Year 11 Chemistry Workbook

Year 11 Chemistry
NCEA Edition
R a e w y n P e v r e a l
Name
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the Science Departments of Rangitoto
College and Queen's High School for their on-going support and
encouragement; Mrs Pat Harrison, Margaret Mills, Pru Casey and
Val Congdon for inspiration; Kate Dunphy for her notes; friends from
Dunedin, and her family.
Periodic table reproduced courtesy of Anne Wignall. Drawings by
Grant Shennan.
This book is dedicated to my father, Bill.
www.pearsoned.co.nz
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© Pearson Education New Zealand Limited 1998, 2000, 2002
Previously published as Longman Write-on Notes Chemistry 5

by Addison Wesley Longman 1998
2nd edition published as Longman Write-on Notes Chemistry 11
by Pearson Education New Zealand Limited 2000
This edition published 2002
Reprinted 2002
ISBN 0 582 54557 9
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Workbook
Year 11 Chemistry
NCEA Edition
Raewyn Pevreal
an imprint of Pearson Education
Contents
Preface iv
Page Achievement
standard
1. An introduction to chemistry: the nature of matter 1 1.5

• Classification of matter • The elements • The states of matter
• Separating mixtures
2. Atomic structure and bonding 10 1.5

• Structure of the atom • Isotopes • Electron configuration
• Ionic, covalent and metallic bonding • Lewis diagrams
3. Chemical calculations 17 1.3

• Chemical formulae • Balancing equations • Formula mass
• Empirical and molecular formulae • Percentage composition
• Mass ratios
4. Types of reaction 23 1.3

• Decomposition • Acids • Redox • Precipitation • Identification of ions
5. Acids, bases and salts 28 1.4

• Common acids and bases • pH scale • Indicators • Salt formation
6. Reactions and heat energy 35

• Energy changes • Exothermic and endothermic reactions
• Energy profile diagrams
7. Rates of reaction 37
• Measuring reaction rate • Collision theory • Factors that affect rates
8. Oxygen 42 1.3,1.4,1.5,1.6
• Properties • Production • Test for oxygen • Uses • Oxides
9. Hydrogen 48 1.3,1.4,1.5,1.6
• Properties • Production • Test for hydrogen • Uses
10. Extension topic: Water 52

• Properties • Tests for water • Temporary and permanent hard water
• Electrolysis
Page Achievement
standard
11. Nitrogen 59 1.4,1.6

• Properties • Production • Nitrogen cycle • Nitrogen oxides
• Nitric acid • Ammonia • Proteins
12. Sulfur 66 1.4,1.6

• Properties • Production • Allotropes • Reactions • Sulfur dioxide
• Acid rain • Sulfuric acid • Superphosphate • Sulfur compounds
13. Chlorine 75 1.6

• Properties • Production • Test for chlorine • Uses • Reactions
• Bleach • Hydrochloric acid
14. Carbon 80 1.4,1.6

• Sources • Allotropes • Oxides of carbon • Carbon cycle • Fuel gases
15. Hydrocarbons 88 1.4

• Alkanes • Alkenes • Alkynes
16. Alcohols and carboxylic acids 97 1.4

• Methanol • Ethanol • Carboxylic acids • Esters
17. Metals 103 1.3,1.4

• Properties • Uses • Alloys • Reactions • Activity series • Corrosion
18. Preparation of metals and their compounds 111 1.3

• Metal extraction • Iron • Aluminium • Metal compounds
19. The properties of metal compounds 117 1.3

• Oxides and hydroxides • Decomposition • Hydrated metal compounds
20. Research topic: Chemistry and technology 122 1.2
Answers 127
To the student
Welcome to the exciting world of chemistry! Chemistry is the study of matter and
its properties, and how people interact with substances in their everyday lives. By
studying this subject, you will be able to enhance your own understanding of the
world we live in.
By the end of this course you should be able to:
• demonstrate an understanding of the main ideas and patterns in chemistry at
this level
• describe the preparation and properties of a wide range of substances
• identify examples of everyday substances and how they are used by people
• explain chemical ideas using appropriate chemical language.
Along the way you should become familiar with planning and carrying out
chemical investigations, making observations, and interpreting your results. Think
about the important applications of chemistry and how they affect us now and in
the future. Above all, enjoy your year!
These notes have been designed so that you can spend more time thinking about
chemistry and less time taking notes. A highlighting pen will make the most
important notes stand out. Use the margins for adding your own notes, problems
and diagrams.
To prepare study notes for tests and exams, turn the objectives at the beginning
of each chapter into sets of questions for you to answer.
To the teacher
These notes are written for the Chemistry Curriculum, Level 6 Year 11. They cover
the externally assessed NCE A Achievement Standards for Chemistry Level 1, plus
a research topic. Many of the practicals could lead to feasible investigations for
Achievement Standard Cl.l.
Objectives that form part of these notes, but may not be assessed, are marked
with an asterisk: *. These provide excellent extension for students where time
permits, and are included for interest.
Chemistry 11 can be used as a stand-alone course, and suggested practical activities
have been included where appropriate. Use of these is discretionary, and care should
always be taken to match the activity to the class and resources available. Most
chapters include extension material. Students are encouraged to have input into
their notes by drawing diagrams, completing language exercises and raising points
for discussion.
The advantages in using these notes are:
• more time for teaching, practicals, exercises and discussions
• less time spent on note preparation
• work can be set for students who miss lessons.
Chemistry 11 should support your teaching programme, not dominate it. Each
topic is divided into several short chapters which you can rearrange to suit your
school scheme. I hope that you find Chemistry 11 worthwhile and interesting.
Raezvyn Pevreal
1. An introduction to chemistry: the nature of matter
OBJECTIVES By the end of this topic you should be able to:
1 define the terms 'element', 'compound', 'pure substance', 'mixture', 'atom',
NCEA Achievement Standard 'molecule' and 'ion'
Chemistry 1.5 2 recall the symbols and states of the first twenty elements, plus other common
elements
3 describe the particle arrangements and characteristics of solids, liquids and
gases
4 select appropriate methods to separate mixtures, such as dissolving, filtration,
evaporation, decanting, centrifuging, distillation, chromatography and
sublimation.
Classification of matter
Matter can be classified in the following way:
MATTER
• T
T T
Ionic Covalent Metals Non-Metals
NaCl, FeClj, MgO C 6 H 14 , H 2 0, C 0 2 Au, Na, Fe Cl2, s8, o2
Definitions
Using textbooks or other sources, find meanings for these terms,
matter
mixture
pure substance
compound
element
metal
non-metal
atom
molecule
ion
Chemistry 11 1
The elements
The Periodic Table sets out all of the known elements in order of their
atomic number. The lightest elements are found at the top and the
heaviest at the bottom. The table is arranged so that elements that are
chemically similar are grouped together. Groups go down in columns;
some have names that describe the chemical nature of the elements in
them.
Complete this table for four of the groups.
Group Name Elements Description
I very reactive, soft metals
II alkaline earth metals
XVII F, CI, Br, I
XVIII
The elements in each group react in similar ways because their electron
arrangements are similar. This allows the table to be used as a tool to
predict how substances might behave.
Getting to know the first twenty elements and some

exercise of their friends.
Using samples or a Periodic Table, complete this table.
Atomic number Name Symbol Description
1 colourless gas making up most of the

matter in the universe
3 Li
4 beryllium
7 colourless gas
2
Atomic number Name Symbol Description
10 gas used in lighting
11 Na
12
13 aluminium
14
15 P
16 sulfur
17 yellow-green, toxic gas
18
19 potassium
20
26 Fe
29 copper
30
35 red, fuming liquid
47 Ag
50
53 iodine
79
80 liquid metal at room temperature
82 lead
3
The states of matter
Matter is composed of small particles which are in constant motion.
There are three main states of matter: solids, liquids and gases.
For each paragraph below, complete the sentences

