Teachers of English To Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL) TESOL Quarterly

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.
(TESOL)
Writing: The Process of Discovering Meaning

Author(s): Vivian Zamel
Source: TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Jun., 1982), pp. 195-209
Published by: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL)
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TESOL QUARTERLY
Vol. 16, No. 2
June 1982
Writing: The Process of Discovering Meaning

Vivian Zamel
Until quite recently research on composition and the classroom prac-

tices that it influenced focused on the written products that students
composed. Reseachers and writing teachers, realizing that this focus
on product did not take into account the act of writing itself, there-
fore began to investigate the process of composing. This research has
both identified the complex nature of the composing process and
raised questions about past approaches to the teaching of writing. A
study of the composing processes of proficient ESL writers corroborates
the findings of this research and likewise challenges ESL writing
pedagogy.
Since writers do not seem to know beforehand what it is they will
say, writing is a process through which meaning is created. This sug-
gests composition instruction that recognizes the importance of generat-
ing, formulating, and refining one's ideas. It implies that revision should
become the main component of this instruction, that writing teachers
should intervene throughout the process, and that students should learn
to view their writing as someone else's reading. Methods that empha-
size form and correctness ignore how ideas get explored through writing
and fail to teach students that writing is essentially a process of
discovery.
Research on composition has traditionally been concerned with the

written product. The studies reported by Braddock et al. (1963) reflect
this concern since, by and large, researchers investigated the effects that
certain teaching methodologies had on writing. In many cases these studies
sought to prove the efficacy of one grammar over another, thus perpetuat-
ing the belief that a better pedagogical approach, particularly one that
focused on usage, structure, or correct form, would improve writing.
Since this line of research depended upon the evaluation of composi-
tions that students wrote after having received certain types of instruction,
little attention was paid to other, more important considerations such as
purpose, audience, and the process of composing itself. Questions dealing
with why or for whom students were writing were not taken into account.
The whole notion of how writers write-where ideas come from, how they
are formulated and developed, what the various stages of composing en-
tail--was ignored. And this state of the art was both influenced by and,
in turn, influenced classroom practices and the textbooks that were written
(Young 1978: 31-2). Given the emphasis on the composed product, teach-
Ms. Zamel is Assistant Professor of English at University of Massachusetts/Boston.
Her articles appear in TESOL Quarterly and English Language Teaching Journal.
195
196 TESOL Quarterly
ers adopted methods and materials t

fluence their students' writing.
Recently, however, the focus of resea
Rather than investigating what studen
are beginning to study the composing
ing under the assumption that before w
must first understand how we write. A
this process seriously challenges the wa
taught in the past. The composing proc
plex undertaking, the nature of which
proaches to the teaching of writing"
involves much more than studying a p
imitating rhetorical models, or outlinin
process involves not only the act of wr
writing, all of which are interdependen
ESL teachers concerned with langua
emphasize, even more than other writi
Widdowson (1978) is particularly crit
cause they focus upon usage rather tha
look at ESL composition texts indicates
assignments are made for the sole purpo
grammatical structures and that few in
writing strategies. Furthermore, rese
negligible. Those few studies that do
gating the effects of certain types of
thereby still indicating a concern with
and Perkins 1981). It is therefore impo
take into account the current findings
this point has been made before (Zamel
now, given the absence of our own res
on the surface features of writing.
1. Research on the Composing Process

Janet Emig's (1971) classic study repr
to investigate what writers do when th
approach, which in and of itself was
experimental designs, she discovered
about composing had been. While comp
a variety of behaviors, all of which ind
ing. Emig therefore concluded that teac
conceptualize and oversimplify the p
Perhaps one of Emig's most importan
volved a continuing attempt to discove
is this act of discovery that Murray
Writing 197
main feature of the writ

stages, such as "rehearsing
these stages interact toget
Writing viewed from th
thoughts and learning fro
are. Rather than being th
formed idea, writing is "t
whereby an initial idea g
234). As one writes and re
more accurately one's inte
this meaning suggests itsel
comings of traditional app
Requiring students to for
them by using some presc
written products for grad
learned about the process.
Sondra Perl (1980a), agai
rent research paradigm, f
sistent and stable composi
discover meaning. "Throu
dents are enabled to refle
1980a: 24). In this way, t
had already written in ord
were using behaviors iden
We [shape] the utteran

