Calibration of the testing system

1.0 Calibration and adjustment of the equipment Instrumentation,

accessories:

Calibration of the testing system is required, to have consistent results at any time of
examination. Calibration of the system includes the calibration of equipment
instrumentation and the calibration of probe/s. Minimum calibrations of general
equipment instrumentation are as follows: calibration of screen height, gain (amplitude),
sweep or range, which are the equipment instrumentation dependents and of probes with
the equipment / system. There are five factors to be checked in the equipment probe
combination or system. They are Vertical linearity, Horizontal linearity, Dead zone,
Sensitivity and Maximum power.

1.1 Calibration of Vertical / Screen Height Linearity:

The signal amplitude is dependent on the Gain setting. The signal from the standard
reflectors and the signal amplitude from this are kept at required height by adjusting the
Instrument Gain. This is called as reference gain. Hence, gain affects the amplitude and in
turn will affect the sensitivity of the examination. Vertical / Screen Height linearity is the
measure of the uniformity of the signal amplitude on the screen. This is other way of
checking the instrument’s screen linearity. The vertical linearity is checked by adjusting
the gain in steps of 2 / 6 dB (by adding or subtracting the gain) from a reference level and
noting the amplitude heights. The variation shall not be more than or less than 5% of the
required height. Also the vertical linearity is measured between 20% to 80%, as the
amplitude will not be linear below and above the above-specified values.

1.2 Calibration of Amplitude Linearity:

The amplitude linearity is the check of the instrument’s the gain control or the amplifier.
The amplitude linearity is checked using the amplitude from a standard reflector and
adjusting it by adjusting the gain control and noting the signal amplitude on the screen.
The variation shall not vary more than 1% of the required value. The following table
gives the values required by ASME.

Original limit (setting) Change in Gain control Indication Values (%FSH)

(%FSH) (dB)
80% -6 32 – 48 %
80% -12 16 –24 %
40% +6 64 – 96 %
20% +12 64 – 96 %
1.3 Calibration of Horizontal Linearity:

Horizontal linearity is the measure of uniformity of the sweep speed of the instrument.
The instrument shall be linear with in the dynamic ranges of the set sweep ranges. This is
one way of checking the equipment’s timer circuitry. Getting the position of multiple
echoes from standard calibration blocks checks the horizontal linearity. Any variation in
the echo position indicates the non-linearity.

2.0 Dead Zone:

Dead zone is the zone occupied by the initial pulse / pip on the time base. This is
affecting the resolution of the examination. This is mostly dependent on the frequency of
the transducer selected. Higher the frequency lesser the dead zone. Usually the dead zone
is specified in mm. This is measured by the reflected signal from the 1/16” hole of IIW
(V1) calibration block for longitudinal / normal beam probe.

3.0 Calibration of transducers:

Calibration of transducers is also important. But it always accompanied along with the
equipment’s calibration. This is most important for the transmitter receiver (T-R) and
angle beam probes. In the case of transmitter receiver probes the focal point is to be
known before engaging the probe. In the case of angle beam probe the exit angle and the
exit point are the important features.

4.0 Calibration Blocks:

4.1 International Institute of Welding (IIW) [V1] and Miniature [V2]

Blocks:

For calibrating the equipment and the probe calibration blocks are used. For this two
blocks are available. International Institute of welding (IIW) or V1 block and miniature
block or V2 is used. The following are checked using V1 block:

1. Time base / horizontal linearity using longitudinal beam

2. Vertical / Screen Height and Amplitude Linearity using longitudinal beam
3. Calibration of transducer for their exit point and angle
4. Resolution of the system
5. Dead Zone up to 5 or 10 mm
6. Maximum power of the system using the Perspex block

In the case of V2 block except the dead zone and the maximum power others can be
evaluated. Mostly the V2 block is used at site for calibrating the system.

Other than the specified above, the exit point and the angle of the probes can be checked
using these blocks.
4.2 Area amplitude block:

The area amplitude blocks are used for checking the amplitude linearity. A series of
blocks containing different diameter flat bottom holes at same depth from the scanning
surface is used. These blocks are used for area / amplitude response and also used for
calibrating the sensitivity of the system.

4.3 Distance amplitude blocks (B-Blocks):

The distance amplitude blocks are having single diameter flat bottom hole at increasing
beam path distances. These blocks are used for establishing the distance amplitude
response characteristics of the system in the test material.

