This article was downloaded by: [University of Central Florida]

On: 03 October 2013, At: 07:12

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer
House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of The Textile Institute

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjti20

Effects of different pretreatment processes on

viscose fabrics in different types and properties
A. T. Özgüney , I. Tarakçioǧlu , A. E. Körlü , A. Özerdem & M. I. Bahtiyari
a
Department of Textile Engineering, Ege University, İzmir, Turkey
b
The Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey-Textile Research Center, İzmir,
Turkey
c
Department of Textile Engineering, Ege University, İzmir, Turkey
d
Department of Textile Engineering, Ege University, İzmir, Turkey
e
Department of Textile Engineering, Ege University, İzmir, Turkey
Published online: 08 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: A. T. Özgüney , I. Tarakçioǧlu , A. E. Körlü , A. Özerdem & M. I. Bahtiyari (2005) Effects of different
pretreatment processes on viscose fabrics in different types and properties, Journal of The Textile Institute, 96:5,
319-327, DOI: 10.1533/joti.2005.0016

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/joti.2005.0016

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of
the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied
upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall
not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other
liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or
arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
 Effects of different pretreatment processes on
viscose fabrics in different types and properties
doi:10.1533/joti.2005.0016

A. T. Özgüney1, I. Tarakçıoğlu2, A. E. Körlü1, A. Özerdem1

and M. İ. Bahtiyari1
1
Department of Textile Engineering, Ege University, İzmir, Turkey
2
The Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey-Textile Research Center, İzmir, Turkey

Abstract: In this study, the effects of different pretreatment processes on the properties of viscose
fabrics (sulphur content, whiteness degree, weft yarn breaking force, crystallinity and fiber surface) and
on the color efficiency and repeatability of the prints have been investigated. For this purpose, viscose
Downloaded by [University of Central Florida] at 07:12 03 October 2013

fabrics obtained from different sources and containing different amounts of sulphur were causticized,
bleached, and reductive-washed. After impregnation with urea, fabrics were printed with two reactive
dyestuffs having the same reactivity, but different molecular sizes. Color values of both dyes were
measured and fastness was tested and compared in order to observe the effects of different pretreatment
processes. Different methods of sulphur analysis were also investigated and tested to determine the
sulphur content of the fibres. Among these methods, the lead acetate method, which is a subjective
evaluation system, has been selected as the most appropriate for practical working conditions of the
plants, and a sulphur scale was formed according to this method. Accuracy of the scale was also
confirmed by elemental analysis (CHNS–O) method.

Key words: Viscose, printing, reactive dyestuff, causticizing, sulphur.

INTRODUCTION (having different properties such as sulphur content, de-

Turkey imports various viscose materials with different
properties from Indonesia, India, Russia, China, Belarus,
Italy, Czech Republic, Germany, and Austria (DIE Data,
2004). However, reliable information about the source and
properties of the viscose used could not be obtained. For
this reason, problems are encountered especially in color
efficiency of prints done with reactive dyestuffs, repeata-
bility of the print, penetration to the back and uniformity
of printing (www.lenzing-technik.com, 2004; Kroschwitz,
1990, pp.746–757; Rouette, 1995, pp. 2390–2396). The
aim of this study is to optimize the pretreatment processes
of viscose fabrics with an excessive amount of sulphur
residues and a moderate whiteness degree. This study is
the continuation of one of our previous works carried out
using one type of viscose with no excessive amount of sul-
phur compounds and fairly high whiteness after desizing
(Tarakçıoğlu et al., 2004). As the first step, viscose fab-
rics were obtained from different suppliers and countries
Corresponding Author:
Dr A. Özgüney
Department of Textile Engineering, Ege University
İzmir, Turkey
Email: tozguney@textile.ege.edu.tr
gree of whiteness, construction, etc.) and we tried to deter-
mine the sulphur content with the aid of a method which
could be used easily by finishing plants. In order to deter-
mine the effect of the sulphur remaining in the fabric on
the color efficiency, prints in light and dark shades were
produced with reactive dyes having different molecular
sizes but with the same reactivity.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
This study was carried out in two steps. In the first step
of this study, a practical method (lead acetate method)
for determination of sulphur content was optimized, and
by means of this new method a sulphur scale was devel-
oped. This prestudy for the determination of the sulphur
residues in viscose fibers was carried out using 17 different
100% viscose woven fabrics with different sulphur con-
tents and whiteness degrees. For this, several identifica-
tion tests were done with barium chloride, iodine solution,
potassium permanganate, and lead acetate. Among these
methods, the best and most reliable results were obtained
by the lead acetate method, so this method was used in
subsequent trials as well. Moreover, a standard sulphur
scale was developed with the aid of the standardized lead
acetate method (Fig. 2). Measurements with CHNS–932

