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Metallic Character
All the transition elements are metals; this is because the number of electrons in outermost
shell is only 2.
Transition metals are hard, malleable and ductile due to presence of strong metallic bonds.
Transition metals crystallize in all the three face centred cubic (fcc), hexagonal close packed
(hcp) and body centred cubic (bcc) crystals.
Transition metals of VIII and IB Groups are softer and more ductile as compare to the other
transition metals.
Along with metallic bonding, transition metals also show covalent bonding due to presence of
unfilled d-orbitals.
As transition elements are metals so they good conductors of heat and electricity.
Transition metals usually have very high value of melting and boiling points due to presence
of strong metallic bonds.
Zn, Cd and Hg metals have lower metaling and boiling points as they have completely filled d
orbitals because of which no unpaired electron is available. Because of unavailability of
unpaired electrons, these metals do not undergo covalent bonding. Rest of the transition
metals does have metallic as well as covalent bonding.
Metals towards the middle of each transition series have highest melting point.?
The elements in the first group in the d-block show the excepted increase (due to the addition
of extra shell) in size Sc → Y → La. However in the subsequent groups there is an increase
between first and second members, but hardly any increase between second and third
elements. This is due to lanthanide contraction (discussed in f-block elements).
Colour
Many compounds of transition elements are coloured in contrasts to those of s and p block
elements.In compound state due to the surrounding groups (ligands), the d-orbitals of transition
elements are not degenerate but split into two groups of different energy.
Thus it is possible to promote electrons from one group to another group. This corresponds to
fairly small amount of energy difference and so light is absorbed in visible region. Some
compounds of transition metals are white, for example ZnSO4 and TiO2. In these compounds it is
not possible to promote the electrons within the d-level.
Formation of Alloys
Alloys are homogenous solid solutions of two or more metals obtained by melting the
components and then cooling the melt. These are formed by metals whose atomic radii differ by
not more than 15% so that the atoms of one metal can easily take up the positions in the crystal
lattice of the other. Since transition metals have similar atomic radii, they form alloys very readily.
Interstitial Compounds
Sometimes transition metals form non stoichiometry compounds. These are compounds of
indefinite structure and proportions. For example Fe0.94O. It is mostly due to the variable
valency of transition elements. Sometimes, non-stoichiometry is caused by defects in the
solid structures.
Transition metals form number of interstitial compounds, in which they take up atoms of small
size e.g. H, C and N in the vacant spaces in their lattices. The presence of these atoms result
in decrease in malleability and ductility of the metals but increases their tensile strength.
Complex Formation
The transition elements have an unparalleled tendency to form coordination compounds with the
Lewis bases, which are called as ligands.
CO3+ + 6NH3 → [CO(NH3)6]3+
Fe2+ + 6CN– → [Fe(CN)6]4–
s and p block elements form very few complexes. The reason transition elements are so good at
forming complex is that they have small, highly charged ions and have vacant low energy orbitals
to accept lone pairs of electrons donated by ligands.
Cu In manufacture of (CH3)2SiCl2
Ni Raney nickel
Variable Oxidation State
Transition elements show variable oxidation states unlike s and p block elements.The oxidation
states changes in units of one, e.g. Fe2+ and Fe+3, Cu+1 and Cu+2.
Scandium can have an oxidation number of (+II) if both s electrons are used for bonding and
(+III) when two s and one d electrons are involved. Similarly all the elements show variable
oxidation states depending upon the number of electrons available for bonding in their s and d
sub-shells.
Transition metals have unique property to show variable oxidation state. This property arises
from the fact that the energy levels of 3d, 4d and 5d orbitals are very close to those of 4s, 5s and
6s orbitals respectively and, therefore, electrons from both ns and (n-1)d orbitals can be
used, infect they are used, for the formation and bonds by transition metals.
Minimum oxidation state: All the transition elements except Cr, Cu, Ag, Au and Hg which have
a minimum oxidation state of +1 exhibit a minimum oxidation state of +2.
Maximum oxidation state: Each of the elements in groups III B to VII B can show the maximum
oxidation state equal to its group number. For example, Cr in group VIB shows a maximum
oxidation state of +6 in Cr2O72– ion.
Most of the elements in VIII group show a maximum oxidation state equal to + 6.
However, Ru and Os have a maximum oxidation state equal to +8 which is the highest oxidation
state shown by any element.
Relative stability of various oxidation states:
The relative stabilities of various oxidation states of 3d-series elements are due to the extra
stability of 3d0, 3d5 and 3d10configurations.
Ti4+ (3d0) is more stable than Ti3+ (3d1)
Mn2+ (3d5) is more stable than Mn4+ (3d4).
The higher oxidation state of 4d and 5d series elements are generally more stable than those
of the elements of 3d series, e.g., Mo, Tc (4d series elements) and W, Re (5d-series
elements) s.
The highest oxidation states of second and third row elements are encountered in compounds
containing the more electronegative elements viz. F, O and Cl
Magnetic Property
On the basis of behaviour in a magnetic field, substance are classified as paramagnetic,
diamagnetic and ferromagnetic. Those substance which are attracted by the applied magnetic
field are called paramagnetic where as those which are repelled by the magnetic field are called
diamagnetic. Substances which are very strongly attracted by the applied field are called
ferromagnetic.
Paramagnetism is a property due to the presence of unpaired electrons. Thus most of the
transition metals are paramagnetic. As the number of unpaired electrons increases, the
paramagnetic character also increases.
The magnetic moment is calculated from the following formula μ = √n(n+2) BM where n is the
number of unpaired electrons and B. M stands for Bohr magneton.
Density
Because of small size of their atoms and strong metallic bonding the density and hardness of
transition elements are high.? Except for mercury, which is a liquid at room temperature all other
elements are solid metals exhibiting all the characteristics of a metal.
Illustrations
Question 1: K2PtCl6 is a well known compound whereas corresponding Ni compound is not known. State a
reason for it.
Solution: This is because Pt4+ is more stable than Ni4+ has the sum of four ionization energies of Pt is less than
that of Ni.
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Question 2: Why do transition elements show variable oxidation states?
Solution: In the transition elements, the energies of (n-1)d orbitals and ns orbitals are very close. Hence
electrons from both can participate in bonding.
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Question 3: Explain briefly how +2 state becomes more and more stable in the first half of the first row
transition elements with increasing atomic number.
or
Compare the stability of +2 oxidation state of the elements of the first transition series.
Solution: The sum IE1 + IE2 increases. As a result the standard reduction potentials (E0) becomes less and less
negative. Hence the tendency to form M2+ ion decreases. The greater stability of +2 state for Mn is due to half-
filled d-subshell (d5), that for zinc is due to completely filled d-subshell (d10) and half that for nickel is due to
highest negative enthalpy of hydration.
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Question 4: Why Zn2+ salts are white while Ni2+ salts are blue?
Solution: Zn2+ has completely filled d-orbitals (3d10) while Ni2+ has incompletely filled d-orbitals (3d8).
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Question 5: Why Zn2+ salts are white while Cu2+ salts are blue?
Solution: Reason same as above.
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Question 6: Giving reasons indicate which one of the following would be coloured?
Cu+, VO2+, Sc3+, Ni2+ (At. Nos Cu = 29, V = 23, Sc = 21, Ni = 28)
Solution: Ni2+ due to incompletely filled d-orbitals.
d c c d