5.0 Calibration of sensitivity:

Sensitivity of the UE system is to detect the smallest discontinuity. It depends on the

following factors / parameters:

1. Orientation of the discontinuity

2. Depth of the discontinuity
3. Type and surface condition of discontinuity
4. Geometry and surface condition of the specimen
5. Specimen Grain structure
6. Transducer type and its frequency
7. Beam orientation with respect to the discontinuity
8. Sensitivity requirement for the testing
9. Couplant
10. Scanning speed
11. Type of Equipment and its capability

Out of the above, it may be any one or combination of two or more, which will affect the
sensitivity.

5.1 Following paragraphs explain how the sensitivity is based on these parameters.

1. Orientation and depth of the discontinuity:

The orientation of the discontinuity is an important feature for the sensitivity. But
in actual case the orientation of the discontinuity will be varying according to the
type of manufacturing and type of discontinuity. The personnel who conduct the
examination shall know the basics and history of the discontinuity. The
ultrasonic beam shall be directed at normal to discontinuity to the maximum
possible, to get better sensitivity. The signal from the discontinuity at different
depth depends on the attenuation of the material being tested.
2. Type and surface condition of discontinuity:

The discontinuity can be classified as planar or volumetric. If the discontinuity is

a planar a high amplitude sharp signal is received, if the beam is directed in
proper orientation. This is also because of the regular shape of the discontinuity,
in the case of lack of penetration and lack of fusion. In the case of crack, if the
crack surface is sooth, the same phenomena occur. In the case of irregular crack
then it follows as the volumetric discontinuity. A volumetric discontinuity gives
wide and comparatively low amplitude signal, for the same size of planar
discontinuity. If the surface of the discontinuity is plain / smooth then a better
signal is received. A wavy surface of the discontinuity gives wide signal. This is
why a wide signal is received from slag inclusion in the weld.

A single indication representing A wide signal representing

Smooth Planar discontinuity rough volumetric discontinuity.

3. Geometry and surface condition of the specimen:

The geometry of the specimen can be classified as regular flat, curved or special.
In the case of regular flat geometry examination is easier. In the case of curved
geometry, with lesser diameter, the transducer makes only line contact or less
contact area. Because of this the energy transmission is less and hence the
sensitivity. For this attaching a shoe on the transducer is normally used in contact
testing. But this has the problem of variation in the angle of examination and the
energy transmission due to additional introduction of shoe material. Hence, it is to
be dealt carefully, to get the maximum sensitivity. In the case of immersion
testing, the curved surface can be tested with focussed ultrasonic beam.

The surface condition of the specimen affects the sensitivity. One is the variation
of energy transmission and the other of increasing width of initial signal. The
second factor affects the near surface resolution. Also if the surface is very rough
the angle of examination is affected, in the case of angle beam examination.
4. Specimen Grain structure:

This is another important feature in sensitivity. Before going to deal with the grain
structure, one shall know about the attenuation of sound energy in the materials.
The attenuation consists of two parts, one the absorption and the other scattering.
The absorption as the name implies the energy loss due to absorption. The
scattering is the energy reflected at the grain boundary and hence, more noise.
The attenuation is measured as dB per length of energy travel in the medium
(dB/m). The attenuation is compared with the signal from the reflector to the
noise level as signal to noise ratio (S/N Ratio). A higher signal to noise ratio
indicates higher sensitivity.

The specimen can be divided in to four categories with respect to the specimen
grain size with respect to ultrasonic examination. They are very fine (Grain size G
< 0.001), fine (G = 0.01 to 0.001), medium (G=0.01 to 0.1) and large or
coarse grain (G >> 0.1) structure. Generally the fine grain and medium grain
materials are easy for ultrasonic examination. Where as the very fine and coarse
grain materials are difficult to examine or in some cases can not be examined. The
very fine grain structure material will absorb more energy. A good example for
this is loss of back wall echo while examining fine grain forging. Here no signal
from the discontinuity and will result in poor sensitivity. In the case of large or
coarse grain structure, the grain boundary reflects the energy and hence, more
noise is resulted. This will result in very low signal to noise ratio, affecting the
sensitivity. A good example for the same is the examination of thick austenitic
stainless steel weld and casting.

