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Of course, not all substances are pure in the sense that every molecule Figure 1: Atomic Model
is identical. Many of the substances met in everyday life are simply
mixtures of elements or compounds.
Not a lot is known about the nature of these charges except that there
are 2 kinds and they are opposite to each other, and when we bring
them together, like charges repel and unlike charges attract. Under
normal conditions the number of electrons and protons in an atom are
equal, it is then said to be electrically neutral
The neutron has the same mass as the proton, so nearly all the weight
of an atom is contained in the nucleus. Electrons have a much smaller
mass and may be easily removed from their orbit around the nucleus.
The electrons orbit the nucleus in layers we call shells, and there is a
limit to the number of electrons which can be accommodated in each
shell. Working outwards from the nucleus, the K shell can have a
maximum of 2 electrons, the L shell can have eight, M shell eighteen
and so on. For example copper has twenty-nine protons and twenty-
nine electrons orbiting. The layers or shells are made up as 2 electrons
in the K shell 8 in the L shell, eighteen in the M shell leaving one to
orbit in the N shell. For the atoms to combine to form elements they
share the electrons in the outer shells, these electrons are called
valence- electrons.
1.1.1.1 Ions
It is possible that atoms could lose or gain electrons from other atoms
and when this happens the atom is said to be positively or negatively
charged. From what we said about the charges on electrons and
protons, if an atom loses an electron then there would be more protons
than electrons. This would result in the atom taking up an overall
positive charge; we then call this atom a positive ion. If the exchange
of electrons resulted in the atom gaining electrons, then it would
become negatively charged (more electrons than protons), this we call
a negative ion.
Electric current temperature. The positive ions are also vibrating about their mean
position in the crystal lattice.
An electric current is a flow of electric charges. The current can flow In spite of all this intense activity within the interior of the metal, there
quite easily through some materials, called conductors, and finds it is no overall movement of electrons, and the piece of metal as a whole
nearly impossible to flow through others, termed insulators. is electrically neutral since the total number of negative charges is
equal to the positive charges.
Let us now think of how current flows through a conductor, most
conductors are metals such as copper, silver and gold (Refer to 1.2.1 External Charge
Figure 2). All metals have less than their full complement of electrons
in the outer shell, and those that are present are loosely bound to their If we now bring an external charge near that metal the electrons will be
parent atom. They can easily be detached from the atom and move forced into a flow either towards the charge or away from it depending
about in the space between atoms. For this reason they are called free on the type of external charge. If the external charge was a battery, we
electrons. know it has 2 terminals, a positive and negative. Therefore the
electrons of our metal would be attracted to the positive terminal and
you have an instantaneous current flow. You would also get a force of
attraction of the positive ions towards the negative terminal but as they
are held in the crystal lattice they cannot move. We will look at these 2
effects a little later.
Figure 6: Insulators
Figure 7: Semiconductors
2.1.3 Gases
Normally most gases do not have free electrons from which conduction
can occur, therefore they are considered as a good insulator, or
Figure 8: Static Electricity dielectric, however if a high enough potential difference is applied
across the gas this will cause the electrons within the gas to break free
In theory we look at electrical charge as being point charges, this is and become mobile, and so conduction to their opposite polarity
because of Coulomb’s Law, which states that: charge will occur. A good example of this is a lightning strike, where
there is a huge potential difference between the cloud and earth the
The force between 2 point charges of a body is found to vary PD is so high that the electrons in the gas are freed up to produce a
inversely as the square of the distance between them, and directly charge.
with the magnitude of charge.
Q(Coulomb)
I (Current) inAmperes( A)
t (time)
If the bodies were free to move they would be attracted to one another Conventional theory, also known as hole theory, states that current
so clearly there is potential mechanical energy between them. There flows from positive to negative. Protons or the lack of electrons (the
is also electrical potential energy between them since we know that if holes) move towards the negative. (Current flow direction in hole
a conductor joins them, electrons will flow from the negative body to theory is the opposite of that in Electron Theory.)
the positive body until the bodies are equally charged.
3 Electrical terminology
Voltage
Having studied electricity at the atomic level we have met a number of
words, which need to be defined and explained before we move on. Is the expression generally used to indicate the value or quantity of the
PD or EMF.
The laws governing the behavior of the different units are dealt with in
the relevant section rather than including them in these definitions. Current
Potential Difference Is the flow, through a conductor of either charge or electrons. Its unit is
the Ampere (Amp), which is defined as the result of 1 coulomb of
Is the difference between charge values, which exists at the atomic charge (6.28 x 1018 electrons) passing a point in a circuit in 1 second.
level in materials with free electrons.
The symbol for charge in coulombs is Q, and the symbol for current in
The unit of potential difference (PD) is the Volt, which is defined as: amps is I.
‘The difference of potential across a 1 ohm resistor carrying a
current of 1 ampere.’ The current may flow in one direction (DC) or it may continuously
reverse direction (AC), depending on the method of generating the
Electro-Motive Force EMF, which drives it.
Note: It should be noted that both EMF and PD are measured in the
same units, they are, in fact, both differences in charge potential.
However, it is important to realize that an EMF is the force to do work,
i.e. cause current to flow, whereas PD is the volts drop as a result of
the current flow. Another way to look at it is that the EMF is off- load,
the PD is on-load.
Conductance
Resistance A material with low resistance has high conductance, and a material
with high resistance has low conductance.
Is the measure of a materials ability to oppose current flow when an
EMF is applied to it. Practically, conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, that is,
Length - in meters (ℓ) Its unit is the Siemens, and the symbol is G.
Cross section area - in millimeters2 (A).
mm2 Charge
Specific resistance of the material - in (ρ).
m Is the difference between atoms whose outer shells have gained or lost
It is calculated by the formula an electron. An atom missing an electron is said to be positively
charged (positive ion), and an atom with an extra electron is said to be
R negatively charged (negative ion).
A
(specific resistance x length) / area ‘Charging’ a battery is a process in which chemical changes take
place due to the displacement of electrons.
Its unit is the Ohm and the symbol used is Ω (Omega) when describing
a quantity of resistance and R (as in the formula above) when 3.8.1 Conventional Current
describing resistance.
Before the electron was discovered, scientists studying electricity could
only observe positive and negative charges and consider them
Specific Resistance mathematically. Mathematical logic indicates that current must flow
from Positive to Negative, and this was the convention used.
The specific resistance is the resistance of a material which is defined
as the resistance of 1 meter of the material with a cross-section of 1
mm² at a temperature of 20°C.
mm2
The unit is and the formula symbol is ρ (roh).
m
We shall look at these methods briefly. This thermoelectric effect is called the “Seebeck” effect after the man
who discovered it, and the junction is called a ‘thermocouple’. Either
Chemical Action (Cell) the net EMF in the circuit or the resulting current may be used to
This is by use of 2 different metals placed in a liquid called an measure temperature.
electrolyte. We call this a cell and by grouping these cells we produce
a battery. Magnetism and Motion (The Generator)
– See Chapter 10
Friction (Static Electricity)
When a comb is passed through hair it acquires an electrical charge.
If a piece of tissue paper is then held close to the comb it is attracted
towards it. These effects are due to static electricity (electrostatics).
Aircraft in flight build up large amounts of static electricity and acquire
a charge potential much greater than that of the atmosphere. This
charging of the aircraft is undesirable but unavoidable, although the
effects can be minimized.
Batteries
There are 2 basic types of batteries these are categorized as:
1 Primary cells.
2 Secondary cells.
There are 2 types of secondary cells used in the formation of Lead acid batteries consist of cells with an electrolyte made of
secondary cells these are: sulphuric acid and water mixed to a specific gravity of 1.270 for a fully
charged battery, only distilled water is used in this mix, as the impurities
1 Lead acid. found in normal tap water will reduce the life and charge of the cells.
2 NiCd Alkaline.
As the cells are discharged and charged, the level of electrolyte will
Because these cells are classed as secondary this means that they decrease and so periodically the battery cells will require a “top up” of
have the ability to be recharged. One obvious difference between distilled water, if this action is required it is to be noted that the acid is
these cells to primary cells is that unlike the primary cell where the zinc always added to the water, as the reverse procedure is extremely
was used as the case and the –Ve electrode, secondary cells use dangerous, because the water will react violently with the acid and
different materials for the case and it has no acting part on the output literally explode when added.
of the cell.
A fully charged cell will have a voltage in excess of 2.5 volts after its
5.1.3 Lead Acid Batteries charge this will drop to 2.2 volts after an hour standing, during
discharge the cell voltage will drop to 2 volts and will remain at this
5.1.3.1 Construction level for the majority of the cell charge life after this time, which is
dependent on the load connected to the cell, the voltage of the cell will
These batteries use an impact and acid resistant case for each drop to 1.8volts and is considered to be discharged. Because the
individual cell, which is made from polystyrene compounds. Each cell voltage remains at a constant 2 volts for the vast majority of the time,
case is molded so that they provide outlets for the terminal posts so this is considered to be the cells nominal voltage value.
that each cell can be connected with ease to the adjoining cell, the
case also houses a vent valve, which whilst the battery is being
charged allows gases to escape but does not allow the electrolyte to
leak out, the method of connecting the cells varies dependent on the
required use of the battery, and will be discussed later.
5.1.3.3 Capacity
1.3
Charge /Discharge
2.7 1.25
2.6
2.5
1.2
2.4
Specific Gravity
2.3 Charge
1.15
Discharge
2.2
Voltage
2.1
1.1
2
1.9
1.05
1.8
1.7
1
1.6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Time (hours)
1.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Time (hours) Figure 15: Charge / discharge gravity versus time
Charge Discharge
Figure 14: Charge / discharge voltage versus time It can be seen from this graph that the specific gravity of the electrolyte
produces an almost linear decrease/ increase in value for most of the
It can be seen that during the discharge the voltage of each individual time during discharge/recharge, because of this the specific gravity of
cell remains constant for a considerable time at approximately 2volts, the electrolyte is a very good indication of the charge held by the cell.
however this is only true if the load connected has a small current draw, An instrument called a Hydrometer can measure the amount of specific
If a larger current is drawn from the cell the discharge will become more gravity.
linear as the voltage drops more rapidly. What can also be determined
from the graph is that the voltage value cannot be used to determine
the amount of charge in the battery, consider this graph.
Due to the cells being allowed to gas during charge the recharge time
is considerably shorter than the semi sealed type however this has the
5.1.4 Alkaline Batteries disadvantage that the electrolyte requires “topping up” more often, the
frequency of this topping up will be determined by the aircraft manual.
