, the
dried gas may be utilised for steam raising boiler or in an
engine or turbine as well as used as a chemical feedstock
while partly the gas is used to heat the degassing channel.
Further, the combustion residues are homogenised at
1600  C (2912  F) using a burner and metallurgically
separated into ferrous and non-ferrous metals on top of
a slag which is subsequently quenched and granulated.
Residual carbon and volatilised (heavy) metals may
escape into the gasifier section (Gäng et al., 1996;
Stahlberg, 1998; Calaminus and Stahlberg, 1998b;
Calaminus and Stahlberg, 1998a).
Depending on the power generation cycle used, elec-
trical efficiencies between 11 and 40% may be achieved
(Klein and Stahlberg, 1995; Calaminus and Stahlberg,
1998a). For example, the plant in Fontodoce using waste
of 12 MJ/kg (5,159 MBtu/lb) CV yielded 200–500 kWhel/t.
To our knowledge, two more plants of 150 and 300
t/day design capacity are currently in operation at
Kawasaki Steel Corporation’s Chiba Works, Japan and
Karlsruhe, Germany, respectively. Recently, a 100 kt/
year MSW and 16 kt/year de-watered sewage sludge
plant has been approved in Northeim, Germany. Other
plants are in the planning, construction or commission-
ing stage (Mitsubishi Materials Corporation, 2002;
Thermoselect S.A., 2000; ACEP, 2002; Gödeke, 2001a;
Calaminus and Stahlberg, 1998a; Calaminus and Stahl-
berg, 1998b; Stahlberg, 1998; Stahlberg, 1998; Richers
et al., 1999; Porteous, 2000).
Further, the licensee for the US and the Caribean,
Interstate Waste Technologies, Inc., Daewoo Corporation
and Kisan Corporation of Korea and those for Japan,
Mitsubishi Materials Corp. and Kawasaki Steel Corp.
have announced several ongoing projects in early plan-
ning and launching stages. However, considerable tech-
nological problems (Bund Naturschutz in Bayern e.V.,
2000; Saldo, 2001; Niessen, 1997; Wagner, 2002; Göd-
eke, 2001a) have to be solved. Note, one project in
Ansbach, Germany is being canceled (Bund Naturschutz
in Bayern e.V., 2001). However, the plant in Karlsruhe
has been recently approved for permanent operation by
the permitting authority after a pro-longed period of test-
ing (Regierungspräsidiums Karlsruhe, 2002). Remark, a
Karlsruhe-based consortium led by the municipality
owned utility and public transport company plans to use
the syngas yielded for hydrogen production.
Furthermore, a 90 kt/year plant will be built in
Hanau, Germany to start operation in 2004. Further-
more, the plant at Chiba Works treated 15 kt MSW
sucessfully since 1999 and is now being used for the
disposal of industrial waste.
3.9. Von Roll RCP technology
The recycled clean products (RCP) pyrolysis-com-
bustion technology (Richers et al., 1999; Stammbach
63
and Wachter, 2000; Heil and Simons, 1996) by Von
Roll/Inova is based on its Duotherm process. A RCP
plant is characterised by a grate-type pyrolysis chamber,
a melting and a Holderbank-Smelt-Redox (HSR) furnace
(Faulstich, 1996; Johnke and Gamer, 2001), a circulat-
ing fluidised bed (CFB) reactor with an aerocyclon and
a fluid ash cooler in the return loop as well as a HRSG
(Fig. 9). Following drying of the waste and its pyrolysis
due to partial combustion with oxygen, a discharge
from the grate into the melting furnace leads to com-
bustion at 1400  C (2552  F) using oxygen. Subse-
quently, metals and slag are discharged into a second
furnace for their separate recovery emplyoing the HSR
process (Faulstich, 1996). The gas is burned below
1000  C (1832  F) upstream in the CFB whereas the ash
is collected in a cooler at the bottom of its cyclon loop
and returned for burnout. Further downstream, steam
is raised in a HRSG. Moreover, APC dust may be
introduced into the melting furnace for PCDD/F
destruction and (heavy) metals embedment into the
slag.
Currently, a 16 MW pilot plant of 6 t/h MSW design
capacity operates in Bremerhaven, Germany and has
been tested since 1997 achieving up-to now 60%
throughput (Richers et al., 1999). In Switzerland, a 50
kt/year ASR-fuelled unit is planned.
3.10. Compact Power process
The process by Compact Power Ltd. of the UK
(Fig. 10) uses pyrolysis, gasification and high tempera-
ture combustion to convert different kind of wastes to
gas and recovered materials (i.e. carbon) (Anon., 1996;
Higham et al., 2001). Sorted MSW is conveyed by a
screw through the heated tubes for pyrolysis followed
by gas combustion in a cyclon at 1200–1250  C (2192–
2282  F) ensuring slag vitrification and providing for
tube heating but, mainly for steam raising in a HRSG.
Some of the steam is, however, used to gasify the char
upon its discharge from the tubes.
Recently, a pilot plant of 500 kg/h dual capacity went
into operation at the Avonmouth site in Bristol, UK to
process MSW and clinical waste. Further, a 7.8 MWel
plant of 60 kt/year MSW capacity will be installed until
2003 in Dargavel near Dumfries, UK to be operated by
Batneec (Dumfries) Ltd of Scotland.
3.11. SVZ concept
The former town gas producer Gaskombinat
Schwarze Pumpe (GSP) now SVZ of Germany, a
recently aquired subsidiary of Global Energy, Inc., USA
developed in 1992 a waste utilisation concept (Fig. 11)
(Klose et al., 1996; Seifert et al., 1998a; Richers et al.,
1999; Erdmann et al., 1999; Anon., 2000a; Schneider et
al., 1996; Seifert and Buttker, 2000; Seifert et al., 1998b;
64 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79

