Igneous & Metamorphic Petrology I LECTURE 15, 16

Magmatism at Convergent Plate Margins

1. Convergent Plate Margins
The convergent plate margins are the most intense areas of active magmatism above sea level at the present time. Most
of world's violent volcanic activity occurs along these zones. In addition, much magmatism also has resulted (and probably is
resulting at present) in significant additions to the crust in the form of plutonic igneous rocks. Here, we will look at this
magmatism in terms of the volcanic rocks that appear to be related to subduction.
1.1. Tectonic Setting
Two main scenarios are possible ocean-
ocean convergence producing island arcs
(e.g. Aleutian islands, Japan, New Zealand),
sometimes with a double arc one further
back from the subduction zone, and ocean-
continent convergence producing cordillera
(e.g. Andes) – continental arcs.

Oceanic island arcs should not be confused

with ocean island chains such as the
Hawaiian islands. Ocean island arcs
develop due to magmatism at oceanic-
oceanic subduction zones. In detail their
structure varies considerably, however,
with increasing distance from the
subduction zone they usual have an
accretionary prism of oceanic sediments
with a forearc basin adjacent to the subduction zone, a volcanic island arc, and a back-arc basin in which extension occurs.
Magmatism occurs in the volcanic arc and the back-arc basin. Cordillera show similar features including double volcanic
zones and bark-arc extension.
2. Magmatism
Calc-alkaline igneous rocks are characteristic of subduction related magmatism, however, they are NOT the only igneous
rocks present and in the case of many young ocean island arcs are sometimes NOT the most abundant. Although many
calc-alkaline lavas are intermediate and acid, all acid and intermediate igneous rocks are not calc-alkaline. We have already
seen that intermediate and acid magmas can be found on Oceanic Islands and continental rifts. Igneous rocks are defined
as calc-alkaline on the basis of their composition and fractionation trends since these differ from those of tholeiitic and
alkaline magmas.

The first definition of calc-alkaline igneous rocks was that of Peacock’s alkali-
lime index. The variation diagram opposite shows the Ca and alkali contents of
a series of related volcanic rocks relative to their silica content. All these rocks
are related by crystal fractionation and the curves show fractionation trends.
As we saw in Skaergaard with increasing crystal fractionation silica contents in
a magma generally increase (because we are removing silica-poor minerals).
Calcium content of a magma may increase at first during fractionation prior to
the crystallisation of Ca-rich plagioclase. Once plagioclase begins to crystallise,
however, the Ca-content of the magma becomes less and the alkali-content
increases (because alkalis are not being removed by the Ca-rich plagioclase).
Where these two curves cross gives peacock’s alkali-lime index. Peacock
defined igneous rocks with an index of between 56-61 as calc-alkali. Tholeiites
have indexes of 51-56 and alkaline rocks of <51.
2.1. The Calc-Alkaline Fractionation Trend.
The modern definition of calc-alkaline, however, uses the form of fractionation trend on an AFM (alkali-Fe-Mg) diagram.
Unlike the Tholeiite-fractionation trend, which shows initial Fe-enrichment
due to the early crystallisation of Mg-rich silicates (e.g. olivine and
pyroxene), the calc-alkaline fractionation trend shows increases in alkalis
and little Fe-enrichment. Calc-alkaline rocks are also high in Al. Note that
calc-alkaline basalts have similar compositions to tholeiites but aluminous.
Andesites are mainly calc-alkaline, those with the highest Mg are known
as boninites.
The origins of the calc-alkaline trend are still controversial but are
known to relate to the effects of H2O on the phase relations controlling
crystal fractionation. The presence of water depresses the liquidus of
most dry-silicate minerals. Plagioclase will, therefore, be more Ca-rich at
lower temperatures. Dissolving water in magma also increases the
oxygen fugacity (see melt structure notes) and makes it more likely that
an iron-oxide will crystallise. Finally water in the magma also stabilises
hydrous minerals, such as hornblende, and allows them to crystallise from

M. Genge, 2002 m.genge@ic.ac.uk, tel: 46499, office 3.47.

Igneous & Metamorphic Petrology I LECTURE 15, 16

the magma. The effects of water increase with pressure.

