17

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTODUCTION
In1900 at World’s Exhibition in Paris, the inventor of diesel engine Sir
Rudolf Diesel demonstrated first diesel engine operated with peanut oil. It
performed efficiently and proven that CI engine works either on crude oil or even
vegetable oil. Vegetable oils are to be considered as appropriate alternative fuels
because of their properties are in similar to diesel fuel and also their availability in
huge potential. Moreover, vegetable oils have additional benefits due to being non-
toxic, biodegradable, eco-friendly and renewable. The vegetable oils are usually
classified into edible and non-edible oils. The literature survey has been mainly
presented on performance, combustion and emission characteristics of straight
vegetable oils, neat biodiesels and different diesel-biodiesel blends when used in
diesel engines in two different (single and dual fuel) modes of operation.
Sir Rudolf Diesel had patented dual fuel engine that operated on principle of
dual fuel technology with a limitation on the use of higher portion of gaseous fuel as
main fuel due to inherent combustion loss. This technology had not been
commercialized until 1935. It is a well-established technique with minimum
modifications of basic diesel engine to operate on gaseous fuels in combination of
wide variety of liquid fuels. Usually dual fuel engine has shown better thermal
efficiency at higher loads. High octane rating and high volatile nature fuels such as
Biogas, Alcohols, LPG, CNG, Hydrogen and Producer gas are suitable for used as
inducted fuels in the dual fuel engine operation.

In this chapter the published literature has been reviewed pertaining to the different
vegetable oils, biodiesels and their diesel blends.
2.2 VEGETABLE OILS
Usually, the vegetable oils are extracted from oil seeds through the processes
of drying, grinding, steaming, air-cooling, and oil extraction by hydraulic expeller.
The vegetable oils typically composed of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen molecules
exhibiting their properties lying within a fairly close range. The vegetable oils
cetane rating in the range of 35 to 50 depending on the composition and is closer to
diesel fuel cetane rating. Heating value of the vegetable oils is higher than alcohol
 18

fuels but viscosity, flash point, fire point, pour point and calorific value are differed
when compared to diesel fuel. Vegetable oils possess high viscosity and density than
diesel fuel that are not desirable to use directly in diesel engine. And also used
cooking vegetable oils can be used as a substitute for diesel fuel, with no
modification of diesel engine, successfully [39, 40].
According to reported short term studies neat vegetable oils deliver slight
decrease in maximum engine power and higher fuel consumption rate relative to the
observations made with diesel fuel on standard diesel engine. Due to the presence of
non-branched long chain structure of neat vegetable oil fuel has the property of good
ignition quality. Vegetable oils heating value is lower than that of diesel due to the
inbuilt oxygen content of biodiesel but these are around10% denser than diesel.
Flash point of vegetable oil is higher than those of petro-diesel fuel and hence much
safer to transport and store than diesel oil. Vegetable oils have higher cloud point
indicating problems of thickening or freezing at low temperatures in flow lines. The
evaporation rate of vegetable oils is slow during the process of injection into the
engine cylinder due to less volatility than diesel.
Devendra Deshmukh et al. [41] investigated the spray characterization of Jatropha and
Pongamia straight vegetable oils in a common rail injection system at high FIP
(1600bar). The injection delay is identified to be much higher than diesel fuel due to
its high viscosity. And also, the spray tip penetration for straight vegetable oil is lower
than diesel fuel. The spray structure for 30% blend of Pongamia oil with diesel fuel is
almost identical to that of diesel fuel.
Demirbas [42] reviewed on biomass fuels like fatty acid methyl ester, bio-hydrogen,
bio-alcohols (methanol and ethanol) and synthesis of Fischer Tropsch. The biodiesel
production from vegetable oil is mainly due to its less pollutant and renewability in
nature.
Barnwal et al. [43] studied and reported that the suitability of biodiesel as substitute
as automotive fuel based on production, utilization and economics barriers in the
utilization of biodiesels on CI engines.
Karnwal et al., [44] investigated the optimization process for maximising the
production of Thumba oil methyl ester through transesterification process by
varying the parameters like temperature, catalyst concentration, amount of methanol
 19

and reaction time. The methanol based transesterification process optimized

parameters are 60°C reaction temperature, 6:1 molar ratio of Thumba oil to
methanol, 0.75% catalyst (w/w) and 1 hour reaction time for Thumba oil with KOH
as catalyst.
Ghadge et al. [45] developed a technique to produce biodiesel from high fatty acid
Mahua oil in a two stage transesterification process. And also they observed that the
derived biodiesel properties very closure to conventional diesel fuel.
Agarwal et al. [46] conducted experimental investigations on performance of DI
compression ignition engine fuelled with preheated and unheated jatropha oil at
various engine loads. It can be found that performance and emission characteristics
of preheated (preheated with waste flue gas) jatropha oil fuelled engine improved
significantly. And also their experimentation proved the BSFC and exhaust gas
temperatures were higher and brake thermal efficiency was lower for preheated
jatropha oil when compared to diesel fuel. The emissions like CO2, CO, and HC
were found to be lower for preheated jatropha oil than diesel fuel.

2.3 BIODIESELS
Straight vegetable oils are used in diesel engine possess some major
problems due to high viscosity, less volatility nature and excessive stickening.
Therefore it is necessary to reduce viscosity and density of straight vegetable oils by
transesterification process improving their physical and chemical properties by that
the engine performance.
Biodiesels are popularly known as monoesters of vegetable oils which are in
the form of methyl or ethyl esters and their properties are closure to diesel fuel.
Transesterification process converts vegetable oils into methyl esters by reaction of
vegetable oils with alcohols like methanol or ethanol at about 70o C temperature in the
presence of sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide as catalyst and glycerin as
byproduct. The performance of methyl or ethyl esters of vegetable oil is better than
neat vegetable oils.Some of the investigations found that the diesel engine
performance slightly reduced along with higher emissions for biodiesel operation [47,
48]. The NOx emissions of diesel and biodiesel are reduced by retarded injection
timing [49]. Some other investigations have been carried out on CI engine with
different vegetable oils and their esters at different injection pressures. The
 20

performance of CI engine is improved with increasing of injection pressure and also