5. Transducer type and selection of frequency:

Many transducers are used for the examination according to the type of
discontinuity expected. Mostly longitudinal and shear waves are used. The
transducers are available with various sizes. One should know the effect of the
transducers. Higher the size more energy and its transmission. But more near zone
and less beam divergence. Vice versa for the lower size transducer. Similarly
higher the frequency more near zone, less beam divergence, higher resolution and
the attenuation (in both absorption and scattering). Also, a lower frequency is a
better choice for coarse grain structure material and to detect multi-directional
crack. Hence, it is required to select an optimum frequency transducer to get a
better sensitivity.
6. Beam orientation with respect to the discontinuity:

This is one of the most important parameter to be considered for getting higher
sensitivity. One should know the possible orientation of the discontinuity and
direct the beam normal to it A multi directional examination will result a better
sensitivity. Also in the case of weld examination a multi angle examination will
result better. It should be made clear that a smaller amplitude signal is not
necessarily indicating a smaller size discontinuity. The signal may be lesser due to
improper orientation of the beam.

7. Sensitivity requirement:

Sensitivity requirement depends on the end use of the job. In the case of raw
material like plate examination, the discontinuity expected will be mostly bigger
in size and limited in numbers. The sensitivity requirement may be less severe, as
the detectable discontinuity size is comparatively high. Here a back wall may be
called for the sensitivity. In certain cases a flat bottom hole may be called for. In
the case of fabrication by welding and forging the discontinuity will be more in
numbers and the sensitivity may be varying according to the end use. In this case
a notch or side drilled hole may be the requirement. The forging may be required
different size of notches made at different orientation and locations to meet the
sensitivity requirements. The sensitivity requirements are given by the respective
codes of manufacturing.

8. Couplant:

Couplant is mainly used for the maximum transmission of energy in to the

material. The type and the thickness of couplant play an important role in
achieving sensitivity. The type of couplant depends on the surface condition and
scanning position. For a machined surface oil is ideal couplant. In the case of over
head or vertical scanning grease will be better. Mainly the thickness is limited up
to /4. Higher the thickness may lead in variation of examination angle in the case
of angle beam examination. This also increases the dead zone. The chemistry of
the couplant plays an important role, as this will lead post examination problems,
like corrosion and corrosion cracking. Normally the Halogens (particularly
Chlorine) and sulphur are restricted to 50 ppm and 1% by weight respectively, to
avoid the above problems.
9. Type of equipment and its capabilities:

Up to last decade analogue equipments were used for the examination. The
improvement in the electronics made the availability of digital and
microprocessor based equipments. These equipments provide vide variation of
operating parameters. For example the dB change can be made up to 0.1 dB.
Likewise many other parameters like PRF, probe delay, energy, sweep, scale, and
so on can be changed. This leads in controlling the parameters thereby
achievement of higher sensitivity. Also the DAC can be stored in the equipment,
so that it can be repeated as and when required. Also, the output will be in
digitised form and can be recorded. This provides the facility for recording the
signal from a discontinuity and for further analysis of the same. Hence, the use of
a microprocessor based, digital equipment will give better results than analogue
equipment. One should be very careful in operating the digital equipments, in the
sense all the parameters are to be fed properly to get a very good results using
these equipments.

10. Scanning speed:

The scanning speed plays an important role in sensitivity of the examination.

Mostly the referring codes limits the scanning speed to 150 mm / sec. In the case
of manual scanning this limit can not be crossed. In the case of scanners this is
one of the point to be looked in to. This is connected with the PRF. If the scanning
speed is more the signal obtained from the discontinuity will not be registered and
can be missed. To avoid this the PRF has to be adjusted to get the signal at the
required scanning speed.

6.0 Reference reflectors for sensitivity and system calibration:

For sensitivity and system calibration, many artificial reflectors like notch, flat bottom
hole or side-drilled hole, spherical reflectors are used. Natural defects are also used as the
reflectors. But manufacturing the natural discontinuities / reflectors at the required
locations and with required dimensions, are the problems. Hence, most of the cases the
artificial reflectors are used for sensitivity calibration.

Flat bottom holes (FBH) are used for detecting discontinuities lying parallel to the
scanning surface. Notch and Side drilled holes (SDH) are used for detecting
discontinuities lying at some orientation other than normal to the scanning surface.
Notches are used as calibration reflector to detect linear type of defects like crack, lack of
penetration in the weld. Side drilled holes are used for the detection of volumetric
discontinuities like slag inclusion, porosities etc. Even the back wall is used as reference
for normal beam examination. But, this will be the lowest sensitivity among all the
above. The side-drilled holes will have higher sensitivity compared to the notch, as it has
only line reflector. Spherical reflectors are used for calibrating focused probes in
immersion testing. Normally a bearing steel ball is used as reflector.
All the above reflectors are used for calibrating the system, including setting the scale.
Generally the reflectors are selected based on the sensitivity requirements as per the
referring code.