Fig. 9. Basic principle of the RCP process (Richers et al., 1999; Stammbach and Wachter, 2000).

Fig. 10. Schematic of the Compact Power process (Compact Power, 2002).

Erdmann et al., 1999; Olliver et al., 2000; Pickett, 2000;
Liebner and Ulber, 2000; Stambler, 1998) involving
gasification to provide annually 120 kt AA grade feed-
stocks for the methanol synthesis and to operate a 75
MW combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) installation
(polygeneration). Processed/pre-treated waste and/or
coal usually pelletilised is gasified at 25 bar (363 psi)
using oxygen and steam in seven grate-type fixed non-
slagging beds at 800–1300  C (1472–2372  F) and in one
slagging Britisch Gas Lurgi (BGL) gasifier5 (Fig. 12) at
1600  C (2912  F) while semi-solid and liquid wastes are
gasified at 1600–1800  C (2912–3272  F) using steam in
two 15 t/h slagging multi-purpose gasifiers (MPGs)
(Fig. 12; Erdmann et al., 1999; Anon., 2000a). Ensuring
almost complete destruction of organic pollutants and
minimise tar formation at these high temperatures, the
5
Note, two more will be installed until 2005.
 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79 65

Fig. 11. Schematic of the SVZ waste utilisation concept in polygeneration configuration (Richers et al., 1999).

Fig. 12. Type of gasifiers used at the SVZ installation (Erdmann et al., 1999).

gas is water quenched upon leaving the reactors
whereby steam is raised for gasification and subse-
quently subjected to effective CGC.
Treating at present > 450 kt/year different kind of
wastes (post-consumer plastics, ASR light fractions,
sewage sludge, tyre-derived fuel (TDF) and wood waste,
RDF as well as oil, paint and refinery residues) pri-
marily for their disposal at its site in Spreetal/Spreewitz,
Germany (Seifert et al., 1998b; Seifert and Buttker,
2000; Liebner and Ulber, 2000; Richers et al., 1999;
Anon., 2000c), SVZ quotes an efficiency of > 45%.
Notably, BGL gasifier able to operate in non- or
slagging mode stems from a co-operative development
effort by British Gas, plc. and Lurgi Oel Gas Chemie
GmbH (Anon., 2000a; Erdmann et al., 1999; Olliver et
al., 2000) while the MPG basically an entrained flow
reactor was invented by SVZ and modified by Lurgi to
allow operation in slagging, ash quenching or boiler
mode (Fig. 13; Liebner and Ulber, 2000). Recently, the
BGL gasifier was approved for the MSW co-fuelled
IGCC coal demonstration project by Kentucky Pioneer
Energy, LLC (KPE), a wholly owned subsidiary of
66 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79

Fig. 13. The different operational modes of Lurgi’s MPG (Ulber, 2001).