the peak cylinder pressures are increased with that injection pressure [50].
Varuvel et al., [51] examined the feasibility of waste fish fat biodiesel and found that
NOx emissions were higher for biodiesel than diesel. Waste fish fat biodiesel–diesel
blends showed reduced NOx emissions and higher PM emissions than neat biodiesel
but lower brake thermal efficiency.
Jajoo and Keota [52] conducted performance evaluation test on single cylinder C.I.
engine with Soya bean and Rape seed oils along with their methyl esters as fuels
which reported that the engine performance of esters and diesel blends are
comparable with diesel fuel normal operation. Higher concentration of diesel-
vegetable oil blends operated engine performance was poor due to higher viscosity
of vegetable oil in the blends. It was evident that the smoke density was higher for
Soya bean methyl ester blends below 50% with diesel fuel.
Usta [53] conducted experiments on four cylinder turbocharged indirect injection
diesel engine to investigate the effects of tobacco seed oil methyl esters and its
diesel blends on performance and emissions and compared the results with diesel
fuel. The established results showed that no engine modification and the tobacco
seed oil methyl ester can be substituted upto 25-30% in place of diesel fuel.
Agarwal and Das [54] conducted long term endurance test on two similar diesel
engines fuelled with optimum biodiesel blend and diesel fuel separately. The
biodiesel operated engine lubricating oil samples elemental analysis by atomic
absorption spectroscopy showed 30% lower wear rate of engine owing to additional
lubricating property of biodiesel that resulted in prolonged life of biodiesel fuelled
engine.
Chang and Gerpen [55] have carried out investigation on performance of
turbocharged DI diesel engine with different proportions of soya bean biodiesel and
diesel blends. It has been indicated that the diesel engine performance and
combustion process of biodiesel blends are similar to diesel fuel with slight higher
fuel consumption. Carbon monoxide, Hydro carbon and total particulates emissions
were reduced while Nitrogen oxide emissions were increased for all blends.
Carraretto et al., [56] examined the performance and environmental aspects of diesel
engine fuelled with neat biodiesel and its blends. The biodiesel operation showed
 21

slight reduction in performance, higher SFC, lower CO emissions and higher NOX
emissions.
N.R.Banapurmath et al., [57] have derived biodiesel from Marotti oil through a
transesterification process. And also studied the effect of injection timing and
injection pressure on the performance, emission and combustion characteristics of
direct injection diesel engine operated with MhOME (Marotti oil methyl ester) and
its diesel blends and the results were compared with base line data of diesel
operation. They identified slight reduction in BTE and increased HC, CO, smoke
and lower NOx emissions for MhOME as compared to high speed diesel operation.
The investigations found that the 20% Marotti oil biodiesel-diesel blend produced
higher BTE, lower specific fuel consumption and lower exhaust gas emissions
amongst the blend ratios considered.
Gajendra Babu [58] conducted experimental tests to investigate the effect of change
in injection parameters on both performance and emission characteristics of
naturally aspirated DI diesel engine fuelled with diesel and diesel-biodiesel blends.
The ester fuels operated advanced injection timing showed improved performance
and emission characteristics, at higher injection pressure. The engine performance
deteriorated with retarded injection timing and reduced injection pressure.
Nabi et al., [59] investigated on the optimization of transesterification process of
biodiesel production and conducted tests on performance and exhaust emission
characteristics of CI engine when fuelled with cotton seed oil and its methyl esters.
The engine performance greatly depends up on the fuel properties such as viscosity,
density, calorific value, cetane number, volatility and lubricity are very important.
The biodiesel mixtures produced slightly lower brake thermal efficiency due to their
lower heating value when compared to neat diesel fuel. Moreover, low volatility,
higher viscosity, higher density are additional reasons for reduction in brake thermal
efficiency. All the biodiesel mixtures showed reduction in CO, Particulate Matter
(PM) and Smoke emissions. However, a slight increased NOx emission can be
experienced for biodiesel fuel operation.
Sergio et al., [60] experimentally investigated on emissions of a six cylinder heavy-
duty engine fuelled with methyl, ethyl, n-propyl and n-butyl (additives) added B2,
B5, B10, and B20 blends. Gas chromatography with mass spectrometry detection
 22

indicated that emissions reduction with mercaptan additive while increased with
biodiesel content. B20 blend has shown the highest reduction of emissions with the
additive of methyl mercaptan by 18.4%, while least reduction in emissions with
additive of n-butyl mercaptan as 9.6%.
Devan et al. [61] investigated on neat poon oil and its diesel blends as diesel engine
fuels, the performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a diesel engine
operated with neat poon oil and its blends with diesel fuel. They reported lower
brake thermal efficiency and NOx emissions with higher HC and CO emissions for
poon oil and its diesel blends when compared to diesel fuel. The combustion
analysis showed that poon oil and its diesel blends performed better than neat poon
oil.
Di. et al. [62] have carried out experimental investigation on regulated and
unregulated emissions of a compression ignition engine fueled with ultra-low sulfur
diesel fuel blended with biodiesel from waste cooking oil. The percentage of mass of
oxygen in biodiesel blended fuels increase with the biodiesel % in the blend. The
engine operations reported that the brake specific fuel consumption increased and
brake thermal efficiency reduced. CO and HC emissions decreased while NO and
NO2 emissions were increased. At higher engine load operation the smoke and
particulate mass concentrations were observed to be reduced significantly. The
unregulated gaseous emissions, normally, the formaldehyde, 1, 3-butadiene, toluene,
xylene emissions decreased, while benzene and acetaldehyde emissions were
increased.
Roskilli.A.P. et al., [63] conducted experiments on small marine craft compression
engine with biodiesel and gaseous fuel. The tests showed that the biodiesel operated
engine specific fuel consumption is higher than those of diesel operation. The two
trial biodiesel fuelled engines exhibited lower NOx emission levels than fossil diesel
operation. But CO emission levels were higher at lower loads and lower at high load
for biodiesel operation of the diesel engines.
Gumus [64] reported on transesterification of hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) kernel
oil for production of biodiesel and combustion behavior of biodiesel when used in a
DI compression ignition engine. And also studied the performance of the Hazelnut
kernel oil methyl ester and its diesel blend fuels in diesel engine with respect to
 23