There are several types of alkaline batteries, so to differentiate the The cells are fitted with the same type of vent as the lead acid battery
types, the metal used in the manufacture of the plates usually gives in that they allow the electrolyte gasses to escape but not the liquid.
them their name, for example the most common in use on aircraft is
the Nickel/Cadmium battery as it is these 2 metals that are used for the Negative
Battery State of Positive Plate Electro
plates. However in all alkaline batteries the electrolyte solution used is Plate(Anod
Type Charge (Cathode) lyte
Potassium Hydroxide which has a specific gravity of 1.24 to 1.30, e)
dependent on the size and material used for the metal plates this will NI2O2 and NI3 KOH –
Nickel Cd -
determine the value of EMF of the cell, with some cells being as low Charged and O3 – nickel Potassium
cadmium Cadmium
as 1.2 volts. oxides Hydroxide
Cd(OH)2 – KOH –
5.1.4.1 Semi Sealed Ni(OH)2 – Nickel
Discharged Cadmium Potassium
Hydroxide
Hydroxide Hydroxide
The cells in these batteries are arranged in steel containers and fitted
with safety valves, this is due to the fact that the cells can be charged
at a high rate, and so can be easily overcharged, this overcharge will
make the electrolyte “bubble” gas and create a large amount of heat,
which can if not dealt with cause the battery to go into a state of thermal
meltdown. Under normal conditions these batteries require very little
maintenance and only a periodic capacity check.
These type of batteries are constructed similar to the semi sealed type,
but when on charge they are deliberately allowed to “gas”, this gassing
is allowed to vent to atmosphere, this aids the temperature control of
the cells and indeed is used to monitor the battery charge by switching
the battery charger on or off dependent on the temperature reached by
the cell.
The chemical reaction of alkaline batteries works on the same principle 5.1.5.1 Series
as the lead acid battery:
In order to obtain a high voltage from any cell type it is necessary to
However as can be seen, the difference is that the electrolyte does not connect the cells in series. In this arrangement the voltage from each
change its specific gravity or chemical structure during cell is added for example 5 x 2 volt cells connected in series will give
charge/discharge, it is used purely as a medium in which the electrons an open circuit terminal voltage (EMF) of 10 volts. The disadvantage
can flow through between the plates. As the charge of the battery of a series arrangement will be that the internal resistance of each cell
cannot be determined from the electrolyte specific gravity as in the lead is also added, this results in a high EMF voltage but low current output,
acid type, the temperature of the cell has to be monitored to determine therefore an increase in current drawn from the cell will result in a drop
the charge state, for this reason, switching on or off the charge supply in the output voltage due to the high internal resistance.
to maintain the correct ampere/hour rating.
In this arrangement all the cells will be required to be of the same
ampere/ hour rating, as this type of connection will take the lowest
5.1.5 Connection of Cells ampere/hour rated cell as its output.
If cells are connected in parallel this will have the effect of the individual From the 2 methods of connection above, it would make sense to
cell voltage being the EMF voltage, due to the large surface area of the connect all cells in a battery in a series/parallel configuration, this
all the cathode plates being connected together, and also all the anode would provide the battery with a high voltage and also a high current
plates being connected together, the internal resistance is greatly capacity with an overall lower internal resistance, in this arrangement
reduced. In this arrangement the current from each cell is added the power obtained from the battery would be at its maximum.
together, therefore the current capacity from a parallel connected
group of cells is greatly improved, and as the EMF voltage is the same
as the cell voltage it is considerable more stable when a load is
connected to it also.
Faster response time constant (typically 15 seconds), but lacks 5.3.1 Solar Cell Structure
mechanical and chemical protection, and electrical isolation from
material being measured. The porous insulating mineral oxides must
be sealed
Fastest response time constant, typically 2 seconds but with fine gauge
of junction wire the time constant can be 10-100 ms. In addition to
problems of the exposed bead type, the protruding and light
construction makes the thermocouple more prone to physical damage.
Figure 26: Solar Cell Structure
a Encapsulate
b Contact Grid
c The Antireflective Coating (AR Coating)
d N-Type Silicon
e P-Type Silicon
Once the photon passes the AR coating, it will either hit the silicon An interesting interaction occurs at the pn-junction of a darkened
surface or the contact grid metallization. The metallization, being photovoltaic cell. Extra valance electrons in the n-type layer move into
opaque, lowers the number of photons reaching the silicon surface. the p-type layer filling the holes in the p-type layer forming what is
The contact grid must be large enough to collect electrons, yet cover called a depletion zone. The depletion zone does not contain any
as little of the solar cell’s surface as possible, allowing more photons mobile positive or negative charges. Moreover, this zone keeps other
to penetrate. charges from the p and n-type layers from moving across it.
The region in the solar cell where the n-type and p-type silicon layers
meet is called the pn-junction. When photons hit the solar cell, freed electrons (-) attempt to unite with
As you may have already guessed, the p-type silicon layer contains holes on the p-type layer. The pn-junction, a one-way road, only allows
more positive charges, called holes, and the n-type silicon layer the electrons to move in one direction. If we provide an external
contains more negative charges, or electrons. When p-type and n-type conductive path, electrons will flow through this path to their original
materials are placed in contact with each other, current will flow readily (p-type) side to unite with holes.
in one direction (forward biased) but not in the other (reverse biased).
The electron flow provides the current (I), and the cell’s electric field
causes a voltage (V). With both current and voltage, we have power
(P), which is just the product of the 2. Therefore, when an external load
(such as an electric bulb) is connected between the front and back
contacts, electricity flows in the cell, working for us along the way.
6 DC circuits V
I
Ohm´s Law R
6.1.1 What is Ohm´s Law?
And
A simple relationship exists between voltage, current, and resistance V
in electrical circuits. Understanding this relationship is important for R
fast, accurate electrical problem diagnosis and repair. I
The relationship between: If you have difficulty in remembering them in the correct positions you
may find it easier to use the triangle method. By arranging the symbols
Resistance (measured in ohms and symbol Ω omega). within the triangle as shown in the diagram the method of determining
Current (measured in Amps and symbol I). the value of an unknown quantity is shown when its symbol is covered.
Voltage (measured in Volts and symbol V).
Is known as Ohms law after George ohm the physicist who derived the
formula, the law allows the volt to be defined as:
This is called Ohm’s Law. This law is used extensively in electrical and As long as the V is at the top, i.e. next to the apex, it does not matter
electronic circuit analysis and we shall be using it continuously, so you where the other 2 symbols are placed.
must learn it thoroughly. The other 2 forms of it are:
It must be remembered that when the symbols are given values in the 6.1.2 Voltage
solution of a problem, the values must be in the basic units i.e. V for
volts, I for amperes and R for ohms. Consider the following circuit in Voltage is the electrical force that moves electrons through a
which a current of 10 amperes flows in a resistance of 5 ohms and we conductor. Voltage is electrical pressure also known as EMF (Electro
wish to find the potential difference (V) developed across it. Motive Force) that pushes electrons.
V I R(Volts)
i.e. V 10 A 5 50Volts
A Voltmeter measures the voltage potential across or parallel to the Voltage is measured in a unit called volt.
circuit. The Voltmeter measures the amount of electrical pressure Voltage measurements can use different value prefixes such as
difference between 2 points being measured. Voltage can exist millivolt, volt, Kilovolt, and Megavolt.
between 2 points without electron flow.
Less than Larger than
Voltage Basic Unit
Base Unit Base Unit
Symbol mV V kV
Pronounced millivolt Volt Kilovolt
Multiplier 0.001 1 1,000
Resistance is measured in units called Ohms. Current is the quantity or flow rate of electrons moving past a point
Symbol Ω. within one second. Current flow is also known as amperage, or amps
for short. Higher voltage will produce higher current flow, and lower
Resistance measurements can use different value prefixes, such as voltage will produce lower current flow.
Kilo ohm and Mega ohms.
6.1.4.5 Amperage Unit’s When calculating values of current, voltage and resistance, it is quite
often that the values calculated will be very small or indeed very large,
Current flow is measured in units called Amperes or Amps. therefore multiples of a unit are used to express this, below is a table
Amperage measurements can use different value prefixes, such as of some of the common multiples used and their terms:
microamp, milliamp, and Amp.
6.1.4.7 Multiples and Sub- Multiples
Less than Less than
Amperage Basic Unit
Base Unit Base Unit
Multiple Prefix Symbol
Symbol µA mA A
1,000 = 103 kilo k
Pronounced Microamp milliamp Amp 1,000,000 = 106 mega M
Multiplier 0.000001 0.001 1 1,000,000,000 = 109 giga G
1,000,000,000,000 = 1012 tera T
6.1.4.6 Effects of Current Flow 0,001 = 10-3 milli m
0.000,001 = 10-6 micro
Two common effects of current flow are Heat Generation and 0.000,000,001 = 10-9 nano n
Electromagnetism. 0.000,000,000,001 = 10-12 pico P
Heat: When current flows, heat will be generated. The higher the
current flow the greater the heat generated. An example would be a Examples of Multiples and Sub- Multiples
light bulb. If enough current flows across the filament, it will glow white
hot and illuminate to produce light. 1mA means 1 milliampere which is 0.001 of an ampere, therefore if a
problem is one in which the current is 35mA, when this is put in the
Electromagnetism: When current flows, a small magnetic field is Ohms Law equation it must be written as 35 x 10-3.
created. The higher the current flow, the stronger the magnetic field. A voltage of 5kV would be written as 5 x 103.
An example: Electromagnetism principles are used in alternators,
ignition systems, and other electronic devices. A given power supply may well provide currents for many different
devices having various resistances and they may be connected in
series or parallel or a combination of both. What we are very much
concerned with is how much current is being taken from the supply. In
order to determine the total current being used we must know the total
resistance (RT) of the circuit, considering the equation I=V/R
.
When we discussed the 2 ways that resistors can be connected The algebraic sum of the currents at a junction will always be Zero.
together i.e. in series or in parallel, we noted that in the latter case the
sum of the individual currents flowing into the parallel network equaled
the total current and in the former case the applied voltage was equal
to the sum of the voltages developed across the resistors in series.
The voltage drops in a Series circuit will always equal the voltage
applied i.e. the sum of the PDs equals the EMF.
In such a circuit the sum of all voltages with respect to their direction 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0
equals zero.
Consists of a mixture of granulated carbon and powdered resin binder A glass core has a resistive film sprayed onto it. The depth of coating
fused together. Altering the percentage of carbon in the mixture varies of the film, usually metal oxide or carbon determines the amount of
the ohmic resistance value. Wire fly leads are attached at each end. resistance.
Ohmic value is usually given by a color code. The watt-rating is The ohmic value is indicated by the color coding around the body of
indicated by the size of the body of the resistor. the resistor. The power rating is indicated by their size.
They are cheap and common in electronics due to their small size. They also are inexpensive and commonly used in electronic circuits.
They cover the range: <10Ω to > 20 MΩ. They have a low power They cover the range: 10Ω to 1MΩ and have a power range of 0.125W
dissipation and so are used in low current circuits. to 1W.