C The Textile Institute 0175 319 JOTI 2005 Vol. 96 No. 5 pp. 319–327
 A. T. Özgüney, I. Tarakçıoğlu, A. E. Körlü, A. Özerdem and M. İ. Bahtiyari

DESIZING

NO
CAUSTICIZING CAUSTICIZING

NO
HOT WASHING BLEACHING BLEACHING
HOT WASHING

REDUCTIVE NO REDUCTIVE
WASHING WASHING

IMPREGNATION
WITH UREA

PRINTING PRINTING
Cibacron Red P 4B Cibacron Blue P 3R
Downloaded by [University of Central Florida] at 07:12 03 October 2013

5 g/kg 30 g/kg 5 g/kg 30 g/kg

STEAMING
1020C − 8 min

Figure 1 Test plan used for the pretreatment and printing of viscose fabrics.

(LECO) Elemental Analysis Device were carried out to
determine the sulphur content on the viscose fabrics used
for the standards and to test the precision of the scale
(Bassett et al., 1987, pp. 504–511; Treadwell and Hall,
1956, pp. 355–356).
Subsequently, experiments were conducted using the
test plan shown in Fig. 1 to find out which pretreat-
ment processes were successful in removing sulphur con-
tents from viscose fabrics, and also to investigate the ef-
fects of pretreatment processes on the fabric properties
using four different viscose fabrics. The effects of pre-
treatment processes on all the fabrics were the same.
Therefore, the results presented here were from a plain
woven fabric having 98 g/m2 weight with sulphur scale
grade (SSG) 5 and whiteness degree (WD) 69.07. All pre-
treatment processes were realized on an overflow machine
with a capacity of 5 kg (Doğus trade mark) and a ten-
sionless dryer (Santex), and impregnation with urea was
performed on laboratory-type fluard (Ernest Benz). Next,
prints were applied to the viscose fabrics with Cibacron
Red P 4B (Reactive Red 245, with small molecules,
MCT-Monoazo) and Cibacron Blue P 3R (Reactive Blue
49, with big molecules, MCT-Antrokinon), which have
the same reactivity but different molecular sizes. In lab-
oratory conditions, fabrics were printed at 20 m/min at
3 bars of pressure on a J. Zimmer MDK laboratory-type
printing machine with 70 Nr PES gauze and a doctor blade
8 mm in diameter. The printed fabrics were then dried in
a laboratory-type drying machine (Rapid) at 100◦ C for 3
minutes and fixed on a laboratory-type steamer (Mathis) at
102◦ C for 8 minutes. Washing processes done after print-
ing were performed using a home-type washing machine
(Raks). During the treatment processes, ‘soft mill water
(permutit-water)’ was used. In order to evaluate the results,
whiteness degree (according to brightness) of pre-treated
fabrics and K/S values of printed fabrics on the front
side were determined with a X-RITE SP 78 Model Spec-
tralphotometer, breaking strengths were measured with
Loyd LR5K according to ISO 13934-1, and wet and dry
rubbing fastness values were evaluated with ISO standard
105-X12.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Because viscose fibers are regenerated fibers, a sub-
group of man-made fibers, they are naturally clean; so
their pretreatment processes are not complex. However, it
can change according to their origin, properties, and the
end use of viscose fibers. Unlike other regenerated cellu-
lose fibers, macromolecular structure is very susceptible to
the treatment processes (Smole et al., 2003). Therefore,
any change during treatment processes can directly effect
the fiber’s physical and chemical properties. During the
spinning of viscose fibers CS2 is used and after spinning,
in some cases, sulphur residues can remain – and these
1 2 3 4 5
Sulphur content on the fabric increases
Figure 2 Standard sulphur scale.