change of blend ratio, injection timing, injection pressure, and compression ratio.
The maximum improvement in the brake thermal efficiency and heat release rate
pattern was observed at optimum parameters of injection timing, injection pressure
and compression ratio.
Qi, et al., [65] have used alkaline-catalyzed transesterification process to produce
biodiesel from soyabean oil and reported that the biodiesel properties were
comparable with diesel fuel. Evaluated the biodiesel fuelled diesel engine operation
on the basis of performance, emissions and combustion characteristics. The results
noted that biodiesel exhibited combustion stages were similar to that of diesel, but
start of combustion was earlier. It was found that at lower loads, the peak cylinder
pressure, the peak rate of pressure rise and the peak heat release rate values were
higher during premixed combustion phase for cotton seed biodiesel than for diesel
fuel engine operation. It was reported that at higher engine loads for biodiesels, the
peak cylinder pressure values almost closer to that of diesel, but the peak rate of
pressure rise and the peak heat release rate were lower for biodiesel when compared
to diesel. The biodiesel power output was almost identical with that of diesel fuel.
The brake specific fuel consumption was higher for biodiesel due to its lower
heating value. At full engine load, the biodiesel produced CO, HC, NOx and smoke
emissions in significant reduction levels.
Sun et al. [66] examined the NOx emissions of biodiesel-fuelled diesel engines. They
found the properties of biodiesel fuel were similar to petro- diesel fuel, and also that
produced reduced carbon dioxide, hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and particulate
matter emissions when diesel engine operated on biodiesel. Due to poor cold flow
characteristics, lower heating values of biodiesel led to produce higher nitrogen
oxides emissions. NOx formation mechanisms were discussed and presented that it
was mainly affected by size, operating points, fuel system design, combustion
chamber design, and air system design of compression ignition engines.
Altin et al., [67] examined the performance and exhaust emissions of a single
cylinder DI four stroke diesel engine using refined sunflower, cotton seed, soya-
bean oils and their respective methyl esters. It has been found that slight power loss,
higher particulate emissions and lower NOx emissions with neat vegetable oils
operation. Some modifications are required to operate diesel engine with raw
 24

vegetable oils however with vegetable oil methyl esters it shows better performance
which are closer to diesel fuel operation.
Lapuerta et al., [68] conducted tests on waste cooking oil and its diesel blends as
fuels in DI diesel engine and reported the engine efficiency not affected
significantly, while fuel consumption increased with biodiesel proportion in a blend.
They observed that increase in fuel consumption in proportional to decrease in blend
heating value while contrary behavior exhibited with regard to PM emissions and
smoke opacity. The other emissions did not show any significant differences
between the tested biodiesel fuels.
Vedaraman et al., [69] investigated on Methyl Ester of Sal Oil (SOME) fuelled
direct injection diesel engine and found that CO, HC and NOx emissions were
reduced but with comparable brake thermal efficiency. Finally, they suggested that
the SOME can be a used as substitute for diesel fuel in diesel engine.
Tiegang Fang et al., [70] examined the spray pattern and combustion processes by
changing injection timing for selected biodiesel-diesel blends by an optically
accessible single cylinder high speed direct injection diesel engine. The reports
revealed that heat release rate reduced with retarded injection timings. The HRR
peak values were higher with increased biodiesel concentration and it was observed
fuel impingement on wall for all the test conditions. With the increased biodiesel
content the liquid penetration became higher and the fuel impingement was also
stronger. It was observed that soot luminosity is lower for biodiesel blends than
those of neat diesel fuel at all fuel injection timings. However, late fuel injection
timings showed higher NOx emission levels due to lower soot luminosity.
Suryawanshi et al. [71] have studied the effect of injection timing on DI diesel
engine operated with Pongamia Oil Methyl Ester (PME) and its diesel blends for the
NOx emissions. It was reported significant improvement in engine performance and
emission characteristics for PME fuel. With the addition of Pongamia Oil Methyl
Ester to diesel fuel showed significant reductions in HC, CO, and smoke emissions
while slight increment in NOx emission at standard injection timing. However, with
retarded injection timing the NOx emission, ignition delay were reduced while brake
thermal efficiency and exhaust gas temperature were increased with negligible effect
on specific fuel consumption.
 25

Venkata Subbaiah et al. [72] found that the highest brake thermal efficiency was
22% for diesel-rice bran biodiesel-ethanol blends. The CO and smoke emissions
were reduced significantly while hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and carbon
dioxide emissions were increased with higher percentage of ethanol in diesel-
biodiesel-ethanol blends.
Kruczynski et al. [73] investigated by conducting tests on Performance and emission
of diesel engine fuelled with camelina sativa oil. It was reported that the engine
performance is improved with that oil. And also they identified that the fuel system
of engine needs calibration for the use of test fuel. They identified the combustion
process was not similar to that of diesel fuel due to high Linolenic acid content of
oil.
Saravanan et al. [74] studied the feasibility of crude rice bran oil as a substitute fuel
for diesel used in a DI CI engine without modifications. It was found that the crude
rice bran methyl ester-diesel blends operated DI diesel engine exhibited lower peak
heat release rates and slightly higher peak pressures than that of diesel. And also 25 %
RBO (rice bran oil) showed better results than other blends of RBO.

Shailendra Sinha et al. [75] evaluated the Performance of a rice bran oil methyl ester
fuelled transport diesel engine. They found that rice bran oil methyl ester–diesel
blends operated DI diesel engine exhibited superior thermal efficiency about 1.5% to
3% and emitted lower CO, smoke opacity emissions, while HC, NOx emissions
were higher when compared to baseline data of mineral diesel fuelled engine.
Agarwal et al. [76] investigated on performance and emission characteristics of air-
cooled, two-cylinder, DI diesel engine fuelled by biodiesel blends of rice bran viz.,
B10, B20 and B50. It is observed that lower CO, HC, and PM emissions and higher
NOx emissions for rice bran biodiesel blends in comparison to mineral diesel.
However, EGR can reduce NOx emissions without increasing smoke emissions but
with a little penalty on performance and durability of engine.
Basavarajappa et al. [77] conducted tests to evaluate the performance of CRDI
(common rail direct injection) diesel engine operated on UOME (uppage oil methyl
ester) at 80% and full load conditions with varying injection timing and injection
pressure (IOP). It was reported that the UOME fuel showed lower BTE with poor
performance. With retarded injection timing, HC emissions reduced while CO and
 26

smoke emissions increased up to 10obTDC. However, NOx emissions increased

with advanced injection timings. BTE increased up to 900 bar IOP and above this
pressure the BTE reduced due to system limitation. The HC and CO emissions
followed similar trends for both higher loads with reduced values at 900 bar
injection pressure and reversed effect can be seen beyond 900bar. NOx emissions
were observed to be increased with IOP.
Soo -Young No [78] has reviewed on some important inedible vegetable oils and
their derivatives using for alternative fuels in CI engines. Jatropha oil is most
suitable one to commercialize among group of inedible vegetable oils. In this review
it was found that there is significant difference in fuel properties between inedible
vegetable oils and their biodiesels. Reports exhibit from review indicated that
biodiesel generally produce higher NOx emission and lower HC, CO and PM
emissions when compared to petro-diesel fuel. It was reported that without any
modification the diesel engine would run successfully on 20% vegetable oil and
80% diesel blend and also with blend of 40% biodiesel-60%diesel without engine
damage. Moreover, blends up to 10% by volume for running common rail direct
injection system without any durability problems during running.
Metin Gumus et al. [79]have studied the impact of injection pressure on the exhaust
gas emissions of a DI diesel engine operated with biodiesel–diesel blends. The
engine tested at four different fuel injection pressures (18, 20, 22, and 24 MPa) and
four different engine loads(12.5, 25, 37.5, and 50 kPa).The results showed that the
BSFC, CO2, NOx and O2 emissions increased while the smoke, unburned
hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions decreased due to the fuel and
combustion characteristics of biodiesel. But, with increase in injection pressure
caused to decrease in BSFC, smoke opacity, the emissions of CO, unburnt hydro
carbons and increased the emissions of CO2, O2 and NOx for high percentage
biodiesel blends (B20, B50, and B100). And also, it was observed that with either
increase or decrease in injection pressure caused to increase in BSFC values when
compared to original (ORG) injection pressure for conventional diesel and low
percentage of biodiesel–diesel blends (B5).
Muralidharan and Vasudeva have carried out a comparative study on the effect of
compression ratio on the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of
 27

Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) engine operating with waste cooking oil and its
diesel fuel blends. The result reported that the performance of B40 blend is superior
when compared to conventional diesel fuel at the compression ratio of 21.
Mohamed Musthafa et al. [80] studied on performance and emission characteristics
of fly ash coated low heat rejection diesel engine fueled by rice bran and pongamia
methyl ester and their diesel blends. The experiment results showed the heat transfer
rate was decreased and accordingly, the performance and emissions of the engine
were affected positively due to the improvement in combustion of fly ash coated
diesel engine than uncoated engine. The coated engine peak pressure was higher
when compared with uncoated engine for biodiesel operation. It is concluded that
diesel, neat biodiesel fuels (100% methyl esters of rice bran and Pongamia oil) and
20% by volume biodiesel blends (20% biodiesel+80% diesel) can be used as
successful alternative fuels in coated (fly ash) engines.
Purushothaman and Nagarajan [81] have studied the effect of fuel injection pressure
on heat release rate and emissions in diesel engine operated on OSPDS (orange skin
powder diesel solution). They reported that the use of OSPDS in diesel engine at fuel
injection pressure of 235 bar, increase in BTE than that of 215 bar fuel injection
pressure. The smoke, hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions are lower while
the NOx emissions are higher with the use of OSPDS when compared to diesel fuel.
Kannan and Anand[82] have investigated the effect of fuel injection pressure and fuel
injection timing on performance, emission and the combustion characteristics of
direct injection diesel engine fuelled with biodiesel(waste cooking oil). It was found
that the combined effect of higher injection pressure of 280bar and an advanced
injection timing of 25.5obTDC the engine had shown significant improvement in the
brake thermal efficiency, cylinder gas pressure and heat release rate. And also it was
observed that the nitric oxide (NO) and smoke emissions were reduced.
2.4 POLANGA OIL METHYL ESTER AND KARANJA OIL METHYL
ESTER FUELS
This section provides literature discussion on characteristics of a diesel engine
operated with the diesel blends of polanga oil methyl ester and diesel blends of
karanja oil methyl ester fuels. The studies reported that these oils and their diesel
 28

blends can be used directly as substitute fuel for diesel engine and it require little
modifications for power generating sets and irrigation pump sets.
Sahoo et al [83] derived mono-esters of non-edible, high viscous and high acid value
Polanga seed oil by three step transesterification process. The short term
performance tests conducted on a single cylinder diesel engine with Polanga oil
methyl ester and its high speed diesel blends. It is reported that the thermal
efficiency of the engine improved by 0.1%, lower HC values while Smoke
emissions reduced by 35% for B60 and NOx by 4% for B100 when compared to
neat petro-diesel.
Mohanty et al. [84] conducted experimental investigations on the performance,
combustion and emissions of a diesel engine running on vegetable oil-diesel fuel
blends. They found that EGT increases from 160oC to 380oC at no load and EGT rises
from 140oC to 300oC at full load condition for PD50 (50% polanga oil+50% diesel)
and PD30, respectively .These EGT values were slightly higher than those of diesel
fuel operation.
Sahoo et al. [85] carried out investigations on the performance and emission
characteristics of tractor engine operated on Jatropha oil, karanja oil and Polanga
oils biodiesels for different engine speeds such as 1200rpm, 1800rpm and 2200 rpm.
Maximum increase in power was observed for 50% jatropha biodiesel-diesel blend
at rated speed of engine. Brake specific fuel consumption increased with blend ratio
while decreased with speed for all biodiesel blends. It was also reported, reduction
in smoke for all biodiesels and their blends as compared with diesel fuel under full
throttle load performance test.
Vivek and Gupta A.K [86] have investigated on biodiesel production from Karanja
oil. They determined the best possible conditions for transesterification process for
getting highest yield of karanja biodiesel. And also they reported that the
performance of karanja biodiesel fuelled diesel engine is similar to that of diesel fuel
while exhaust gas emissions were reported to be lesser than diesel.
Agarwal, et al. [87] conducted experimental tests on a single cylinder, four stroke,
constant speed, water-cooled, agriculture DI diesel engine, operated on preheated
Karanja oil and its diesel-blends using waste heat for preheating of blends through
heat exchanger. The results showed preheated blends produce higher grade thermal
 29

efficiency (BTE) compared with diesel fuel. It was also reported that reduction in
CO, HC and NOx emissions for both unheated and preheated blends at lower engine
loads.
Agarwal et al. [88] studied the performance, emission and combustion
characteristics of Karanja oil blends (K10, K20, K50 and K100) with mineral diesel
on DI CI engine. Experimentation was conducted on DI CI engine for various
engine loads and at rated engine speed of 1500 rev/min using Karanja oil blends
without preheated conditions. They measured the performance parameters such as
brake specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency and exhaust gas
temperature; various pollutant gas mass emission species. Moreover, combustion
parameters such as rate of in-cylinder pressure rise, instantaneous heat release rate
and cumulative heat release rate were recorded that of operated engine. They
observed that the combustion duration was increased significantly even adding of
smaller quantity (by volume basis) of Karanja oil in the diesel blend fuel. The
emissions such as HC, CO and Smoke were decreased for Karanja oil content in the
range of 20-50% blend with diesel fuel.
Agarwal et al. [89] studied on performance and emission characteristics of air-
cooled, twin cylinder, DI diesel engine operated on rice bran biodiesel blends of
viz., B10, B20 and B50. It was observed CO, HC, and Particulate emission levels
were lower while NOx emissions were higher for rice bran biodiesel blends in
comparison to mineral diesel. However, EGR can reduce NOx emissions without
increasing smoke emissions but with a little penalty on performance and durability
of engine.
Haldar S.K. et al. [90] have studied on performance and emission characteristics of
variable CI engine when operated with of Jatropha, Karanja, Putranjiva and their
diesel blends at different injection timings. Smoke and particulate emissions were
observed to be lower for all three oils when compared with diesel. It was concluded
that 20% Jatropha oil-diesel blends of and 20% Karanja oil- diesel blends showed
better performance than those of diesel fuel.
Bhupendra Singh Chauhan[91] et al. studied the performance and emission
characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with Karanja biodiesel and its diesel blends.
It is evaluated that the brake thermal efficiency of Karanja biodiesel blends (5%,
 30