Crystallisation of Ca-rich plagioclase and hornblende, two silica-poor minerals causes increases in silica to occur
rapidly with fractionation. The early crystallisation of Fe-rich minerals such as hornblende and iron-oxides (e.g. magnetite)
will prevent olivine and pyroxene from overly enriching the magma in Fe as they crystallise producing the calc-alkaline
fractionation trend.
Calc-alkaline igneous rocks can be further divided into low-K, medium-K, high-K and shoshonitic (very high
potassium) divisions on the basis of their potassium and silica contents. The outlined field shows 90% of andesite-basalts
from arcs and cordillera.
2.2. Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Magmatism.
Magmatism in island arcs usually evolves from early tholeiitic magmatism
(albeit aluminous basalts) to tholeiites and andesites (e.g. Tonga-Kermadec
islands). More mature island arcs (such as New Zealand) and cordillera show a
wider range of magmas (basalt to rhyolite) with a dominance of silicic magmas
(particularly in cordillera). The latest magmas are also frequently the most
alkali-rich (see the calc-alkaline fractionation trend). Generally young arcs such
as Tonga-Kermadoc show fractionation trends with Fe-enrichment similar to
tholeiites

Back-arc basins (such as the South Fiji Basin) tend to erupt tholeiites that are
similar to MORB. The reasons for extension in back-arc basins are
controversial, however, there is evidence for lithospheric thinning in these
regions and a shallow asthenosphere.

Spatial variations in the compositions of magmas are also observed in

particular the K-content of magmas increases with depth to the Benioff Zone
(the seismically active rigid subducting plate). Closest to the trench are low-K
tholeiites, then Calc-Alkaline and furthest away highly potassic magmas.
2.3. Nature of Volcanism
Calc-alkaline volcanism is typically explosive and produces
large stratovolcanoes (see volcanoes notes). Basaltic
magmas in arcs are often erupted around the areas
surrounding the stratovolcanoes from cinder cones and as
lava flows. Evidence for the mixing of basaltic magma with
intermediate/acid magmas in the magma chambers
feeding stratovolcanoes is commonly observed as mixed
pumice fragments. It thus seems likely that basaltic
magmas only erupt at the surface where they do not
encounter magma chambers containing more silicic
magma.

The final stage in development of many stratovolcanoes is

erosion and collapse to form calderas. These rounded
craters overlie the magma chamber, usually once it has
fractionated to produce rhyolitic magma. Repeated
swelling (resurgence) of the caldera floor often proceeds
major explosive eruptions. Collapse of the caldera into the
magma chamber occurs during eruptions that are
focused on the ring faults that form the margins of the
caldera.
2.4. Petrology of Calc-Alkaline Rocks
Due to the nature of the calc-alkaline fractionation trend most calc-alkaline lavas are andesites, dacites, rhyolites and qtz
latites (see classification system below). Lavas evolved from the tholeiite fractionation trend are mainly latites, trachytes
and rhyolites. Intrusive (coarse-grained) calc-alkaline rocks are granites, and diorites.
Andesites and dacites usually have plagioclase with oscillatory zoning. This may be diffusion controlled (Ca becomes
depleted around the growing feldspar). Alternatives include convective cycling through a chemically or thermally layered
magma chamber, magma mixing repeatedly changing the composition of the magma, or changes in the H2O content of the
magma (lowering and raising the liquidus of plagioclase).

M. Genge, 2002 m.genge@ic.ac.uk, tel: 46499, office 3.47.

Igneous & Metamorphic Petrology I LECTURE 15, 16

3. Origins of Magmatism at Convergent Plate Margins.

3.1. Trace Element Systematics
The trace elements of calc-alkaline and tholeiitic
magmas from oceanic island arcs are enriched
relative to MORB for most elements. The trace
elements can be split into three groups
depending on their behaviour.
(1) Large Ion Lithophiles (LILE)
These are elements with a large ionic radii and
have a low field strength (i.e. mono- and divalent).
They include the light rare earth elements (LREE
– shown as light grey large circles) as well as
alkalis and Sr (black large circles). The
enrichment of LILE increases with K-content.
(2) High Field Strength Elements (HFSE)
These are trivalent elements with small ionic
radii. These are much less enriched than LILE
and are shown as large white circles).
(3) Heavy Rare Earth Elements (HREE) – these
all have similar abundances (often close to MORB).

