A. Satellite Spot Beams and Map ‘Transformations A.1 Map Projections and Satellite Views. Projections and perspective views are needed to map points on the earth's is advantageous to use spherical projection For this purpose Fig. A.1 defines Cartesian satellite-contered and earth-centered nota- defined being centered in respond to the true view angles he base vector €,» coincide with346 A. Satellite Spot Beams and Map Transformations: (2)-(#8&:): ()-(=G ositioned over the point of and the equator. Otherwise the earth coordinate system has to be rotated first. Rotation of the Earth Coordinate System. ‘The following transformation ma- mvert a Cartesian coordinate system (,y,2) into a rotated one such that a point now at zero longitude and latitude. ‘The north-south and east-west directions remain invariant. The total trans- = BG) is split into two sub-transformations B and C, with A = CB. First rotation around the z-axis by angle —A is cos sind 0 B=[ —sind cosd 0 (Aa) Cope elu nang Then, the rotation around the (new) yaxis by y can be performed through ( cosy 0 =) Se (eee ie vee | = (aay sing 0 cos ‘The reciprocal transformation (0°,0°) -> (A, ie) can be obtained th transposed matrix A’ Transformation of Earth Coordinates formation assumes the satellite is at ze its Cartesian coordinates are (r,0,0). system must be rotated try for the transformatior satellite coordinate system e-,¢9,, through two steps: 1. P is translated into the satellite-centered Cartesian coordinates ex, ey, aod e by v-+-(3). as) 0 2. Using Eq. (A-1) the coordinates are now converted into satellite view angles, A.1 Map Projections and Satellite Views 347 Fig. A.2. Transformation of Cartesian coordinates in a perspective satellite view ‘Transformation of Satellite View Angles into Barth Coordinates. This trans- formation is used for example to determine the spot beam projection of a ‘antenna pattern on earth. Usually, such pattems are gi lite is at zero longitude and transformation: 1. The view angles ¥,o of a point P’ can be transformed into Cartesian nates PY = (a'r, ps 2p), €€ Bq. (AL). Bp aay + ( ‘ ) (A) ° centered coordinates are changed into geocentric coordinates. te the projection of P’ onto the earth's surface, P can be determined through the intersection of the line P’S =-(s)ee( - ) an : 2 with the earth's surface 2? 4 y? +2? = R2. The resulting quadratic equation for the parameter i is solved with Be where faa 6 (em =r +0 +2 Qe per — 2r? PR, ‘The projected point P can be obtained from th {A7) In order to resolve the ambiguity of the value of ki, must be used to obtain the earth intersection on the wide closer to the satelite eeantenna gains to compensate for the free space propagati and (ii) a better frequency reuse (Chap. 6). The technology of spot beams is discussed in Chap. 8. Footprints and spot beams are usually defined by a given value of the signal power on earth that must be exceeded. ‘The signal power decreases according to the antem lobe center of the spot a function of the true view angles and ¢ determines the spot beam's (usually a gain decrease of 3 dB is taken to define the border). For con the antenna profiles must be arranged in such a way that the w foorprint border Fig. A.8. Cell arrangement using tier struc- ‘tues ‘Theoretically, hexagonal cel be used to achieve coverage without, overlapping. However, circular cells must. usually be taken for t reasons. The circular cells circumscribe the hexagons, ilar footprints can be ‘The coordinates of combinations of i n=l) -n-2) A.2 Generation of Satellite Spot Beams — 349 Pig. A.4. Spot beams with equal beamwidth (left) and equal spot area (right) ‘To transform these regular cell patterns into true view angles 9, fa satellite antenna, two concepts can be adopt patterns with equal beamwidth the cell arrangement in Fig, A.3 is interprete as the true view angles of the spot beams in the spherical, satellite-centered coordinate system. Bach spot beam has a constant tiers of the pattern. For patterns with equal spot size the cell arrangem Fig, A.3 is interpreted in radio cells in spherical earth-centered coordin ‘The earth central angles 1 of the cells are constant whereas the beamwic 4, are becoming smaller in the outer tiers. Fig. A.5. Calculation of coll centers Patterns with Equal Beamwidth. The cell centers in Fig. A.3 ate uniquely identified by their indices i,j. Figure A.5 defines the equivalent Cartesian coordinates 1,y = Pd + jd, y= Sida (An0) with angular distances