Global Energy, Inc. at the East Kentucky Power
Cooperative’s Smith site in Trapp, KY (Bailey, 2001;
LANL, 1999; NETL, 2002) integrating a 1.25 MWel
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC).
3.12. Carbo-V-gasification
The Carbo-V-gasificationTM technology (Fig. 14) by
UET Umwelt- und Energietechnik Freiberg GmbH
(UET) is a two step process (Wolf and Meyer, 2000). In
the first step, air-blown gasification of dried and pre-
treated waste takes place at 300–350  C (572–662  F)
for < 30 min in the low-temperature reactor termed
Niedertemperaturvergaser (NTV) to yield a tarry gas
and coke (8–10 mass% volatiles and upto 50 mass%
carbon) which is subsequently milled.
In a second step, both products are gasified using
preheated air or oxygen in a two-stage reactor basically
an entrained flow (see Fig. 14) at 1400–1500  C (2552–
2732  F) to ensure ash vitrification. The slag flows along
the reactor walls and collected in a water bath at the
bottom whereas the gas enters the reactor on the top to
be partly combusted with the pulverised coke intro-
duced in the second stage (see Fig. 14).
Most favourably, the yielded MCV gas is virtually tar
free and can be used after CGC energetically with a
quoted electrical efficiency of 25% for a 5 MW gas
engine or used as a syngas. Additionally, High Calorific

Fig. 14. Schematic of the Carbo-V-gasification process (Wolf and Meyer, 2000).
 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79
Value (HCV) gas may be yielded converting CO via the
water-gas shift regime into H2 and > 3 vol.% CO2
(see Fig. 14).
UET erected a 1 MWth pilot plant of 300 kg/h capacity
in 1997/1998 while in 1998/1999 tests using wood chips,
wood waste, organic refuse, sewage sludge and hard coal
were sucessfully performed for > 3000 h. Currently, a 50
kt/year biomass plant is under construction in Freiberg,
Germany to provide syngas for methanol production.
3.13. WGT process
In the process (Fig. 15) by Waste Gas Technology UK
Limited (WGT) different kind of wastes (MSW, sludges,
rubbers and plastics, wood and straw as well as chicken
litter) are dried and mechanically pre-treated basically
sorting out incombustibles and granulated to optimum
sized particles and fed into a cylindrical reactor for gasifi-
cation at 700–900  C (1292–1652  F) to yield a HCV gas
(Whiting, 1995; Lawson and Grimshaw, 1999; Lawson,
2000a; Lawson, 2000b). Upon discharge and subsequent
separation of gas and char, the latter may be utilised via
combustion in a boiler to raise steam while the gas is
quenched and cleaned of contaminants prior to use in a
gas engine or turbine and possibly CCGT applications.
Since 1993, WGT runs a pilot plant with a capacity of 60
kg/h using a 55 kW Diesel engine for different feedstocks
including RDF (WGT, 2002c). A demonstration plant of
500 kg/h sewage sludge (Fig. 16) capacity was installed by
the licensee OSC Process Engineering Ltd (OSC) in
autumn 1998 for Welsh Water at Nash Water Works in
South Wales mainly to fire the dryer. Further, a 110 kg/h
sewage sludge processing plant was installed in 2000 in
France under a WGT license.
3.14. The BCL/FERCO technology
The allothermal two-vessel gasification technology
(Young and Hauserman, 1995; Paisley et al., 1990,
Fig. 15. WGT process schematic (WGT, 2002a).
67
1997, 2000, 2001; Overend, 2000; Farris et al., 1999;
Bain et al., 1997; Bain and Overend, 1996; Kinoshita et
al., 1996, 1997; Overend and Rivard, 1993; Overend et
al., 1996; Overend and Costello, 1998; Paisley, 1994;
Paisley and Anson, 1998; Anon., 1995) by Battelle
(Memorial Institute) Columbus Laboratory (BCL)
licensed to Future Energy Resources Corporation
(FERCO) in 1992 recently named SilvaGasTM is based
on a low inlet velocity, high through-put Atmospheric
CFB (ACFB) gasifier and a CFB combustor. ACFB
gasification of biomass and/or waste is carried out at
about 830  C (1526  F) in one vessel using steam yielded
in gas cooling while char fluidised bed combustion
(FBC) with air takes place in another vessel using sand.
However, both vessels are interconnected in a way that
the hot sand is conveyed into the gasifier (Fig. 17). The
MCV gas of 11–18 MJ/Nm3 (295–483 MBtu/ft3) CV
may be utilised in an engine, turbine or after CGC in
CCGT and fuel cell applications.
Assuming a 5–15 MW turbine with a 1090  C
(2000  F) Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) and a 10:1
pressure ratio, a 32% efficiency may be achieved while
above 25 MW power output > 42% is achievable
(Paisley et al., 1997).
Starting research in 1977 (Paisley et al., 1990, 1997;
Piggin, 1990; Anon., 1995), a 3 MWth pilot gasifier was
erected which has, at present, about 20,000 hours of
operation accumulated using different fuels (wood
chips, bark, sawdust, RDF and poplar as well as
switchgrass).
Currently, the SilvaGas process is considered mainly
for biomass. However, RDF trials on a pilot gasifier at
BCL’s site in Columbus, OH have been sucessfully per-
formed to drive a 200 kW turbine (Paisley et al., 1990,
1997; Piggin, 1990). At present, the process is being
demonstrated on a 12 MWel/40 MWth scale with a 200
t/day capacity by BCL and FERCO with US Depart-
ment of Energy (DoE) support at the 50 MWel McNeil
wood-fired power station of Burlington Electric
68 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79

