Sunday, 5 August 2018

PHYSIOLOGY

Reference: Guyton and Hall 13th Edition

Topic: Introduction to Physiology

A. Fluid Compartments
Extracellular (ECF)

- one third in the spaces outside the cells

- constant motion throughout the body

- internal environment of the body, or the milieu intérieur

- contains Sodium, Chloride and Bicarbonate ions

* Extracellular fluid transport

* 2 ways of ECF transport

* 1. movement of blood through the body in the blood vessels

* 2. movement of fluid between the blood capillaries and the intercellular

spaces between the tissue cells.
Intracellular (ICF)
- two thirds in the spaces inside the cells

- contains potassium, magnesium, and phosphate ions

ECF constituents:

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Examples of electrolyte imbalances and effects;

Potassium (decreases) - paralysis (inability of the nerves to carry signals)

Potassium (increases) - heart muscle severely depressed

B. Homeostasis
- maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment.

- Disease is a state of disrupted homeostasis.

* Note: Even in the state of disease, Homeostatic process continues to

compensate
* These compensatory mechanisms may lead to major deviations of the body’s
normal functions - makes it difficult to determine primary cause of disease and
compensatory response.

C. Control Systems
- controls or regulates functioning of cells and organs

Examples of control mechanism

1. Oxygen- Carbon dioxide regulation

Oxygen Regulation (Oxygen buffering function)

* Key factor : Hemoglobin-Hgb (high affinity for Oxygen)

* Tissue (High concentration of Oxygen) - Hgb does not release oxygen into
the tissue

* Tissue (Low concentration of Oxygen) - Hgb releases oxygen to re-establish

adequate amount of Oxygen

Carbon dioxide Regulation

* Increased CO2 blood concentration - excites respiratory center - increases

respiration (deep, rapid breathing) - removes excess CO2

2. Arterial Blood pressure

Baroreceptor system

* Baroreceptors - nerve receptors in bifurcation region of the carotid arteries in

the neck and arch of the aorta in the thorax (stimulated when arterial walls
are stretched)

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* Increase arterial pressure -
baroreceptors sends nerve impulses to
medulla - inhibits vasomotor center -
decreases impulse transmission from
the vasomotor center to the sympathetic
nervous system - decrease heart rate
and dilation of peripheral blood vessels -
Decrease arterial pressure

* Decrease in arterial pressure - relaxes

baroreceptors - activates vasomotor
center - vasocontriction and increased
heart rate - increases arterial pressure

Characteristics of Control system

* Negative Feedback

- resulting response is negative to the initiating stimulus

- degree of effectiveness with which a control system maintains

constant conditions is determined by the gain of the negative
feedback
* Positive Feedback

- leads to instability rather than stability and, in some cases, can

cause death

- initiating stimulus causes more of the same, which is positive

feedback

- Examples of useful positive feedback mechanism

1. Blood clotting *sometimes causes formation of

unwanted clots
2. Childbirth (uterine contractions)

3. Generation of nerve signals