STORAGE, HANDLING AND BOIL-OFF OF LNG ON SHIPS

Victor A. Bolbot
School of Naval Architecture
& Marine Engineering
National Technical University of Athens

ABSTRACT
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas in a liquid state at a low temperature (ab.-162oC). In this
state the LNG can be easily transported on LNG-carriers. LNG can also be used as a fuel so that
ship conforms to new regulations on sulfur emissions.
LNG can be stored in different types of tanks allowed by International Maritime Organization (IMO)
code, The International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied
Gases in Bulk code (IGC). IMO type B spherical tanks and membrane tanks are usually used for
cargo transferring, although other types of tanks are also available on the market. For ships using
LNG as a fuel, the most prominent solution is IMO type C tank.
Due to its properties LNG requires special handling on every stage of LNG carrying. The tanks
must be carefully supervised during dry-docking, prepared before loading, controlled for boil-off
during loaded passage and ballast passage. Before the dry-docking the tanks must undergo the
reverse procedure of after docking. All this is necessary to ensure the high quality of cargo.
Especially the boil-off is a problem to the most of LNG carriers. The boil-off is the vapour created in
tanks due to thermal losses of thermal insulation. In IMO type C tanks the pressure is allowed to
increase with no losses of cargo. In other type of tanks the pressure remains constant and the boil-
off can be either used as a fuel or re-liquefied and returned to tanks. The consumption of LNG on
ship can be adjusted according to ship's operator's demand from minimum boil-off to 100% LNG
propulsion. The re-liquefaction can be implemented by condensing compressed LNG vapours with
seawater or by cooling the LNG tanks. DNV mentions two re-liquefaction systems based on Joule-
Thomson effect and nitrogen refrigerant cycle. The re-liquefaction is beneficial because it allows to
deliver whole the cargo instead of burning a part of it.
The properties of LNG hide potential dangers for the crew, ship and the environment and thus
requires special handling. Due to its cold temperature the LNG can cause cryogenic burns and
brittle fracture to ship's structure. It also can cause asphyxiation in big concentrations. LNG consist
at about 90% from methane, which is a greenhouse-effect gas. If spilled on water it explodes due it
rapid expansion and in concentration between 5% and 15% it is inflammable. This means that safe
handling of LNG requires measures such as good ventilation, double hull construction, minimizing
the potential leakages and leakage detection systems. Till now however, these measures have
been proved sufficient enough to avoid big accidents on LNG carriers.

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CONTENTS
page
1. Introduction
1.1 Properties of LNG 3
1.2 Importance of LNG for ship industry 3
1.3 Aims and objectives 4

2. LNG storage tanks on ships

2.1 General 4
2.2 LNG tanks according to IMO IGC 4
2.3 LNG tanks currently on market
2.3.1 IMO type Membrane tanks 5
2.3.2 IMO type A tanks 5
2.3.3 Spherical IMO type B LNG tanks 6
2.3.4 Prismatic IMO type B LNG tanks 7
2.3.5 IMO type C LNG tanks 7

3. LNG cycle
3.1 Cargo handling on LNG carrier during different stages
3.1.1Loading preparations and loading of LNG carrier 8
3.1.2 Loaded Passage 8
3.1.3 Unloading 8
3.1.4 Ballast Passage 8
3.1.5 Preparation for docking 8
3.2 LNG handling on LNG propelled ship 9

4. Boil-off
4.1 General 9
4.2 Handling of boil-off
4.2.1 The aims 10
4.2.2 Using boil-off as a fuel 10
4.2.3 Re-liquefaction of boil-off 11

5. Safety of LNG handling

5.1 Dangers from use of LNG
5.1.1 Cryogenic damage 12
5.1.2 Asphyxiation 12
5.1.3 Greenhouse effect 12
5.1.4 Rapid Phase Transition 12
5.1.5 Explosions and Fire 13
5.2 Safety measures for LNG handling 13
5.3 Safety level of LNG handling 13

