Tree of Life EUKARYA

Land plants Dinoflagellates

Green algae Forams
Ciliates Diatoms
Red algae

Lecture 2 Cellular slime molds

Amoebas
Euglena

Life: Structure, Function, and Control Animals

Fungi
Trypanosomes
Leishmania

Sulfolobus
Green nonsulfur bacteria
Thermophiles (Mitochondrion)

Spirochetes
Halophiles Chlamydia
COMMON
ANCESTOR Green
OF ALL sulfur bacteria
LIFE
Methanobacterium BACTERIA
Cyanobacteria
ARCHAEA (Plastids, including
chloroplasts)
1 2 Universal tree of life 3

The 5-Kingdom Scheme 7 Kingdoms of Life:

• proposed by R.H. Whittaker in 1969 Archaea (Archaebacteria) Importance of Cells
Bacteria (Eubacteria)
Protozoa All organisms are made of cells
Chromista The cell is the simplest collection of matter
Fungi that can be alive
Plantae Cell structure is correlated to cellular function
Animalia All cells are related by their descent from earlier
cells
2 Superkingdoms
Prokaryota
Eukaryota

Ruggiero MA, Gordon DP, Orrell TM, Bailly N, Bourgoin T, Brusca RC, et al. (2015) A
4 Higher Level Classification of All Living Organisms. PLoS ONE 10(4): e0119248. 5 6
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0119248 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Fimbriae
Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Cells Prokaryotic cells Nucleoid

– No nucleus Ribosomes

Basic features of all cells – DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid Plasma
membrane
– Plasma membrane – No membrane-bound organelles Bacterial
chromosome Cell wall
– Semifluid substance called cytosol – Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane
Capsule
– Chromosomes (carry genes)
0.5 µm
– Ribosomes (make proteins) (a) A typical Flagella (b) A thin section
rod-shaped through the
bacterium bacterium Bacillus
coagulans (TEM)

7 8 9
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Nuclear Rough
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) envelope endoplasmic
Nuclear Smooth
Eukaryotic cells Flagellum
Rough Smooth
ER ER
envelope
NUCLEUS
NUCLEUS Nucleolus
Chromatin
reticulum
endoplasmic
reticulum
Nucleolus
Chromatin
– DNA in a nucleus, bounded by a membranous Centrosome Ribosomes
Plasma
nuclear envelope membrane Central vacuole
Golgi
– Membrane-bound organelles CYTOSKELETON: apparatus Microfilaments
Microfilaments Intermediate
– Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma filaments
CYTOSKELETON
Intermediate filaments
membrane and nucleus Microtubules
Microtubules

Ribosomes
Mitochondrion
Microvilli Peroxisome
Plasma membrane Chloroplast
Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome Cell wall Plasmodesmata

Mitochondrion Lysosome Wall of adjacent cell

10 11 12
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Animal Cell Plant Cell

Nucleus Nucleus
Nucleolus
Ribosomes: Protein Factories
Chromatin
Nucleus − contains most of the DNA in a
eukaryotic cell Ribosomes − particles made of ribosomal RNA
Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
and protein
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore Pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules
from the nucleus Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two
Rough ER locations
Pore
complex – In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
Nuclear lamina, composed of protein,
Ribosome – On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or
maintains shape of nucleus
the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

Close-up
Nucleolus is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
of nuclear Chromatin synthesis
envelope 14 15 16
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Endomembrane system − regulates protein The Endoplasmic Reticulum:

0.25 µm
traffic and performs metabolic functions in the Biosynthetic Factory
cell
Free ribosomes in cytosol The ER membrane is continuous with the
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Components: nuclear envelope
Ribosomes bound to ER – Nuclear envelope
Large – Endoplasmic reticulum
subunit
Two distinct regions of ER
– Golgi apparatus
– Smooth ER
Small – Lysosomes
subunit
– Vacuoles – Rough ER
TEM showing ER and
ribosomes Diagram of a ribosome – Plasma membrane
These components are either continuous or
17
connected via transfer by vesicles 18 19
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6.11a

Smooth ER Functions of Smooth ER Functions of Rough ER

Rough ER Nuclear – Synthesizes lipids – has bound ribosomes, which secrete
envelope
– Metabolizes carbohydrates glycoproteins
– Detoxifies drugs and poisons
– Stores calcium ions
– distributes transport vesicles,
proteins surrounded by membranes

ER lumen
Cisternae Transitional ER – membrane factory for the cell
Ribosomes
Transport vesicle