JOTI 2005 Vol. 96 No. 5 320 doi:10.1533/joti.2005.0016

C The Textile Institute
 Effects of different pretreatment processes on the properties of viscose fabrics
Downloaded by [University of Central Florida] at 07:12 03 October 2013

Figure 3 Catalytic damage occurred after bleaching.

5 g/kg Cibacron Red P 4B 5 g/kg Cibacron Blue P 3R

9,00 4,00
8,00 3,50
7,00 3,00
6,00
2,50
5,00
K/S
K/S

2,00
4,00
3,00 1,50
2,00 1,00
1,00 0,50
0,00 0,00
No Causticizing Causticizing No Causticizing Causticizing

(a) (b)

30 g/kg Cibacron Red P 4B 30 g/kg Cibacron Blue P 3R

40,00 25,00
19,29

35,00
15,37

20,00
14,19

30,00
13,07

25,00 15,00
K/S
K/S

20,00
15,00 10,00

10,00
5,00
5,00
0,00 0,00
No Causticizing Causticizing No Causticizing Causticizing

(c)
(d)

No Bleaching, No Reductive Washing Reductive Washing, No Bleaching

Bleaching, No Reductive Washing Bleaching and Reductive Washing
Hot Washing

Figure 4 K/S values of viscose fabrics by different pretreatment combinations (a, b, c, d).

C The Textile Institute doi:10.1533/joti.2005.0016 321 JOTI 2005 Vol. 96 No. 5
 A. T. Özgüney, I. Tarakçıoğlu, A. E. Körlü, A. Özerdem and M. İ. Bahtiyari
1µm EHT = 1.20 kV Signal A = SE2
Mag = 15.00 KX WD = 5 mm Photo No. = 499
Downloaded by [University of Central Florida] at 07:12 03 October 2013
Figure 5 SEM of non-causticized viscose fabric SEM causticized viscose fabric.
sulphur residues can cause problems in the treatment of
viscose fibers.
In contrast to the common belief that the sulphur prob-
lem has been solved, it can be seen that this problem still
exists. For example, among the 17 different viscose fabrics
investigated in this study, 12 fabrics had sulphur residues
in different amounts. Measuring the amount of the sulphur
residues accurately, rapidly and repeatedly is yet another
problem. In order to solve these problems, first a qualita-
tive method was standardized and then a new sulphur scale
(Fig. 2) was developed with the aid of this novel method
(Table 2). During the experiments, SSGs were determined
by this method and scale.
During this test H2 S was released from the elemen-
tal sulphur and sulphur salts which existed in the viscose
fabrics due to treatment with strong acids such as HCl. It is
a highly poisonous gas with the smell of rotten eggs. This
gas dissolves in water forming a very weak acidic solution,
from which salts known as sulphides (such as Na2 S, CaS)
may be derived. In turn, many metals react directly with
sulphur to form metal sulphides. The sulphides of heavy
metals are all insoluble in water. Those of the Group IA
and IIA are, however, soluble in water. The sulphides of
lead, copper, and silver are black. Solutions of lead, silver,
or copper salts yield black precipitates when exposed to
hydrogen sulphide (Svehla, 1996),
Pb(CH3 COO)2 + H2 S → PbS + CH3 COOH
Because of these properties the hydrogen sulphide released
from viscose fabric was detected with filter paper impreg-
nated with lead acetate, then the color of the filter paper
was matched with standard sulphur scale (http://www.
physchem.co.za/Inorganic/Sulphur.htm(04.15.2004)).
Effects of reductive washing on finishing of viscose fabrics
The effects of reductive washing were investigated accord-
ing to the whiteness degree, sulphur content (SSG), weft
JOTI 2005 Vol. 96 No. 5
Data : 13 Jan 2004 2µm EHT = 1.20 kV Signal A = SE2 Date: 13 Jan 2004
Time: 12:04:05 Mag = 15.00 KX WD = 5 mm Photo No. = 511 Time: 12:40:29
yarn breaking strength and color efficiencies after printing
with reactive dyestuffs.
The whiteness degree of grey fabric was increased to
74.84 from 69.07 with only desizing. Performing a reduc-
tive washing after desizing increased the whiteness degree
only to 75.28. This slight effect is similar in all application
cases. For example, when it is applied to the desized and
bleached fabric, the WD increased to 80.18 from 79.73;
on the other hand, in causticized fabrics after bleaching
and desizing, reductive washing decreased WD slightly to
the point 77.54. It is clear that in all cases the effect of
reductive washing on WD is negligible. In addition, ap-
plying a reductive washing after desizing or after desizing
and bleaching with or without causticizing decreases the
SSG only by 1 or 0.5 point. Contrary to common be-
lief, reductive washing alone cannot remove the sulphur
efficiently.
As seen in Fig. 4, reductive washing generally
does not affect the color efficiencies in both big and
small molecular sized dyestuffs, in both light and dark
shades.
Effects of bleaching on finishing of viscose fabrics
After desizing, applying bleaching alone decreases the SSG
to 3 and afterwards applying a reductive washing decreases
SSG to 2. The bleaching process after desizing provides
a high whiteness degree of 79.73. This is a good result
for end uses of white fabrics, but there is also a risk of
developing holes when fabrics with iron ions are subjected
to bleaching, drying and width adjustment under tension
on a stenter (Fig. 3). Iron ions have been discovered in
various ratios on the fabrics used for this study.Therefore,
before the bleaching process a demineralization must be
performed in these fabrics in order to prevent catalytic
damage in the fabrics. But there is also another problem
that makes performing demineralization difficult: unlike
other fibers, viscose is very sensitive to acids. Due to these
322 doi:10.1533/joti.2005.0016