6. Conclusions 14

7. Appendix 1: References 15

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Properties of LNG
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is natural gas cooled to a temperature about of -160 oC at atmospheric
pressure, so that to come to liquid state. At this condition LNG need only 1/600 of volume
compared to natural gas at a stove burner tip [1]. The density of LNG is smaller than of the water,
actually LNG weighs about 45% as much[1]. LNG is odorless, colorless, non-corrosive, and non-
toxic[1]. When vaporized it burns only in concentrations of 5% to 15% when mixed with air[1]. Neither
LNG, nor its vapor, can explode in an unconfined open environment[1].
LNG consists mainly of methane, typically, at least 90%, but it also contains ethane, propane and
heavier hydrocarbons[1]. Through the liquefaction process oxygen, carbon dioxide,sulfur
components are removed, so the LNG is “purer” than natural gas from pipeline[1]. It can be also
caused to come to 100% methane condition[1].
1.2 Importance of LNG for ship industry
LNG is transported on sea on special vessels called LNG-carriers. First LNG-cargo was delivered
in 1959 to UK port[2]. Since then the market has underwent incredible growth. In 2013 237 million
tons(MT) of LNG were traded, 104 LNG receiving terminals were operating in 29 importing
countries with 721(MT)/year capacity and 86 liquefaction trains were in operation in 17 exporting
countries with 286(MT)/year capacity[3].
The demand for LNG will continue to grow, not so for economical reasons, but predominately for
political reasons. Europe is willing to diversify its energy supply, and LNG is an option. A number of
re gasification projects is currently running in Eastern Europe in order to cover short-time energy
demand. This means that there will be an additional gain for shipowners in times of political crisis.[4]
In the last years LNG is strongly considered as a possible marine fuel due to new legislation on
sulfur emissions on ships. Anex VI of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) International
Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) came in to force in 2005. It was
mandatory to restrain sulfur emissions to 4,5% worldwide. From 2012 the restriction was lowered
to 3,5%. The next step is to restrict sulfur emissions to 0,5% in 2020, with probable extension to
2025. In so called Sulfur Emission Control Areas (SECA) sulfur emissions must be lower than 1,5%
from 2000, 1% from 2010 and from the 2015 it is expected to lower the emissions to 0,1%. SECAs
includes areas important for shipping such as Baltic Sea and North Sea. From 2011 SECA
became North America (US and Canada) and in 2013 US Carribean. SECAs can also be
expanded to such areas as Meditterean, Mid East ports, Far East ports.
Table 1 MARPOL Annex VI timeline for adoption of sulfur content in marine fuels[5]
Date of entering Limit of sulfur content in fuel (%m/m)
into force
SOx in SECA SOx worldwide

2000 1.5% 4.5%

2010 1.0%

2012 3.5%

2015 0.1%

2020* 0.5%

* Possible extension to 2025

3
These new requirements with the invention of Dual-Fuel engine working both on Heavy Fuel Oil
(HFO) and LNG made LNG interesting option for marine vessels propulsion. LNG has almost no
sulfur emissions, has less carbone dioxide (CO2) emissions, which can improve EEDI, and is
expected to be less costly than marine gas oil (MGO) and competitive with HFO despite its small
availability on world market [6].
1.3 Aims and objectives
LNG is important for ship and naval industry from both aspects: as a cargo and as fuel. The aim of
this report is to discuss the main problems related to its use on ships. The specific objectives are:
• To define LNG storage tanks, to refer the most used and their benefits.
• To discuss specific matters of LNG handling.
• To refer to the problem of boil-off and its handling.
• To discuss the safety matters of LNG handling.

2. LNG STORAGE TANKS ON SHIPS

2.1 General
LNG tanks or LNG storage tanks is a specialized type of storage tanks used to store LNG. In order
to keep natural gas liquid, the temperature in these tanks is very low, about at -162 oC. For this
reason a thick layer of insulation with two barriers exists on every LNG tank. However this does not
impede the thermal current to exist, so the LNG is heated and part of it evaporates. The usual term
for these vapors is boil-off. There are two basic different concepts on handling of boil-off. The first
is to allow vapors to leave the tanks so that they or consumed anywhere on ship or are re-liquefied
and returned in storage tanks. In this case the pressure remains constant in tank. The second is to
keep vapors of gas in tank and to allow the pressure to grow. So if the volume remains constant
the pressure increases in the storage vessel, if the pressure remains constant the LNG boils and
boil-off is released.
Table 2 The two basic concepts for storage of LNG
Constant volume --> Pressure increase

Constant pressure --> Reduce in volume & boil-off

2.2 LNG tanks according to IMO IGC

LNG tanks for ships are divided into the following categories according to IMO's The International
Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (IGC code) :
• Integral tanks, those that in fact are hull part and accept the same loads that the ships hull
does. This leads to restriction the pressure in these tanks normally not to exceed 0.25bar
and under special circumstances 0.7bar overpressure. They are not self-supported.
• Independent tanks. These tanks are self-supporting and they don't take part in ships
strength
• Internal insulation tanks. These tanks are non-self-supporting and consist of thermal
insulation materials. Also these tanks are supported by the structure of the adjacent inner
hull or of independent tank. As a result the inner surface of insulation is exposed to the
cargo.
There are subcategories in each category mentioned above. The integral tanks split in to the
following:
1. Membrane tanks, which consist of a thin layer (membrane) supported through insulation by
the adjacent hull structure. The membrane is designed so no stress is created due to