Exercise by selecting words from the lists.
Solids
j pattern, vibrations, defined, particles, arranged, spaces, kinetic
These have a shape because the particles are . in a regular.
. The in solids do not have between them and have low .energies.
Their movement is restricted to .
Liquids
| random, numbers, distance, separate, move, greater, change, attraction, energy )
The particles in liquids are able to around freely in a motion. This allows liquids to
their shape. The between particles is slightly . than between the
particles in solids. The. of forces of _ . are less than in solids, but a lot of.
is required to . the particles further.
Gases
{ compressed, collide, great, randomly, container, transparent, volume, kinetic, speeds }
In gases, the particles move at high and have large amounts of
energy. They _with

with each
eachother
otherand
andwith
with the
thewalls
walls of
of the
the. . The average distance between
the particles is. . and the gas can occupy a large .. Gases are usually. and
are . easily
^ C o m p l e t e this diagram showing the arrangement of

exercise particles in the three states of matter.
6 0 6 9¾
o *o 6
Solid Liquid Gas
4
• Put the following sentences in order, so that they
txercise « make sense
Heating a solid
1 The solid expands.
2 At the melting point, the amount of vibration is enough to break up
the crystal structure.
3 When solids are heated, the particles gain kinetic energy, vibrate
faster and take up more room.
Heating a liquid
4 Heating a liquid increases the kinetic energy of the particles.
5 A liquid boils when some particles have so much kinetic energy
that they form bubbles of gas in the liquid.
6 This is called evaporation, and heating the liquid speeds up the
process.
7 Some particles gain enough energy to break through the surface of
the liquid.
8 The gas is less dense than the liquid, so the bubbles rise to the surface
and the gas escapes.
Gas pressure
9 Heating a gas causes more collisions that have a greater force,
increasing the pressure.
10 As gas particles collide with the walls of a container, they apply a
small force to the walls.
11 This force is called pressure.
Diffusion of gases
12 Small gas particles can move faster than large gas particles, and
will diffuse more quickly.
13 Hydrogen gas can diffuse faster than carbon dioxide gas.
14 This is called diffusion; it occurs only slowly in liquids and almost
never in solids.
15 The space between the gas particles means that gases can move
quickly through each other.
5
Definitions
Using textbooks or other sources, find meanings for these terms.
solution
solute
solvent
soluble
insoluble
dissolve :
Dissolving, filtration, evaporation and crystallisation

A soluble solid can be separated from an insoluble one by:
• adding water to the mixture to dissolve the solid
• filtering the solution
• evaporating the water
• crystallising out the solid.
6
| Label these diagrams which show the equipment used to carry out the four processes.
Dissolving Filtration
Decanting uestion
If an insoluble solid is allowed to settle out of a solution, the liquid can
4 What mixtures could be separated
be carefully poured off.
using these four processes?
I Label this diagram of the equipment used for

• txercise • decanting
7
Centrifuging
If a mixture comprises a liquid with very fine particles of solid suspended
in it, the solid may take too long to settle out just by using the force of
gravity. Centrifuging speeds up the settling-out process.
A centrifuge is a piece of equipment that is used to separate solids
from liquids by spinning them at very high speeds. The heavier solid is
pulled to the bottom of the test tube while the liquid remains on top.
The separated liquid is called the supernatant, and can be decanted
off.
ACTIVITY Spin cycle
Add 1 mL of potassium iodide solution to 1 mL of lead nitrate solution

in a test tube which is suitable for use in a centrifuge. Centrifuge for
five minutes, then decant off the supernatant carefully.
Observations
Distillation
This technique is used to separate mixtures of liquids and solids when
both substances need to be recovered.
Questions
I Label this diagram of the distillation apparatus.
I Exercise I b 5 Why would it be important to
recover the solvent?
6 What safety precautions must be
observed when distilling?
Distillation of a solution.
When a solution contains two liquids with different boiling points, uestion
such as petrol and oil or ethanol and water, fractional distillation is
7 What piece of equipment is
used to separate them. During the heating process, the liquid with the
essential for this method to be
lower boiling point will boil off first, leaving the other behind. The
carried out successfully?
temperature of the mixture must be carefully controlled to avoid further
mixing by evaporation. L\
Chromatography
This is used to separate mixtures containing many different solid
components suspended in a liquid. It is particularly useful for small
samples, and is used extensively in biochemistry to analyse proteins.
8
ACTIVITY The secret of black ink
Aim To analyse water-soluble black ink.

Method The ink in a water-soluble, black felt-tip pen is a mixture that can be separated using chromatography.
Use the pen to make a small dot near the bottom of a strip of filter paper. Then place the filter paper in
a container with a small volume of water in the bottom. The level of the water should be just below the
ink dot. The water will move up the paper, dissolving the components in the ink and spreading them
out.
Apparatus Draw a labelled diagram of the chromatogram you have set up.
Results When your strip of filter paper is dry, glue it to this page.
Questions
Conclusion 8 Which colour was the most soluble
in water?
In the activity above, you will notice that the different components of 9 Which colour was the most
the ink move different distances. The components have different adsorbed onto the paper?
solubilities in the water, and the most soluble ones move the furthest.
Also, some components will be attracted more strongly to the paper.
They are adsorbed better, and will not travel as far.
Sublimation
Some solids sublime when heated. This means they go directly from
solid to gas without forming a liquid. Sublimation can be used to separate
two solids. As the gas of the subliming solid forms, it can be cooled and
the solid recrystallised.
Îgffjj^l Label this diagram to show how iodine crystals and

" ' • salt could be separated by sublimation.
9
2. Atomic structure and bonding

1 describe the structure of an atom or ion, given an atomic number and mass
NCEA Achievement Standard number
Chemistry 1.5 2 explain how isotopes exist for various elements, and give examples
3 write electron configurations for the first twenty elements using 2.8.8.2 notation
4 describe how ions form, and the nature of the ionic bond
5 write formulae for ionic compounds
6 give common names for compounds that are used every day
7 use the octet rule to explain the nature of covalent bonds
8 draw Lewis dot diagrams of simple molecules
9 describe the physical properties of substances possessing ionic, covalent and
metallic bonds.
Atomic structure
Definitions
Using textbooks or other sources, find meanings for these terms.
atom
nucleus
electron cloud
electron
proton
neutron
atomic number
mass number
description of an atom's structure
10
number of protons. number of protons _ number of protons.
number of neutrons. number of neutrons. number of neutrons.
number of electrons. number of electrons. number of electrons.
atomic number atomic number atomic number
mass number mass number mass number 9
element element element
Isotopes
Most elements are made up of mixtures of atoms with different atomic
masses. Because the atoms belong to the same element, they have the
same atomic number and the same number of protons and electrons,
c :c
but have different numbers of neutrons. They are called isotopes.
12
Examples
uestions
no. of protons 1 Why are the masses for elements
on the Periodic Table not whole
no. of neutrons numbers?
no. of electrons
Some isotopes are unstable and the atoms may break up, emitting
radiation. These are called radioactive isotopes and have many uses.
Electron configuration
From a chemist's point of view, the electrons are the most important
part of the atom. Because they are found on the surface of the atom,
they are responsible for the chemical reactions of substances - they are
the particles that take part in bonding. To understand how bonds form,
it is important to know how the electrons are arranged in an atom.
Electrons are arranged in energy levels around the nucleus. Each
energy level can hold a certain number of electrons.
• The first energy level can hold a maximum of two electrons.
• The second level can hold up to eight electrons.
• After this, the levels can hold as many as eighteen or thirty-two
electrons.
Electrons occupying energy levels close to the nucleus have lower

energy than those found in levels further away. The outer-most energy
level that is occupied is called the valence shell, and the electrons it
contains are the valence electrons. These electrons will be the ones
that are involved in bond formation.
11
The electron configuration of an atom or an ion shows how the
I Exercise I Complete tWs table for
electrons are arranged in the energy levels. We write this using special some of the first twenty
notation: the number of electrons in each level is separated by a dot. For elements.
example, carbon has six electrons, two in the first level and four in the
second. This is written 2.4 Symbol Atomic Electron
number configuration
Ion formation 15
An atom with an incomplete valence shell will be less stable than one
with a complete (full) valence shell. Atoms can gain or lose up to three He
electrons to get full valence shells. When they do this, they become
ions and are charged (because the number of electrons is no longer equal Ca
to the number of protons). Ions are more stable than the atoms that formed
them. 2.4
aluminium ion 11
Examples aluminium atom loses 3 electrons
(no charge, p = e) (3+ charge, p > e)
1
Ar
2.7
19
fluorine atom gains 1 electron fluoride ion