C The Textile Institute
 Effects of different pretreatment processes on the properties of viscose fabrics

Table 1 Process conditions

Desizing Causticizing Bleaching Reductive Impregnation Printing paste∗
washing with urea
2 g/l Na2 CO3 10◦ Be NaOH 0.5 g/l Cottoclorin NF 2.0 g/l Na2 CO3 150 g/l urea Dyestuff 5–30 g
1 g/l Gemsol NS 60 1.0 g/l Stabilol–T 1.0 g/l AF = 75% Urea 100 g
Hydrosulphite
0.5 g/l Securan–FE Lamitex L 10 232.5 g
(% 8’lik)
3.0 g/l Na2 CO3 Lamitex S (% 6’lık) 232.5 g
2.0 g/l H2 O2 Ludigol 10 g
NaHCO3 25 g
Water/Paste ∼g
70◦ C, 30 min 35◦ C, 7 min 90◦ C, 60 min 70◦ C, 10 min 1000 g
LR 1/20 LR 1/20 LR 1/20 LR 1/20
0.3 g/l CH3 COOH
0.3 g/l Biolase APT
Downloaded by [University of Central Florida] at 07:12 03 October 2013

55◦ C, 15 min
∗ Forall printing processes, viscosity of the printing paste has been measured by Brookfield RVT viscosimeter using number 5 spindle at 20 rpm speed and 70
poise viscosity has been considered as the basis.

Table 2 Step by step standardized sulphur analysis method

• Take a 0.5 g of sample
• Fill one 100 ml beaker with 20 ml hot water and then put the sample into it
• Add 0.3 g zinc powder into the beaker, mix it and wait for a minute
• Take the sample from the beaker and put it into 100 ml erlenmayer flask
• Pour 13 ml HCl (32%) into the erlenmayer flask
• Next, cover the erlenmayer flask with filter paper impregnated with a lead acetate solution (25%) (In order to determine
the sulphur amount in the sample precisely, erlenmayer flask has to be covered with the filter paper immediately)
• After 13 minutes, remove the filter paper and cover it with a film
• Match the color on filter paper to standardized SSG