10%, 20%, 30% and 100%) with mineral Diesel was about 3-5% lower when
compared to neat diesel fuel. The emission parameters such as unburnt hydro carbon
(UBHC), CO, CO2 and smoke emissions were observed to be lower while the NOx
emissions of all Karanja biodiesel blends were higher than Diesel fuel. And also,
from the combustion analysis the peak cylinder pressure and heat release rate was
lower for Karanja biodiesel. The results suggest that biodiesel production from non-
edible oil like Karanja and its diesel blends could be a potential fuel for diesel
engine and it play a important role in the near future particularly for small and
medium energy production.
Raheman et al. [92] investigated on the suitability of using karanja methyl ester-
diesel blends in diesel engine as an alternative fuel. They observed that karanja
methyl ester-diesel blends produced less CO, smoke density and NOX emissions
than diesel fuel. B40 blend showed more brake power output and it decreased with
higher blending ratios. They concluded that B40 blend could be used as best
substitute for diesel for higher power output with lower emissions.
Gajendra Babu [93] studied the fuel properties of Karanja Oil Methyl Ester (KOME)
and its diesel blends in the range of 20% - 80% by volume and conducted
experimental tests on DI diesel engine with these fuels. The blending of KOME to
diesel fuel has reduced CO, UBHC and smoke emissions significantly but NOx
emission increased slightly. The results indicated that there was no significant power
reduction when the engine runs with blends of KOME and diesel fuel. It was noted
that there was remarkable improvement in brake thermal efficiency for B20 and B40
blends.
Banapurmath et al. [94] carried out investigations on characteristics of DI diesel
engine when fuelled with Honge oil, its ester and ester-diesel blends (B10, B20,
B40, B80, and B100) with respect to change in injection timing and injection
pressure. Experimentation was conducted for three different fuel injection timings
such as 19, 23 and 27o bTDC at different load conditions and at rated speed of
engine. Further experiments were repeated with different fuel injection opening
pressure of 205, 220, 240, 260 and 280bar. The heat release rates, cumulative heat
release rates, peak cylinder pressure, maximum rate of pressure rise, ignition delay
and combustion duration were also measured for these fuels. Overall better
 31

performance was observed at injection timing of 19oBTDC when the engine

operated on both oil and its esters. Honge oil gave better performance at injection
pressure of 260bar. Amongst different blends B20 blend showed favorable results in
engine tests.
Sanjid et al. [95] investigated the research works on the performance and emissions
characteristics of diesel engine fuelled with palm, WCO (waste cooking oil) and
Calophyllum inophyllum biofuels. It has been revealed that only mustard oil showed
reduction of NOx while remaining fuels showed higher NOx emissions. It is also
observed that increasing concentration of biofuel in the blend that increases BSFC and
decreases BP due to lower heating value of biofuels. It is suggested that NOx
emissions for biofuels can be decreased by improving the cetane number and
retardation of injection timing. And also, exhaust gas recirculation measures can be
taken to reduce NOx emissions effectively.
Avinash Kumar Agarwal et al [96] studied and compares biodiesels (Karanja-and
Jatropha-based), and their blends with mineral diesel fuel. The results show that diesel
fuel provides greater atomization and evaporation behavior when compared to the
biodiesel test fuels. And Karanja biodiesel provides superior atomization and
evaporation characteristics when compared to Jatropha biodiesel.
Devan et al. [97] conducted experiments to study the performance, emission and
combustion characteristics of a DI diesel engine fuelled by poon oil-based fuels. It has
been reported that at full load condition, the brake thermal efficiency of neat poon oil
is reduced by 3.7% when compared to standard diesel. The HC and smoke emissions
were increased for neat poon oil and poon oil20 (20% poon oil and 80% diesel in a
blend) while decreased for MEPO100, MEPO40 (40% methyl ester of poon oil in a
blend). However NOx emissions were decreased for neat poon oil and neat poon oil20
(20% poon oil-diesel blend) while increased for MEPO100, MEPO40 (40% methyl
ester of poon oil in a blend). The combustion analysis showed a shorter ignition delay
for all the tested fuels. Finally, it was concluded that the poon oil methyl ester and its
blends can be used as substitute for diesel fuel in a diesel engine without any
modification of engine.
 32

2.5 DIESEL/BIODIESEL AND GASEOUS FUEL INDUCTED DUAL FUEL

ENGINES

This section of literature review mainly focuses on important engine variables

and their effect on the performance of dual fuel engine when operated on Biogas-
liquid fuels. Injection timing, compression ratio and exhaust gas recirculation are
some of engine parameters which affect the dual fuel engine performance.
The dual fuel engine can allow a wide range of variety light volatility liquid
and gaseous fuels as the primary source of energy. Such engine can produce
comparable thermal efficiency with lower smoke emission particularly at higher load
conditions. In this engine gaseous fuel or alcohol (high volatile) is inducted along
with air through inlet manifold. The homogeneous form of gas-air mixture is
compressed in engine to a temperature below the self ignition point of inducted fuel.
High cetane value pilot fuel is injected through the standard injection system into the
engine. This injected fuel self ignites and initiates the combustion of the primary fuel
air homogeneous mixture.
Paul. A et al. [98] have experimentally studied on performance-emissions of diesel
engine run on diesel-natural gas and diesel-ethanol blend with natural gas enrichment
combination. They observed the natural gas enriched D95E5 (95% diesel+5%
ethanol) fuelled engine performance was higher than those of normal diesel and
diesel-natural gas operation. They noted that smoke and NOx emissions were reduced
by the ethanol addition.
T S Hora and AK Agarwal[99] have conducted experimental study of the effect of
composition of hydrogen enriched compressed natural gas on engine performance,
combustion and emission parameters. BTE, BSEC and BSFC improved with load as
well as addition of hydrogen to CNG. EGT was observed to be lower for hydrogen
enriched compressed natural gas (HCNG) mixtures. Combustion characteristics such
as cylinder pressure, rate of pressure rise and heat release rate were also improved
with HCNG mixtures. Peak cylinder pressure was higher at higher loads and it is
shifted towards TDC. CO2 and NOx emission levels increased with increasing brake
mean effective pressure for a given fuel, while CO and HC emissions were decreased.
However, with addition of hydrogen HC, CO and CO2 emissions reduced, while NOx
emissions were increased.
 33