4
 thermal and other expansion or contraction.
2. Semi-membrane tanks in contrast with the former are in loaded condition and consist of a
layer, only parts of which are supported through insulation by the adjacent hull structure.
Only the rounded parts connecting the stressed parts are designed to sustain all kinds of
expansion or contraction.
The categories of the independent tanks are referred as following:
1. Type A independent tanks are tanks which are designed primarily using recognised
standards of classical ship structural analysis procedures. If this tank is constructed with
plane surfaces, the design pressure should not exceed 0,7bar.
2. Type B independent tanks are designed using model tests, refined analytical tools and
analysis methods to determine stress levels, fatigue life and crack propagation
characteristics. This kind of tanks has the same restrictions with the type A tanks.
3. Type C tanks or pressure vessels are tanks meeting pressure vessel criteria and having a
design vapour pressure greater than a pressure that depends on design primary
membrane stress, allowable dynamic membrane stress, characteristic tank dimension and
relative density of cargo.
The last category of LNG tanks is divided into the following subcategories.
1. In type 1 tanks the insulation or insulation with surrounding metal, nonmetallic or composite
material that contributes to the strength of the tank compose the primary barrier, while the
hull functions as the secondary.
2. In type 2 tanks there is not clearly distinguishable the difference between the primary and
secondary barrier, because the tank functions itself as primary ans secondary barrier.
2.3 LNG tanks currently on market
Today there are four main containment systems in use for new build LNG carriers. Two of the
designs are of the self-supporting type, while the other two are of the membrane type and the
patents are owned by Gaz Transport & Technigaz (GTT).[1] Recently IMO type C tanks have been
also installed on several ships.[2] In 2015 it is expected to see one of the first LNG bunker tanker
with IMO type A tanks.[3]
2.3.1 IMO type Membrane tanks
These are prismatic tanks with a membrane exposed to LNG. As a primary barrier a flexible
(1.2mm) stainless steel membrane is used. The next layer from LNG towards ships hull is
insulating panel. The thickness of this panel can adjust to provide wide range of boil-off rates. It
usually consists of plywood and reinforced polyurethane foam. As a secondary barrier a composite
laminar material is used. This consist of a thin sheet of aluminium between two layers of glass
cloth and resin. It is followed by another layer of insulation (usually polyurethane foam) that in turns
is supported by ships hull.[1] One of membrane used in world market now is TGZ Mark III, which
has the common membrane structure.[1] Another is GT9 which uses as a secondary barrier Invar
material and plywood boxes filled with perlite and continuously flushed with nitrogen gas as
insulation. [1] The CS1 membrane uses the best properties of TGZ Mark III and GT9 and has Invar
as primary barrier and a composite material as a secondary barrier. The primary and secondary
insulation consist of polyurethane foam panels. But at this moment only three vessels with thede
tanks have been constructed in a shipyard.[1] An example of Membrane tank is shown on fig.2.1
2.3.2 IMO type A tanks
IMO Type A tanks are a form of non-pressurized, prismatic tanks. This kind of tanks is supported
by stainless steel supports, and the needed strength is given by stainless steel shell. The thermal
current is eliminated by a unique, high thermal efficiency system of insulation panels. The tank has
a shape of a purpose built chamber, but in the case of ships or barges, the actual hull of the ship
can be used. This allows to have high efficiency volume, about 30% greater compared to
cylindrical IMO type C tanks. This crucial in order for LNG to compete with HFO. The wall of the

5
tanks consist of primarily barrier and secondary barrier with additional use of air as insulation and
with insulation panels able to sustain all the load from the tanks. [3]

Figure 1 Membrane tank [A]

2.3.3 Spherical IMO type B LNG tanks
This design is owned by the Norwegian company Moss Maritime and it is a spherical tank as
shown on fig.2.2. It is what the most people equate with the appearance of an LNG carrier. Most
Moss type vessels have 4 or 5 tanks.[1] The insulation in these tanks is provided by thick layer of
foam insulation around the tank. The tanks are checked for any leakages by nitrogen atmosphere
in special thin layer called “tinfoil”. This layer also allow the insulation to remain dry.
These tanks are susceptible to contraction and expansion during cool down and warm up, so that
can reach even 2 foots(0,6098m)[1] . For these reason all piping come into the tanks through the
top part and are connected to the ships lines via flexible bellows. The skit is also constructed to
endure changes in tank diameters, as well as it has enough to transfer successfully tanks weight to
ships hull. The pressure in this tanks usually don't exceed 55kPa (0.55bar) [1] but in emergency
cases it can reach the 1 bar pressure.