'played out' or we are in
what we have written. (
Perl also found that writi

fied. Students wrote more
their writing involved the
when the writing was mo
important finding, given
to be the transmission of
(Britton 1978: 15).
Perl went on to study th
and again observed the re
that writers go back in or
of writing as discovery:
When we are successful

that teaches us somethin
know at one point only
or enlarges our experie
198 TESOL Quarterly
While Perl indicates that all writers, b

she calls retrospective structuring in o
who view composing as more mecha
by their concerns with correctness and
the surface in order to anticipate the n
ers (1980b: 368). This ability to proje
reader, what she calls projective struct
writers lack and another important as
for example, Barritt and Kroll 1978, B
Flower 1979, Judy 1980).
Sommers (1980), like Perl, studied
perienced and more experienced wri
one should bear in mind that revision
most researchers now view them, as in
less skilled writers revised in the mos
concerned with lexicon and teacher-ge
ideas that had already been written do
Perl's study (1980a) seemed to under
involves constant revision, it should
concerned almost constantly with form
writers, the more experienced writer
writing from a more global perspec
meaning, these experienced writers ch
and each of these changes represent
mers concluded that "it is a sense o
process of beginning over again, sta
enced students failed to have" (1980
Perl and Sommers both suggest that
undue attention to form that the on
stantly interrupted. As Perl put it, "p
rect and edit their work truncate the
(1980) arrives at the same conclusion
writers experience writer's block. Lik
Sommers' less experienced writers,
"writing rules or planning strategies th
composing process" (1980: 390). The
while operating according to certain r
these rules and plans are subject to m
allowed these writers to re-view what t
when necessary. Thus, when writing is
transcribing one's ideas, when the lang
for which the language is used" bec
when production becomes more imp
Kroll 1978: 52), when attention to fo
Writing 199
sorbing activity" (Emig 1

be explored. Halsted (197
product ... is what ultim
portantly, it is a sure way
you have to say."
2. The Composing Proces

While the research thus
the composing processes of
it became important to in
ESL writers. Are ESL stu
discovery, or are they a
that writing is reduced t
generate their ideas? Wh
What does a record of th
draft), indicate about the
These are some of the
process studies, a case-st
(one Japanese, one Hispan
interviewed individually a
Different stages of their
their actual writing refle
ESL students were profici
rolled in ESL writing cour
assigned in university-lev
indicated some linguistic
of language related errors
almost total control of or
for this study not only in
ences resemble those of o
the composing processes o
uate whether our teachin
these processes or inhibit
An important dimension
fore the actual writing
before putting pen to pap
tance of classroom discuss
how these discussions he
tioned the frustrations th
assigned a paper that wa
I It should be noted that whil

cally less rigorous than the "t
process researchers, interview
into ESL composing processes.
therefore, studies similar to t
200 TESOL Quarterly
in class or one that they had no intere

other important issue, whether or not
types of discourse. While they indica
knew was important when they first w
and large now preferred more object
ments. One student, recalling some of
thought that personal matters were "no
another exclaimed, "My teacher is not
ogist!"
Since these students are now taking courses which require papers that
may only be peripherally related to the lectures and discussions, they
talked about the strategies they now use to generate their ideas. While at
first they may just read and reread course materials until they experience
what Perl (1980b) calls a "felt sense," what may happen at this point is
quite intriguing. Several students reported having some sort of internal
dialogue, "a conversation with an invisible person," as one student put it,
in order to figure out how to proceed.
Once the actual writing begins, it may take the form of some sketchy
notes or fully articulated sentences and paragraphs. Only one student re-
ported using a formal outline and depending upon it in order to write.
This student indicated a still-felt insecurity with English and didn't feel
confident enough to compose without resorting to a fairly complex outline.
While the use of this outline gave him a sense of control, he did admit
that once the outline was completed, he found the actual writing both
boring and mechanical. One can not help but speculate, since his writing
was fairly accomplished, as to whether he really needed the outline or
whether he had learned his English teacher's lessons too well. One other
student reported writing an outline, but not necessarily using it: "Very
often the paper I wind up with is different from the outline. I don't see
the missing pieces when I write the outline. I can't anticipate what's going
to go wrong in my logic when I do the outline." The other students never
wrote outlines, although two recalled courses in which they wrote outlines
after they wrote the papers in order to comply with their teachers' assign-
ments. One student asked, "How can I write an outline when my ideas
are flying back and forth?," while another indicated that only "when the
material falls together, I discover my outline."
These students talked about writing down ideas, rethinking them, and
then writing some more, not exactly sure of what would next appear on
the paper. They discussed the thinking they do about their writing even
as they are involved in the most mundane activities, for example, washing
the dishes or getting ready for bed. They mentioned needing a great deal
of time not only to actually write, but also to leave their writing and
come back to it again and again and reread it in order to go on. As one
student put it, "The more days go by, the more ideas come. It's like fruit;
Writing 201
it needs time to ripen." Fo