Fig. 16. Schematic of a WGT demonstration plant (WGT, 2002b).

Fig. 17. Schematic of the BCL/FERCO allothermal CFB gasification process (DoE, 2002).

Department in Burlington, VT to fire a 15 MW gas
turbine in CCGT mode.
3.15. MTCI steam reforming technology
Manufacturing & Technology Conversion Interna-
tional, Inc. (MTCI)’s patented PulseEnhancedTM steam
reforming technology (Fig. 18) is based on the combus-
tion of part of the yielded MCV gas in a multiple reso-
nance-tube pulse combustor of Helmholtz-type fully
immersed in the bubbling fluidised bed (BFB) gasifier
(Steedman, 2001; Young and Hauserman, 1995; Nies-
sen, 1997; Niessen et al., 1996; Anon., 1995; Mansour,
1994; Anon., 2000e; Robinson and Rockvam, 1999;
Robinson and DeCarrera, 2001) to provide the required
heat for the steam-blown allothermal gasification at
800–850  C (1472–1562  F) of semi-solid and liquid
feedstocks with high ash, alkaline and heavy metals as
well as Cl and S contents (biomass and wastes). The
majority of the gas may, however, be combusted in a
boiler as well as utilised in a turbine or in a CCGT
application.
 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79
Fig. 18. Schematic of the MTCI PulseEnhanced steam reformer technology (Henderson, 2001).
In 1984, MTCI started to develop the technology
using various waste and biomass feedstocks including
RDF in a 12 t/day pilot-scale reactor in Santa Fe
Springs, CA (Mansour, 1994; Niessen, 1997). Recent
test trials funded by DoE and US Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA) are, however, carried out at the
MTCI 31,652 J/h (30 MBtu/h) facility of 50 t/day
capacity in Curtis Bay, Baltimore, MD using sub-
bituminous coal by StoneChem, Inc. (formerly Ther-
moChem, Inc.), a subsidiary of MTCI’s affiliate
ThermoChem Recovery International, Inc. (TRI) and
Stone & Webster. Also, wood chips and wheat straw were
recently tested as feedstocks (Steedman, 2001; Niessen,
1997; Niessen et al., 1996; Anon., 1995; Anon., 2000e).
A demonstration project using 181 t/day Black
Liquor is under way at Georgia Pacific’s containerboard
mill in Big Island, VA financially supported by DoE’s
Office of Industrial Technologies (OIT) and the EPA
aiming at 40% electrical efficiency. The steam reformer
tests began in May 1992 by Inland Container Corpora-
tion of Canada at its 25 t/day sludge mill processing
facility in Ontario while a 500 h lasting trial running at
100% was sucessfully completed in July 1993. Further-
more, a 5000 h test at Weyerhaeuser’s 120 t/day paper
mill in New Bern, NC was performed on a 50 t/day
facility (Robinson and DeCarrera, 2001; Robinson and
Rockvam, 1999; Mansour, 1994). Moreover, a 300 t/day
coal-fuelled gasifier is being built by Enserv, a Wiscon-
sin Power and Light Corporation (WPLC) subsidiary at
the Fort Union mine in Gillette, WY to provide steam
at 79 bar (1150 psi) pressure for a coal beneficiation
process (Mansour, 1994).
69
In Germany, two 1.3 t/h biomass projects are planned
by EF Electro-Farming Energie- und Umwelttechnik
GmbH to use the fuel gas in 1.9 MWel fuel cells of
polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC),
MCFC and solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) type with
additional steam-bottoming cycles (ELECTRO-
FARMING, 2002; Johnssen, 2002). Also, a 5.5 MWel
project of 5 t/h biomass capacity is planned in Vetschau,
Germany by a consortium led by ECS Energie Con-
sulting und Service GmbH (ECS) and EBU Energie-
büro Umwelttechnologie GmbH (EBU) aiming at a
25% electrical efficiency using a steam turbine (ECS,
2002). Furthermore, MTCI reportedly sold two gasifiers
of 60 t/day black liquor and 120 t/day distillery sludge
capacity, respectively to India and a 1 t/h black liquor
gasifier to Spain (Anon., 1995).
Using this technology, RDF/ASR co-gasification is
certainly a feasible option for power generation as well
as syngas production (ECS, 2002; Steedman, 2001;
Niessen, 1997; Niessen et al., 1996; Mansour, 1994).
3.16. Krupp-Uhde PreCon process
The PreCon1 process, a joint cooperation effort by
Krupp Uhde GmbH and Rheinbraun AG of Germany
(Young and Hauserman, 1995; Klein et al., 1998; Hein,
2000; Adlhoch et al., 2000; Schiffer et al., 1995; Wisch-
newski et al., 1998; Lütge et al., 1999; Greil and
Hirschfelder, 1995; Krupp, 1999) is a modular fluidised
bed gasification (FBG) technology to treat waste, bio-
mass and/or coal (< 1 cm fines) thermally to provide a
producer gas (Figs. 19 and 20) for utilisation in a boiler,
70 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79