LILE are highly soluble in water whereas HFSE are not. The enrichment in LILE compared with HFSE in the magmas thus
suggests the source regions where enriched by aqueous solutions. The flat-profile and MORB-like abundances of the HREE
are also significant since although these elements are incompatible under most circumstances they are compatible in
garnet and will be retained by this mineral during melting. Magmas derived by melting of garnet peridotites, deep within the
mantle (e.g. kimberlites), thus have significant depletions in HREE relative to MORB. The lack of a depletion in the HREE thus
indicates garnet was absent from the source regions of convergent plate margins. This is important since basalts and
gabbros within subducted oceanic crust transform to
eclogite at pressure which contains abundant garnet.
Magmas generated at convergent plate margins,
therefore, cannot be generated by melting of
subducted oceanic crust but from the mantle wedge
overlying the subducting slab. The observation that K
(and the other incompatible elements) become
increasingly abundant with distance from the margin
(i.e. as the benioff zone increases in depth) would be
consistent with decreases in the amount of partial
melting.
3.1.a. Key Features
Magmas with affinities to island arc/cordilleria are
often identified on the basis of their depleted Nb and
Ta contents (these are HFSE), and their high Ba/Ti
contents (Ba is a LILE, Ti is a HFSE).
3.2. Isotopic Evidence.
The Nd-Sr isotopes of convergent plate margin
magmatic rocks support the evidence from trace
elements that these magmas originate from a depleted MORB-like source (i.e. depleted lithospheric mantle) that has been
enriched. They suggest the enriching fluids originate from oceanic sediments and/or seawater. The fact that many CPM
rocks plot to the right (i.e. are enriched in 87Sr) relative to the mantle array (MORB and OIB) in particular suggests seawater
contributes to their enrichment (shown as square in diagram).

M. Genge, 2002 m.genge@ic.ac.uk, tel: 46499, office 3.47.

Igneous & Metamorphic Petrology I LECTURE 15, 16

The origin of the enriching fluid may be constrained even further

using Be isotopes and the abundance of B and Be. Boron is a
highly incompatible element and is highly soluble in aqueous
solutions. It also has a very low abundance in depleted mantle.
Boron is, however, abundant in oceanic crust that has been
altered by hydrothermal activity at MORS (see below). 10Be is a
short-lived radionuclide (half life 1.5 Myr) produced in the upper
atmosphere by collisions between galactic cosmic rays and oxygen
and nitrogen atoms. Because of its short half-life it disappears in
approx 10 Myr and is thus found in younger oceanic sediments.

Live 10Be is found in calc-alkaline magmas and indicates that fluids

from young oceanic sediments have enriched the depleted mantle
source. The abundance of B in calc-alkaline magmas indicates that
fluids are also derived from altered oceanic crust. These two
sources contribute by different amounts in different areas to the
enrichment of the mantle wedge overlying the subducting slab.
3.2.a. Hydrothermal Alteration of Oceanic Crust
The reason that live 10Be is not found within altered oceanic
crust is that the hydrothermal alteration occurs mainly
around Mid Oceanic Ridges within several million years of
crust generation and tens of millions of years before
subduction. Alteration is caused by the hydrothermal
circulation of seawater and magma-derived fluids. In the
upper pillow basalts this is largely oxidising due to the large
amounts of seawater that penetrate the high porosity
volcanic sequence. Alteration occurs at temperatures
<250°C producing clays, carbonates, zeolites and prehnite –
greenschist facies metamorphism). At larger depths in the
sheeted dyke complex and underlying gabbros, higher T
seawater (>400°C) leaches alkalis, metals and sulpur.
Alteration in this lower zone is dominated by amphibole. The
metal and sulphur-rich fluids rise through the sequence and
cause mineralisation. At the surface they produce black smokers which can be preserved in ophiolites as massive sulphide
deposits. Note that hydrothermal alteration produces a volatile (H2O and CO2)-rich assemblage.
3.3. Model for the genesis of Calc-Alkaline Magmas
Using the evidence above and the tectonic setting of
subduction we can construct a model to explain the
generation of magmas at convergent margins.
(1) Water-bearing minerals such as clays, chlorite and
amphibole in altered oceanic crust and oceanic
sediment dehydrate during subduction due to
increases in temperature (see phase diagram for
hydrous oceanic crust below).
(2) The aqueous fluids generated by dehydration of the
oceanic crust rise and infiltrate the overlying depleted
lithospheric mantle wedge. They react with the
lithospheric peridotites causing metasomatism and
producing hydrous mineral assemblages (pargasite
and phlogopite – see notes on metasomites lecture
11). The fluids, and the metasomatised mantle, are
rich in LILE such as K and the LREE.
(3) The lithospheric mantle wedge is dragged down by
subduction and the temperature increases. The
metasomatised, hydrous peridotite of the mantle
wedge above the subducting slab has a much lower
solidus temperature than dry peridotite and begins to melt at temperatures as low as 800°C producing aluminous
basaltic magmas which are enriched in LILE. Further subduction drags the mantle wedge deeper and further melting
and removal of LILE occurs. Increases in the solidus of the peridotite with increasing pressure (i.e depth) lead to lower
degrees of melting and more LILE enriched magmas (because LILE are incompatible).
(4) Dehydration of the hydrated, metasomatised mantle itself may occur as it is dragged further down. First paragasite
and then phlogopite dehydrating (see phase diagram below). The aqueous fluids produced by dehydrating the mantle
wedge will rise and cause metasomatism of the overlying hotter mantle (it is hotter due to mantle flow caused by the
downwards drag of the wedge overlying the slab). This metasomatism by aqueous fluids may cause further melting and
explain magmatism further from the plate margin.