Table 3 Weft yarn breaking strength values after pretreatment processes

Strength values (kgf) No bleaching Bleaching Hot washing
No reductive Reductive No reductive Reductive
washing washing washing washing
No causticizing 0.2 0.1913 0.1933 0.1764 0.1933
Causticizing 0.18 0.166 0.1678 0.1651 0.1750

difficulties in applying demineralization and because it is
an extra-treatment process, demineralization is not suitable
for viscose fibers.
The bleaching process has a negative effect on the color
efficiencies of samples printed with dyestuff having a small
molecular size as well as one having a big molecular size in
light and dark shades. Thus, the K/S value of 13.07 of the
sample that was subjected to bleaching but not causticizing
and reductive washing increased only to 15.37 when caus-
ticizing was applied. This value increased to 19.29 when
the sample was not subjected to bleaching (Fig. 4 d). Color
efficiencies of fabrics bleached and printed with both dyes
were slightly decreased.
The bleaching process affects L∗ a∗ b∗ values (CIELab
Color System) and the location of color on the CIELab
diagram. Especially L∗ value increases after bleaching. In
other words, color gets lighter (Table 1).
Effects of causticizing on finishing of viscose fabrics
Among the pretreatment processes of viscose fabrics, caus-
ticizing is the most important process that directly influ-
ences the properties of printings, because it affects the
morphology of the viscose fibers. In this part of the study,
the X-ray diffractions and SEM photographs of causti-
cized and non-causticized fabrics were also investigated.
In addition to these investigations, the whiteness degree,
sulphur scale grades of causticized fabrics, weft yarn break-
ing strength values, and colour efficiencies after printing
were also examined.

C The Textile Institute doi:10.1533/joti.2005.0016 323 JOTI 2005 Vol. 96 No. 5
 JOTI 2005 Vol. 96 No. 5

A. T. Özgüney, I. Tarakçıoğlu, A. E. Körlü, A. Özerdem and M. İ. Bahtiyari

Downloaded by [University of Central Florida] at 07:12 03 October 2013

Table 4 The impact of pretreatment processes on the sulphur content and whiteness degree
No bleaching Bleaching Hot washing
Gray fabric No reductive washing Reductive washing No reductive washing Reductive washing
Whiteness Sulphur scale Whiteness Sulphur Whiteness Sulphur Whiteness Sulphur Whiteness Sulphur scale White-ness Sulphur
324

degree 69.07 grade 5 degree scale grade degree scale grade degree scale grade degree grade degree scale grade
Desizing
No causticizing 74.84 4–5 75.28 4 79.73 3 80.18 2 74.98 3–4
Causticizing 72.54 2 72.8 1 78.16 2 77.54 1–2 75.11 1
doi:10.1533/joti.2005.0016


C The Textile Institute


C The Textile Institute
doi:10.1533/joti.2005.0016
Downloaded by [University of Central Florida] at 07:12 03 October 2013

Table 5 CIELab values of printed viscose fabrics

No caustıcızıng Caustıcızıng
No bleaching Bleaching No bleaching Bleaching
No reductive Reductive No reductive Reductive No reductive Reductive No reductive Reductive Hot
washing washing washing washing Hot washing washing washing washing washing washing

Effects of different pretreatment processes on the properties of viscose fabrics

5 g/kg Cibacron Blue P 3R
L 59.28 60.30 59.91 62.01 60.95 57.59 56.74 58.36 58.74 57.74
C 35.71 35.02 36.10 34.02 34.67 37.26 37.79 37.44 36.82 36.71

E 0.00 1.23 1.17 3.21 1.98 2.37 3.50 2.37 1.63 2.03
30 g/kg Cibacron Blue P 3R
325

L 37.78 37.79 38.37 38.56 37.37 33.76 34.04 36.52 35.73 35.11
C 47.16 45.62 46.21 45.50 47.08 48.61 48.85 47.34 47.89 47.98

E 0.00 1.68 1.18 1.98 0.48 5.11 4.91 1.60 2.63 3.36
5 g/kg Cibacron Red P 4B
L 53.28 53.49 54.64 55.13 54.03 51.12 52.31 53.69 53.30 51.90
C 54.60 54.62 54.53 52.52 53.59 57.63 56.42 55.59 56.14 56.40