(no charge, p = e) (1- charge, p < e)
1 Complete this table for the formation of some ions.

r
I Exercise •
Atom Electron arrangement Lose or gain ? electrons Ion symbol

Li 2.1 lose 1 Li+
N 2.5 gain 3 N3"
Na
Mg
CI
Ca
12
Summary
Complete the second sentence.
Metals lose electrons to form positively charged ions that are called
cations. Non-metals electrons to form
charged ions that are called .
Ionic bond formation

A metal atom can transfer its electrons to a non-metal atom. After the
transfer, the particles will be more stable, because their valence shells
will be complete. The atoms become ions, the metal atom becomes
positively charged, and the non-metal atom becomes negatively charged.
These opposite charges on the ions attract each other. The force of
attraction is strong, and is called an ionic bond. It is strong enough to
hold the ions together in an ionic compound.
Example
1 Metal and non-metal 2 Electrons transferred 3 Oppositely charged
atoms ions attracted 4 Ionic compound MgO
2-
O
2.8.2 2.6 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8

Electron arrangement
Writing formulae for ionic Table of ions

compounds Cations
1+ mmgmmmmmmm 2+ 3+
Here are some rules:
1 First learn your table of ions! H+ hydrogen Mg2+ magnesium Al3+ aluminium
2 The metal ion is written first, then the non- Li+ lithium Ca2+ calcium Fe3+ iron(III)
metal ion. Na+ sodium Ba2+ barium
3 Ionic compounds have no overall charge, K+ potassium Cu2+ copper
so the positive and negative charges must Ag+ silver Fe2+ iron(II)
cancel. The charges are not shown in the NH/ ammonium Zn2+ zinc
completed formula. Pb2+ lead
4 Subscript numbers show how many of Anions
each ion is needed to achieve zero overall 1- 2- 3-
charge.
5 Ions with more than one type of atom
F" fluoride o2- oxide N3" nitride
(polyatomic ions) in them are enclosed in ci- chloride s2- sulfide p3-
phosphide
brackets when two or more of these ions Br bromide so42- sulfate PO,3" phosphate
are needed to achieve zero overall charge. I- iodide co32- carbonate
4
OH- hydroxide
NO3- nitrate
HCO- bicarbonate
Refer to rule 5 when a formula has two or more polyatomic ions. Do Questions
not use brackets if only one of these is needed. Polyatomic ions form
What are the polyatomic ions
when acids or bases dissolve in water.
shown in the table?
Can you identify which acid or
base produces each polyatomic
ion?
13
^ x e r c j s ^ ^ ^ Complete this table by writing in the correct names and formulae.
sodium ammonium magnesium iron(II) iron(III)

Na+ NH,4+ Mg2+ Fe2+ Fe3+
chloride sodium
CI- chloride NaCl
hydroxide
OH"
nitrate magnesium
NO 3 - nitrate Mg(NQ,)2
oxide
o2-
sulfide
s2-
sulfate iron(II) sulfate
so42- FeSQ4
carbonate iron(III) carbonate

CO/- Fe2(C03)3
phosphate
PCI3"
4
Common names
Some ionic compounds have been in use for a long time and others can
be found at the supermarket or garden shop. They have alternative
'common names'.
J Complete this table of common names, using textbooks or other sources.

Exercise
Name Formula Common name Use
sodium bicarbonate NaHCO, baking soda raising agent in baking
sodium carbonate
sodium chloride
sodium hydroxide
magnesium hydroxide
magnesium sulfate
potassium carbonate
potassium nitrate
potassium sulfate
14
Name Formula Common name Use
calcium carbonate
calcium hydroxide
calcium oxide
calcium sulfate
copper sulfate
ammonium hydroxide
ammonium sulfate
Covalent bonding
Non-metal atoms can form bonds with each other by sharing valence
electrons. By sharing enough to have eight electrons for half of the
time, each atom completes its valence shell and becomes stable. Covalent
bonds are very strong, and occur in covalent compounds and in
polyatomic ions.
Each non-metal has a certain number of bonds that it will form with
other non-metals, in order to gain eight valence electrons by sharing.
This is called the octet rule.
• H, F, CI, Br and I always form 1 covalent bond with other non-metals.
• O and S have 6 valence electrons and always form 2 covalent bonds.
• N and P have 5 valence electrons and always form covalent
bonds.
• C and Si have valence electrons and always form
covalent bonds.
Lewis (dot) diagrams

These show the valence electrons in atoms and bonding pattern in
covalent compounds. Here are some points to remember when drawing
Lewis diagrams:
1 Only valence electrons are shown, and are drawn as dots or small
crosses. Electrons from different atoms are equivalent.
2 Hydrogen atoms need two electrons. Other atoms must have eight
electrons, and these are kept in pairs around the symbol for the atom.
3 A single bond is shown by one pair of electrons; a double bond by
two pairs; etc.
4 Electrons not involved in bonds are called non-bonding pairs.
Examples
Fluorine gas, F2 Oxygen gas, O, Ethyne, C2H2 Phosphorus trichloride
•• • •
A non-bonding
••
•• F : F : O :: O H : C : : C : H C I : P :
O:
pair of valence"
electrons • • •• ••
:
: •C• I
A single A double A triple
covalent covalent covalent
bond bond bond
Check that points 1-4 above are followed in these examples, and that
the octet rule is obeyed.
15
Exercise • ^ r a w ^ e w ' s diagrams for the following atoms and
molecules.
1 CandCH, 2 CI and CI, 3 0andH20
4 N and N„ 5 NH 6 CO,
Properties of ionic, covalent and metallic bonds

There are three types of strong bond that hold atoms together: ionic,
covalent and metallic bonds. These three types of bond produce
substances with very different physical properties.
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Complete this table summarising the characteristics each type of bond gives substances.
Bonding Ionic Covalent Metallic

Formed by metal and non-metal ions
Description force of attraction between pairs of valence electrons positive nuclei in
of bond oppositely charged ions are shared between atoms a sea of electrons
Sketch
Substance structure ionic crystals metal crystals

Melting point high
Conductivity does not conduct electricity
Solubility most are soluble in water
ACTIVITY A testing task

You will be given some substances, but you will not be told what
they are. Design a set of tests that could be used to determine the
bonding type of an unknown substance. Then carry out your tests
on the substances provided and record your results.
16
3. Chemical calculations
OBIECTIVES By the end of this topic you should be able to:
1 state the number of particles in a formula
NCEA Achievement Standard
2 balance chemical equations
Chemistry 1.3
3 calculate the formula mass of a compound
4 calculate the mass of reactants and products for a reaction, using the ratio
method (mass - mass calculations)
*5 recognise an empirical formula, and derive a molecular formula using a formula
mass
*6 calculate the percentage composition of a compound, including the percentage
water of crystallisation for hydrated compounds
*7 deduce the empirical formula for a compound given a percentage composition
and atomic masses.
Particles in formulae
Hydrated compounds contain water as a part of their crystal structure.
The dot in the middle means 'plus'. Different hydrated compounds may
contain different numbers of water molecules.
| Complete this table for some hydrated compounds.
Formula Name No. of water No. of atoms No. of

molecules elements
LiI.H 2 0 hydrated lithium 1 5 4
iodide
CUC1 2 .2H 2 0
COC12.6H20
3FeS0 4 .7H 2 0
Ca(N0 3 ) 2 .4H 2 0
2CuSO .5H,0
4 2
2Th(N0 3 ) 4 .12H 2 0
Balancing equations
During a chemical change, bonds between atoms are broken and new
bonds form, making products. Atoms are not created or destroyed, but
are simply rearranged.
Chemical equations are written to represent chemical change.
Substances on the left of the equation are called reactants, and substances
on the right are called products. The numbers of each type of atom must
be the same on both sides of the equation, if the equation is to balance.
We can do this by placing coefficients (whole numbers) in front of the
formulae where needed. No coefficient means '1'.
17
Note: once a formula has been written, it cannot be changed to balance
the equation.
Example
Na + H,0 — • NaOH + H,
Left side: 1 x Na Right side: 1 x Na
2xH 3xH -This is not balanced.
lxO lxO
2Na + 2H20 - + 2NaOH + H2

Left side: 2 x Na Right side: 2 x Na
4xH 4xH This is now balanced.
2xO 2xO
Balance the following equations.