R () .
A
To find the value of R, ℓ must be in meters, A in mm² and ρ found in
tables in physical text books, in ohm/ meters.
Value.
Multiplier.
Tolerance.
Reliability (optional).
The table shows the colours used and their meaning in the
identification system
If the resistance of a coil of insulated copper wire is measured at = R0+R0•α0•t= R0•(1+ α0•t)
various temperatures up to, say, 200° C, it is found to vary as shown
in the diagram, the resistance at 0°C being, for convenience taken as = R0•(1+0,00426•t) for annealed copper.
1 Ω. The resistance increases uniformly with the increase of
temperature until it reaches 1.426 Ω at 100°C; i.e. the increase of
resistance is 0.426 Ω for an increase of 100°C in temperature, or
0.00426 Ω /°C rise of temperature
Calculations of Resistances
7.3.1 Resistance in a Series Circuit
The total Resistance can be calculated with the following formula:
Rt R1 R2 R3
So the total resistance is 10 Ω
It I1 I 2 I 3
Using Ohms law, knowing that the voltage applied is 10 V and that
the total resistance is 10Ω, we can find that the current of the circuit.
V 10V
It 1A
R 10
If a current of 1 amps is flowing through each resistor the voltage
across to each resistor can be calculated separately. Figure 50: Series Connection of Resistors
Voltage across R1 I R 1A 5 5V ,
Voltage across R 2 1A 3 3V ,
and voltage across R3 1A 2 2V .
V 24V
I1 4A,
R1 6
24V
I2 8 A and
3
24V
I3 12 A .
2
V
But, using ohms law on the whole circuit It
.
Rt
The current flow from the applied voltage must equal the SUM of the
currents through each resistor.
Therefore
It I1 I 2 I 3 24 A .
V V V V
Substitution:
Rt R1 R 2 R3
1 1 1 1
Dividing by V:
Rt R1 R 2 R3
Therefore Rt = 1 Ω
Conductance (G)
Figure 51: Parallel connection of Resistors
Sometimes it is more convenient to think in terms of how well a material
conducts current, rather than to think in terms of how well it opposes
current. Because of this, the property called conductance is often used.
Conductance is the opposite, or more properly, the reciprocal of
resistance.
To find the currents and voltages, first find RT (resistance total) in order to calculate the mainline current IT (current total) as VT/RT. In calculating
Rtot, start reducing the branch further from the source and work toward the applied voltage. The reason for following this order is that you cannot
tell how much resistance is in series with R1 and R2 until the parallel branches are reduced to their equivalent resistance.
When the voltages are equal between the 2 legs there will be no
Wheatstone Bridge potential difference felt across the output, in this state the bridge is said
to be balanced.
The series/parallel arrangement of resistors shown in the diagram
below is known as the Wheatstone Bridge. At this point the value of RX can be found from:
8 Electrical Power
It is simpler to use the formula into which the information given readily
fits
Electrical power is the rate at which an electrical system can perform
work. The SI unit of power is the Watt, which is a rate of work of 1 joule
per second: V2 200V 200V
or P 1000W
R 40
1 watt = 1 joule per second = 1 volt * 1 ampere
R
Example
The load voltage is the actual voltage given out by the power supply
after it has dropped a percentage of its EMF voltage across its internal
resistance.
Figure 55 shows the same source connected to a load resistance of 3 Figure 56 shows the effect of inserting a load of 9 ohms. The total
ohms. The total resistance is now 6 ohms and the current 2 amperes. resistance is now 12 ohms and the current 1 ampere. The power
The power developed in the load is now 12 watts. developed in the load is now 9 watts.
The above examples have used the power formula I2 * R, but any of
the other
2 formular, V2/R and I * V could be used.
Example ‘B’ using V2/R would give the same answer by measuring the
Figure 55: Load Resistor equal to internal Resistance volts drop across the load resistance and then dividing the square of
that by the actual load resistance. Try it, it works!
The graph shows these and other results by plotting the power
developed in different values of load resistance. It shows that
maximum power is developed in the load only when the load resistance
is equal in value to the internal resistance of the source and, thus,
illustrates the maximum power transfer theorem.
Electrical energy/ Electrical work When energy is converted into work, some of it may be lost in the form
of heat. The energy and the amount of work done are equivalent; the
Energy is defined as the capability to do work. Energy has different heat losses are neglected.
forms. ’Electrical energy’ is one form, because electricity is capable of
performing work. But it is necessary to use some kind of electrical Electrical energy expressed in watt-seconds (Ws) or watt-hours (Wh)
components to convert electrical energy into some other forms of is found by multiplying the voltage times the current times the time:
energy to accomplish work.
For example, an electric motor is used to exert a vertical force on an Electrical energy = volts ⋅ amperes ⋅ time
elevator through a distance. Other examples of energy are heat and
light. W=V⋅I⋅t
One of the first types of energy was mechanical energy. Mechanical
energy exists in two forms:
potential energy
kinetic energy.
Potential energy is the energy that a body has by virtue of its position.
It took a certain amount of work to get the box on the table. A vertical
force had to be exerted through a distance to accomplish this.
Once the box rests on the table, it is capable of doing work simply
because of its position. In other words, it has potential energy.
If the box is knocked off the table, it will fall and strike the ground with
an impact. It is assumed that there is a nail resting under the box where
it strikes the floor. If the box is heavy enough, it can actually push the
nail into a wooden floor. Since this requires a force through a distance,
the box is capable of doing work.
Although the box resting on the table has potential energy, it will do no
work until this potential energy is converted into some other form of
energy. As the box is moving through space it has energy by virtue of
its motion. This is called ’kinetic energy’. Both kinetic and potential
energy are forms of energy which represent the capability to do work.
Like a battery, a capacitor has 2 terminals. Inside the capacitor, the The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal
terminals connect to 2 metal plates separated by a dielectric. The of the battery accepts electrons that the battery is producing.
dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or anything else that does not The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal
conduct electricity and keeps the plates from touching each other. of the battery loses electrons to the battery.
In an electronic circuit, a capacitor is shown like this:
Once it's charged, the capacitor has the same voltage as the battery
(1.5 volts on the battery means 1.5 volts on the capacitor). For a small
capacitor, the capacity is small. But large capacitors can hold quite a
bit of charge.
1
microfarads 1 picofarad ( pF ) 10 12 F
1000000
Various materials are used as dielectrics and they have their own Paper 2-6 1250
dielectric values. One material used is, waxed paper, when inserted
between the plates instead of air, the capacitance is multiplied by about Plastic film 2-3
3 and this is the dielectric constant for waxed paper.
Tantalum oxide 25
The relative rielectric constant of materials (Ԑr) is always given as a
multiplier of that of Air or Vacuum.
A
C farads
d
Time Constant When the switch is moved to position B this results in a high rate of
change of voltage across the plates of the capacitor (detail a)). At this
A change of voltage applied across the plates of a capacitor causes instant the current is maximum and only limited by the circuit resistance
the capacitor’s charge to change. This takes time, therefore voltage R. All the applied voltage is dropped across R.
changes are delayed in a capacitive circuit. As the charge builds up on the plates the voltage rises and the current
decreases (due to the opposition of the negative plate charge to the
electron flow).
At the time constant value of 1Ʈ = R * C (in seconds) the voltage across
the plates is 63.2 % of the applied voltage. The current has a maximum
of 36.8 %.
Therefore the voltage drop across R is 36.8 % of the applied voltage
(detail b)).
At five time constants 5Ʈ = 5 * R * C the capacitor is fully charged and
the current has reached its approximate final value of 0 amps.
This means, at 5 * R * C :
5Ʈ = 5 * R * C
the rate of change of charge is minimum
the rate of change of voltage is minimum
the current flow is minimum
I R (voltage) drop across the resistor is minimum V the voltage
across the plates is maximum.
Capacitors in Series and Parallel charging process, the displacement of electrons from the positive plate
(+) of C1 to the negative plate (-) of C2 is exactly the same as that from
In the previous topic we saw what is meant by capacitance in electrical positive plate of C2 to the negative plate of C1. There is a movement
terms and how the capacitance of a capacitor is measured. Just as in of Q coulombs of electricity in each part of the circuit and when the
the case of resistors and inductors we now need to be able to calculate current ceases i.e. the capacitors are fully charged, the charge on each
the total capacitance of circuits with capacitors in series, parallel and capacitor is Q coulombs
combinations of series and parallel. If V1 and V2 represent the final voltages across the capacitors C1 and
C2 respectively then, from the general formula Q = CV, we get the
9.4.1 Capacitors in Series following expressions:
Consider the circuit shown in the diagram below in which 2 capacitors Q = C1 * V1 and Q = C2 * V2
C1 and C2 are joined in series.
To find the total capacitance of the circuit we can replace the 2
capacitors by one capacitor having a capacitance of C farads such that
it would have the same charge Q coulombs on it when the voltage
across it is the supply voltage V. This yields the following expression:
Q
V
C
V = V1 + V2
Q Q Q
C C1 C 2
Figure 63: Capacitors in Series Divide each expression on each side of the equation by Q giving:
1 1 1
When the switch is closed the 2 ammeters A1 and A2 both start at a
C C1 C 2
maximum value and then decrease simultaneously to zero. During the
We now consider 2 capacitors having capacitance C1 and C2 farads Q1 = V*C1 and Q2 = V*C2
respectively joined in parallel with a supply voltage V placed across
them as shown below. It should be noticed that the voltage across each capacitor is the same
and this is the supply voltage V.
Since V has a constant value we can cancel it from each side of the
equation giving:
C = C1 + C2
This is the formula from which the total capacitance of any number of
capacitances connected in parallel is obtained.
Figure 64: Capacitors in Parallel
Let us now illustrate how to determine the total capacitance of
capacitors in parallel and the value of the charges of each of the
When the switch is closed in the above circuit and, assuming the capacitors.
capacitances of the capacitors are not equal, the currents in the 2
ammeters A1 and A2 will be initially at maximum but different values.
Using the parallel formula and substituting the given values: Capacitor values are stated in capacitance and maximum working
voltage.
C = C1 + C2 + C3
C = 8µF + 10µF + 2µF = 20µF e.g. 1µF 750 dcw (dc working)
i.e. C = 20µF
Types of Capacitors
10 Magnetism In general, materials that are easily magnetized also readily lose their
magnetism and make Temporary magnets. Conversely, materials,
which are difficult to magnetize, do not lose their magnetism easily and
Introduktion make Permanent magnets.