Abdelaal and Hegab [100] investigated the effect of pilot fuel injection timing of on
the performance characteristics of a dual fuel single cylinder compression ignition
research engine operated with gaseous fuels. It has been reported that the operation
of dual fuel engines suffers from lower thermal efficiency and higher percentages of
unburned fuel at low load conditions. The dual fuel engine used diesel fuel as the
pilot fuel, and methane/propane as the primary fuel which was inducted in the intake
manifold along the flow of intake air. The results showed that the advanced injection
timing of the pilot fuel can benefit significantly in terms of improving of low
efficiency and poor emissions at low loads.
Selim et al., [101] carried out an investigation on the jojoba methyl ester used as
pilot fuel for dual fuel engine running on natural gas/ LPG fuels. This investigation
studied the effect of engine parameters like gaseous fuel type, engine speed and
load, pilot fuel injection timing, pilot fuel mass and compression ratio. It was
showed that dual fuel engine with jojoba biodiesel as pilot fuel, improved
performance with reduced noise of combustion, extended knocking limits and
reduced combustion cyclic variability.
Karim et al., [102] carried out investigation to evaluate the performance of gas
fuelled diesel engine (dual fuel) at low load and identified threshold limit on the
combustion of the gaseous fuel through bulk flame spread in combustion chamber.
Limiting value of equivalence ratio for the apparent flame spread limit has been
estimated through a simple approach for methane fuel operated dual fuel engine.
Yoshimoto et al. [103] carried out investigation on the combustion characteristics of
a dual fuel diesel engine, operated with natural gas as primary fuel and fatty acid
methyl esters (FAME) as ignition fuels. Dual fuel operation with combination of
CNG and fatty acid methyl ester fuels and CNG-gas oil operation are similar. With
75 % of CNG supply rate the brake thermal efficiency was similar to that of
conventional diesel operation at BMEP of 0.67MPa. It was observed that when the
CNG supply rate higher than 75%, the brake thermal efficiency decreased
significantly as well as the HC and NOx emissions increased sharply due to unstable
ignition. The reason for combustion fluctuations may be the appearance of misfiring.
Bahman Najafi et al. [104] conducted experiments to investigate the performance
and emission parameters of a diesel engine (small) fuelled with CNG and biodiesel
 34

(Methyl ester of sunflower oil) combinations. The results suggested that CNG could
be ideally replaced 90% of diesel while remaining 10% diesel used as pilot fuel. The
tests results showed for ECR-49 standard engine that with increasing biodiesel
concentration in pilot fuel compound the combustion chamber peak pressure,
exhaust engine temperature and ignition delay were reduced. CO and NOx emissions
were reduced due to inherent biodiesel property. However, UBHC emissions were
increased due to incomplete combustion of B10 blended fuel.
Abdelghaffar [105] converted direct injection (DI) diesel engine to operate under
dual fuel mode and suggested that, diesel engine could be modified to work with
CNG fuel without much more engine modifications required. Based on results
obtained for different torques and speeds dual-fuel combustion is improved with this
technique for limiting smoke emissions. Brake thermal efficiency was lower for
dual-fuel mode engine operation than those of diesel operation upto medium load
(torque) conditions. However, the BSFC, CO and HC emissions could be reduced by
regulating of pilot fuel quantity in the dual fuel operation.
Mohamed Selim et al [106] conducted tests to study the pressure-time characteristics
of dual fuel engine running on diesel and three gaseous fuels namely liquid
petroleum gas, pure methane and compressed mixtures separately as primary fuels.
It has been reported the results, with these primary gaseous fuels fuelled dual fuel
mode operated engine with the effect of parameters such as engine speed, load, pilot
injection angle, pilot fuel quantity, and compression ratio on combustion noise,
knocking torque, thermal efficiency and maximum pressure. They concluded that
the noise of combustion, knocking tendency and ignition characteristics were
different for different type of gaseous fuels, as well as combustion chamber design
and operating characteristics for dual fuel mode operation.
Srinivasan et al. [107] conducted experimental analysis on diesel as pilot fuel-
ignited for natural gas-air mixture at low-temperature combustion with hot exhaust
gas recirculation to accomplish high efficiencies (about 41%) and very low NOx
(0.2g/kWh). At part load operations, the ALPING (advanced injection pilot injection
natural gas) low temperature combustion mode was suffered from higher HC
emissions (mostly unburned methane) and poor stability of engine. To resolve such
problem, introduced various levels of hot EGR (0-26%) at different load conditions
 35

on a research engine run at a constant speed of 1700 rev/min. The results showed
that HC emissions can be reduced up to 70% without significant penalty of NOx
emissions at 60o bTDC injection timing with hot exhaust gas recirculation 8% of fuel
conversion efficiency was improved while coefficient of variation in indicated mean
effective pressure and CO emissions were decreased by about 20% and about 40%
respectively.
Nwafor O.M.I. [108] studied the effect of advanced injection timing on the emission
characteristics of dual-fuel engine powered by natural gas and diesel fuel
combinations in a dual fuel mode of operation. It was observed the engine runs in
erratic manner with injection timing advanced from 30o bTDC to 35.5o bTDC while
the engine runs smoother with further advanced injection timing of 38.5o BTDC.
The test results showed that the gaseous fuels exhibited longer ignition delays by
that slower combustion. However, with the advanced injection timing the fuel
consumption rate was increased while CO and CO2 emission levels were reduced.
Papagiannakis et al. [109] studied the emission characteristics of a high speed, dual
fuel mode compression ignition engine fuelled on different natural gas/diesel fuel
proportions. Heat release rate increases with increase of the gaseous fuel
concentration in the cylinder charge. At higher load condition, the increase of liquid
fuel supplementary ratio has a positive effect (i.e. reduction) on the NOx emission
were reduced (about 47%) more than diesel normal operation for increasing liquid
fuel ratio at lower speed operation. They reported that the soot emissions could be
effectively reduced with use of more liquid fuel substitution in dual fuel operation at
range of speeds.
Luijten et al. [110] have studied the operation of Jatropha oil and Biogas in a dual fuel
CI engine for rural electrification. They observed that the thermal efficiency reduced
up to 10% at lower loads, with the addition of biogas addition. Both volumetric
efficiency and air excess ratio reduce with addition of biogas, in quantitative
agreement with predictions. The dual fuel engine runs smoothly up to a certain level
of heat release fraction of methane and then some irregularities are observed, it may
be attributable to light end-gas knock.
Ryu K. [111] investigated on the effect of injection timing on combustion and
emission characteristics of a diesel dual fuel engine powered with biodiesel-CNG.
 36