Figure 2 Spherical tank[B]

6
2.3.4 Prismatic IMO type B LNG tanks
That's a product developed by Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries. At the moment only two
vessels currently running have this kind of tanks. [1] These tanks give the opportunity to exploit
better the shape of tanks, because it hasn't problems with sloshing.
2.3.5 IMO type C LNG tanks
This type of tanks has only recently hit the market. They usually have cylindrical shape, with design
pressure between 2,7 bar and 4 bar. The tanks are constructed with use of high quality materials
suitable for cryogenic applications such as 9%Ni-steel, stainless steel 304L, Aluminimum. These
materials keep their qualities in low temperatures. The size of these tanks is limited to 30,000m 3
and above with bilobe cargo tanks by classification societies, so its profitable to use them as fuel
storage or on small LNG carriers. In whole however cargo tanks capacity of a barge can reach
75,000m3.[2],[4] A typical bilobe IMO type C tank is shown on fig. 2.3
Wartsila also gives significant attention to IMO type C tanks. They are considered advantageous,
because they are both suitable for cargo and fuel, it is possible to fill them not to full (partial filling),
and they demand little or no maintenance through its lifetime. This solution is also recognized as
cost efficient, easy to install, and most suitable for Dual Fuel Propulsion. The size of tanks offered
by Wartsila ranges from 75m3 to 2500m3. [5] IMO type C tanks are more flexible in handling of boil-
off as it gives an opportunity to build up pressure, while the other tanks require the boil-off to be
used as a fuel or to re-liquefy it. Also it is possible to transfer other cargo in these tanks than LNG,
they are quick to load or discharge. There is also a wide range of volume capacity of these tanks.
However using IMO type C tanks for storage of fuel has disadvantages too. The tanks have
cylindrical shape that utilizes worse the ship's hull and need more isolation space for safety
reasons. This combined with the fact that the LNG has lower density, translates in 3-4 more
volume required for fuel storage.[6] That means that significant part of transported cargo is lost.

Figure 3 IMO type C tank[C]

7
3. LNG CYCLE
3.1 Cargo handling on LNG carrier during different stages
(This passage was mainly based on [1])
3.1.1 Loading preparations and loading of LNG carrier
After docking LNG tanks must be prepared before loading. First of all, all the water is removed
from the tanks by means of dry air till the temperature of the tank is lowered to -20 oC. That is called
drying. Afterward tanks are purged with cold inert gas at -45 oC temperature. Inert gas is gas that
prevents combustion and this is necessary for gassing-up. This is operation during which inert gas
is extracted and methane vapour come into tank. Each of these stages lasts for about 20 hours for
a 140000m3 vessel. The last stage in preparation is cooling down, when liquid natural gas is
sprinkled on the walls and storage tanks are cooled till -130 oC. This stage lasts for 10 hours. With
the completion of this stage LNG carrier is ready for loading. The loading is performed in a closed
“cycle”. This means that LNG enters the tanks and its vapour are returned to the terminal stage
storage tanks for re-liquefaction.
3.1.2 Loaded Passage
This is a state of running with load to the re-gasification station. During this period the ship has to
handle the boil-off. Although mentioned here, the subject is discussed further in special chapter of
report.
3.1.3 Unloading
Unloading is performed with use of two immersed electrical pumps. The usual rate of unloading is
11000m3/h-12000m3/h, but it always depends on the terminal stage. The circle is “closed” as in
loading condition: the natural gas vapour are returned to the tank from the terminal stage. There is
always a small amount of LNG left in tank, called heel. This is necessary to keep the tanks cool
during ballast passage.
3.1.4 Ballast Passage
Ballast Passage is more demanding than a full load voyage. Ship's crew must coordinate its
motions to keep the tank's temperature so that the tanks are suitable for loading in the export port.
The cooling is performed by sprinkling LNG on the walls of storage tanks. Due to the heel needed
for this procedure, the draft doesn't differ in full load and ballast condition a lot. For instance it can
be 12m for full draft and 11m for ballast draft.
3.1.5 Preparation for docking
The process follows the reverse order to loading preparations. Firstly the cargo is put out during
heel out process. But because there is always a small amount of cargo left in, the tanks are
warmed, and the gas is sucked from the tanks. Afterward the tanks are purged with inert gas and
on the last stage the air in the tanks is replaced with dry air.
3.1.6 Special handling of LNG
The receiving terminals have very high demands on the LNG quality that they receive. Several
ships were rejected to anchor and deliver their cargo due to low purity of LNG. In other case in
Japan ship due to bad operation, main engine of a ship was turned on and ship broke out from the
berth. Although loading arms weren't connected it was considered sufficient to reject the cargo.
This lead ships operator's to deliver the cargo through special ship to ship transfer. This is a costly
solution because it requires special equipment, perfect weather and great care. [2]
For these reasons the majority of LNG shipowners and receivers have a concern over foreign
bodies entering LNG tanks. It is not rare that new-builded ships and ships after dry-docking during
delivering their first cargo have their valve blocked with a welding rod. This is normally avoided by
installing fit filters to ship's liquid manifold connections to stop such materials from entering
offshore system. In same way act small particulates. Through time they can cause the valve to
block. This particulates may come from inert gas driers or from soot or cargo deposits during gas