Exercise
1 Mg + o2 MgO
2 H2 + +- H2O
°2
3 CH 4 + o2 +- co2 + H2O
4 Mg + H2O Mg(OH)2 + LL
5 Zn + HC1 ZnCl2 + H„
6 Fe + o2 +• Fe 2 0 3
+-
7 A1 + CL2 - +
A1C13
8 C3H8 + o2 co2 + H2O
9 CuS0 4 + H2O CuSO,.5H
4 2.
O
10 Pb(NQ3)2(s) -+- PI
PbO(s) + N0 2 (g)+ 0 2 (g)
Sometimes the symbols (s), (1) and (g) are added to show what state the
substances are in. Do you recognise these symbols?
Formula mass
If the atomic masses of all of the atoms in a formula are totalled, the
formula mass is found. (To find atomic masses (A), refer to the Periodic
Table.) The formula mass is also referred to as the 'molecular mass' (Mr)
of a compound, if the compound is made up of molecules. Formula
masses have no units.
Example
Formula mass of CaCl 2 .6H 2 0 = 40 + 2 x 35.5 + 6 x (2 x 1 + 16) = 219
Here the atomic masses have been rounded to the nearest whole number,
except for CI and Cu which are left as 35.5 and 63.5 repectively.
_____ ^ f o r m u j a masses for the following:

&
• Exercise •
1 H2O 2 C3H8 3 NaOH

4 CO 2 5 HC1 6 NH3
7 CuS0 4 8 Zn(N03)2 9 MgCl 2 .6H 2 0
10 C 2 H 5 OH 11 Ca(N0 3 ) 2 .4H 2 0 W C ^ O ^ P C o t v i t B 12)
18
Calculating masses of reactants and products
Given the mass of either a reactant or product in a chemical reaction, it
is possible to calculate the mass of all other species in the reaction. This
method is very useful in predicting yields for reactions. It is called the
ratio method.
Example
How many grams of magnesium oxide are produced if 8 g of magnesium
ribbon are burnt in oxygen?
Follow these steps:
1 Write the balanced equation for the reaction
2Mg + 02 • 2MgO
2 Write the known mass underneath the equation. Let 'x' equal the
unknown mass.
2Mg + 02 • 2MgO
8g xe
unknown mass known mass

3 Calculation:
formula mass formula mass
X Q R cr
2x (24 + 16) 2x24
Note that the formula mass is multiplied by the appropriate coefficient

in the equation each time.
4 Rearrange equation to find x.
x = 80 x (8 + 48) = 13.3 g
" ^ ^ J ^ j ^ ^ ^ p U s e the ratio method to solve these problems.
1 How many grams of carbon dioxide are formed when 48 g of carbon

is burnt in oxygen?
2 How many grams of NaCl are formed when 20 g of NaOH is
neutralised with HC1?
3 How many tonnes of oxygen gas are needed to burn 54 tonnes of
aluminium in the space shuttle booster rocket?
*Empirical and molecular formulae I Exercise i Complete this table of

The empirical formula of a substance shows the simplest ratio of formulae.
elements in the compound. The molecular formula shows the exact
number of atoms in one molecule of the compound. Ionic compounds Name Molecular Empirical
do not exist as molecules, so the empirical formula is the one that is formula formula
given.
glucose C 6 H 12 O 6 CH 2 O
hydrogen H2O2
peroxide
ethane C2H6
ethene C2H4
19
*Molecular formulae from empirical formulae
If the empirical formula and the molecular mass are known for a
compound, the molecular formula can be worked out.
Example
Find the molecular formula for a compound with an empirical formula
CHOz and a molecular mass (Mr)of 90. (A: C = 12, H = 1, O = 16)
Follow these steps:
1 Find the mass of the empirical formula 12 + 2 x 1 6 + 1 = 45
2 Divide the molecular mass by the empirical formula mass
90 + 45 = 2
3 Multiply the numbers of each atom in the empirical formula by this
number C 2 H 2 0 4
Complete this table.

r
Exercise •
Mr
-:-
Empirical EF mass Mr +• EF mass Molecular
formula (EF) formula
92 NO 2 46 92 -h 46 = 2 N 2 0 4
284 PA
60 CH 2 O
116 CHO
^Percentage composition
This is a way of expressing how much of the mass of a substance is due
to a particular element.
The individual percentages should add to 100 for a compound.
o, ... 100
c i i- atomic mass of element x
% composition of element = A
formula mass of compound
Example
Tiat is tthe % composition of Ca in CaCl2?
What (A: Ca = 40, CI = 35.5)
2 x 35.5 100 = 36o/
40 + 2 x 35.5 x 1
What is the % composition of CI in CaCl2?
40 100 _ .,0/
40 + 2x 35.5 x T "
Note that the two percentages add to 100.
I txercise
I Find the % composition of each element in these
I
compounds, using the masses from the exercise on
p 18.
1 H20 2 C3H8 3 NaOH
4 C0 2 5 HC1 6 NH3
7 CuS0 4 8 Zn(N0 3 ) 2 9 C2H5OH
10 C 63 H 88 0 14 N 14 PCo(vitB12)
20
Hydrated compounds
The percentage composition of water of crystallisation in a hydrated
compound can also be found using:
mass of water 100 Find the % composition
formula mass of hydrated salt ~l of water in the following
hydrated compounds.
Example K 2 C0 3 .2H 2 0 2 MgCl 2 .6H 2 0

What is the % composition of water in CaCl 2 .6H 2 0? FeS0 4 .7H 2 0 4 Na 2 C0 3 .10H 2 0
6 x (2 x 1 + 16) M = 49 50/o(ld } 5 Ca(N0 3 ) 2 .4H 2 0 6 Th(N0 3 ) 4 .12H 2 0
40 + 2 x 35.5 + 6 x (2 x 1 + 16) 1 v ^
*Empirical formulae from percentage