Tests were conducted to investigate the performance and exhaust emissions at pilot
injection pressure of nearly 120 MPa (mega Pascal) with the pilot injection timing
varied from 11-23o crank angle before top dead center (bTDC). It was noticed that
the better performance was achieved with biodiesel-CNG dual fuel combustion
(DFC) by advancing the pilot injection timing particularly for low load conditions
and for high loads with delaying injection timing. Cycle-to-cycle variations were
less than 1.3% for all conditions with dual fuel used. The biodiesel-CNG dual fuel
combustion begins at a later crank angle degree when compared with diesel SFC.
DFC ignition delay is longer of 1.6-4.4oCA than that of the diesel normal operation.
With the increasing of engine loads reduced ignition delay period. At lower loads,
the brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) of biodiesel-CNG DFC improved
with advanced pilot injection timing and at full load condition, BSEC improved with
delayed pilot injection timing. The biodiesel-CNG DFC exhibited significant
reduction in smoke opacity for all range of loads and increased NOx emissions
except at full load with advanced pilot injection timing compared to diesel SFC.
However, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions were higher for CNG with
Biodiesel operations at lower load.
Thipse .S.S. et al. [112] developed the methodology adopted for environment
friendly dual fuel diesel CNG engine for heavy duty application. Dual fuel diesel-
CNG engine combustion was conducted to study the effect of different engine
operating parameters compared with conventional diesel operation mode with
Chemical kinetic and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation. They
observed that dual fuel engines have number of potential advantages like flexibility
of fuel, lower emissions, using higher compression ratio, better efficiency and easy
conversion of existing diesel engines into dual fuel engine without much hardware
modifications involved.
N.N. Mustafi et al. [113] conducted experimental investigation to study the effect of
dual fuel combustion on the performance and emissions characteristics of a direct
injection CI engine fuelled with natural gas and biogas. In this study it was observed
that the dual fuel mode operation is stable and smoother at the considered operating
conditions. They observed that the brake specific fuel consumption was increased as
biogas was inducted into the engine as proportional to the CO2 present in the gas and
 37

BSEC results were on energy basis similar to each other. It was noted that maximum
cylinder pressure were similar for diesel (high) and dual fueling mode irrespective of
fuel gas quality at considered operating conditions of the engine. But in the case of
dual fueling, the maximum cylinder pressure occurred later in the cycle when
compared to those of diesel high load fueling (DH). It was reported that longer
ignition delay period was observed for diesel at low load and dual fuel conditions
when compared to DH due to presence of higher CO2 in the gaseous fuel. It was
recorded that NHRR obtained for Diesel+ Natural gas (D+NG) and Diesel+ Biogas
(D+BG) fueling were higher about 27% and 30% respectively than those of diesel
fueling. The dual fueling NOx emission was always lower than the diesel fueling
conditions. The specific NOx density for different D+BG fueling conditions was
found to be reduced by about 9 to 12% due to increasing content of CO2 compared
with DH fueling. The specific UHC concentration compared between D+NG and
D+BG fueling increased sharply compared to baseline diesel fueling. However in the
case of D+BG fueling increased rapidly in proportionate to the CO2 content in biogas
than D+NG. It was noted the PM mass emissions were reduced about 70% in the case
of dual fueling irrespective of its fuel quality.
Yoon SH et al. [114] carried out experimental investigation on the combustion and
emission characteristics of dual-fuel CI engine operated on biogas–biodiesel with
biogas injection system. It was observed that the peak pressure and heat release rate
for biogas–biodiesel dual-fuel slightly lower than that of biogas–diesel combustion at
20% load while at 60% load, biogas–biodiesel combustion showed slightly higher
peak cylinder pressure, heat release rate, and indicated mean effective pressure than
those of single fuel mode diesel operation. And also it was found the ignition delay
for biogas–biodiesel has shortened trends compared to diesel dual fueling due to the
biodiesels higher cetane number. It was identified that dual-fuel ignition delays for
both fuels were longer than single-fuel mode operations due to reduction of charge
temperature for the gas–air mixture as well as biogas high overall specific heat
capacity. However, in case of biodiesel the ignition delay for both single and dual-fuel
combustions was slightly shorter than those of diesel, because of short injection delay
period, the oxygen content and the high cetane number of biodiesel. They observed
that the exhaust gas temperatures of dual-fuel combustions were slightly lower
 38

compared to single-fuel modes and the difference between two modes high at higher
engine loads. The brake specific fuel consumption for both dual-fuel combustions
were significantly higher than for single-fuel combustions at low loads (20% and
40%) while at high loads (over 80%) a significant improvement in total BSFC with
dual-fuel combustions because of higher conversion of biogas into work. They noted
that there was significant lower NOx emission for the dual fuel operation for both
pilot fuels than diesel and biodiesel single fuel operation. The biogas–biodiesel
showed superior performance in reduction of soot emissions due to the absence of
aromatics, low sulfur content, and the lower stoichiometric air need and inbuilt
oxygen content of biodiesel. The HC, CO emission concentrations were considerably
higher for the dual-fuel mode for both pilot fuels compared to those of the single-fuel
mode under all operating test conditions. The results showed an increase in unburned
emissions in dual-fuel combustion due to the induction of biogas and the CO2 content
of the gas mixture. However, the CO2 emissions for both modes were higher with
biodiesel combustion because of the oxygen in biodiesel fuel permitted more CO
emissions to be oxidized into CO2 emissions.
Swami Nathan et al. [115] have conducted experimental study of performance and
emission characteristics of the biogas–diesel HCCI (homogenous charge compression
ignition) mode of engine operation. It showed that combustion can be controlled with
effective use of biogas in the HCCI mode with manifold injected diesel and charge
temperature. Normally the high heat release occur in HCCI engines fuelled with
diesel that heat release was suppressed by the presence of CO2 in biogas and
methane high self ignition temperature helps delay the combustion process to
favorable crank angles. The efficiency of HCCI combustion closes to diesel operation
along with extremely low NO and smoke emissions were observed at BMEP (brake
mean effective pressure) in range of 2.5–4 bars. It was noted that HCCI mode of
operation could be better than the biogas diesel dual fuel mode of operation in terms
of thermal efficiency and emissions of NO and smoke for all range of BMEPs. It was
found that the thermal efficiency is 27.2% in the biogas–diesel HCCI mode where as
30% with diesel fuel operation at 4 bar BMEP. At all conditions the biogas–diesel
HCCI mode the NO was less than 20 ppm. The biogas–diesel HCCI mode HC
emissions were significantly higher when compared to the normal diesel mode
 39