8
freeing and gassing up operations. This dust can pass to the gas tanks and cause the cargo to be
rejected.[2]
Also in order to reduce the pressure there must be a system causing additional evaporation to the
boilers. The venting results in reduce of pressure and decrease of temperature. This is ineffective
when the ship has already reached its destination, because gas burning stops and the vapour
simply are returned to tanks increasing its pressure.[2]
3.2 LNG handling on LNG propelled ship
The regulations in SECAs require that the sulfur emissions are less than 0.1% from 2015. Its also
expected that from 2020 the SO2 emissions must be less than 0.5% worldwide. The shipowners
can comply with these regulations by using Marine Diesel Oil (MDO), by using Low Sulfur Heavy
Fuel Oil (LSHFO), by installing a scrubber or by using LNG as a fuel. Among the possible
solutions, the most economical is the last, with its total cost competing even with HFO.[3]
The current solutions running on market are offered to a small group of consumers. Ro-Ro,
passenger ships and containerships belong to this category. A number of ships has its own LNG
tanks and refill them at berth from floating storage tanks, from trucks or from LNG feeder vessels. [4]
However there exist a bunkering cycle slightly different with HFO bunker cycle. At the moment
Wartsilla in cooperation with Hamworthy offer a removable and transformable LNG IMO type C
tank with size of container. The tanks are filled at LNG station and are transported to the end user.
When the tank is empty it is transported again to the filling station and the cycle is repeated again.
This cycle is also used by Marine Service Gmbh.
These tanks have a cylindrical shape that with necessary equipment are stored in a container. The
container has pressure build-up evaporator that conserves in tanks pressure of 5 bar, so that fuel
can be supplied without any pump. Before entering the ships piping system the vapour are heated
in an main gas heater (MGE) also called evaporator skid to reduce the use of cryogenic materials.
These units are more safe, because when one container is broken, the other will continue to
operate. In order to have better ventilation and to easy reinstall them the containers are installed
on ships deck. [5]
4.BOIL-OFF
4.1 General
LNG is carried in tanks that have a thick layer of insulation outside. But nothing is perfect, and a
small thermal current exist between cargo and environment. This causes to LNG to boil as shown
in fig.4. These vapour are also called as boil-off.
The boil-off can be measured in units of vapor per units of time. It can be measured in kg/h, kg/day
or the measure can be relative % vaporized of all mass per unit of time.
According to WGI, on a typical voyage approximately 0.1–0.25% of the cargo converts to gas each
day, depending on the efficiency of the insulation and the roughness of the voyage. [1] For a cargo
capacity of 228,000 m3, a maximum specific gravity for LNG of 470 kg/m 3 and a boil-off rate of
0.14%, results to a boil-off flow of 6250 kg/h. In reality, the boil-off rate will be somewhat less,
perhaps in the region of about 5500 to 5800 kg/h depending on the LNG cargo composition.[2] In a
typical 20-day voyage, anywhere from 2–6% of the total volume of LNG originally loaded may be
lost.[1]
The boil-off is more problem for IMO type B tanks and membrane tanks rather than IMO type C
tanks. The pressure must be kept under specific values and normally it is less than atmospheric
pressure. In port where the ship is connected to terminal vapor return port system that is not
problem. Also it causes no problem in sea when the ship consumes the boil-off for its propulsion.
But of course there exist periods of time, when pressure containment is necessary, and these
periods need special attention. [3]

9
 Figure 4 Heat transfer causing boil-off [D]
4.2 Handling of boil-off
4.2.1 The aims
Boil-off can cause problem to the discharge of cargo on LNG vessels. The receiving terminals
require the pressure and the temperature to be low, otherwise the cargo can be rejected. It is
reported a ship that was lead to sell out its cargo because tanks pressure was above the required
pressure. [3]
All the procedure relevant to handling of boil-off is also referred as “cargo conditioning”. The cargo
conditioning has the aim to:
1. Eliminate all undue losses of cargo during transfer.
2. Keep cargo tanks pressure within design limits.
3. Conserve the temperature under desired level [4]
There are two basic, but different assessment to cargo conditioning. Boil-off can be used as a fuel
or boil-off can pass through re-liquefaction units and return to the tanks.
4.2.2 Using boil-off as a fuel
Normally an LNG tanker is powered by steam turbines with boilers. These boilers are dual fuel and
can run on either methane or oil or a combination of both. [1] Some of the new LNG carriers use
now more efficient Dual-fuel engines.[1]
If used as a fuel, boil-off can be also affected by ships operators depending on the length of
voyage and price of HFO vs LNG based on techno-economic criteria. There are 3 basic modes
available.[1]
1. Minimum Boil-off-maximum oil: The goal is to carry as much LNG as possible. The pressure
in tanks remains high, temperature rises, while the ship is pushed forward by use of HFO.
This mode can cause severe problems with storage and off-loading.
2. Maximum Boil-off-minimum oil: The goal is to keep the temperature low in tanks, which
many ports prefer. All the gas that evaporates is consumed in engine, keeping the pressure
in tanks low. However a significant amount of HFO is used in this case
3. 100%gas: The goal is to have propulsion only from natural gas. In this case the pressure is
kept low in tanks as in the former mode, but because the boil-off is not enough, a special
pump supply LNG to another tank where LNG is warmed and evaporates. No HFO is used.
The boil-off is accurately measured by sophisticated system called “custody transfer system”.This
system consist of a radar that measures tanks level (also called ullage) based on the fact that the
tanks are accurately calibrated by classification societies. The system automatically corrects the