The phenomenon of magnetism has been known and used for much
10.1.2 Permanent Magnets
longer than any other property in the science of electricity. Magnetism
occurs naturally in some minerals, eg lodestone and has the property
A common form of permanent magnet is a bar magnet. We have
of attracting and picking up small pieces of iron or steel. A further
already seen that any magnet attracts pieces of iron and when it is in
property of these minerals is that if they are freely suspended they will
the shape of a bar the force of attraction is usually greatest in the
come to rest pointing in a north-south direction. This is because the
regions of the ends, which are called Poles and negligible in the middle
earth itself behaves like a huge natural magnet and its magnetism pulls
of its length. We also saw that if the bar is freely suspended it will take
the piece of mineral into line with it. This property forms the basis of
up a fixed position with one end pointing to the north, called the north
the magnetic compass and has been used by mariners for navigation
seeking pole (or more commonly just North Pole) and the other end
over many years.
pointing to the south called the South Pole.
10.1.1 Artificial Magnets Materials, which exhibit magnetic effects, are called Ferromagnetic
materials, eg iron, cobalt, and nickel.
The use of an irregular shaped piece of natural magnetic material is
not very satisfactory in practice. However, some other material such The 2 poles of any single magnet are always of equal strength and are
as iron or steel, made to the shape required, can be made into a complementary and cannot exist in isolation.
magnet. If a piece of iron is placed near to a natural magnet (or any
other magnet) it will exhibit magnetic properties and it is said to be The region around a magnet in which its forces can be detected is
magnetized by induction. A piece of un-magnetized iron can also be called its Magnetic Field and this can conveniently be imagined as
made into a magnet by stroking it with one end of a natural magnet. consisting of Lines of Force or Lines of Magnetic Flux.
We shall also see later that a piece of iron can be magnetized using
an electric current.
The lines of force shown in the diagram are referred to, collectively, as
Magnetic Flux given the symbol (the Greek letter phi) and its unit is the
Weber (Wb).
If a permanent magnet is left for a long period without a keeper, or Where magnetic flux is undesirable (e.g. in the vicinity of a watch) a
means of completing the magnetic path for the flux, its magnetic magnetic screen of iron is used. This has the effect of concentrating
strength will soon decrease. A soft iron keeper for each pair of poles the flux within itself so that it does not penetrate the surrounding air
provides a closed magnetic path for the flux and the result is very little space.
loss of magnetism.
Bar magnets are generally arranged for storage in pairs so that Note: This concentrating effect is called ’permeability’. Soft iron has a
opposite poles face the same direction. The keepers are then placed high permeability and air has a low permeability.
across the poles at each end.
Conclusion
Magnetic flux is invisible and has no physical existence but forms a
convenient basis for explaining magnetic effects.
Each ’line of magnetic flux’ forms a closed loop from north to south
outside the magnet and from south to north inside the magnet.
’Lines of flux’ can never cross. They are infinitely elastic and cannot be
broken.
Nevertheless when looking at a pattern of iron filings around a magnet
lines of flux sometimes seem to end in the free space. The reason for
this is that the lines of flux become weaker the farther they are situated
from the magnetic pole. The process continues until the flux is too weak
to arrange the filings in a pattern.
Figure 75 shows the ’right-hand rule’, whereby the thumb points in the
direction of the current through a conductor and the other fingers point
in the direction of the magnetic field.
Figure 76 shows the ’corkscrew rule’. When the current flows to the
paper the magnetic field is clockwise. When the current direction is
away from the paper the magnetic field is anti-clockwise.
Iron within a coil concentrates the flux and thus increases the strength
of the magnet. The iron core makes the magnetic force stronger, so 10.1.6 Magnetic Characteristics
that heavy loads can be carried.
A comparison between coils with different numbers of turns shows that 10.1.6.1 The Magnetic Circuit
with a higher number of turns a smaller current is sufficient to bear a
load of equal weight. The flux lines or lines of force surrounding a permanent magnet or a
In addition to its high load bearing capacity, the electromagnet has a current-carrying solenoid are all continuous or completely closed. The
further advantage over a permanent magnet: its capacity can be varied magnetic circuit is formed by the closed path of magnetic flux. One of
within wide limits by varying the supply current. the simplest forms of magnetic circuit is shown in Figure 80 where part
of the magnetic circuit is in the iron and part is in the air gap.
𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 × 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐻) =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡) 10.1.6.4 Magnetic flux density
The magnetic flux density has the symbol “B”. The unit of the magnetic
10.1.6.3 Permeability flux density is “weber”.
𝐵 =µ×𝐻
So, the magnetic flux density is the magnetic field strength times the
permeability.
10.1.6.5 Reluctance
𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 × 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝐻=
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
Figure 82: B-H Curve of Air
The formula shows that the number of turns and the length of the
magnetic circuit are fixed values. Only the current is variable. The B-H curve of air is linear (a straight line) because the permeability
of air is 1.
Increasing the magnetic field strength (H) means increase in the flux
density (B) because flux density (B) is proportional to:
the magnetic field strength (H)
The flux density B always lags behind the magnetic field strength H
because of the inertia required to change the magnetism in the
material.
Figure 87: Coercive Force
Hard Magnetic Materials Steel alloys, such as permalloy or stalloy, are suitable for AC use. For
DC applications soft iron is used. Soft iron has a high permeability but
A high magnetic field strength (H) is required to saturate a hard also a relatively high hysteresis loss.
magnetic material and a high value of coercivity is required to remove As most of the core materials used in electronic equipment are
the remanence of the magnet (residual magnetism). Therefore a hard ferromagnetic it is important to compare the various characteristics
magnetic material has a good retentivity making it a good permanent exhibited by the most commonly used materials. The main
magnet. characteristics of ferromagnetic materials can be ascertained by a
study of their hysteresis loops as shown in Figure
Because a high magnetic field strength H is necessary to magnetize a
hard material, the area of the loop is large and, therefore, the energy
(H is proportional to current) to complete a full cycle or loop, is large.
Therefore a hard material has large hysteresis losses proportional to
the hysteresis loop area and frequency of the magnet field strength H.
A typical hard magnetic material is ’Alnico’ used for permanent
magnets. ’Alnico’ alloys consist of aluminium, cobalt, nickel and iron.
10.1.6.11 Applications of Electromagnets When a current (control current) is fed to an electromagnet the lever-
like armature is attracted. Depending on the construction the result is
A typical applications of electromagnets is the relay. either:
the contact closes (normally-open contact) and an external
The Relay circuit is closed (detail a)) or
the contact opens (normally-closed contact) and an external
circuit is interrupted (detail b)).
When the control circuit is interrupted the armature returns to its initial
position through the restoring force of a spring. In circuit diagrams of
electric equipment it is necessary to identify individual relays and their
contacts by a numbering system. They are usually annotated as shown
in Figure 92.
The relay number is RL 2 and the number below the line - 3 - Figure 93: Remote Switching using a Relay
documents the number of contacts associated with this relay.
By means of a relay, a heavy current can be switched on or off by a
By the use of a relay excessive voltage drop is prevented in the cables. weak control current, sometimes over long distances. A distinction can
The electrical equipment can be switched on/off from a remote point be made between relays according to the fields of application:
by the use of a relay. heavy-current relays
When the switch at the remote point is switched on, relay RL 2 light-current relays or according to the duty:
becomes energized and contact RL 2/1 closes thereby connecting the protective relays
equipment to the supply. There is now only a small voltage drop in the indicating relays
connecting cable. power relays
The current flowing through the relay is small. telegraph relays.
When the conductor moves out of the magnetic field the electrons
return to their original position and the PD disappears. The PD also
disappears if the motion of the conductor is stopped in the magnetic
field. Thus the conductor must move with respect to the field before a
PD is developed.
11.1.1 Rate of Change of Flux 11.1.2 Direction of an Induced EMF (Lenz’s Law)
The rate of change of flux and the magnitude of EMF induced in a The induced EMF in a closed circuit sets up a current in the conductor
conductor are determined by: which creates its own magnetic field.
F = B * I * L.
This EMF is called ’back EMF’ (-EMF) because it opposes the applied
voltage and reduces the effective voltage driving the current through
the conductor.
-EMF = B * I * V.
11.1.4.2 Inductance
Figure 104: Magnetic Lines of Flux around a Loop
Inductance is the opposite of the change of current or change of flux.
Moving a bar magnet past a coil induces an EMF in the coil. The When the current is changed in the loop, the strength of magnetic lines
resulting current’s flux interacting with the bar magnet causes a drag of flux are also changed. This change of flux ’cuts’ the loop itself
which is opposite to the change of flux. The conductor thus has inducing a back EMF in the loop which opposes the change of applied
inductance. voltage.
Any circuit which has an EMF induced in it by a change of current When the loop’s applied voltage and current increase, a back EMF in
through that circuit possesses self-inductance (L). the loop is induced which opposes the applied voltage increase.
Likewise, decreasing the loop’s applied voltage and current induces a
back EMF in the loop which opposes the applied voltage decrease.
𝑁2 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ µ
𝐿= (𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦𝑠 (𝐻))
𝐼
When the current has risen to 63.2 % of its final value the current has
reached its ’time constant’ value (Ʈ) as shown in detail b). The time
constant (Ʈ) is given in seconds and is calculated by:
𝐿 (ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦)
Ʈ=
𝑅 (𝑜ℎ𝑚)
𝐿
At five time constants 5Ʈ = 5 ∗ 𝑅 , the current is approximately
The applied voltage after five tau is 0,
zero. All of the energy has been discharged by the resistor.
If the current were not discharged by a resistor the rate of change of
𝐿 (ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦)
5Ʈ = 5 ∗ current would be much greater.
𝑅 (𝑜ℎ𝑚)
𝐿 (ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦)
5Ʈ = 5 ∗
𝑅 (𝑜ℎ𝑚)
back EMF of inductor is minimum
rate of change of current is minimum
current flow is maximum
I * R (voltage) drop across the resistor R is maximum (applied
voltage).
When the switch is moved to position A (Figure 108, detail a)) the
opposite sequence of events will result. At the instant of opening the
switch:
the maximum rate of change of current occurs
the back EMF of the inductor is maximum and tries to keep the
current flowing.
𝐿
At the time constant value of 1Ʈ (Ʈ = 𝑅 ) the current is 36.8 % of
its maximum value.
Therefore the voltage drop across resistor R is 36.8 % of the applied
voltage. The inductor back EMF is also 36.8 %.
Figure 108: Discharging of a Coil
A much higher back EMF, which would be many times the applied
voltage, could release all the stored inductive energy in a destructive
arc across the opening switch contacts or even break down the
insulation. This high back EMF is also dangerous to servicing
personnel.
When the switch is being closed a back EMF not higher than the
applied voltage is induced, but when the switch is being opened a
dangerously high back EMF which is many times higher than the value
of the applied voltage can be induced.
LT = L1 + L2 + L3.
LT = ?
LT = L1 + L2 + L3
LT = 1 H + 0.5 H + 0.3 H
LT = 1.8 H.
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1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐿𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
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Because the commutator rotates with the loop, the brushes bear
on opposite segments of it during each half cycle.