prior to the actual writing
student indicated, "It's thr
what I'm going to say."
thereby evaluate the clarit
her hands while she read
somebody else. As they re
ence a sense of dissatisfa
partial changes or start a
presses what they intende
the process what they wil
a series of stages, but rath
insights can occur at almos
the need for more time f
23). While the students
writing, they also discusse
when they are satisfied w
derives not only from the
that another reader will
efforts. As one student
reader. The professor is n
times before. . . . My read
something about which I w
somebody even though th
An interesting discovery
graduate student of Englis
language and then transl
used translation except wh
word in English and, in or
the word or expression i
negatively to the idea of
would be like being pulle
translation, however, did n
ported by the other studen
and creating seem to be
for her writing had to be
a particular vocabulary wo
her anxious. "When I wr
can express my writing as
on a piece of paper, and ot
students comments reflec
for discovering, creating
The students themselves
general ideas. I don't kno
202 TESOL Quarterly
direction, although shapeless, comes to

me assess the clarity of my ideas. Whe
it as soon as possible because this is a wa
or confused." Again, "When I go back to
order of ideas that I planned get rever
your ideas are coming, you realize that
mary. I don't know why this happens."
The following longer excerpt was wri
was so fascinated by the interview tha
to her composing experiences:
Whenever I'm to write something, the ma

head; it seems a very scary and threatening task. How am I going to deal
with that-to make sense out of this lump of information? I spend a lot of
time thinking about that-when I drive, eat, before I go to sleep, and generally
when I'm not engaged in any other intellectual activity.
Progressively, by thinking about it, the amorphous mass channels itself in a very
crude manner. Then, I take pen and paper and write down my thoughts; seeing
them is very helpful; they are in a very raw stage, but nevertheless, it is a
concrete start. Usually, I spare [sic] a lot of paper in writing just about every-
thing that comes into mind; this way, the ideas flow without me realizing that
I had them in the first place.
At this point, I have to remove myself from my writing. I find it helpful, even
for five minutes; but I don't want to stay away too long for I won't be interested
to continue working on it with the same zest. The most I can remove myself
from it is a day. When I do return to it, I read it, and most of the time I do
some more writing-add some things and/or cut others. From there, I start
organizing, maybe develop an outline, which I don't find always necessary-
a well organized summary will do it.
Before the final organization of the paper, I have to remove myself from it once
more. When I resume my writing, it is in its final stages of completion. This
is the time when I need a large 'chunk' of time uninterrupted because I want
to have a total command for the material without leaving any possible holes.
When I feel that there's nothing more I could do to make it more of a complete
piece, I leave it again-to simmer.
When I return to it, I do it with a colored pen and read it very critically; at
this point, I edit it-a process which may bring some changes but they are
usually small; then, I type it.
After all this process is finished, I usually have a pretty decent paper. I need
the time away from it because when I return, I see it with a clearer mind-
the time away from it helps me discard the overfamiliarity with the subject
and as a consequence, I have a more objective approach. Depending upon the
subject I'm writing, the time chunks, and how often I have to remove myself
from it varies a great deal-the shorter the paper, the shorter the time I
need, and, of course, the simpler the subject, the shorter time I need to write it.
Generally though, in order to write something and enjoy doing it by putting the
best of my efforts, I have to identify with it-either oppose or support. In
short, my writing seems to take the developmental process that of a fetus; it
begins as an amorphous mass and slowly shapes itself. Eventually, it develops
to what it supposes to be, my finished written work-my baby.
Writing 203
As this account indicate

given her further insigh
An examination of thes
their written attempts t
their first notes to the
writing process as it wa
dents wrote several draf
proximate meaning. Eve
line wrote two outlines
made corrections in his
tactic level, the other st
drafts contained entire
graphs that appear on
had already been comp
indicate where informa
marginal comments. Se
the same magnitude, b
syntactic concerns seem
addressed from the outs
reworded as if the auth
up expressing was not
totally rewritten so tha
and the one that follow
got closer to the final p
texts. Changes in senten
ulary, tense, and punctu
added where they had be
of their writing serve as
clarified, rearticulated, a
3. Implications for Teach

It is quite clear that E
press their ideas use str
English. Their writing
composition that ESL t
native speakers but whic
of writing, including ES
Students first of all ne
skilled writers have esta
ceed with this explorati
to make use of prewriti
nessy points out, "Instru
mental processes whereb
then get them underwa
204 TESOL Quarterly
the traditional read-analyze-write mo

this crucial aspect of the composing p
that students need the opportunity t
relearn or reexamine their experience
39). Since students may lack systemat
focus and beginning (Brostoff and B
taught how to explore topics, develop
making use of the kinds of invention
Brazil (1978: 25-63), Lauer (1980: 57
Wiener (1980: 90-92), and Young (1
beginning to recognize the importance
Daubney-Davis 1981, McKay 1981, an
inated by a concern with product, thu
sponsored writing provides little tim
Another important aspect of the co
writers feel about the topics they a
critical of the narrow range of topics
(1979: 17-19), and Taylor claims tha
compelling enough to give students an
totally in the topic to the extent that
say" (1981: 9). Writing instruction th
requires students to compose papers on
strate mastery of these forms fails t
quantitatively more and qualitativel
papers about topics that engage them
ing thus should be motivated by thei
topic with which they have had som
1980: 56). This does not mean, howe
be entirely student generated or that
but rather that even academic writi
involved in a subject (Weiss 1980: 14
into the topic (Perl 1980a: 31).
As far as writing about truly person
kept in mind that the ESL students t
satisfaction with more personally-orie
has been reported before (Kroll 1979).
from the fact they are in the habit
when writing about more private mat
demic setting is inappropriate for th
cause these assignments were collected
these students were never given to un
writing, that it was meant to get the
thoughts and responses. Once studen
function of expressive or reflective w
Writing 205
91), they may begin to