operation. The HC emission level increased with the biogas energy ratio in HCCI
operation. For better results charge temperature is needed about 80–135oC which can
be attained with use of heat of exhaust gases. Finally, they concluded that for better
results the biogas–diesel HCCI mode can be employed for medium to high output
ranges thus the biogas can be utilized in a diesel engine.
Chandra et al. [116] evaluated the performance characteristics of IC engine(diesel
engine conversion into spark ignition) fuelled on CNG, methane enriched biogas and
biogas as fuels. They conducted tests on the stationary 5.9 kW diesel engine
converted into spark ignition mode showed that the maximum brake power produced
by the engine in respect to 35oTDC among the tests evaluated at 30, 35 and 40
ignition advance of TDC at compression ratio of 12.65 for compressed natural gas,
methane enriched biogas and raw biogas. It was that observed power losses for
conversion of CI engine into SI engine had been 31.8%, 35.6% and 46.3% for CNG,
methane enriched biogas and raw biogas, respectively. The engine test results showed
the performance parameters such as thermal efficiency, specific gas consumption and
brake power output on methane enriched biogas fuelled engine (containing 95%
methane) is almost similar to that of compressed natural gas fuelled engine. Thus, the
methane enriched biogas gaseous fuel is as good as natural gas because of similar
performance of both fuels. In addition to that the biogas is a renewable fuel and CO2
neutral fuel in terms of net emissions of carbon to the atmosphere.
Phan Minh Duc and Kanit Wattanavichien [117] studied on performance
characteristics of unmodified biogas premixed charge diesel dual fuelled engine
(DDF). It was observed that no performance deterioration for biogas premixed charge
diesel dual fuelling engine at all test speeds while efficiency deterioration reduced
with engine load increased. The efficiency inferred at low/medium loads, the DDF
engine produced higher unburnt hydro carbon and less soot where as the efficiency
was comparable with diesel fuelling at full load. The test results showed lower
exhaust gas temperature irrespective of engine load and speed for DDF mode
operation due to the shorter combustion period brought about by DDF operation.
They reported that the DDF engine could not withstand the higher thermal load in
endurance test which consumes high unacceptable levels of lube oil due to increased
 40

oil and cooling water temperatures. Hence, reduced substitution of diesel fuel is
needed to overcome this situation and for safe engine operation.
Debabrata Barik and Murugan S. [118] investigated experimentally on combustion
performance and emission characteristics of a direct injection dual fuel mode diesel
engine fueled with biogas-diesel. They have used Pongamia Pinnata de-oiled cake for
biogas production and obtained methane up to 73% that has to be used as gaseous fuel
in dual fuel engine. They identified that the optimum result in combustion,
performance and emission were shown at 0.9 kg/h biogas flow rate with possible
diesel replacement of 0.215 kg/h when compared to other flow rates, at full load. It
was noted that BSFC increased about 36% and 6.2% drop in BTE while CO and HC
emission increased by17% and 30% while NO, CO2 and smoke emissions reduced by
39%, 42% and 49% respectively, in dual fuel operation with 0.9 kg/h biogas flow rate
in comparison with diesel, at full load condition. They have reported that the use of
biogas as primary fuel with diesel in a dual fuel mode CI engine is desirable to reduce
pollutant emissions, reducing substantial usage of conventional diesel with effective
utilize bio energy from biomass. It is also a promising technique for the on farm
electricity generation. Finally, they stated that biogas dual fuel engine is not only
suitable for use of wide variety of gaseous fuel resources effectively, but also it has
the great potential to avoid much of the present and future problems to conventional
diesel engines including more significant reduction in exhaust gas emissions trade-
offs.
Bhaskor J. Bora et al. [119] studied by conducting experiments on the influence of
compression ratio on performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a DI
dual fuel mode diesel engine operated with raw biogas as primary fuel. They observed
that at full load, the BTEs were found to be 20.04%, 18.25%, 17.07% and 16.42% at
compression ratios18, 17, 17.5 and 16, respectively in dual fuel mode operation where
as it was 27.76% for diesel operation. And also, at the same load, it was noted the
maximum pilot fuel i.e. diesel fuel saving achieved by 79.46%, 76.1%, 74% and 72%
for compression ratios 18, 17, 17.5 and 16, respectively. They found that an average
reduction in CO as well as HC by 26.22% and 41.97% for compression ratio change
in the range, from 16-18 in dual fuel mode operation test. However, NOx as well as
CO2 emission increased by 66.65% and 27.18% respectively for the same range of
 41

CR change. Finally, they stated based on results of this study, that the performance
and emissions of a biogas run dual fuel diesel engine are function of CR and optimum
results obtained at higher compression ratio.

2.6 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW

The following observations are drawn from the literature survey.

 Vegetable oils are promising substitute one for DI diesel engine without
modification for a short period of operation.
 Biodiesels are derived from vegetable oils through transesterification process
for reducing viscosity and improving other properties to bring in the range of
ASTM standards.
 Bio-CNG can be treated as one of the best promising alternative fuels,
particularly for compression ignition engines as major substituting amount of
diesel fuels.
 Diesel engine is converted into the dual fuel mode to operate with Bio-CNG as
fuel (primary) and biodiesel blends as pilot fuels can reduce simultaneously
NOx emissions and smoke emissions significantly with pilot fuel substitution.
 Effect of venturi mixing chamber type on the performance, combustion and
emissions of Bio-CNG with the diesel blends of PME and KME fuels in dual
fuel mode have not been investigated in detail.
It is evident that dual fuel operation with Bio-CNG as primary fuel with the
best blends of Polanga and Karanja oil methyl esters can reduce substantial potential
of diesel fuel.

2.7 NEED FOR THE PRESENT WORK

Literature survey indicates that there is one option for reducing dependence
on fossil fuels with substitution of Bio-CNG with the biodiesel blends on dual fuel
mode DI diesel engine. The selected biodiesels such as polanga oil and karanja oils
methyl esters are derived from that feed stocks which are available cheaply and
abundantly in India particularly in southern regions. The raw biogas is produced
from vegetarian waste and cow dung at low cost, mainly in the rural areas. It can be
generated more employability for rural regions by that it can boost up overall
economy of the country. The raw biogas has been treated with some chemical
 42

process to reduce carbon dioxide; the enriched form of biogas is named as Bio-CNG
in the present study because it has physical properties nearer to CNG. Therefore, the
present research work is mainly aimed at studying the dual fuel engine performance
with Bio-CNG with the best diesel blends of polanga oil methyl ester and karanja oil
methyl ester fuels. This combination of biofuels can reduce usage of conventional
fuels substantially by that reducing the importing of crude oil significantly.