20 21 22
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Nucleus

Receiving Center cis face

(“receiving” side of 0.1 µm
Golgi apparatus)
consists of flattened membranous sacs called Cisternae Rough ER
cisternae Smooth ER

cis Golgi

Functions
– Modifies products of the ER
– Manufactures certain macromolecules trans face
(“shipping” side of
– Sorts and packages materials into transport Golgi apparatus)
TEM of Golgi apparatus

vesicles Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi

23 24 25
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Relationships among organelles of the endomembrane system

Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

1 µm Vesicle containing
Nucleus two damaged 1 µm
organelles
Membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that Some types of cell can engulf another cell by
can digest macromolecules phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole
Mitochondrion
fragment

Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and Lysosome Peroxisome
fragment

fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids digests the molecules Digestive

enzymes
Lysosome

Lysosome
Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the Plasma membrane
Digestion
Peroxisome

cell’s own organelles and macromolecules, a Food vacuole Mitochondrion Digestion

Vesicle
process called autophagy
(a) Phagocytosis (b) Autophagy

26 27 28
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance
Compartments Central vacuole
Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or Cytosol
several vacuoles, derived from endoplasmic Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater
reticulum and Golgi apparatus protists, pump excess water out of cells
Central
Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant Nucleus vacuole
cells, hold organic compounds and water Cell wall
Chloroplast
5 µm
29 30 31
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion

Intermembrane space
in nearly all eukaryotic cells Outer
membrane
have outer membrane and an inner membrane
folded into cristae
DNA
inner membrane creates two compartments:
intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix Inner
Free membrane
some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are ribosomes
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts likely evolved from engulfed prokaryotes in the Cristae
that once lived as independent organisms.
catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix mitochondrial
Matrix
• At some point, a eukaryotic cell engulfed an aerobic prokaryote, which cristae present a large surface area for enzymes matrix 0.1 µm
then formed an endosymbiotic relationship with the host eukaryote,
gradually developing into a mitochondrion.
that synthesize ATP (a) Diagram and TEM of mitochondrion

• Eukaryotic cells containing mitochondria then engulfed photosynthetic

prokaryotes, which evolved to become specialized chloroplast organelles.
36 37 38
© 2010 Nature Education All rights reserved © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy Chloroplast structure Cytoskeleton

– Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to
Chloroplasts contain the green pigment form a granum a network of fibers extending throughout the
chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other – Stroma, the internal fluid cytoplasm
molecules that function in photosynthesis
Ribosomes
Stroma
organizes the cell’s structures and activities,
Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other Inner and outer anchoring many organelles
green organs of plants and in algae membranes
Granum

composed of three types of molecular structures

– Microtubules
DNA – Microfilaments
Thylakoid Intermembrane space
(a) Diagram and TEM of chloroplast
1 µm – Intermediate filaments
39 40 43
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Vesicle
Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support and ATP
Receptor for
Extracellular components and
Motility motor protein
connections between cells help
helps to support the cell and maintain its shape Motor protein Microtubule
coordinate cellular activities
(ATP powered) of cytoskeleton
(a) Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that
interacts with motor proteins to produce motility are external to the plasma membrane
Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 µm

vesicles can travel along “monorails” provided by These extracellular structures include
the cytoskeleton
– Cell walls of plants
– The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
may help regulate biochemical activities
– Intercellular junctions

44 (b) 45 50
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cell Walls of Plants Secondary The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of

cell wall
Primary
Animal Cells
extracellular structure that distinguishes plant
cell wall
cells from animal cells Middle Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an
lamella elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)
protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and
prevents excessive uptake of water
1 µm made up of glycoproteins such as collagen,
Central vacuole
made of cellulose fibers embedded in other Cytosol proteoglycans, and fibronectin
polysaccharides and protein
Plasma membrane

Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have Plant cell walls ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the
cell walls plasma membrane called integrins

51 Plasmodesmata 52 53
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Collagen EXTRACELLULAR FLUID The Cell: A Living Unit Greater Than

the Sum of Its Parts
Proteoglycan
complex
Functions of the ECM
Fibronectin – Support Cells rely on the integration of structures and
– Adhesion organelles in order to function
Integrins – Movement
– Regulation For example, a macrophage’s ability to destroy
bacteria involves the whole cell, coordinating
Plasma
membrane
components such as the cytoskeleton,
lysosomes, and plasma membrane
CYTOPLASM
Micro-
filaments

54 55 60
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 5 µm
61