composition
To find the empirical formula from % compositions, follow the steps in
the example below.
Example
A substance contains 37.21% carbon, 7.75% hydrogen and 55.04%
chlorine. What is its empirical formula?
1 Divide each percentage by the atomic mass of the element.
C H CI
37.21 + 12 7.75 - 1 55.04 + 35.5
H uestion
= 3.10 =7.75 =1.55
1 If the molecular mass of this
2 Divide by the smallest number to get the simplest ratio.
compound is 64.5, what is the
3.10 - 1.55 7.75 + 1.55 1.55 - 1.55 molecular formula?
=2 =5 =1
Ratio C : H : CI is 2 : 5 :1
3 If your ratio is in whole numbers, write the empirical formula
C 2 H 5 CI
n — r
wBfflmmKttmmBRRHMf
1 Find the empirical formula for each of these compounds. Set your work out as in the example above.
A 40% Ca, 12% C, 48% O B 40.27% K, 26.78% Cr, 32.96% O
C 37.80% C, 6.30% H, 55.90% CI D 61.31% C, 5.11% H, 10.22% N, 23.36% O
2 The molecular mass for compound C is 127 and for compound D is 137. What are their molecular formulae?
21
B B B H ^ P ^ S T W m Finding the empirical formula for a hydrated salt
Aim To find the value of x in MgS0 4 .xH 2 0 by heating a sample of the hydrated salt.
Method
1 Record the mass of a crucible.
2 Measure out about 3 g of the hydrated salt into the crucible. Record the total mass.
3 Heat the salt, gently at first. Lift the lid periodically and wipe off any water.
4 Once most of the water seems to be driven off, remove the lid and heat strongly for a few minutes. Check to see if
any water vapour is still coming off by holding a piece of blue cobalt chloride paper above the salt while you heat.
Water vapour will change the colour to _
5 Let the apparatus cool in a desiccator, or with the lid on. Record the mass.
6 Reheat, then repeat step 5. The masses should now be constant.
Results
1 Mass of crucible g
2 Mass of crucible and hydrated salt g
3 Mass of hydrated salt (2 - 1 ) g
4 First mass of anhydrous salt g
(Remember to remove crucible mass!)
5 Second mass of anhydrous salt g
6 Mass of water lost (3 - 5) g
Calculations
Find the empirical formula of the salt (x).
MgS0 4 : H2O
(5) : (6)
+ formula mass :
+ smallest number :
ratio :
empirical formula: MgS0 4 . _H2O
The value of x is
I Exercise •
Carol and Sean investigated the change in mass that occurred when they
heated sodium carbonate crystals. They weighed an empty crucible,
added sodium carbonate crystals, and then reweighed the crucible. They
then heated it until no further loss in mass occurred. Here are their results:
Mass of empty crucible 17.52 g
Mass of crucible and crystals 23.24 g
Mass of crucible and residue after heating 19.64 g
1 What was the mass of crystals used?
2 What was the mass loss during heating?
3 What is the most likely explanation for the change in mass?
4 From the results above, find the formula of the sodium carbonate
crystals used. Set your work out in the same way as the calculations
in the activity above.
22
4. Types of reaction

1 describe and give examples of thermal decomposition reactions
2 describe and give examples of acid reactions
Chemistry 1.3
3 describe and give examples of redox reactions
4 describe and give examples of precipitation reactions.
5 apply the solubility rules to predict the outcome of mixing two solutions
6 identify the following ions by precipitation: Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Zn2+, Al3+, Ag+,
Ca2+, Ba2+, Pb2+, Mg2+, C0 3 2 ", SO/-, CI", OH" and N0 3 ".
Decomposition
Decomposition reactions are used to break up one substance into two or
more products. One product is often a gas, such as C0 2 , 0 2 or N0 2 .
A • B + C
ACTIVITY Investigating thermal decomposition
Gently heat a small sample of copper carbonate 3 Sodium bicarbonate (.

(CuC0 3 ) in a boiling tube fitted with a delivery tube.
Bubble the gas produced through limewater. Take care Observations
to avoid suck-back.
Label this diagram of the equipment set-up.
Equation
Repeat the method with the following compounds, but

use water mixed with a little universal indicator instead
of limewater.
*4 Lead nitrate ( )
Observations
Observations
Equation
Equation
*5 Copper sulfate ( )
Repeat the method with the following compounds.
Observations
2 Calcium carbonate ( )
Observations
Equation
Equation
23
The reactions of acids
There are three important reactions that most acids undergo:
• acid + base • salt + water (neutralisation)
• acid + (bi)carbonate • salt + water + carbon dioxide
• acid + reactive metal • salt + hydrogen (redox reaction)
ACTIVITY Investigating acid reactions
1 Mix 10 mL of hydrochloric acid with 10 mL of sodium hydroxide solution in an evaporating dish. Gently heat to
remove most of the water, then leave to evaporate or place in a desiccator.
Observations
Equation — -
2 Place a small amount of calcium carbonate chips into a boiling tube. Add 5 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid, and
bubble the gas produced through limewater.
Observations
Equation
3 Place a small amount of zinc into a test tube, and add 5 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid. Carry out the 'pop' test on
the gas that is evolved.
Observations
Equation
Reduction-oxidation reactions (redox)

Many reactions can be called redox reactions, although some are difficult
to recognise. Each reaction has two halves, which always occur at the
same time. One reactant is reduced and another reactant is oxidised.
Definition 1
• If a substance gains oxygen in a reaction, it has been oxidised.
• If a substance loses oxygen in a reaction, it has been reduced.
Example
CuO(s) + H2(g) • Cu(s) + H,0(g)
Hydrogen gas is gaining oxygen in the reaction. Hydrogen is oxidised.
The copper oxide is losing oxygen in the reaction. Copper oxide is
reduced.
Definition 2
• If a particle loses electrons, it is oxidised. LEO
• If a particle gains electrons, it is reduced. GER
Example
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) • 2FeCl3(s)
The iron atoms are losing electrons to form iron(III) ions. Iron is oxidised.
Fe • Fe3+ + 3e
The chlorine atoms are gaining electrons to form chloride ions. Chlorine
is reduced.
Cl2 + 2e • 2C1" The ions combine to form an ionic compound.
There is no oxygen in the second example, yet it is a redox reaction.
Definition 2 is the best one to use for recognising almost any redox
reaction.
24
Oxidising agents and reducing agents
• The substance that is oxidised in a redox reaction is called the reducing
agent or reductant because it is causing something else to be reduced.
• The substance that is reduced in a redox reaction is called the oxidising
agent or oxidant because it is causing something else to be oxidised.
| Balance the following equations, then fill in the

gaps.
1 Al(s) + H 2 0(g) A1 2 0 3 (S) + H 2 (g)
substance oxidised: aluminium oxidant: water
substance reduced: water reductant: aluminium
Fe203(s) + CO(g) • C0 2 (g) + Fe(s)
substance oxidised: oxidant:
substance reduced: reductant:
Mg(s) + 0 2 (g) 1 MgO(s)
substance oxidised: oxidant:.
Zn(s) + HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H 2 ( g ) Note: (aq) means 'dissolved in water'
substance oxidised: oxidant: (from the Latin 'aqueous').
Precipitation
Two soluble salt solutions are mixed. They then swap 'partner' ions to
produce two new substances. One of these is insoluble and forms a
precipitate, while the other is soluble and remains dissolved.
AX(aq) + BY(aq) • AY(s) + BX(aq)
Example
FeS04(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) • Fe(OH)2(s) + Na2S04(aq)
ACTIVITY Investigating precipitation reactions
Method
You will be given some of the solutions below. Mix a few drops of each solution on a spotting tile or in a clean test
tube. Observe the colour of the precipitate.
Swap the partners around to get the names of the products, then write the formulae underneath. Use the solubility
rules on p. 26 to identify which product is the precipitate (insoluble compound), and circle it in pencil.
1 sodium hydroxide + copper sulfate •
2 iron(III) chloride + sodium hydroxide
3 silver nitrate + potassium chloride
4 copper sulfate + sodium carbonate
5 barium chloride + sodium sulfate
6 lead nitrate + sodium chloride
25
Identifying precipitates
We use solubility information and compound colours to identify a
precipitate.
Solubility rules Colours of solids