M. Genge, 2002 m.genge@ic.ac.uk, tel: 46499, office 3.47.

Igneous & Metamorphic Petrology I LECTURE 15, 16

(5) The calc-alkaline basaltic magmas produced by melting of the hydrated mantle wedge rise towards the surface. They
may be arrested and form magma chambers in which they evolve by crystal fractionation into the calc-alkaline series of
magmas or erupt at the surface as aluminous basalts. Later in the evolution of the magmatic arc rising basaltic
magmas will frequently encounter chambers and mix with the calc-alkaline magma. With increasing age of the arc
more silicic magmas are to be expected due to continued crystal fractionation and mixing of magmas. In cordilleria the
calc-alkaline magmas assimilate silica-rich continental crust explaining the predominance of silicic magmas.
(6) There are many complications that can affect the nature of melting by influencing the thermal regime and the
isotherms: (a) the rate of subduction, (b) the age of the subducting slab (young crust is hotter), (c) the age of the
subduction, (d) the extent to which the subducting slab causes downwards flow of the lithospheric mantle wedge.

Melting in the Crust

1. Granitic Rocks
Granitic rocks represent the most voluminous single igneous intrusions and yet the origin of these highly silicic magmas
has been a long standing problem in Earth Science. There are three main hypotheses: (1) granitic magmas are produced
by crystal fractionation of basaltic magmas, (2) granitic magmas are produced by melting of the crust by heating due to the
intrusion of basaltic magmas, and (3) granitic rocks are not igneous and are produced by solid state recrystallisation and
metasomatism of crustal rocks. The formation of most granitoids by crystal fractionation from basaltic magmas is unlikely
because the volume of the original basaltic magma would have to be hundreds of times larger than the granitic intrusions.
1.1. Classification of Granitic Rocks
Granitic rocks have been classified on the basis of their composition, textures and fabric, and the timing and form of their
intrusion.
1.1.a. Modal Mineralogy
Granitic rocks are intrusive calc-alkaline rocks and their classification is shown in the previous lecture notes. The majority of
granitic rocks have a restricted range of mineralogy and composition with 80% being granites (monzogranites). Most
granites contain accessory mafic minerals such as biotite, hornblende, and pyroxenes, along with opaque oxide minerals.
The base of the composition triangle is a thermal divide, that separates quartz-bearing rocks from feldspathoid-bearing
rocks (see lecture 14 and the residual system Ne-Qtz-Ks).
1.1.b. Fabric and Texture
Some granitic rocks are described in terms of their texture and fabric. Porphyrys are intrusive granitic rocks which have
large phenocrysts in a fine-grained aphantic groundmass. Typically they occur in shallow intrusions and can be associated
with Cu or Mo mineralisation. Aplites are fine-grained leucocratic
(light coloured) granitic rocks dominated by anhedral and subhedral
crystals (they have a sugary appearance). They are often found as
late stage dykes and veins. Pegmatites are extremely coarse-grained
rocks dominated by alkali feldspar and quartz and occur as late
stage dykes and pods within the granite. They crystallised from alkali-
and silica-rich H2O-fluids. Granophyres are granitic rocks dominated
by graphic or micrographic textures.
1.1.c. Depth of Emplacement
Catazonal. The catazone is the deepest level of emplacement,
usually considered to be at depths greater than about 11 km. In
such an environment there is a small difference in temperature
between the magma and the surrounding country rock, which is
generally high grade metamorphic rock. Contacts between the
plutons and the country rock are concordant (meaning the contacts
run parallel to structures such as foliation) and are often gradational.
The plutons themselves often show a foliation that is concordant