E 0.00 0.25 1.41 3.00 1.35 3.94 2.42 1.22 1.57 2.62
30 g Cibacron Red P 4B
L 37.93 37.58 38.76 38.28 37.78 35.87 36.12 37.05 37.18 36.95
C 61.48 61.90 61.18 61.63 61.18 61.55 61.83 62.02 61.54 62.44

E 0.00 0.88 1.91 0.96 0.40 4.20 4.04 2.49 1.41 3.11
JOTI 2005 Vol. 96 No. 5
 A. T. Özgüney, I. Tarakçıoğlu, A. E. Körlü, A. Özerdem and M. İ. Bahtiyari

11000 d=5.23348 i = 10538 Counts

10000

9000

8000

7000

Lin (Counts)
6000

5000

4000 d=6.29745 i=3311 Counts d=3.48771 i=3376 Counts

3000 d=4.76563 i=2671 Counts

d=4.36823 i=2393 Counts
d=4.14081 i= 2114 Counts
2000 d=3.14462 i=1491 Counts

1000

0
5 10 20 30 40 50
2-Theta - Scale
Downloaded by [University of Central Florida] at 07:12 03 October 2013

d=4.79636 i=1749 Counts

1800
1700
1600 d=4.48196 i=1494 Counts
1500 d=4.10863 i=1407 Counts
1400 d=6.35006 i=1287 Counts
1300 d=5.2252B i=1224 Counts
1200
Lin (Counts)

1100 d=3.48963 i=981 Counts

1000
900
800
d=3.15030 i=637 Counts
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
5 10 20 30 40 50

2-Theta - Scale

Figure 6 X-ray diffraction of non-causticized viscose fabric X-ray diffraction of causticized viscose fabric.

It can be clearly seen from Table 4 that causticizing alone
is sufficient for removing sulphur residues from fibers.
Causticizing gave the same sulphur scale grade obtained
by bleaching and reductive washing after desizing without
causticizing. However, hot washing after causticizing gave
the most accurate SSG (SSG 1) in the trials.
The whiteness degree of the fabric had increased to
74.84 after desizing when it was 69.07 in gray state. How-
ever, after causticizing following desizing, whiteness de-
gree decreased slightly (72.54). On the other hand, a sub-
sequent hot washing process increases WD to 75.11.
Finally, if a very high whiteness degree is not required,
which is the case for fabrics being printed or dyed, caus-
ticizing and reductive washing without bleaching or even
causticizing and hot washing without bleaching give satis-
factory results both in WD and SSG.
As seen from Table 3, causticized as well as causti-
cized and hot-washed viscose fabrics have nearly the same
strength values as those of bleached fibers. The decrease
caused by the pretreatment processes mentioned above is
an expected result, because they are both chemically effec-
tive and long-time wet processes.
When Fig. 4 is examined, it can be clearly seen that caus-
ticizing has an increasing effect on the color efficiencies of
prints made with dyestuff having small and big molecular
sizes both in 5 g/kg and 30 g/kg shades. For example, in
Fig. 4 d, K/S value 14.19 of printed sample increased to
19.29 (approximately a 35% increase) when only causti-
cizing was done without bleaching and reductive washing
processes. This increasing in color efficiencies is caused
by the swelling of fibers with caustic soda. Causticizing is
often more effective in dyestuffs with big molecular sizes
(Cibacron Blue P 3R).
However, when the CIELab values of prints were
examined, it could be clearly seen that bleaching and
especially causticizing caused significant color differences
(
E). Where L∗ a∗ b∗ values were evaluated, the L∗ value
had decreased after causticizing and the color had dark-
ened. For example, causticizing was more effective in dark
colors and uniformity of the printing was better, compared