10
measurement for trim, expansion and contraction of the tanks and gives the volume of tanks. By
having the temperature, pressure and volume, the real quantity of mass then is computated. [3]
4.2.3 Re-liquefaction of boil-off
DNV mentions two examples of re-liquefaction systems.[5] They both apply Joule-Thomson effect.
Joule-Thomson effect describes the temperature change of a gas or liquid when it is forced to
come through a valve or porous plug, while kept insulated so that no heat is exchanged with the
environment. Ideal gases such as hydrogen, helion and neon keep their temperature when
expanded, while all the other cool. This is owed to the fact that when gas is expanded the distance
between atoms in a molecule increases, so the kinetic energy is transformed into intermolecular
energy, that keeps the two or more atoms united. The loss of kinetic energy transforms into the
loss of temperature. That's why monatomic gases keep their temperature, while the other cool. [6]
Moss Maritime/ Hamworthy (in Fig.6) uses system with nitrogen refrigerant cycle in which the
nitrogen is cooled through Joule-Thomson effect. The nitrogen first is pressured to 57 bar in three
stages and expanded to 14 pressure through a rotary expander. This causes nitrogen to drop to
-163oC or even lower to -170oC or -180oC. After each stage of compression nitrogen is cooled to
ambient temperature by sea water. The vented LNG before entering cold box is compressed to 4.5
bar pressure. The product is lead to receiver were LNG is collected, while non-condensable like
nitrogen gases are either returned to vapour main either burnt in gas combustion unit. The venting
gases can not be rejected to the atmosphere because they contain 20-30% methane. [5] The system
has very good efficiency; after optimization the consumption of energy can reach 0.75 kWh/kg.[2]

Figure. 5 Re-liquefaction system (Moss Haritime / Hamworthy) [E]

The re-liquefaction system (Air Products) flow sheet process uses also a nitrogen refrigerant cycle.
The difference here is that not only nitrogen but also boil-off is cooled through Joule-Thomson
effect. For this reason the boil-off is initially pressurized to 40 bar and afterwards before the cold
box expanded to 20 bar. [5]
The most LNG carriers usually burn boil-off instead of re-liquefying. It is stated however that re-
liquefying is superior because more cargo is delivered, it requires less heel and makes the
propulsion system simpler. In the past this system also had the advantage of using 2-X diesel
running on HFO for propulsion with greater efficiency, which was more economical. [7] Nowadays
the economical benefits from installation of such system have dropped due to use of dual fuel
engines.

11
5. SAFETY OF LNG HANDLING
5.1 Dangers from use of LNG
Due to its special characteristics handling of LNG can be dangerous for the crew, ship and the
environment.
5.1.1 Cryogenic damage
First of all due to its low temperature the LNG can be dangerous for ship's crew. It can cause frost
bites (cryogenic burns). A possible spill on the deck causes brittle fracture to common ship steel. [1]
5.1.2 Asphyxiation
LNG can be harmful, because it can be inhaled by crew in case of leakage. That happens in cases
only of big concentration. LNG consist mainly of methane, which is natural product of decay
process, such as decay of garbage and compost. So small concentration is not a problem, it is
actually a product of normal human body processes. If there is a major or ongoing leak, and the
area where its happening is enclosed, the concentration is going up. In this case breathing in such
area can have some adverse, but temporary, medical effects. Individual can feel dizzy, a sensation
together with headaches and feel of tiredness. The medical effects come not from inhale of natural
gas but more from the lack of oxygen in area. Actually it symptoms of inhaling natural gas are the
same with inhaling air with little oxygen.[2]
5.1.3 Greenhouse effect
The methane is known as a strong greenhouse gas. It contributes 25 times and more to the global
warming compared to carbon dioxide (CO 2) in 100 year period. [3] And methane has at least 34
times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions. [1] Fortunately the natural gas has effects
only for a short time (a net lifetime of 8.4 years in the atmosphere). [3] According to studies methane
concentration has increased 150% since 1750 and it accounts for 20% of the total radiative forcing
from all greenhouse gases excluded water.[3] Any leakage of natural gas subsequently causes
damage to the environment.
5.1.4 Rapid Phase Transition
Rapid Phase Transition (RPT) occurs when the liquid natural gas comes in touch with water (fig.7)
This results in very quick evaporation of gas and creates an overpressure similar to an explosion.
The natural gas in this state usually has very high concentration, so it can be inflamed only when
the concentration decreases to 15%. From this aspect the phenomenon is predominately a
physical or mechanical expansion with high pressure energy. [4] The combustion can exist only on
the edges of vapor cloud where the concentration drops to 5%-15%. [3]