M. Genge, 2002 m.genge@ic.ac.uk, tel: 46499, office 3.47.

Igneous & Metamorphic Petrology I LECTURE 15, 16

with that in the surrounding metamorphic rocks. Migmatites (small pods of what appears to have been melted rock
surrounded by and grading into metamorphic rocks) are common. Some catazonal plutons appear to have formed by
either melting in place or by ultrametamorphism that grades into actually melting. Others appear to have intruded into
ductile crustal rocks.
Mesozonal. The mezozone occurs at intermediate crustal depths, likely between 8 and 12 km. The plutonic rocks are more
easily distinguished from the surrounding metamorphic rocks. Contacts are both sharp and discordant (cutting across
structures in the country rock), and gradational and concordant like in the catazone. The plutons generally lack foliation and
are often chemically and mineralogically zoned.
Epizonal. The epizone is the shallowest zone of emplacement, probably within a few kilometres of the surface. In such an
environment there is a large difference in temperatures between the magma and the country rock. The country rock is
commonly metamorphosed, but the metamorphism is contact metamorphism produced by the heat of the intrusion.
Contacts between the plutons and surrounding country rock are sharp and discordant, indicating intrusion into brittle and
cooler crust. Porphyrys are typical of the epizone.
1.1.d. Phase Relations
Another way of looking at the classification of granitic rocks is based on the feldspars, and whether or not they crystallized
under relatively dry low pressure conditions or "wet",
higher pressure conditions. At low pressure under dry
conditions, the alkali feldspars form a complete solid
solution at high temperature, but, upon slow cooling, they
eventually reach the solvus and exsolve into two
feldspars, one rich in albite and the other rich in
orthoclase. But, because of the low temperature at which
this occurs, only single feldspars will occur and these will
show a perthitic texture. Granites that crystallize under
low pressure and exhibit a single perthitic alkali feldspar
are considered hypersolvus granites.

At higher pressure, under water-saturated conditions,

the liquidus surface is suppressed and the solvus moves
up to intersect the solidus. This results in the crystallization of two alkali feldspar solid solutions, one rich in Ab, and the rich
in Or. Each of these will further exsolve on cooling to form perthites. Granites that crystallize under these conditions are
referred to as subsolvus granites. This may be useful in distinguishing between alkali granites that crystallized at high
pressure and those that crystallized at low pressure, however, the addition of plagioclase complicates the phase relations.
1.1.e. Timing of Emplacement
Post tectonic granites are those emplaced after regional deformation and
cut tectonic structures. Syntectonic granites
were emplaced during deformation and are
partially affected by the deformation, these are
generally mesozonal or catazonal. Pretectonic
granites were emplaced prior to regional
deformation and are usually catazonal. These
relationships suggests deep catazonal granites
were formed the earliest.
1.2. Granitic Intrusions
Granitic rocks are found in widely different
intrusions. At shallow depths (epizonal) granitic
rocks are often found in plugs (sub-vertical
pipes which may have been volcanic conduits),
ring dykes (e.g. intruded along the ring fault of a
caldera), laccoliths (concordant intrusions),
dykes and larger plutons known as stocks. At greater depths granitic rocks are often
found in stocks and much larger intrusions known as batholiths. Most batholiths are
composite plutons and are sometimes zoned with later intrusions consisting of more
evolved compositions (e.g. quartz diorite to granodiorite to granite).
A common feature of granitic intrusions is the presence of enclaves or inclusions
that differ in fabric or composition from the pluton itself. Often they have more calcic-
feldspar and a higher concentration of mafic minerals (biotite and hornblende). Some
are elongate or discoidal and appear to have been deformed. Most of these
inclusions are xenoliths that have been metasomatised and recrystallised and
represent fragments of country rock or xenoliths from the granite’s source region.
Some are fragments of granite that crystallised along the margins of the pluton and
were then fragmented and included in the granite as autoliths.