Fig. 19. Schematic concept of the Krupp Uhde PreCon process (Klein et al., 1998; Adlhoch et al., 2000).

Fig. 20. Flow diagram of the HTW demonstration plant (Adlhoch et al., 2000; Wischnewski et al., 1998).

gas engine and turbine including CCGT as well as pos-
sible use in blast furnaces or as syngas (Adlhoch et al.,
2000; Dürrfeld and Abraham, 1998; Klein et al., 1998;
Wischnewski et al., 1998). At first, the fuel (ASR, con-
taminated coke, lignite, MSW, post-consumer plastics
and sewage sludge) is screened for scrap metal removal
and dried to < 10 wt.% moisture followed by air- or
oxygen-blown HTW gasification at ambient or up-to 30
bar (435 psi) pressures and CGC-coupled steam raising
while a melting module for ash and filter dust vitrifica-
tion is optional.
Currently, a 20 t/day MSW-fuelled steam raising
plant at Sumitomo Heavy Industries Ltd (SHI)’s Nii-
hama facility in Sikuku, Japan utilises the concept using
a gasifier at 1.5 bar (21.8 psi) pressure and the ash
vitrification module (Adlhoch et al., 2000).
The HTW gasifier (Fig. 20) originally an Atmospheric
BFB (ABFB) technology is a development by Rhein-
braun AG during 1975-1997 (Klein et al., 1998;
Adlhoch et al., 2000; Anon., 1995; Bucko et al., 1999,
2000; Dürrfeld and Abraham, 1998; Wischnewski et al.,
1998; Schiffer et al., 1995; Schiffer and Adlhoch, 1996;
Schiffer et al., 1996; Hein, 2000) for pressurised oxygen-
and steam-blown coal gasification (Adlhoch et al., 2000)
at 800–1000  C (1472–1832  F) and about 10 bar
(145 psi).
In 1979, Rheinbraun operated a 25–40 t/day pilot lig-
nite-fuelled gasifier in Wachtberg-Frechen, Germany at
10 bar (146 psi) while in 1989 a pressurised (25 bar or
363 psi) 30 MWth pilot gasifier of 160 t/day capacity
went into operation. In Finland, a 90 MWth oxygen-
blown gasifier by Kemira Oy of 27 t/h capacity (60%
peat and 40% wood waste) operates at 13 bar (190 psi)
in Oulu since 1988 to produce syngas for ammonia
synthesis (Young and Hauserman, 1995; Anon., 1995).
Currently, a 1 t/h atmospheric gasifier exists at the
 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79
Fig. 21. Cross section of the 2sv gasification reactor (Nitsche et al.,
2001).
RWTH Aachen campus in Germany (Schiffer et al.,
1995). Further, a 30 t/h oxygen-blown co-gasification
demonstration plant operated at 950  C (142  F) and10
bar (145 psi) successfully since 1985 in Hürth-Berren-
rath, Germany utilising ASR, contaminated coke, pre-
treated MSW,6 post-consumer plastics and sewage
sludge with lignite to provide annually 300 Mm3 (about
one billion cubic feet) syngas for methanol production
at the Union Kraftstoffe Wesseling works of DEA
Mineraloel AG (DEA) but ceased operation in 1997
(Anon., 1995; Klein et al., 1998; Adlhoch et al., 2000;
Bucko et al., 1999; Bucko et al., 2000; Dürrfeld and
Abraham, 1998; Wischnewski et al., 1998; Schiffer et al.,
1995; Schiffer and Adlhoch, 1996; Schiffer et al., 1996;
Hein, 2000).
3.17. MFU’s gasification process
The high-temperature oxygen-blown slagging gasifi-
cation process (2sv) (Nitsche et al., 2001) developed by
Mitteldeutsche Feuerungs- und Umwelttechnik GmbH
(MFU), a wholly owned subsidary of GÄU Energie &
Recycling GmbH of Germany is based on the cupola
furnace (Faulstich, 1996; Larsen et al., 1997; Moore et
al., 1998; Abdelrahman and Moore, 1998) equipped
6
These trials were financially supported by the EU-funded
THERMIE programme.
71
with two levels of oxygen-burners (Fig. 21) (Nitsche et
al., 2001) and ideal for high through-puts (2.5 t/h or 30–
40 GJ/h). The fuel (MSW, wood and animal waste,
TDF, ASR light fractions, (sewage) sludge etc) of 10–