6.1 Design and preparation of the calibration units:

The design of the calibration block and reference reflector is based on the discontinuity
expected and the sensitivity required for the examination. Mostly the flat bottom holes
are used for the normal beam examination with the specified diameter of the hole. For the
notch the depth and length are specified. Generally the width will be two times the depth.
Its diameter and length specify the side-drilled hole.

While manufacturing calibration block, following are to be considered.

1. The calibration block shall be acoustically similar to that of the job. (Ex: Heat
treatments, Aus.SS welding, Dis-similar welding etc.)
2. The block shall have the same configuration that of the job (to the extent possible in
the case of thicker job).
3. The surface condition of the calibration block shall match with the job.
4. The reference reflector/s shall be made at the required locations with the specified
dimensional accuracy (SDH on the weld in the case of Aus.SS).

Example:

1. Calibration block for a thicker job with FBH can be made in a stepped block as
shown below, keeping the required beam path. This will ease the manufacturing
difficulties of drilling longer holes.

Required Flat bottom Holes

This material can be

removed

2. In case of pipe examination the notches can be made to full length or circle at
required locations.

3. For different and difficult configuration of weld joints, mock-ups of weldment can be
made and the reflectors can be made at appropriate locations. This will ensure the
 approachability for scanning, possibility of achieving the sensitivity and the beam
tracing, which may not be possible in the actual job.

7.0 Various calibration criteria (DAC, DGS etc):

7.1 Distance Amplitude Correction curve (DAC):

As the beam propagates in the material, the energy is getting attenuated. Hence, the signal
amplitude from any reflector will get reduced with increasing of beam travel distance.
The size of the reflector will be mis-interpreted, based on this. A correction has to be
made to compensate this signal reduction and to be maintained at equal for the reflector
position at any point in the job. Generally a curve is drawn from the signal received from
minimum of three same size reflectors at different position from scanning surface. Also
the curve can be drawn using a single reflector suitably positioned, for angle beam
examination. This curve acts as a reference for the signal from any reflector positioned at
any thickness of the job. This curve is known as the Distance Amplitude Correction curve
(DAC). The name itself implies that the curve takes care of the amplitude reduction due
to the attenuation. This curve will be used for the sensitivity setting for the examination.

The distance amplitude correction curve for a specimen with the standard reference
reflector is shown below. The curve is drawn for a specimen of 25-mm thick plate with a
side-drilled hole for the angle beam examination. The position of the probe is 1, 2, 3 and
4 as shown in the following figure.

1 3

½T

½T

2 4

At the initial position the curve starts at lower amplitude because this length of the beam
is in the near zone. As the sound pressure is not uniform in this zone the curve does not
have the required amplitude. This curve is also called as Primary Response / Reference
Line / Curve (PRL). The curve obtains its maximum amplitude just after the near zone.
Certain codes calls for a 50% DAC. The reflector, which makes the signal in this zone,
will be recorded for future requirements. The acceptance of the specimen is made on the
type of the discontinuity; chatagorised based on the signal and their length.
 Distance Amp. Correction Curve (DAC)

80

70

60

50
Amplitude

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4
Beam Path / Probe Position

DAC 50% DAC

7.2 Distance Gain Size Curve (DGS):

This is another curve proposed and developed by M/s Krautkramer similar to DAC. This
will be giving the Distance Gain and Size parameters. A curve is given below for
reference.

DGS Curve

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
20
Gain (dB)

40
60
80
100

No. Near Zone

5 mm Dia 3 mm Dia 2mm Dia

The curve is drawn between number of near zones or beam path / distance verses gain in
dB required keeping the signal from the holes at required height. This curve is drawn for
particular probe, either longitudinal or shear and for particular frequency and angle (Ex.
MWB 45 N4), with steel. The curve is drawn taking the transmission energy loss. The
advantage of DGS scale is that, it can be used directly with out any calibration specimen,
by attaching the DGS scale to the equipment CRT. The usage of DGS is limited to the
particular probe and for steel.