The large volume of most batholiths was used as an argument for the formation of
granites by solid state metasomatism and recrystallisation of crustal rocks (known
as granitisation) since they represent a significant space problem. Many Granite
batholiths appear to have been emplaced without significant deformation of the surrounding country rocks. This is,

M. Genge, 2002 m.genge@ic.ac.uk, tel: 46499, office 3.47.

Igneous & Metamorphic Petrology I LECTURE 15, 16

however, explained by emplacement by stopping in which the country rocks are fragmented and included in the granitic
magma as xenoliths. Many of these xenoliths then becoming assimilated into the magma to change its composition.
Stopping still represents a problem in the emplacement of granites since
large scale assimilation of country rocks will cool the magma rapidly. Rise
by diapirism, in which the granite rises buoyantly through existing country
rocks may also occur at depth where rocks are ductile. Plutons will also
make space for themselves at shallower levels by brittle failure and
extensional faulting of country rocks.

Scientists who argued for the formation of granites by granitisation also

used the external contacts of granite intrusions as evidence for
emplacement. Catazonal (and some mesozonal) granites have external
contacts that are frequently gradational with the surrounding country
rocks (which are usually high to medium grade metamorphic rocks).
However, these are now thought to represent zones of partial melting of
the country rock surrounding the pluton. The presence of migmatites
(partially melted crustal rocks) in particular suggesting the formation of
granitic magmas by the melting of continental crust at depth (known as
crustal anatexis)

At shallower depths the external contacts of granitic intrusions may be sharp

and discordant or form a border zone dominated by a contact breccia. Tectonic
contacts, which are faulted or sheared suggest some granites were emplaced
when nearly solid (c.f. volcanic spires – volcanic notes).
1.3. Origin of Granites by Melting of Continental Crust.
The timing and nature of granitic intrusions strongly suggests that granitic
magmas are formed by crustal anatexis at deep levels followed by rise to
shallower levels. Few heat sources are available in the lower crust for large scale
melting and thus heating by basaltic magmas may be involved. During
orogenesis, however, crustal thickening may also play a role in raising the
geotherm.