This results in the left hand brush always being in contact with the
segment that is positive, with the change-over taking place at the
instant when the voltage induced in the loop is zero.
The voltage at the brushes, and therefore the current in the external
circuit of a simple example single loop dc generator, falls to zero twice
during each complete revolution. As has already been mentioned, this
variation of dc is called ‘ripple’ and can be reduced by the addition of
more loops as shown. Remember, an operational generator will not
return to zero after switch-on until it is switched ‘off’.
Figure 113: Production of DC by Commutator Action
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There are:
The loops are not just loops of wire but are made up like coils and
so the construction of them can be a big determining factor in the
output obtained.
Figure 114: Multi-Loop DC Generator The voltage induced in a single-turn loop is quite small, and although
an increase in the number of loops does not increase the maximum
As the number of loops is increased, the variation between maximum value of generated voltage, an increase in the number of turns in each
and minimum values of voltage is reduced and the output voltage of loop will. Within narrow limits, the output voltage of a dc generator is
the generator approaches a steady dc value, as can be seen. determined by the product of the number of turns per loop, the total
flux pair of poles in the machine and the speed of rotation of the
armature.
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With this arrangement, the emf induced in each loop will reach its
maximum value when the emf in the preceding loop is already
decreasing, and that in the succeeding loop is still increasing. Thus,
the emf in
The voltage at the brushes equals the sum of the emf induced in
the loops connected in series between the brushes.
The graph shows the resultant voltage between the brushes. Only
three loops need to be considered as the arrangement is
symmetrical and both branches (A, B and C and D, E and F) give
the same voltage at the instant shown. As the number of loops is
increased, the ripple in the brush voltage becomes smaller and the
magnitude of the dc output voltage increases
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The brushes ride on the commutator and carry the generated voltage
to the load. They are usually made of carbon and are held in brush
12.2.1.1 Construction holders in such a way that they can slide up and down against a spring
so as to follow the small irregularities in the surface of the commutator
A dc generator consists of two main assemblies: .
The frame or yoke is the main chassis of the generator and it also
serves to complete the magnetic circuit between the pole pieces. The
pole pieces are laminated to reduce eddy current losses, and the field
coils or windings are mounted on the pole pieces. The end housings
contain the bearings for the armature which rotates at high speed, and
one of these housings also holds the brush gear.
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almost sinusoidal wave form. Salient poles are the most common in
aircraft DC generators.
12.2.2 Field Magnet System
The salient pole piece may be laminated to prevent eddy current
heating, or it may be solid, with a laminated pole ‘shoe’ fitted to the
end.
It will be noted from the diagram that the yoke is an essential part of
the magnetic circuit, and must therefore combine permeability with
structural strength. It is normally of cast or rolled steel.
The heavy iron or steel housing that supports the field poles is called
the field frame. It not only supports the field poles but also forms part
of the magnetic circuit of the field. Small generators usually have two
to four poles while larger generators can have as many as eight main
poles. The pole pieces are rectangular and in most instances are
laminated to prevent Eddy Current losses.
Except for very small machines in which permanent magnets are used,
the magnetic field is produced by electromagnets in such a way that
the armature conductors pass under North and South poles alternately.
The poles may be salient, in which case the armature emf wave form
has a flat top, or may be flush pole, low reluctance which gives an
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Electro-graphitic brushes of normal design, although generally reliable Brushes which form a constant resistance semi-lubricating film on
in performance when used in ground equipment and low-altitude the commutator or slip-rings.
aircraft generators, tend to wear very rapidly at high altitudes. This
wear can be of the order of 12mm per hour and is because of the Brushes which are self-lubricating and do not form a film.
following factors:
12.2.2.3 Film Forming Brushes
At ground level and low altitudes the moisture content of the
atmosphere gives a substantial degree of lubrication between the The make-up of these brushes includes such chemicals as barium
contact surfaces of the brushes and the commutator or slip-rings fluoride which builds up, progressively, a constant-resistance semi-
on which the brushes are bearing. lubricating film on the surfaces of the commutator or slip-rings.
At high altitudes the moisture content of atmospheric air is Brushes of this category do not wear abnormally at altitudes of up
negligible, and with little or no lubrication at the ‘rubbing contacts’ to some 35,000 ft providing that generators to which such brushes
there is considerable friction. Rapid wear of the soft electro- are fitted are previously run at low altitude for some hours to allow
graphitic brushes is, in consequence, inevitable. the formation of the protective film.
Normally the contact resistance between brush-faces and commutator This film, once it has been formed, is very dark in colour and to the
(or slip-ring) surfaces is fairly high because of the existence of a inexperienced eye it may well give the impression of a dirty
resistive film formed on the metallic surfaces by the electrolytic commutator or slip-rings.
decomposition of the moisture content of the atmosphere. At high
altitudes this film is removed by frictional wear, and cannot be made
good because of the dryness of the atmosphere. Hence the contact-
resistance between brush surfaces and metallic surfaces becomes
small. This reduction in contact resistance, in the case of a DC
generator, gives rise to heavy reactive sparking which, in turn,
accelerates brush erosion.
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The other armature winding method is called lap winding and this
method is most useful when high output current is required.
In a six pole machine there are six parallel current paths from the
three positive brushes to the three negative brushes.
Therefore, the output voltage is twice (four pole) and three times
(six pole) that of the equivalent two pole machine. With wave
winding the output voltage may be obtained across one pair of
brushes.
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12.2.3.3 The Commutator In addition to the problems associated with actual collection, two
problems which are associated with the electromagnetic functions in
This is a cylinder mounted at one end of the armature and consists of the generator also exist. Though having similar effects, they are
a large number of copper segments. The segments are wedge-shaped created by different things, may be compensated for by different design
and a large number are assembled side by side to form a ring, each features and should therefore be understood as separate entities.
being insulated from the other by a mica insulating strip. These are:
Each segment forms the junction between two armature coils, the Armature Reaction.
wires being soldered into risers at the ends of the segments.
Reactive Sparking.
12.2.3.4 Operations of and Factor Affecting
Output and Direction of Curent Flow
The commutator and brush gear of a dc machine have two distinct 12.2.3.6 Armature Reaction/Reactive Sparking
functions:
Since an armature is wound with coils of wire, a magnetic field is set
Collection - the transference of current between the moving up in the armature whenever a current flows in the coils. This is called
armature and the fixed external circuit. the armature flux and its field is right angles to the generator field, (also
known as the field flux). This is called cross magnetisation of the
Commutation - the periodic reversal of current during transfer armature. The effect of the armature flux is to distort the field flux and
between the armature and the external circuit to produce dc. shift the magnetic neutral axis as illustrated. This effect is known as
armature reaction and is proportional to the current flowing in the
These two operations are independent, but faulty collection or armature coils.
incorrect commutation produce similar results, ie the formation of a
destructive spark or arc between the trailing edges of the brushes
and the commutator surface.
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The brushes of a generator must be set in the MNA which means that
they must contact segments of the commutator that are connected to
armature coils having no induced emf. If the brushes were contacting
commutator segments outside the MNA, they would short-circuit ‘live’
coils and cause arcing and loss of power (reactive sparking).
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In an ideal machine, the MNA will be equal to the GNA, which means
there would be no distortion of the field flux and so no shifting of the
MNA away from the brushes. This would result in no armature reaction
or reactive sparking. However, the ideal machine has never been
invented and armature reaction is something that has to be accepted
and compensated for, and there are three principle methods with which
it is overcome.
The first method is to shift the position of the brushes so that they
are in the MNA when the generator is producing its normal load
current.
If the load varies to a marked degree, the MNA will shift proportionally,
and the brushes will not be in the correct position at all times. This Figure 121: Generator Circuit with Interpoles
method is most commonly used in smaller generators (those producing
1kW or less) because it is less expensive. Larger generators require The use of interpoles is a very efficient way of maintaining a constant
the use of interpoles. MNA in a generator. The windings of the interpoles are in series with
the load, so the effects of the interpoles are proportional to the load.
The polarities of the interpoles are such that their effect is opposite to
that of the armature field; i.e. the interpoles are of the same polarity as
the next field pole in the direction of rotation. With this polarity, the
interpoles are said to pull the generator field back into the correct
position. A typical interpoles system is shown.
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In many generators, compensating windings are used to overcome the In some machines, interpoles are used to minimize reactive sparking
problem of armature reaction. These are windings placed in slots in the and armature reaction. However, for more efficient reduction of both,
pole faces. interpoles and compensation windings would be used as shown. The
compensating windings are in series with the interpoles and increase
their effectiveness.
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The figures show the magnetic field between the poles of a magnet
The force with which the conductor moves is clearly dependent upon
and the magnetic field round a wire carrying a current. If the wire is
the strengths of the two interacting magnetic field. In turn this force
placed in the magnetic field the overlapping field pattern would seem
relates to the speed at which a motor containing the current carrying
to be as shown in (c). Of course, as we have seen earlier, lines of flux
conductor will turn.
cannot cross and this pattern cannot exist. The resultant field is as
shown in (d). The lines of flux reinforce each other in the space above
the conductor and oppose each other below it. Lines of flux act as if
they are pushing away from each other and also tend to straighten out.
In this way they apply a force to the conductor tending to move it
downwards.
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‘The first finger, the second finger and the thumb of the left hand
are held at right angles to each other’. With the first finger pointing
in the direction of the field (N to S) and the second finger in the direction
of conventional current, the thumb shows the direction of motion of the Figure 125: Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
wire.
Changing the supply connections to the motor will not have any effect;
the current being reversed in direction in both the armature and the
field, the motor continues to run in the same direction.
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The simplest form of motor has a single loop of wire able to rotate freely
between the poles of a permanent magnet. Connection is made from
the dc supply voltage to the loop by brushes bearing on a
commutator, the two segments of which are connected to the loop, as
shown.
The forces acting on the two sides of the loop combine to apply a force,
known as a torque, to turn the loop in an anticlockwise direction.
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By applying Fleming’s Left Hand Rule it can be clearly seen that when:
The loop is in position (A), side ‘P’ of the loop tends to move 12.3.3 Operation and Factors Affecting Motor
downwards and side ‘Q’ upwards. Output Power Torque
As the loop passes through the vertical position (B), the direction
The movement of a conductor in a magnetic field induces in it an emf,
of the current flow must be reversed to keep the loop rotating in the
which we know from Lenz’s Law, will oppose the motion producing it.
same direction, and it is the action of the commutator that does this.
That is to say, the induced voltage will oppose the supply voltage. This
is called back emf.
