Chapter 6

Learning

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Types of Learning

Learning
…a systematic, relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs through experience

Behaviorism
Associative Learning/Conditioning
Observational Learning

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Types of Learning

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Classical Conditioning:
Terminology

◼ helps to explain involuntary behavior

◼ unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
◼ unconditioned response (UCR)
◼ neutral stimulus (NS)
◼ conditioned stimulus (CS)
◼ conditioned response (CR)
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Classical Conditioning:
Procedure

◼ acquisition
◼ UCS produces a UCR (reflex)
◼ neutral stimulus (NS) paired with a UCS
◼ after pairings, NS produces a CR
◼ the NS has become a CS
◼ contiguity – time between CS and UCS
◼ contingency – is CS regularly followed by
the UCS?

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Classical Conditioning: Pavlov

◼ Unlearned/Reflexive
◼ UCS – meat powder
◼ UCR – dog salivates

◼ NS – sound of Pavlov’s bell (prior to

pairings with meat powder)

◼ Learned
◼ CS – sound of Pavlov’s bell
◼ CR – dog salivates

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Classical Conditioning: Pavlov

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Classical Conditioning

◼ Generalization
◼ CRs may appear after various NS that
are similar to the CS

◼ Discrimination
◼ CRs appear after the CS but not after
other CSs
◼ discrimination generally learned by
presenting other CSs without the UCS

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Classical Conditioning

◼ Extinction
◼ CR is weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS
◼ Pavlov rang the bell but did not present food, and the dog
stopped salivating

◼ Spontaneous Recovery
◼ CR recurs after a time delay and without additional learning
◼ when Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated

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Classical Conditioning

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Classical Conditioning:
Applications

◼ Phobias
◼ Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert
◼ white rat (CS) paired with loud noise (UCS)

◼ Counterconditioning
◼ associate CS with new, incompatible CR
◼ CS paired with new UCS
◼ aversive conditioning

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Classical Conditioning:
Applications

◼ placebo effect
◼ taste aversion
◼ advertising
◼ drug habituation

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Operant Conditioning

▪ better at explaining voluntary behaviors

▪ the consequences of a behavior change

the probability of that behavior’s
occurrence

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Operant Conditioning

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

◼ consequence strengthens or
weakens a S – R connection

B.F. Skinner
◼ expanded on Thorndike’s work
◼ shaping (reward approximations
of the desired behavior)

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Reinforcement

Reinforcement increases behavior.

Positive Reinforcement
◼ behavior followed by rewarding consequence
◼ rewarding stimulus is “added”

Negative Reinforcement
◼ behavior followed by rewarding consequence
◼ aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “removed”

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Reinforcement

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Principles of Reinforcement

Avoidance Reinforcement
…by making a particular response, a negative
stimulus can be avoided

Learned Helplessness
…an organism learns it has no control over
negative outcomes

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Types of Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcers
◼ innately satisfying

Secondary Reinforcers
◼ become satisfying through experience
◼ repeated association with a pre-existing
reinforcer
◼ token economy

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Schedules of Reinforcement

Generalization
◼ stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response
◼ responding occurs to similar stimuli

Discrimination
◼ stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be
reinforced

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

◼ behavior decreases when reinforcement stops

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Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

Partial Reinforcement
◼ fixed
◼ variable
◼ ratio
◼ interval

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Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio (FR)

◼ reinforcement follows a set # of
behaviors

Variable Ratio (VR)

◼ reinforcement follows an
unpredictable # of behaviors
(e.g., an average)

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Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Interval (FI)

◼ reinforcement follows behavior that occurs
after a set amount of time has elapsed

Variable Interval (VI)

◼ reinforcement follows behavior that occurs
after an unpredictable amount of time has
elapsed

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Schedules of Reinforcement

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Punishment

Punishment decreases behavior.

Positive Punishment
◼ behavior followed by aversive consequence
◼ aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added”

Negative Punishment
◼ behavior followed by aversive consequence
◼ rewarding stimulus is “removed”

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Punishment

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 Comparing
Operant Procedures

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Observational Learning

◼ learning that occurs when a person observes and

imitates behavior (modeling)

◼ Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Theory

◼ four processes
- attention
- retention
- motor reproduction
- reinforcement/motivation

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Observational Learning

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 Laws of Learning
◼ Educational psychologists and pedagogues
have identified several principles of
learning, also referred to as “laws of
learning”, which seem generally applicable
to the learning process.
◼ These principles have been discovered,
tested, and used in practical situations.

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 Laws of Learning
◼ Edward Thorndike developed the first three
"Laws of learning:" readiness, exercise, and
effect.

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 Law of Readiness
◼ Readiness implies a degree of concentration
and eagerness. Individuals learn best when
they are physically, mentally, and
emotionally ready to learn, and do not learn
well if they see no reason for learning.

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 Law of Exercise
◼ The principle of exercise states that those
things most often repeated are best
remembered. It is the basis of drill and
practice. It has been proven that students
learn best and retain information longer
when they have meaningful practice and
repetition.

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 Law of Effect
◼ The principle of effect is based on the
emotional reaction of the student. It has a
direct relationship to motivation. The
principle of effect is that learning is
strengthened when accompanied by a
pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that
learning is weakened when associated with
an unpleasant feeling.

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 Law of Primacy
◼ Primacy, the state of being first, usually
creates a strong and durable impression.
Things learned first are usually learned
easily and remain, without effort, in the
mind of the student.

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 Law of Recency
◼ The principle of recency states that things
most recently learned are best remembered.
Conversely, the further a student is removed
time-wise from a new fact or understanding,
the more difficult it is to remember.

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 Law of Intensity
◼ The more intense the material taught, the
more likely it will be retained. A sharp,
clear, vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning
experience teaches more than a routine or
boring experience. The principle of
intensity implies that a student will learn
more from the real thing than from a
substitute.

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 Law of Freedom
◼ The principle of freedom states that things
freely learned are best learned. Conversely,
the further a student is coerced, the more
difficult is for him to learn, assimilate and
implement what is learned.

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 Law of Requirement
◼ The law of requirement states that "we must
have something to obtain or do something."
It can be an ability, skill, instrument or
anything that may help us to learn or gain
something.

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Chapter Summary

◼ Explain what learning is.

◼ Describe classical conditioning.
◼ Discuss operant conditioning.
◼ Understand observational learning.
◼ Discuss the role of cognition in learning.
◼ Identify biological, cultural, and psychological
factors in learning.
◼ Describe how principles of learning apply to health
and wellness.

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Chapter Summary

Learning is a relatively permanent change in

behavior that occurs through experience.
Classical Conditioning
◼ association between two stimuli
◼ terminology: CS, CR, UCS, UCR
◼ generalization and discrimination
◼ extinction and spontaneous recovery
◼ phobias and counterconditioning

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Chapter Summary

Operant Conditioning
◼ stimulus → response → consequence
◼ positive and negative reinforcement
◼ positive and negative punishment
◼ schedules of reinforcement

Observational Learning
◼ attention, retention, motor reproduction,
and reinforcement

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Chapter Summary

Cognitive Factors in Learning

◼ purposive behavior
◼ insight learning

Other Factors in Learning

◼ biological, cultural, psychological constraints

Learning and Health and Wellness

◼ variables aggravating stress

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