300 mm size usually achieved by crushing and shredding
is introduced into the shaft reactor via a lock hopper.
Mainly at the first burner level the fuel is gasified at
2000  C (3632  F) whereby its partial combustion with
oxygen provides the required heat. Subsequently, the
gas and the pyrolytic char as well as the ash migrate
towards the second burner stage where char combustion
provides for slag formation. The latter leaves the reactor
at the bottom together with any ferrous/non-ferrous
melt formed whereas the CO-rich gas (15–24% H2 and
< 1% CH4) escapes in cross-flow between the stages and
is subjected to CGC.
For testing, MFU owns a 10 kt/year pilot plant in
Leipzig, Germany with a 1.2 t/h throughput while a 6.5
MWth wood waste fuelled CHP plant is currently under
construction in Rothenburg/Oberlausitz, Germany.
3.18. OxiTherm process
The very recent OxiTherm1 process by BBP (BBP,
2002a) combines drying, degassing and oxygen-blown
gasification of waste including MSW and RDF in a
single step on a water-cooled grate in a compact
designed shaft furnace with high-temperature air com-
bustion of the yielded gas and melting of incombustibles
(Fig. 22). Oxygen is injected underneath the loose pile
of waste at supersonic velocity ensuring combustion at
about 1500  C (2732  F). While the slag is discharged
below the grate, the gas enters above it and cross flows
enabling consecutively drying, pyrolysis and gasifica-
tion to the top into a section of post-combustion with
air and recirculated flue gas (for up to 50% volume
reduction).
Since no informations are currently available in open
literature on further development and realisation, steam
raising is very likely the prefered heat utilisation.
Fig. 22. The OxiTherm process scheme (BBP, 2002a).
72 T. Malkow / Waste Management 24 (2004) 53–79
4. Final remarks
Based on the critical issues faced in grate-fired MSW
incineration, several approaches using pyrolysis and
gasification were briefly described aiming basically to
improve fuel utilisation and combustion efficiency thus
increasing energy efficiency while providing envir-
onmentally sound solutions by emissions abatement and
the reduction in hazardous process residues. However,
the latter’s oftenly come at the expense of the former.
Noting the aforementioned primary aims of thermal
waste disposal, these technologies will certainly be fea-
sible options in the context of more stringent regulatory
measures and the technical issues faced in mass-burn
incineration although have yet to be proven commercially.
Further, optional co-utilisation and co-processing have
already attracted other industries (i.e. power generation
and cement production) while the combined utilisation of
MSW and other low ranking fuels or fossil fuels may
provide alternative chemical feedstocks (hydrogen and
hydrocarbons, synthetic crude oil or SNG) as well as
value-added products (char, activated carbon etc) con-
tributing to improve the economy of the technologies.
Notably, technological advances in sustainable thermal
waste disposal is truely a major factor in increasing
industrial competitiveness7 thus determines market
acceptance and export chances as well (Anon., 1999b).
Acknowledgements
This work was carried out within the European
Commission (EC)’s research and development pro-
gramme and financially supported through the award of
a Community fellowship which is gratefully acknowl-
edged. The use of trademarks and names are not inten-
ted to infringe proprietary rights while usual disclaimers
apply.
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