Figure. 6 Possible outcome of LNG spill over water[F]

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5.1.5 Explosions and Fire
Last, but not least natural gas leakage can be dangerous due to its inflammability. It comes earlier
than problems with breathing because 5-15% concentration is already flammable or explosive
mixture, while greater concentration is needed to cause health problems. [3] Less than 5%
concentration causes no problem, because there is not enough gas to burn, while with more than
15% there is too little oxygen for burn. [3] The instances with fire and explosions can be divided into
the following categories: pool fire, vapour cloud fire and explosions. [4] The pool fire happens when
the vapors burn immediately after the release. The needed requirement is the concentration to be
in the flammable range near the leakage. Vapour cloud fire happens away from the source of
leakage, but ignited cloud fire can return to initial source of release. Despite the fact that LNG is
non-explosive it can happen in a confined area. In such a case, vapour cloud fire creates an
overpressure and destructive explosion occurs.[4]
5.2 Safety measures for LNG handling
All the dangers coming from the use of LNG shows that a special precaution measures must be
taken to avoid unwanted results.
At a design level in order to avoid cryogenic damage the exposure of pipes and couplings must be
reduced and an effort must be done to eliminate risk for damage or injury in case of small leakage.
[5]
Also the length of bunkering lines must be reduced to minimize air emissions. [5] Gas detection
system must be installed in areas with possible leakages such as re-liquefaction plant,
instrumentation and control. The system must be in working condition during burning operations.
Such system are flame screens fitted in the supply line. Pressure levels in tanks must be
constantly monitored. All the supply lines must be purged with inert gas before and during burning
operations. Ventilation must be installed and be in operation in re-liquefaction plant space,
machinery space and near untrunked gas piping. The all systems of safety must be constantly
checked and maintained, and the crucial systems twice. All piping must be checked for any
leakages. Handling of safety systems requires special education for the crew. All the incidents,
even trivial must be reported to responsible officers.[5]
5.3 Safety level of LNG handling
The most severe accident that may realistically occur on a loaded LNG tanker is the breach of one
or more storage tanks, with consequent discharge of liquefied natural gas outboard.[6]
Fortunately, no accidents leading to loss of cargo have occurred over the history of maritime
liquefied natural gas transportation. [6][7][4] Even when a submarine emerged directly under LNG
carrier, no leakage occurred, although the bottom was damaged. [7] According to more conservative
review, LNG carriers are less incident-prone than oil-carriers, and the incidents happened with
LNG carriers are rarely related to cargo. [4] That's incredible difference with LNG shore facilities
where a great number of accidents has occurred even with hundreds of dead. This fact is owed to
special design of LNG: double hull of LNG tanks and separation between LNG tank and inner tank.
This means that a possible penetration has to overcome at least three barriers before the LNG is
released.[6] Also LNG carriers are high-tech ships, using special materials and designs to handle
safely the very cold LNG.[7] Ships plans are carefully examined before final approval, and these
ships are inspected during construction and are periodically inspected after completion.[7]

13
CONCLUSIONS
• LNG plays an important role as a cargo and as a fuel for ships industry.
• LNG is competitive with HFO as a fuel, despite storage problems.
• For transferring LNG as a cargo IMO type B (Moss Maritime spherical tanks) and membrane
tanks (Gaz Transport and Technigaz) mainly are used. New developments use IMO type A
tanks and IMO type C tanks. For LNG propulsion on ship other than LNG carriers, IMO type C
tank are preferable.
• Cargo handling is sophisticated and requires great attention during different stages.
• Boil-off translates into significant loss of cargo delivered. This can be solved by re-liquefaction
and spending energy for this process.
• LNG can be dangerous for crew, ship and the environment, if not properly handled. For this
reason safety measures are very strict. These measures have proved adequate enough and no
accident occurred with total loss of cargo till now.