Because the commutator is two halves of a ring separated by
insulation, the result of the loop rotating is such that as one half of
Back emf will never be as great as the supply input and the difference
the commutator leaves a brush, the other half comes into contact
between them is always such that current can flow in the conductor
with it.
and produce motion. The value of this current is dependent upon the
value of the voltage across the conductor. This voltage, often referred
So now, at (C), when we apply Fleming’s Rule, side ‘Q’ will move
to as the effective voltage is equal to the difference between the
in a downward direction and side ‘P’ upward, keeping the rotation
applied voltage and the back emf.
of the loop in an anticlockwise direction.
Therefore:
At position (D), the loop passes through the vertical and the current
Effective Voltage = Applied Emf – Back Emf
reverses direction again until we get to (E) where the loop is back
to where it was at the start (A) and the process goes on.
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In the series motor shown, the field windings, which consist of relatively
few turns of heavy wire, are connected in series with the armature
winding. The same current flowing through the field winding also flows
. Series Wound, and Shunt Wound DC through the armature winding. Therefore, any increase in current
Machines strengthens the magnetism of both the field and the armature.
There are three basic types of dc machines, namely series, shunt and Because of the low resistance in the windings, the series motor
compound and they differ largely in the way in which their field and is able to draw a large current in starting.
armature coils are connected.
This large starting current, when passing through the field and
armature windings, produces a high starting torque, which is
12.4.1 Series DC Motor this type of motor’s principal advantage.
The speed of a series motor is dependent upon the load. Any change
in load will result in a substantial change in speed, so it will run at high
speeds with light loads and low speeds with heavy loads. If the load is
removed entirely, the motor may operate at such a high speed that the
armature will break apart, so it must never be run under ‘no load’
conditions. So, if a high starting torque is required under heavy load
conditions, a series motor would be the best application.
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As shown in Figure 130, detail a), a shunt generator has its excitation The field windings of the DC shunt generator are connected in parallel
field connected in shunt, or parallel, with the armature. with the armature and receive the total armature voltage. Since the
load is also connected in parallel with the armature and also receives
A residual magnetism exists in the poles. The flux lines of this residual the entire armature voltage the voltage across the field windings will
magnetism are cut when the rotor of the shunt generator is turned. This decrease when the load increases.
produces an initial low voltage.
This process causes the excitation field to weaken and as a result the
Since the fields are connected across or in parallel with the armature, output voltage decreases again.
the initial voltage produced by the residual magnetism causes a current
to flow in the field windings. The shunt generator may be used for excitation supply of AC
generators or in other applications where the distance from the
This current flow, when it is in the proper direction, adds magnetism to generator to its load is short. It is also used for charging accumulators.
the residual magnetism in the poles, which further increases the
induced voltage.
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Several types of aircraft are fitted with starter motors which will also When start is selected the starter relay will be energized, supplying
function as generators. These units will provide the rotary power to turn power to the starter to operate it as a series wound motor. An
and start the engine. Instead of being disconnected when the engine electrical supply will also be connected to the ignition through the
is running the unit will be switched electrically and will then provide ignition cut-off switch.
electrical power. The units are light and less bulky than a separate
starter motor and separate generator. They will also require only one When the engine is running and generator switched ‘on’ the starter
drive from the engine gearbox and will always remain directly relay will be de-energized. This will also de-energize the
connected to the engine. changeover relay disconnecting the series field and connecting the
armature to the voltage regulator.
The basic construction is similar to a compound wound motor but the
fields can be switched separately. As a starter it will operate as a series The armature will also be connected to the bus bar through the
wound motor. When operating as a generator the series winding will Reverse Current Relay. The energized field relay will connect the
be disconnected and only the shunt winding will be energised and shunt field to the voltage regulator.
controlled by the voltage regulator.
This will allow the unit to operate as a voltage regulated shunt
There are many different means of connections, circuits and operation wound generator. The Reverse Current Relay will operate when
and one simple circuit is illustrated. the generator output drops below a preset value. This will prevent
discharge of the battery through the generator which will also try to
motor the generator.
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Alternating Current Theory Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
13 Alternating Current The voltage polarities at the ac source are, of course, constantly
changing in sympathy with the changing current direction. These
changing current and voltage waveforms take the form of a sine wave.
The Sine Wave
When a load is connected to a Direct Current (dc) source current (I)
always flows in one direction eg (the diagram is shown using electron
flow)
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Note: The SI unit of angular measure is the radian where 360° is equal
to 2π radians; the axis in the diagram is also marked in radians.
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A cycle can take a long time or a very short time, but in all cases the
time taken for one complete sequence is known as the period and is
given the symbol T.
Multiple units for frequency are often used, particularly in radio work:
When either the period or the frequency is known and the other has to
be calculated:
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13.1.3.2 Phase
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13.1.4 Power in AC Circuits above and below this line are equal (Fig below). Thus in the diagram
the instantaneous power fluctuates rapidly (at twice the supply
The power dissipated in an ac circuit is the average value of all the frequency) between the maximum and minimum values of the curve,
instantaneous values of power for a complete cycle. To find the but over a complete cycle or number of cycles the average power is
instantaneous power at any moment, the instantaneous values of half the maximum power.
voltage and current at that moment are multiplied together. Thus at the
moment X shown in Fig below, the voltage is A volts and the current is
B amperes. The power at this moment is therefore A*B watts and is
represented by the point C. If this process is carried out over a
complete cycle, the curve shown in the diagram below will be obtained.
It is always above the axis, ie the power is always positive, because
the current and voltage are in phase and when the voltage and current
are both positive their product is positive; when they are both negative
their product is still positive.
Figure 143: Instantaneous Voltage, Current, Power 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = = × = 0.707𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 0.707𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 √2 √2
The average power over a complete cycle is the average value of the
power curve and this is represented by a line halfway between the = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
maximum and minimum values of the curve, since the shaded areas
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The average power in a resistive circuit is therefore the product of the 13.1.4.1 Electrical Rating
rms values of voltage and current. It is usually given in the form P =
I*V, where I and V are rms values. The other power equations also Many electrical types of equipment have a small plate similar to that
apply, so: shown in the diagram below. The voltage (or current) shown on these
plates is the rms value. The power is the average power. The current
𝑉2 needed to operate can be calculated from the figures given on the
𝑃 =𝑉×𝐼 𝑃 = 𝐼2 × 𝑅 or 𝑃= plate, eg for example in the diagram the rms current will be
𝑅
approximately 15 amperes, however this is not taking into
Note: As the rms values of voltage and current have the same heating consideration the power factor.
effect as equal values of dc voltage and current they are sometimes
called 'effective' values. It is customary when talking of ac to quote power in volt amperes VA,
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With nonsinusoidal waveforms, for either voltage or current, there are The rms value 0.707 of maximum applies only to sine waves, as this
important differences and similarities to consider. Note the following factor is derived from the sine values in the angular measure used only
comparisons with sine waves. for the sine waveform.
In all cases, the cycle is measured between 2 points having the same Phase angles apply only to sine waves, as angular measure is used
amplitude and varying in the same direction. The period is the time (T) only for sine waves.
for one cycle T for any of the waveforms is 4 µs and the corresponding
frequency is equal to ¼ MHz, or 0.25 MHz. All the waveforms represent ac voltages. Positive values are shown
above the zero axis, with negative values below the axis.
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13.2.1 Symmetry and Balance Three-phase generators are also to be found on aircraft because of
their robust construction and favorable output-power to weight ratio.
Symmetry and balance are 2 important terms in the generation and Again the voltage symmetrical 3-phase system is preferred, but the
distribution of electrical energy by 3 phase ac systems. The first term, frequency most used is 400 Hz.
symmetry, is defined as follows.
13.2.1.4 Phasor Representation – Voltage
13.2.1.1 Symmetry
Typical voltage waveforms of a voltage symmetrical 3-phase system
The normal arrangement is to generate and distribute electrical energy are illustrated below. The individual phases are distinguished by the
by a voltage symmetrical 3 phase ac system. The waveforms are letters a, b, c, or by the colours red, yellow, blue.
symmetrical because the voltage waveforms are of equal magnitude,
of the same frequency and there is equal phase displacement between
waveforms.
13.2.1.2 Balance
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240V 3 415V .
These values, 240 volts and 415 volts, are the normal voltages
available to the consumer from the electricity supply industry in the
United Kingdom. The most common voltages in use on aircraft are
115 volts for phase voltage and 200 volts for line voltage.
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From the 2 methods of connection above, it would make sense to This symbol is rearranged in Figure to demonstrate the delta-
connect all cells in a battery in a series/parallel configuration, this connection. Since the phase ends are paired from start to finish, then
would provide the battery with a high voltage and also a high current only 3 terminals are required. Thus a delta-connected 3-phase system
capacity with an overall lower internal resistance, in this arrangement requires only 3 conductors to transfer energy from source to load.
the power obtained from the battery would be at its maximum.
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This effect can be used to advantage in high current power supplies by I LINE = I PHASE
reducing the current carrying capacity requirement of the generator or
transformer windings.
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triangle is always the side opposite the right angle while the other two
14 Resistive (R), Capacitive (C) and Inductive sides enclose the right angle.
(L) Circuits
The mathematical relationships in phasor diagrams, and consequently
in AC circuits, can also be described using sine, cosine and tangent
R, C and L in AC Circuits trigonometric functions.
14.1.1 Introduction When resistances and reactances are connected in series, the same
current I flows through all the components. The total voltage V is
Resistors, capacitors and inductors (coils) are important components divided into component voltages VR and VC , and VR and VL.
in electrical engineering and electronics. They occur in a wide variety
of combinations and circuit variants, particularly in electronic circuits. Because of the phase shift, the resistive (active) voltage UR is always
at right angles to reactive voltages VC and VL in the phasor diagram.
However, many electrical devices and appliances behave as a load, Their geometrical addition then gives the total voltage V across the
which can be simulated by an equivalent circuit with resistors, circuit.
capacitors and coils. The behavior of these components and their
interaction is particularly important in operation with sinusoidal When the resistances and reactances are connected in parallel, on the
voltages: other hand, the same voltage V is applied to all the components. The
total current I is divided into component currents IR and IC, and IR and
with a resistor: the current and voltage are always in IL.
phase
with a capacitor: the voltage lags the current by 90° Because of the phase shift, resistive current IR and reactive currents IC
with a coil: the voltage leads the current by 90°. and IL, are always at right angles to each other in the phasor diagram.
The total current I flowing in the circuit is consequently only obtained
The phase shifts which occur can both be represented in graphs and by geometrical addition of resistive current and reactive current.
in phasor diagrams. Phasor diagrams of voltages, currents,
impedances and powers are of particular importance in describing the
interaction between resistances and reactances.
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the phasor diagram of voltages for series connection Parallel RC or RL circuits, on the other hand, can be used as
the phasor diagram of currents for parallel connection. frequency-dependent current dividers. Here again, a special case can
occur, where the resistive and reactive components have the same
The power consumed in the resistor is referred to as ’active’ (or magnitude. The characteristic frequency at which this case occurs is
’resistive’) power P. On the other hand, capacitive reactive power QC also referred to as the cut-off frequency fc.
occurs within the capacitor, and inductive reactive power QL in the coil.