journals, for example, stu
a way to explore one's fe
While students are rarel
have little idea as to the
types of discourse, it is t
have the least understand
least experience. Not kno
involves, students "tend t
thing right the first tim
of the amateur" (Shaugh
tion that, because of our a
they know the content"
that writers "know exactl
(Murray 1978: 100). But w
not the case, and this kn
must allow them to exper
to say through writing. W
and rewrite, to learn tha
and expression become on
write and the different t
"one of the most importa
to get hidden from stude
itself messy" (Shaughne
appreciate that revising m
pages, not the editing or
synonymous with. They
produce perfect essays i
focused upon before othe
organization are of prima
extent inevitable throug
composing. Furthermore
nitive overload, a situatio
or problems are being att
Hirsch 1980: 159).
Rather than require stu
ton 1978, Halsted 1975,
more informal notes or j
not know from the out
rather than struggling to
because "we have put wri
and/or expression" (Pett
use of the prose models w
that seems to be pervas
206 TESOL Quarterly
study of culture-specific rhetorical th

can be misleading because it may gi
linear, straightforward writing they
of a process that was itself linear. It f
ing and writing that preceded these
disorganized and that their own attem
disorder. The study of such models pu
correct product and by doing so threa
are expected to achieve the same lev
them incapable of even beginning (E
students to match their writing to a
them that "form grows from content
1980: 41), that structuring and organi
make sense with reference to the n
Finally, because ESL students may
language skills, it needs to be emphas
to teaching writing serve neither as s
struction in the process of composing
has shown that grammar study ma
(Zamel 1976: 72-74), and it has been po
dents should be given the opportun
1976: 310-311, Raimes 1979: 3).
Writing taught as a process of disco
the main focus of the course and that
vides feedback after the fact, interve
process. Teacher-student conference
drafts so that students learn, while t
be worked on. Some educators feel that individual conferences are so
effective that they should take the place of all in-class instruction (Carni-
celli 1980). This, however, would deny the students the opportunity to
share their writing with other students, an activity that forms the basis
of much process-centered instruction (see, for example, Dowst 1980, Judy
1980, Lauer 1980, Maimon 1980, Murray 1980, Wiener 1980). This shared
experience reinforces the fact that the teacher is truly not the only reader,
a claim which we repeatedly make but fail to convince our students of,
and that audience considerations therefore need to be taken into account.
Moreover, this type of experience helps develop in students the crucial
ability of re-viewing their writing with the eyes of another. Most beginning
students who are unable to adopt another's frame of reference, compose
essays that are egocentric (Brostoff and Beyer 1980: 44, Odell et al. 1978:
5). They may not be aware that their prose is writer-based rather than
reader-based (Flower 1979) and that as we write "our needs as readers
become paramount" (Emig 1978: 66). Peers who serve as a real and im-
mediate audience can help establish these needs.
Writing 207
It should not be conclude

students in the process o
their linguistic compete
language skills that ESL c
needs to be emphasized is
of our writing instructio
portant features of writin
of themselves, but as the
ing. Otherwise, students
important:
Cut off from the impu

anything he might say
cally cut off from the
in a truly communicati
If, however, students lea

can explore and discover
to improve as well.
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Writing: The Process of Discovering Meaning

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL) is collaborating with

Writing: The Process of Discovering Meaning

Until quite recently research on composition and the classroom prac-

Research on composition has traditionally been concerned with the

ers adopted methods and materials t

1. Research on the Composing Process

main feature of the writ

We [shape] the utteran

Perl also found that writi

When we are successful

While Perl indicates that all writers, b

sorbing activity" (Emig 1

2. The Composing Proces

I It should be noted that whil

in class or one that they had no intere

it needs time to ripen." Fo

direction, although shapeless, comes to

Whenever I'm to write something, the ma

As this account indicate

3. Implications for Teach

the traditional read-analyze-write mo

91), they may begin to

study of culture-specific rhetorical th

It should not be conclude

Cut off from the impu

If, however, students lea

Barritt, Loren S. and Barry M. Kroll. 1978. Some implication

Hirsch, Donald E. 1980. Research in wr

Eight approaches to tea

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