• A soluble compound will not form a precipitate. Knowing the colour of a compound can help to identify
a precipitate.
• An insoluble compound will form a precipitate.
• Na\ K+, NH4+, Zn2+, Al3+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Pb2+
Here are the rules for deciding which compounds are soluble. compounds are white. (Dissolved, they are colourless.)
1 All compounds containing Na+, K+, NH4+ and NO.( are • Fe2+ compounds are green.
soluble. • Fe3+ compounds are brown.
2 All chlorides are soluble except for AgCl and PbCl2 • Cu2+ compounds are blue, except for CuCOt which
3 All sulfates are soluble except for CaS0 4 , BaS0 4 and PbS0 4 . is green.
4 All carbonates are insoluble except for those in rule 1. (CuO is black, but is not produced in those
reactions.)
5 All hydroxides are insoluble except for those in rule 1, plus
Ba(OH)2 and Ca(OH),. • Ag+ compounds are white, except for Ag 2 0 (brown).
AgCl turns from white to purple in light.
Complex ions
Some precipitates re-dissolve when more of a solution is
added. This is due to the formation of a complex ion. This
complex formation can be used to tell some ions apart.
^ ^ ^ ^ K X W I H T I B M a k i n g c o m p l e x ions
Carefully record your observations of the following:
1 Put 1 mL of a solution containing Al3+ ions into a test tube. Add a few drops of NaOH solution, then excess.
Observations _ ..
Equation
Al3+(aq) + 30H(aq) • Al(OH)3(s) + OH"(aq) •
[Al(OH)4]"(aq)
aluminate ion
2 Put 1 mL of a solution containing Zn2+ ions into a test tube. Add a few drops of NaOH solution, then excess.
Observations
Equation
Zn2+(aq) + 20H(aq) • Zn(OH)2(s) + 20H"(aq) • [Zn(OH)J2-(aq)
zincate ion
3 Repeat parts 1 and 2, but replace NaOH with dilute ammonia solution.
Observations „
Equation
Zn2+(aq) + 20H(aq) • Zn(OH)2(s) + 4NH,(aq) • [Zn(NH3)4]2+(aq) + 20H"(aq)
tetrammine zinc(II) ion
*4 Put 1 mL of a solution containing Cu2+ ions into a test tube. Add a few drops of dilute ammonia solution, then
excess.
Observations
Equation
Cu2+(aq) + 20H(aq) • Cu(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) • [Cu(NH3)J2+(aq) + 20H"(aq)
tetraammine copper(II) ion
26
Identifying unknown ions
There are logical steps to follow when you are trying to identify unknown
ions in a solution. These flow-charts show how to go about this, starting
from your unidentified solution.
1 Identifying cations
Na+, K+, NH4+, CU2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Ag+, Al3+, Zn2+, Mg2+, Ca2+
no precipitate ->• Na+, K+, NH
blue Cu2+
\
green ^
precipitate —
red-brown • Fe3+
ir
light brown Ag* (Ag 2 0)
white
precipitate disappears Al3+ (precipitate does not dissolve in dilute ammonia)

Zn2+ (precipitate dissolves in dilute ammonia)
precipitate remains Mg2+, Ca2+
2 Identifying anions
CO/-, S042-, C1-, OH , N0 3 -
bubbles of gas
litmus goes blue add dilute HC1 co32-
>— • OH", C0 3 2 " solution
no bubbles
OH"
white precipitate
> •
so42-
What is that ion?
You will be given four solutions, two with
an unknown cation and two with an
unknown anion. Using the tests you have
done and the flow charts above, identify the
ions.
precipitate Results
ci-
A=
no precipitate B=
r C=
NO 3 -
D=
27
5. Acids, bases and salts

1 define the terms 'acid', 'base', 'alkali' and 'neutral'
2 list some common acids and bases, and describe their uses
Science 1.4
3 describe the difference between strong and weak acids and bases
4 describe the pH scale as a tool used to determine acid and base strength
5 identify common indicators and their characteristic colours
6 define the term 'salt', and recall the names of salts that acids produce
7 describe reactions that produce salts, and select appropriate methods to produce
a particular salt.
Terms
Using textbooks or other sources, find meanings for the following terms.
acid
base
alkali
neutral
Common acids and bases

Complete this table, using a textbook where necessary.
Name Acid or base? Formula Use

hydrochloric acid acid
sulfuric acid manufacturing fertiliser
nitric acid
carbonic acid H 2 CO 3
acetic acid
citric acid C6H8O7 food additive
sodium hydroxide
potassium hydroxide
ammonia base household cleaners
Strong and weak acids and bases

• A strong acid produces a lot of hydrogen ions in solution; it fully
dissociates in water. A weak acid does not produce many hydrogen
ions in solution; it partially dissociates.
28
Strong acid / ^ Z ^ K f ^ Weak acid
molecule molecule
o
® G® V
O
o ®
o V*-
Z3©
Strong acid Weak acid
• A strong base produces a lot of hydroxide ions in solution; it fully

dissociates. A weak base only produces a few hydroxide ions; it
partially dissociates.
ACTIVITY Testing strong and weak acids

1 Put 2 mL of acetic acid solution into a test tube and 2 mL of lab sulfuric acid into another.
2 Place a small piece of magnesium metal into each of the test tubes, and observe.
Observations
Conclusion .
The pH scale
The pH scale is a tool for deciding how acidic or basic a solution is.
The pH of a solution is a measure of the number of hydrogen ions in
that solution. The lower the pH number, the more hydrogen ions there
are, and therefore the more acidic the solution. Strong acids have low
pH values, whereas strong bases have high pH values.
ACTIVITY The pH scale

Using a pH meter, place a range of solutions on the pH scale below:
Hydronium ions
Although we say that acids produce H+ in solution, these ions do
not exist as such. Instead, they are attracted to water molecules and
form 'hydronium ions', H 3 0 + .
29
Indicators
Indicators are solutions that change colour according to the pH of the
solution being tested. For example, acidic solutions turn blue litmus paper
red, while basic solutions turn red litmus paper blue.
Indicators are often dyes that are extracted from plants.
ACTIVITY Indicators
Test the colour of the following indicators in acidic (HC1), basic (NaOH)
and neutral (H O) solutions.
Indicator Acid Base Neutral

red litmus
blue litmus
universal indicator
phenolphthalein
bromothymol blue
tea
flower juice
Salts
Salts are the substances that form when metal ions replace the
hydrogen ions in the acid solution.
r • 1 Complete the table below to show the salts formed

LACivDV •I •j j i
by acids and some metals.
Acid Metal ion
Na+ Mg 2 +
Cu2+ Ca2+ Fe3+
HC1 NaCl MgCl2 FeCL
HNO 3
H 2 SO 4
CH 3 COOH
Sulfuric acid is a diprotic acid: it can donate two hydrogen ions in

solution. It can also form two salts with metals, for example:
NaHSO, sodium bisulfate Na^SO^ sodium sulfate
4 2 4
Sodium bisulfate is called an acid salt because it can release hydrogen

ions when it dissolves, lowering the pH of the solution,
dissolving
NaHS04(s) • Na+(aq) + S042"(aq) + H+(aq)
30
Preparing salts
To prepare a salt, you need to check its solubility, and if it needs to be
prepared in an anhydrous state. This flow chart will help you decide
which method (below) to use to prepare the salt.
(Mg, Zn, Fe only)
Method A
\
metal + acid
Method B These methods all
soluble base + acid
Method C make soluble salts
carbonate + acid
Method D
alkali + acid
If the salt is:
anhydrous Method E synthesis
insoluble Method F
Method A: metal plus acid (Mg, Zn and Fe only)

metal + acid • metal salt + hydrogen gas
Example
magnesium + hydrochloric acid • magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) • MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Warning: this method is not suitable for Group I metals or calcium,
f
§
due to the dangerous nature of the reaction.
Lead reacts too slowly, and copper, silver and gold will not react at
all.
The method is shown here for zinc sulfate heptahydrate
( )•
ACTIVITY Preparing zinc sulfate heptahydrate

Method
1 Place 25 mL of dilute sulfuric acid into a beaker and add a few pieces of zinc. If the zinc disappears completely,
add some more.
2 When fizzing stops, all of the hydrogen ions in the acid will have reacted, leaving zinc sulfate solution and excess
zinc. Remove the zinc by filtering.
3 Carefully evaporate the solution to remove some of the water.
4 Leave the solution to evaporate and crystallise over several days, or place the evaporating dish in a dessicator.
Results
Equation
31
Label these diagrams showing the four steps
involved in preparing the salt by Method A.
Sf
Method B: base plus acid
base + acid • metal salt water
Example
calcium oxide + nitric acid calcium nitrate + water
CaO(s) + 2HN03(aq) Ca(N03)2(aq) + H2O(1)
The method is shown here for magnesium chloride (.
ACTIVITY Preparing magnesium chloride