Regardless of whether one is dealing with a series connection or a
Only the active (resistive) power can be used directly or is converted parallel connection, the following formulas hold good for the cut-off
into heat as a power loss. The capacitive or inductive reactive power frequency:
which occurs, on the other hand, is required to build up the electric or
magnetic field, and is fed back to the voltage source when these fields 1
collapse. 𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝐶
or
The resultant of the active power P and the reactive power Q is the
apparent power S. This is the product of total voltage V and total
current I:
𝑅
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝐿
S=V⋅I.
Circuits in which resistances R, capacitive reactances XC and
The component of the apparent power S which can be used in practice inductive reactances XL are present at the same time are referred to
is the resistive power P. This can be determined from the apparent as ’R C L circuits’.
power, using the power factor cos φ :
In RCL circuits, two special cases arise, when
P = S ⋅ cos φ = V ⋅ I ⋅ cos φ .
XC =XL
Series RC or RL circuits can be used as frequency-dependent voltage
dividers. A special case exists when, in such a circuit, the reactance
XC or XL is of exactly the same magnitude as the resistance R.
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Consequently, the behavior is determined only by the resistance. The A further example of the interconnection between resistances and
energy stored in the reactances shuttles backwards and forwards reactances is the RC phase shifter, with which a phase shift φ can be
between the coil and capacitor, and is used for alternately building up set between 0 and 90. If a phase shift φ of 0 to 180 is required, this will
the electric or magnetic field. For this reason, RCL circuits may also be be possible with a phase shift bridge circuit. These phase shifters are
referred to as ’series oscillating circuits’ or ’parallel oscillating circuits’, both required and particularly used in measuring instrumentation.
depending on the construction of the circuit. The following holds true
for the resonant frequency for both types of oscillating circuit:
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
This formula is known as Thomson’s oscillation formula. Resonant
circuits (circuits consisting of an inductor and a capacitor in series or
parallel) are of particular significance in electronics and in
communications engineering.
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Pure Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance Therefore, current I can be determined from the expression:
in AC Circuits 𝑣
𝐼=
14.2.1 Pure Resistance in AC Circuits 𝑅
When purely resistive components are used in an alternating current 𝑉 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔 ∗ 𝑡
circuit Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Laws and the usual circuit rules of 𝐼=
voltage and current can be equally applied as in direct current circuits 𝑅
Figure 153 shows that current and voltage rise and fall together - they
to both all instantaneous values and RMS values. are in phase.
In the following, ideal conditions are considered and a circuit with pure
resistance is assumed.
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∆𝑖
𝑣 = −𝐿
∆𝑡
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Figure 157 shows that the back EMF is proportional to the rate of
change of current, and hence has the same shape as the rate of
current. However it is reversed in sign because it always opposes the
rate of change of current (Lenz’s Law).
As the inductor is the only component in the circuit, the back EMF must
be exactly equal to the applied voltage. The waveform of the applied
voltage is thus equal, but opposite to the back EMF.
Figure 156: Back EMF
When the current and the applied voltage waveforms are
superimposed, it can be noticed that the voltage leads the current by
90° degrees in a pure inductive circuit.
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𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝐿 (𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠)
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The voltage across the capacitor changes with the change of the
supply source voltage, so if e.g. u is a sine wave, vc will also be a sine
14.2.3 Pure Capacitance in AC Circuits wave of the same amplitude.
In practice it is impossible to have a pure capacitive circuit because the As already mentioned, uc is proportional to the charge on the
connecting leads and dielectrics inevitably have some resistance. This capacitor, therefore changes in uc can only be brought about by a
resistance in relation to the reactance of the capacitor can be made so current i, which removes electrons from one plate and deposits them
small that this resistance can be ignored. on the other.
∆𝑉𝑐
When a DC voltage is applied across a capacitor, a current flow Consequently i must be proportional to the rate of change of vc, i.e . ∆𝑡
removes electrons from one plate of the capacitor and deposits them
on the other via the external circuit. A voltage vC across the capacitor
and an electric field, which stores the energy, are generated by the
current flow (charge).
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1
𝑋𝑐 = Figure 170 XC graph
2𝜋 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝐶
This results in the following conclusions:
Capacitive reactance is equal to the ratio of voltage to current, in the as frequency increases, reactance decreases and therefore
same manner as resistance and inductive reactance: current increases
as frequency decreases, reactance increases and therefore
𝑉 current decreases
𝑋𝑐 = at zero frequency (DC), reactance is infinite, i.e. a capacitor
𝐼 acts as a ’block’ to DC.
Since capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency, a
graph of Xc against f will be as shown in Figure 30. The phase relationships in inductive and capacitive circuits are as
follows:
in an inductor, voltage leads current
in a capacitor, current leads voltage.
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Resistances and Reactances in Single-Phase Also of significance in this AC circuit is the phase shift angle, which
describes the phase shift between current I and voltage V.
AC Circuits
The relationship can be represented both mathematically and
14.3.1 Series Connection of Resistance and graphically. In graphical representation, phasor diagrams or waveform
Reactance diagrams are used. It is absolutely essential to ensure that the
quantities to be determined or represented are always phasor
14.3.2 Series Connection of Resistor and quantities. A phasor, like a vector, has a magnitude and a direction.
Capacitor
The phasor properties of electrical quantities of an AC circuit can be
14.3.2.1 Phasor Diagram of Voltages particularly well illustrated in a phasor diagram.
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The other side enclosing the right angle is component voltage VC,
Figure 172 shows the phasor diagram of the voltages with a resistor which is called the ’reactive voltage’. The total voltage V is the
and a capacitor connected in series. hypotenuse of the voltage triangle.
Current I is usually selected as a reference quantity. Voltage VR across
the resistor is directly proportional to the current, and according to It is obtained from the geometrical addition of component voltages VR
Ohm’s law: and VC. It is referred to as the ’apparent voltage’ V.
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑋𝑐
1
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼 ∗
2𝜋 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝐶
The voltage across the capacitor lags current I by 90°. This phase shift
is taken into consideration accordingly in the phasor diagrams in Figure
172.
By parallel displacement of voltage phasor VC, so as to connect the
starting point of voltage phasor UC to the end point of voltage phasor
VR, a right-angled triangle is produced.
One of the sides enclosing the right angle of this voltage triangle is
component voltage VR. It is referred to as the ’resistive’ or ’active’ Figure 173 Waveform diagram
voltage.
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The relationship between current I and voltage V and component 14.3.2.3 Impedance Triangles
voltages UR and UC can also be represented in a waveform diagram.
Refer to Figure 1 again. Ohm’s law applies to AC circuits, as it does to DC circuits. The
following relationships therefore apply to a resistor and capacitor
Figure 173 shows the waveform diagram of an RC series circuit connected in series:
corresponding to Figure 1.
Voltage VC across the capacitor lags current I by 90°. Voltage VR 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅
across resistor R, on the other hand, is in phase with current I, and the
phase shift angle between total voltage U and current I is between 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑋𝑐
φ = 0° and –φ = -90°.
The voltages are thus proportional to the associated resistance or
reactance, with the current which flows through both components
14.3.2.2 Mathematical Relationships between acting as a proportionality factor.
Voltages
On the basis of this relationship, the phasor diagram of the voltages,
which is shown in Figure 174.
Mathematical relationships between voltages can be determined by
using the phasor diagrams shown in Figure 2.
Geometrical addition of voltages produces a right-angled triangle, to
which both the Pythagorean theorem and trigonometry functions can
be applied.
𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶 2 ⟹ 𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅 2 + 𝑉𝐶 2
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Resistance and Reactance in AC Circuits Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
It can be seen from the impedance triangle that geometrical addition of 14.3.3 Series Connection of Resistor and Coil
resistance R and reactance XC produces an impedance which is
proportional to the total voltage V. Impedance is the total opposition a 14.3.3.1 Phasor Diagram of Voltages
circuit offers to current flow, and is denoted by the symbol Z. On the
basis of Ohm’s law, the following holds true for the impedance Z:
𝑉
𝑉 =𝐼∗𝑍 ⟹𝑍 =
𝐼
𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑐 2
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Resistance and Reactance in AC Circuits Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
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Resistance and Reactance in AC Circuits Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2
𝑉𝑅
𝑅=
Figure 177 wavefor diagram RL series circuit 𝐼
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Resistance and Reactance in AC Circuits Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
14.3.3.4 Mathematical Relationships between The following relationships apply to the power in an RC series circuit
Impedances and to an RL series circuit:
𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2
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Resistance and Reactance in AC Circuits Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
The power is directly proportional to the voltages, so that triangles are In the RC series circuit (detail a)), the capacitive reactive power QC
obtained for the powers corresponding to Figure 179. lags the resistive power P by 90°. An apparent power S is obtained,
which consequently lags the resistive power P with a phase shift angle
between 0° and -90°.
In the RL series circuit (detail b)), the inductive reactive power QL leads
the resistive power P by 90°. An apparent power S is obtained, which
consequently leads the resistive power P with a phase shift angle
between 0° and +90°.
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The formal relationships between the powers can be derived from the
power triangles in Figure 179. Moreover, the formulas which have so
far been used to calculate power from current, voltage and
resistance/reactance remain valid.
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Since the reactive current increases the load through the supply leads,
the reactive power component should always be kept as small as
possible.
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Module 3.15 PART 66 – Basic Training
Transformers Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
The device which makes use of the effect that EMF is induced by an
alternating flux is called a ’transformer’. A transformer in its basic form
consists of two coils fitted to a magnetic iron core, as shown in Figure
2.
These two coils are located so that one coil is cut by the magnetic flux
lines of the other. The windings connected to the source, are called
primary windings and those in which EMF is induced are called
Figure 181 Transformer principle secondary windings.
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Transformers Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
The supplied voltage ’Vp’ (primary voltage) causes current to flow The phase relationship between primary AC voltage and secondary
through the primary windings thus producing magnetic flux lines in the AC voltage depends on the direction of the windings with reference to
iron core. The flux linkage induces voltage ’Vs’ (secondary voltage) in one another. The secondary voltage may be in phase with the primary
the secondary coil. voltage or both voltages may be 180 out of phase with reference to one
another as shown in Figure 4, detail a).
If the secondary circuit is closed, that means a load is connected to the
secondary windings, current ’Is’ (secondary current) caused by the This is explained by Lenz’s law:
secondary voltage ’Us’ flows through the secondary circuit.
Therefore, energy is transferred from the primary circuit to the The direction of an induced current is such as to oppose the
secondary circuit without any electrical connection between the change causing it.
circuits.