14
APPENDIX 1 - REFERENCES
1. Introduction
1. CH IV International, ”LNG Information”, http://www.ch-iv.com/lng_information.html
2. Wikipedia, “LNG carrier”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LNG_carrier
3. Global LNG Info (GLNGI), “World LNG Trade”,April 2014 www.globallnginfo.com
4. Natural Gas Europe,“LNG No Challenge to Piped Gas in Europe”, March 2013,
http://www.naturalgaseurope.com/lng-no-challenge-to-piped-gas-in-europe

5. K.Spirou, “Ship Design and Equipment II, Elements of detailed study and ship design part
II”, Printed by Thomaeidio, February 2011.
6. Man Diesel & Turbo, “Costs and benefits of LNG as Ship Fuel for Container Vessels”, 2011.
http://www.mandieselturbo.com/files/news/filesof17541/5510-00122-0ppr_low.pdf
2. LNG storage tanks on ships
1. Wikipedia, “LNG carrier”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LNG_carrier
2. TGE-Marine, “Small Scale LNG”, http://www.tge-marine.com/37-0-Small-Scale-LNG.html
3. Torgy, “Keeping it all together”
4. Dr. Klaus Gerdsmeyer, “New technological developments in LNG and CO2 logistics”.
5. Yves Bui,LNGPACTM, “A complete solution for LNG fueled ships”, November 2013.
6. Pablo Semolinos et al, “LNG as marine fuel: challenges to be overcome”, Total Gas &
Power, April 2013
3. LNG cycle on different ships
1. Alan Sacchi, “Operations on the LNG Carrier”,Hvartsko domorsko dobro,
http://www.pomorskodobro.com/en/operations-on-the-lng-carrier.html
2. Carefully to carry, “Liquefied natural gas”, UK P&I CLUB
3. Man Diesel & Turbo, “Costs and benefits of LNG as Ship Fuel for Container Vessels”, 2011.
http://www.mandieselturbo.com/files/news/filesof17541/5510-00122-0ppr_low.pdf
4. TGE, Marine Gas Engineering, “Supply, storage and handling of LNG as ship's fuel”, Apr
2013.
5. Jonatan Byggmastar, Soren Karlson, “Increasing flexibility in LNG fuel handling – the
LNGPacTM ISO”

15
 4. Boil-off
1. Wikipedia, “LNG carrier”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LNG_carrier
2. Dr. K-D.Gerdsmeyer & W.H.Isalski, ”On-board re-liquefaction for LNG ships”, printed by
Gastech, 2005

3. Carefully to carry, “Liquefied natural gas”, UK P&I CLUB

4. Liquefied Gas Carrier, “Cargo conditioning, re-liquefaction and boil-off control requirement
for a liquefied gas carrier”,http://www.liquefiedgascarrier.com/cargo-conditioning.html
5. DNV, “LNG boil-off re-liquefaction plants and gas combustion units”, May 2006.

6. Wikipedia, “Joule–Thomson effect”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule-Thomson_effect

7. Hamworthy, “LNG Systems for Marine Application”, printed by Hamworthy.

5. Safety of lng handling

1. Magnus Wikander, “Fkad Marine Design”, presentation.
2. Debra Durkee, “The Effects of Breathing Natural Gas”,
http://www.ehow.com/info_8333047_effects-breathing-natural-gas.html
3. Wikipedia, “Methane”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane
4. Björn Forsman, “A feasibility study of an LNG filling station infrastructure and test of
recommendation.” 2011.
5. Liquefied Gas Carrier, “Cargo conditioning, re-liquefaction and boil-off control requirement
for a liquefied gas carrier”, http://www.liquefiedgascarrier.com/cargo-conditioning.html
6. Liquefied Gas Carrier, “Liquefied natural gases (LNG) -marine transport & accidents in LNG
tankers”, http://www.liquefiedgascarrier.com/volatile-nature.html
7. Global security, “LNG Tanker Safety”,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/tanker-lng-safety.htm
Figures
A) Liquefied Gas Carrier, “LNG vessel construction -Advantages of membrane technology”,
http://www.liquefiedgascarrier.com/LNG-vessel-construction.html
B) Liquefied Gas Carrier, “LNG vessel construction -Advantages of Moss Rosenberg
technology ”,
http://www.liquefiedgascarrier.com/moss-rosenberg-containment-system.html
C) TGE-Marine, “New Technological Developments in LNG and CO2 logistics”,
http://www.tge-gas.com/sites/cms/tge/WebFiles/03_new%20developments%20logistics.pdf
D) Liquefied Gas Carrier, “Rollover effects onboard a liquefied gas carrier”,
http://www.liquefiedgascarrier.com/rollover.html
E) DNV, “LNG boil-off re-liquefaction plants and gas combustion units”, May 2006.
F) Björn Forsman, “A feasibility study of an LNG filling station infrastructure and test of
recommendation.” 2011.

16