JOTI 2005 Vol. 96 No. 5 326 doi:10.1533/joti.2005.0016

C The Textile Institute
 Effects of different pretreatment processes on the properties of viscose fabrics
to fabrics not causticized. Moreover, the C∗ value of all
printings performed on the causticized fabrics increased
(Table 5).
The morphology of different types of regenerated cel-
lulose fibers depends on the fiber-forming process. The
solvent-spinning technique based on amine oxide (NMMO
fiber Lyocell) produces a highly crystalline (crystallinity
index approx. 0.73) oriented fiber ( fc = 0.66). But the
crystallinity indices of high tenacity rayon CMD and con-
ventional viscose fibers CV are much lower and nearly the
same (approx. 0.47). However, there is a significant dif-
ference in orientation function between these two types
of regenerated cellulose fibers. Because of low crystallinity
index and crystalline orientation, viscose fibers are more
susceptible to treatment processes. The amorphous and
crystalline structure can easily change by any treatment
process (Smole et al., 2003). This is probably why the
Downloaded by [University of Central Florida] at 07:12 03 October 2013
repeatability of viscose printing is worse. Among the treat-
ment processes, causticizing has the most important impact
on fibers. So in order to investigate the effect of causticizing
on to the viscose fabrics, SEM and X-ray diffractions of
causticized and non-causticized viscose fabrics were taken
(see Figure 6).
After causticizing, the surface of viscose fibers become
smoother and swell as shown in Fig. 5, which results in
somewhat better pilling properties. When the pilling val-
ues of causticized and non-causticized fabrics were inves-
tigated with the help of a Martindale 2000 pilling test
machine, after 2000 turns it was seen that the pilling value
of causticized fabric increased by a half point.
According to the findings obtained from the X-ray anal-
ysis, causticizing increased the crystallinity index signifi-
cantly. This result is compatible with the literature (Smole
et al., 2003).
CONCLUSION
Sulphur residues may be present in some viscose fabrics
as a result of the fiber production methods. To determine
the sulphur content, a practical test method, which has
been developed by the authors, can be easily used in every
plant-like ‘Tegewa Scale’ to evaluate the starch desizing
degrees.
Among the pretreatment processes of viscose fabrics,
causticizing is the most important process that directly


C The Textile Institute doi:10.1533/joti.2005.0016
influences the properties of fibers and printings. Thus, to
remove the sulphur residues in the fibers and in order to
achieve a high color efficiency and better repeatability of
the prints, causticizing must be performed.
Viscose fibers are more susceptible to the treatment pro-
cesses than most other fibers, because viscose fibers have
lower crystallinity index than other regenerated cellulose
and cotton-based fabrics. It is obvious that causticizing
increases the crystallinity index of viscose fabrics. This
increase in the crystallinity index makes viscose-based ma-
terials more stabile to the different treatment processes
and process conditions. Causticizing is recommended es-
pecially for repeatability of dyeing and printing processes.
With causticizing, fibers swell and get smoother and the
pilling tendency of fabrics are reduced slightly. In addition,
because causticizing alone is sufficient as a pre-treatment
process for adequate white grey fabrics, the risk of catalytic
damage during the bleaching process will be eliminated
entirely.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Scientific and Technical
Research Council of Turkey, Textile Research Center.
REFERENCES
B, J., D, R. C., J, G. H. and M, J.,
1987. Vogel’s Textbook of Quantitative Inorganic Analysis,
Longman Scientific & Technical, Essex, pp. 504–511.
DIE [Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry State Institute of
Statistics (SIS)] data, 2004.
T , I., Ö , A. T., Ö, A. and B, E.,
2004. Effects of pretreatment process on printing viscose
fabrics with reactive dyestuffs, Tex. Res. J., 74(1), 63–67.
K, J. I., 1990. Polymers; Fibers and Textiles, A
Compendium, John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 746–757.
R, H. K., 1995. Lexikon für Textilveredlung,
Laumann-Verlag, Dülmen, pp. 2390–2396.
S, M. S., P, Z., K, T., K, K. S.,
R, V. and N, S., 2003. X-ray study of
pre-treated regenerated cellulose fibers, Mater. Res. Innov.,
7(5), 275–282.
S, G., 1996. Vogel’s Qualitative Inorganic Analysis, Longman,
London, p. 63.
T, F. P. and H, T. W., 1956. Analytical Chemistry,
Volume I, John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 355–356.
327 JOTI 2005 Vol. 96 No. 5