Experiments on granitic systems indicate that water plays an essential role in

generating granitic magmas by lowering the solidus. At 1 kbar the thermal minimum in the system Quartz-Albite-Orthoclase
(the upper part of the residual system) with excess H2O is 750°C much lower than in the dry system at 965°C. The thermal
minimum also lies in the field of most granite compositions, as would be expected if these represent partial melts of quartz-
albite and orthoclase dominated rocks. Increasing plag contents in the source move the thermal minimum to more silica-
rich compositions. Increasing pressure to more albite-rich compositions and higher temperatures. Source rocks containing
muscovite and biotite will partially melt at 650-700°C due to the dehydration of muscovite to produce migmatites and then
at 750-800°C when biotite dehydrates to produce larger amounts of magma.
1.4. Chemical Types of Granite.
Granites may be subdivided into several groups on the basis of their chemistry which relates directly to their origins.
S-type Granites. S-type granites are thought to originate by melting of a pre-existing metasedimentary or sedimentary
source rock. These are peraluminous granites [i.e. they have molecular Al2O3 > (Na2O + K2O) and may contain muscovite,
Al2SiO5 minerals and corundum. Since many sedimentary rocks are enriched in Al2O3 as a result of their constituents having
been exposed to chemical weathering near the Earth's surface (particularly rocks such as shales that contain clay
minerals). S-type granites also have 87Sr/86Sr >0.706 typical of sediments and continental crust. Many S-type granitoids are
found in the deeply eroded cores of orogenic belts formed as a result of continent-continent collisions and would thus be
considered orogenic granites.
I-type Granites. I-type granites are granites considered to have formed by melting of an original igneous type source. These
are generally metaluminous granites, which lack peraluminous and peralkaline minerals. Instead these rocks contain
pyroxene, biotite and hornblende as the major mafic minerals. Mesozoic or younger examples of I-type granites are found
along continental margins such as the Sierra Nevada batholith of California and Nevada, and the Idaho batholith of
Montana. In these regions the plutonism was probably related to subduction beneath the western U.S.. I-type granites are
also found in the Himalayas, related to continent-continent collisions. Plutonic suites that were emplaced in convergent
continental margin settings, show many of the same characteristics as the calc-alkaline volcanic suite that likely erupted on
the surface above. The suites include gabbros, diorites, quartz monzonites, granodiorites, and granites. They show only mild
to no Fe-enrichment, similar to calc-alkaline volcanic rocks, and a range of isotopic compositions similar to the associated
volcanic rocks. Nearly all are I-type granitoids. In cordillera I-type granites are emplaced closer to the subduction zone than
S-type granites. I-type granites have 87Sr/86Sr <0.705 typical of mantle-derived igneous rocks and in some locations (e.g.
western USA) the 87Sr/86Sr ratios decrease towards the subduction zone together with silica contents perhaps suggesting
less and less assimilation of sediments.
A-type Granites are generally peralkaline in composition [molecular (Na2O + K2O) > Al2O3]. Minerals like the sodic
amphiboles, riebeckite and arfvedsonite, and the sodic pyroxene, aegerine, are commonly found in these rocks. In addition,
they tend to be relatively Fe-rich and thus fayalitic olivine may sometimes occur. These are considered anorogenic granites
because they are generally found in areas that have not undergone mountain building events. Instead, they appear to be

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Igneous & Metamorphic Petrology I LECTURE 15, 16

related to continental rifting events wherein continental lithosphere is thinned as a result of upwelling asthenosphere. They
are generally silica-rich and may evolve from alkaline magmas (with crustal assimilation).
M-type Granites have low silica (46-70 mole%) and are metaluminous. They have low 87Sr/86Sr ratios and high Ca contents.
They are found in small intrusions in ocean island arcs and probably originate by crystal fractionation of calc-alkaline
magmas and crustal assimilation.
1.5. Tectonic Setting of Orogenic Granites
Crustal thickening and its affect on the ambient geotherm plays an
important role in the genesis of orogenic granites. Underthrusting
during orogenesis can led to rapid increases in crustal thickness
and disequilibrated raised geotherms high enough to cause crustal
anatexis at depth and the generation of granitic magmas.
Dehydration of subducted oceanic crust or sediments buried during
mantle building may also generate granitic magmas by further
depression of the solidus.
Post orogenic extension occurs due to the relaxation of the
geotherm. The relaxation of the geotherm can locally raise
temperatures within the thickened continental crust and cause
further crustal anatexis. Sometimes the cooling lithosphere below
an orogenic belt can delaminate and sink causing rise of the
asthenosphere and enhanced heat flow. Decompression melting in
the rising asthenosphere may even generate basaltic magmas
which can intrude the crust to produce more anatexis.
In cordillera thickening due to compression also plays a
role in raising the geotherm which together with heat from basaltic
magmas, generated in the mantle wedge, underplating the
continental crust causes anatexis.
2. Lamprophyres
Lamprophyres are porphyritic rocks dominated by phenocrysts of
hydrous minerals (mainly phlogopite, biotite and/or hornblende) with
lesser amounts of cpx and/or melilite. Their groundmass often
includes silica-undersaturated minerals such as olivine and
feldspathoid. Textural evidence suggests they crystallised out of
equilibrium under high partial pressures of H2O.
Lamprophyres are frequently found associated with
tonalite-granodiorite-granodiorite plutons as late-stage, rapidly
emplaced dykes and plugs. They are often related to larger bodies of
hornblende-rich rocks known as appinites. Their origin is not yet fully
understood, however, their high incompatible and compatible
element concentrations suggests derivation by low degree partial
melting of metasomatised mantle within the mantle wedge. They are possibly related to the mantle-derived melts that may
produce large scale crustal anatexis and the formation of granitoid magmas. Mica-rich lamprophyres are known as
minettes.

M. Genge, 2002 m.genge@ic.ac.uk, tel: 46499, office 3.47.