Method
1 Put on safety glasses and protective clothing.
2 Place 25 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid into a small beaker, and warm it gently over a low Bunsen flame (some
activation energy is required).
3 Slowly add magnesium oxide powder to the acid, and stir until no more will react (the acid will have been
neutralised).
4 Filter the mixture to remove excess base.
5 Evaporate the solution as for step 4 in Method A.
Residts —
Equation
32
Method C: carbonate plus acid
carbonate + acid • metal salt carbon dioxide water
Example
zinc carbonate + hydrochloric acid zinc chloride carbon dioxide + water
ZnC0 3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) C0 2 (g) + H20(1)
Method C is shown for copper sulfate pentahydrate (.
ACTIVITY Preparing copper sulfate pentahydrate

Method
1 Place 25 mL of dilute sulfuric acid into a small beaker. Add small amounts of copper carbonate, and stir until no
more will react (the acid will have been neutralised).
2 Filter the mixture to remove excess carbonate.
3 Evaporate the solution as for step 4 in Method A.
Results
Equation
Method D: alkali plus acid

This method is different, because we usually use alkalis in the form of solutions, and it is difficult to know when the acid
has been neutralised. The method uses a titration.
alkali + acid metal salt + water
Example
potassium hydroxide + nitric acid • potassium nitrate + water
KOH(aq) + HN0 3 (aq) • KN03(aq) + HzO(l)
The method is shown for sodium chloride.
ACTIVITY Preparing sodium chloride

Method
1 Using a pipette filler, pipette exactly 20 mL of 1 mol L"1 NaOH into a conical flask. Do this three times.
2 Add two or three drops of indicator (bromothymol blue or universal indicator) to the first flask.
3 Set up a burette and fill with 1 mol L_1HC1. Check that the burette is working, then place the first flask under the tip.
Record the volume on the burette.
4 Deliver acid from the burette into the flask, keeping an eye on the colour of the indicator. Swirl the flask as this is
done. When the indicator changes to a green colour with one drop of acid, stop the titration and record the final
volume on the burette (the acid has been neutralised).
5 Calculate the volume of acid delivered.
6 The flask now contains a neutral solution of sodium chloride, and indicator. To prepare a sample without indicator,
repeat step four without the indicator. Add exactly the same volume of acid as calculated.
7 Evaporate the solution as for step 4, Method A.
Results
Equation
33
Method E: synthesis
When salts are required in the anhydrous form, the elements in the salt
are reacted together.
. I Read the description below, then label the diagram

I Exercise
r
•
| to show the preparation of iron(III) chloride.
The chlorine is dried before it is used. The iron is heated, because the
reaction requires some activation energy. Once started, the reaction is
strongly exothermic and the iron glows brightly The anhydrous salt
forms as a red-brown smoke. The calcium chloride in the thistle funnel
allows the excess chlorine to escape, but prevents moisture from entering
the apparatus.
Method F: precipitation
Insoluble salts cannot be made by any of the methods already described.
Instead, they must be precipitated by adding together solutions
containing the correct ions. For example, iron(III) hydroxide can be made
by adding together solutions containing iron(III) ions and hydroxide
ions.
Equation
For a summary of these methods, see page 116.
34
6. Reactions and heat energy

1 recognise that energy can be released or absorbed in physical and chemical
processes
2 use the terms 'exothermic' and 'endothermic' to classify reactions where a
change in temperature has been observed
*3 use the terms 'spontaneous' and 'non-spontaneous' to describe reactions, and
sketch energy profile diagrams for these reactions.
Energy changes and reactions

Energy changes result from bonds being broken and new bonds being
formed in chemical reactions. Energy in a substance is stored as chemical B uestion
potential energy. The more bonds a substance has, the more chemical 1 Fats have a higher energy content
potential energy it contains. than sugars. Why is this?
There is no direct way of measuring the energy stored in a substance,
but we can measure changes in energy when a reaction occurs. The
energy change is usually in the form of heat energy. Recording changes
in temperature gives an idea of the heat energy change.
• When bonds are broken, heat energy is absorbed. The energy is used
to break the bonds. Ice melting and water boiling are examples of
physical processes where this happens.
• When bonds are formed, heat energy is released. Steam condensing
and water freezing are examples of physical processes where this
happens.
Questions
What is the difference between the
Exothermic and endothermic reactions heat content of a substance and the
Exothermic reactions release heat energy into the environment. In these temperature of the substance?
reactions, more heat is released by bond making than is absorbed by What bonds are being broken and
bond breaking. If the reaction takes place in a solution, the solution will formed when water changes state?
increase in temperature. The heat energy passes from the reactants to
the solution. The products have less stored energy than the reactants.
This temperature increase can be measured using a thermometer.
Examples are combustion, respiration and reactions of acids.
Endothermic reactions absorb heat energy from the environment.
More heat is absorbed by bond breaking than is released by bond making.
If the reaction takes place in a solution, the solution will decrease in
temperature. The heat energy passes from the solution to the reactants.
The products have more stored energy than the reactants. This
temperature decrease can be measured using a thermometer. Examples
are photosynthesis and non-reusable cold-packs.
35
ACTIVITY Is that an exothermic or an endothermic reaction?
Use a thermometer to record the temperature changes in the following reactions. Place the liquid into the test tube
and record its temperature, then add the other reactant. Record the final temperature and calculate the change (up or
down). Classify each reaction as being exothermic or endothermic.
1 Add a small piece of magnesium metal to 2 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid.
2 Add a small amount of solid ammonium chloride to 2 mL of water.
3 Add 2 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid to 2 mL of dilute sodium hydroxide solution.
4 Add 2 mL of copper sulfate solution to 2 mL of dilute sodium hydroxide solution.
5 Add a small amount of solid magnesium sulfate to 2 mL of water.
Results
Reactants Initial temp. Final temp. Temp, change Observations
Mg + HC1
NH4 CI + H.O
2
HC1 + NaOH
CuS0 4 + NaOH
MgS0 4 + H 2 0
*Spontaneous and non-spontaneous reactions

uestion
A spontaneous reaction is one that occurs as soon as the reactants are
mixed. Some reactions require a 'kick-start' to get them going. The 4 Can you think of examples of
reactants may require heating beforehand. For example, if you want to reactions that will release light
react magnesium with oxygen, you have to heat it in a flame first. Paper energy?
and wood will not burn spontaneously in air and must be ignited before
they will burn on their own. These are non-spontaneous reactions, and
they require some activation energy to begin to react.
Energy profile diagrams are drawn to show the changes in energy as
a reaction proceeds.
| Label the following diagrams of reactions as either

spontaneous or non-spontaneous, and exothermic
or endothermic.
en Reactants O) Products
—
i
(D
>
CD
C C
LU LU
\ Products Reactants
Time Time
Reactants
<u
c
LLI
\ Products
Time
36
7. Rates of reaction

1 recognise that reactions take place at different speeds
2 describe methods of measuring a reaction rate
3 apply the collision theory to reaction rates
4 explain the effect of temperature, surface area, concentration and catalysts on
reaction rate.
Reaction rates
How fast a chemical reaction takes place is called the rate of reaction.
Reactions may be very slow or extremely fast.
1 Classify the following reactions according to their

• txercise • speed
1 Jeans fading.
2 Baking bread.
3 Adding potassium iodide solution to lead nitrate.
4 Holding a piece of magnesium metal in a blue flame.
5 A car rusting.
6 Superglue setting.
7 Food going bad.
Measuring reaction rates