In some applications, this phase shift is of no consequence while in
The ability of a transformer to transfer energy from its primary circuit to other applications it is extremely important. Therefore the phase
its secondary circuit by flux linkage is a function of inductive coupling relationship between AC voltages of different windings is sometimes
or high mutual inductance. This means that the inductance of each indicated on circuit diagrams by dots ’•’ as shown in Figure 184, details
winding should be as great as possible. b) and c).
Figure 183, shows two symbols which are used in circuit diagrams to
represent a transformer.
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Transformers Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
15.1.2 Construction
15.1.2.1 Transformer Core
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Since the reluctance of air is very great and its permeability small, the
installation of a soft steel core of high permeability into the transformer
increases the flux linkage between the coils and facilitates a high
percentage of power transfer.
Even with the use of cores of high permeability, some of the flux lines
will fail to link the secondary winding and are effectively lost,
constituting a flux leakage which prevents the transformer from being
a perfect conductor of power between primary and secondary winding.
A well-designed iron-core transformer may effect 98 % flux linkage, i.e.
the coupling coefficient between primary and secondary winding is
0.98.
Magnetic cores in large and most small transformers are made from
steel laminations, normally in the shapes shown in Figure 6, details a)
and b).
Steels used for transformer cores are special alloys of iron and carbon
with the addition of a small percentage of silicon, or in some special
cases, of nickel. Typically a cold-rolled carbon steel containing up to 3
% silicon is used.
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Transformers Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
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Transformers Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
𝑉𝑝 ∗ 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 ∗ 𝑁𝑝
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Transformers Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
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Transformers Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
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Transformers Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
The cores of power transformers are generally made of soft iron or Every transformer has a certain power loss. Due to this fact, the
steel. Because iron and steel are good conductors, a current is induced amount of power applied to the primary of the transformer must be
in the core when the core is subjected to a moving magnetic field. As greater than the power which is necessary at the secondary. Thus, the
stated already, a moving magnetic field is a requirement in all efficiency of a transformer is always less than 100 % but greater than
transformers. Thus, unless special precautions are taken, large 95 %.
circulating currents are induced in the core of the transformer. These
currents are called eddy currents. The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of output power to input
power:
Eddy currents can be reduced by using many sheets of metal for the 𝑃𝑠
core rather than using a solid block of metal.
𝜂(%) = ∗ 100
𝑃𝑝
For this reason, another name for copper loss is: I2 * R In detail b), a step-down transformer is shown whose primary winding
Np is formed by the complete winding whereas one part of the whole
coil serves as secondary winding Ns.
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Transformers Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
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Module 3.16 PART 66 – Basic Training
Filters Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
16.1.1 Pass-band
This is the range of frequencies over which the attenuation is ideally
zero.
16.1.2 Stop-band
This is the range of frequencies over which the attenuation is a
maximum (ideally infinite), i.e. the filter presents high impedance. It is
sometimes known as the attenuation-band.
Types of Filter
There are 4 types of filter, classified according to the function they
perform, as follows:
Figure 192: Low-Pass Filter characteristic
Low-pass
High-pass
Band-pass
Band-stop
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16.2.2 Band Pass Filters 16.2.2.1 RCL Series Band Pass Filter
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Module 3.17 PART 66 – Basic Training
AC Generators Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
17 AC Generators
Types of AC Generators
17.1.1 Principle of Operation
When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field as shown in
Figure 203, the lines of magnetic force are cut and voltage is generated
(induced) in the conductor. This induced voltage is called
’electromotive force’ (EMF). EMF is the name of the force which
maintains a potential difference between the terminals of batteries or
electric generators.
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The method of producing electrical energy by voltage induction is The voltage at the slip rings is the sum of the two voltages which are
shown in Figure 204. The loop rotates in a magnetic field. The ends of induced in the two parts of the loop and are represented in Figure 204
the loop are connected to two slip rings which are insulated from each by the two arrows V1 and V2. The reason for the addition of the two
other. Two brushes on the slip rings allow the voltage to be fed to the voltages V1 and V2 is the fact that the two parts of the loop move
voltmeter and any load. through the magnetic field in opposite directions. Thus the two voltages
which are generated have opposite directions.
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When a conducting loop is moved through a magnetic field as shown The instantaneous amount of EMF induced in each winding depends
in Figure 204, a voltage is generated in the conductor. The amount of on the angle at which the field lines are cut by the conducting loop. If
the generated voltage depends on the magnitude of the magnetic flux the conductor moves parallel to the direction of the magnetic lines of
’Φ’ which is cut by the conducting loop, the velocity ’v’ of the loop force (0° position) no voltage will be induced since no cutting of flux
moving through the magnetic field and the number of windings (loops) occurs under these conditions. If the conductor moves at right angles
of which the conductor is composed. to the direction of the lines of magnetic force (90° position) the
maximum value of voltage will be induced.
Since the conducting loops rotate within the magnetic field the angle at
which the lines of force are cut increases from 0° to 90°. Thus the
induced voltage increases from 0 V to its maximum value. If the loop
has passed the 90° position the induced voltage will decrease because
the angle at which the field lines are cut is decreasing. The value of the
induced voltage will be zero when the loops have turned about 180°
(180° position).
If the windings turn from 180° to 0° the induced voltage will have
opposite direction because the field lines will now be cut in opposite
direction (right-hand rule).
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Machines which are equipped with more than one pole pair on their
rotor are called 4-pole, 8-pole or 16-pole machines according to the
Figure 8: Three-Phase Synchronous Generator number of pole pairs established. The number of pole pairs and the
number of revolutions determine the output frequency of the AC
Figure 8 shows the arrangement of a ’Three-phase synchronous waveform. The frequency can be calculated by the formula:
generator’. This is the most important type of AC generator. Three
windings spaced at 120 degrees are accommodated in the stator. The 𝑛∗𝑝
rotor, often driven by a turbine, is fitted with an excitation winding, which 𝑓(𝐻𝑧) =
is powered by a DC source via the slip rings. 60
where: n = revolutions/minute
p = pair of poles.
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Module 3.18 PART 66 – Basic Training
AC Motors Cat B1&B2 – Module 3
Another typical feature is that this type of motor is particularly suited for
18 AC Motors constant speed applications.
Types of AC Motors
18.1.3 Three-Phase Motor
18.1.1 Description of AC Motors
18.1.3.1 Major Parts
The basic principles of magnetism and electromagnetic induction are
the same for AC and DC motors, but AC motors do not require any
commutator for supplying the rotor with energy, because alternating
current changes its direction rapidly and thus the direction of the
produced magnetic flux is also changed.
Both types of induction motors are built in such a way, that a rotating
magnetic field is produced by stator windings. The windings of the rotor
are cut by this rotating magnetic field and a torque is produced. The
advantage of the induction motor is that it does not require a
commutator, thus most of the troubles encountered in the operation of Figure 1: Major Parts of an Induction Motor
DC motors are eliminated.
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The major parts of such a type of motor are the stator and the rotor.
The stator (Figure 1, detail a)) is the stationary part of the machine. It
carries the windings which are responsible for producing a rotating
magnetic field. The windings are placed in slots around the pole shoes.
The rotor is the rotating part of the machine. In the example shown in
detail b) it consists of an iron core with longitudinal slots around its
circumference in which copper or aluminium bars are embedded.
These bars are shorted on both ends by short-circuit rings, thus a
current is able to flow through the bars.
Because the rotor looks like a squirrel cage this type of rotor is called
’squirrel-cage rotor’ and the motor can also be called ’squirrel-cage
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As shown in detail b), the three voltages are equal in amplitude but out
of phase. At the instant of time shown as time ’0’, the resultant magnetic The rotor rotates at nearly the same speed as the rotating field. The
field produced by the application of the three voltages has its greatest difference in speed is called ’slip’ and is expressed as a percentage of
intensity in the direction extending from pole 1 to pole 4. Under this the synchronous speed.
condition, pole 1 can be regarded as north pole and pole 4 as south
pole. Example: If the rotor turns at 1,750 rpm and the synchronous
At the instant of time shown as time ’1’, the resultant magnetic field will speed is 1,800 rpm, the difference in speed is 50 rpm.
have its greatest intensity in the direction from pole 2 to pole 5 and, in
this case, pole 2 can be regarded as a north pole and pole 5 as a south 50∗100
pole. Thus, between instant ’0’ and instant ’1’, the magnetic field has
The slip then is = 2,78%
1800
rotated clockwise.
If the rotor rotated at the same speed as the magnetic field, no field
At time ’2’, the resultant magnetic field has its greatest intensity in the lines would be cut by the conductors of the rotor, no EMF would be
direction from pole 3 to pole 6 and it is apparent that the resultant induced, no current could flow and there would be no torque. The rotor
magnetic field has continued to rotate clockwise. At instant ’3’, poles 4 would then slow down. The difference in speed just being sufficient to
and 1 can be regarded as north and south poles, respectively, and the induce enough current in the rotor is the result of mechanical and
field has rotated still farther. electrical losses in the rotor. When the motor is loaded the slip
increases.
At later instants of time, the resultant magnetic field rotates to other
positions while travelling in clockwise direction, a single revolution of
the field occurring in 1 cycle. This speed is known as the ’synchronous
speed’ of the rotating field.
The direction of the current flowing through the rotor bars produces its
own magnetic field whose direction depends on the direction of the
flowing current. The forces resulting from the reaction of the two
magnetic fields produce a torque which turns the rotor.
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In consequence of the fact that one phase is missing, the motor is not
able to start by itself and a starting aid is necessary. After the motor
has been started, the rotor keeps on rotating. Refer to Figure 3.
Figure 3: Single Phase Motor with Starting Capacitor
A starting aid for self-starting of a three-phase motor, which is only
connected to two phases (producing a rotating field), is given by
connecting one phase via a capacitor C.
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Together with the stator winding the short-circuit copper band forms a
18.1.5 Shaded-Pole Motor transformer. The stator winding forms the primary winding and the
copper band the short-circuit secondary winding.
A part of the flux of the stator winding penetrates the copper loop and
a voltage is induced which drives a current through the loop. The
current flowing through the stator winding and the current of the copper
loop are phase-shifted. The two magnetic fluxes created by the two
currents are equally phase-shifted resulting in a common rotary field
which enables the rotor to turn. A single-phase motor which operates
in a similar way is known as ’split-phase motor’.
Synchronous Motor
Synchronous motors, as the name implies, rotate at a speed which is
synchronized with the applied alternating current fequency.
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When the rotor poles are almost in synchronism with the rotating field
produced by the stator they pull into step and the rotor runs at
synchronous speed. Since the motor turns at a precisely constant
speed, it can be used to drive an alternator through a differential gear
system and thus to provide an exact frequency of any desired value.
For that reason, synchronous motors are also used to change the
frequency of alternating current.
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Frequency converter does not work with AC induction motors that are
run from single phase power source, because the operation of the
needed motor phase conversion capacitor is very frequency sensitive
(works as expected only at normal mains frequency).
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