Measuring the time it takes for reactants to be used up, or for products
to be made, will give the reaction rate.
In some reactions, it may be easy to see one of the reactants
disappearing. Timing how long it takes for a piece of magnesium metal
to disappear in acid is an example. In other reactions, it may be easier to
measure how much of a product is produced. If a gas is formed, its uestion
volume could be measured at regular time intervals, using a graduated
Can you think of another way of
syringe.
measuring the Avolume of
hydrogen produced?
111111 n 111111
3
Oey
Measuring the volume of hydrogen produced.
37
Kathryn and Peter set up an experiment to measure
Exercise the rate of hydrogen produced when zinc metal
reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid. Plot their results
on the axes below, and connect the points with a
smooth curve.
Results
Time from start (s) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Volume of gas
collected (mL) 0 20 35 42 46 48 50 50 50
50
U)
TO 45-
U>
«4—
o
a)
E 40-
35-
30-
25
20-
15
10-
Questions
Why does the reaction begin
rapidly then slow down?
At what time does the reaction
stop?
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Another way to measure reaction
Time (s)
rate would be to measure the mass
The slope of the graph in the above exercise shows that the reaction begins lost as the gas escapes over time.
rapidly, then slows down and stops. This is a more useful way of looking In the box below, draw a diagram
at a reaction, as it is possible to see the rate changing at different points. showing how this could be done
for the reaction of zinc metal with
hydrochloric acid.
38
Collision theory Questions
In order for two substances to react, the particles must collide with each
other, and the collision must be effective. Effective collisions occur if: 5 How can the number of collisions
between reactant particles be
• the particles hit each other with the correct orientation increased?
• the particles hit each other with enough energy to cause a reaction.
6 How can the kinetic energy of the
reactant particles be increased?
Not all collisions will be effective. A fast reaction rate indicates many
effective collisions, whereas a slow reaction rate indicates few effective
collisions.
Factors that affect reaction rate

Reactant concentration, surface area, and the temperature can all affect
the rate of a reaction.
Concentration
Concentration is how many reactant particles there are in a particular
volume. The more particles, the more collisions there will be (although
this does not mean that all the collisions will be effective). If the reactant
is an acid or a solution, adding water will decrease the concentration,
because diluting increases the volume and the space between the reactant
particles.
In most experiments, one reactant will be at a greater concentration
than the others. Some of it will remain after the reaction has stopped. We
say that this reactant is in excess, and the one that runs out first is the
limiting reactant. As the particles of the limiting reactant are used up,
the space between the remaining reactant particles increases, making
collisions less likely. The rate decreases.
Surface area
Only the outside particles of a solid are available to react. If the solid is
broken up into smaller pieces, more particles will be exposed and more
collisions will occur. The rate increases.
Powders react faster than lumps. There have been cases of explosions
in empty grain silos, where dust particles have ignited because of the
large surface area in contact with oxygen.
Oxide coatings protect the metal atoms underneath from collisions,
and slow down the reaction rate. This can make some metals seem less
reactive than they really are.
The surface area of a reactant can be increased by:
• crushing a solid
• changing a solid into a liquid or gas
• dissolving a solid.
Temperature
If the temperature increases, so will the reaction rate. The reactant
particles gain kinetic energy and will collide with more force, increasing
the number of effective collisions. (To a smaller extent, the number of
collisions will also increase.)
The temperature of a reaction can be controlled by using a water-
bath. Reactants should be left in the water-bath for a few minutes, to
make sure they are at the same temperature before they are combined. A
thermometer is used to monitor the temperature.
39
In the table below, describe how each factor could alter the number of effective collisions for a
I Exercise I reaction.
Factor Collision theory effect Effect on rate

high reactant concentration
low reactant concentration
high surface area
low surface area
high temperature
low temperature
stirring reactants
oxide coating
ACTIVITY Design a fair test to investigate the effect of:

• concentration or
• surface area or
• temperature on the rate of reaction of calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid.
Equation
Aim
Method
Results
Conclusion
Summary The rate of a reaction can be increased by
The slope of the graph will
40
Catalysts
Hydrogen peroxide ( _ .) decomposes in light to produce
oxygen gas and water.
Equation
This reaction is rather slow. If black manganese dioxide powder

( ) is added, the reaction speeds up. The manganese dioxide is
not changed by the reaction and can be recovered - it is acting as a
catalyst.
ACTIVITY Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

Method
1 Place 3 mL of hydrogen peroxide in a clean test tube. Place the tube in a well-lit area and observe carefully.
2 Place 3 mL of hydrogen peroxide in another clean test tube. Add a tiny pinch of manganese dioxide powder. Carry
out the test for oxygen on the gas evolved.
Observations
Catalysts speed up chemical reactions by bringing the reactant

particles together with the correct orientation. When this is done, we
say that the catalyst is providing an alternative reaction pathway, and
as a result, the reactants do not need as much energy to collide.
After the reaction has taken place, the products leave and the catalyst
is free to catalyse another reaction. Catalysts do not react themselves,
and are written above the reaction arrow when they are used.
VA
Example 2SOz + 02 • 2S0 3
Transition metals are often used as catalysts, because their surfaces
allow reactants to collide more effectively. Nickel, iron, vanadium, copper
and platinum are common catalysts.
Enzymes are responsible for catalysing many biochemical reactions
in cells. These reactions could not take place quickly enough without
the enzymes, because of the low temperatures that cells must maintain.
Enzymes are often called biological catalysts. They are folded proteins
that have a particular shape which helps to fit the reactant molecules
together.
41
8. Oxygen

1 describe the structure and physical properties of oxygen
NCEA Achievement Standards
2 describe the production of oxygen gas in the laboratory and in industry
Chemistry 1.3, 1.5, 1.6
3 describe the chemical properties of oxygen, and the test for oxygen gas
Science 1.4
4 list the uses of oxygen gas
5 describe the properties of oxides.
The element oxygen

Symbol Atomic number Group
Mass number No. of protons No. of neutrons
No. of electrons Electron arrangement Formula of ion
Name of ion Molecule formula State at room temp
Draw the Lewis diagram of one molecule of oxygen.
Appearance Boiling point Density _
Solubility Acidic/Basic? Reactivity
Oxygen and its compounds play a key role in many of the important
processes of life and industry. Oxygen is essential in the process of
respiration, the means by which organisms obtain the energy needed to
live. It is also the most abundant element at the surface of the Earth.
Oxygen accounts for about half of the mass of the Earth's crust, 89% of
the mass of the oceans, and 21% of the volume of the atmosphere.
Compounds of oxygen are found in ores, soils, rocks, and gemstones, as
well as in all living things.
Oxygen exists in two forms on earth, oxygen gas ( ) and ozone
( ). We call these forms allotropes. Allotropes are different forms
of an element that exist in the same state. Since each element is made
from one type of atom, the difference in physical properties must be due
to the way in which the atoms are arranged.
Ozone is a reactive gas formed in the upper atmosphere when ultra-
violet light strikes a normal oxygen molecule, splitting it into two reactive
oxygen atoms. These atoms then react with another oxygen molecule,
forming ozone:
UV
0 2 (g) • 20(g) then O(g) + Oz(g) • Os(g)
Because ultra-violet light is absorbed in the first reaction, ozone helps to
shield the Earth's surface from most of its damaging energy. Ozone is a
blue gas with a sweet odour. You may have noticed this smell after a
nearby lightning strike.
42
Because of its unstable nature, ozone is a powerful oxidising agent
and an effective antiseptic and bleach. It is used to destroy poisons and ^^
pathogens in water treatment.
Ozone is also produced in the lower atmosphere by sunlight passing _ _ #
through smog (see Nitrogen chapter, page 59), and is regarded as a f } f l
dangerous pollutant at ground level. If breathed in, it can irritate the
nasal passages and damage lung tissue. It also damages crops.
An ozone molecule.
Production of oxygen gas Questions
In the laboratory 1 Scientists talk about an 'ozone

hole' forming above the polar
There are three ways to produce oxygen in the laboratory regions in springtime. What is an
1 Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide ( ). ozone hole?
Hydrogen peroxide breaks down in the presence of sunlight to form 2 What substances can react with
oxygen and water. This reaction can be accelerated by the addition of ozone to cause this hole?
a catalyst, such as powdered manganese dioxide ( ). 3 How can this affect animal and
plant life?
Equation
4 What steps have been taken to
improve the situation?
ACTIVITY Making some oxygen, and then testing for it
Half-fill a large beaker with water. Fill two test tubes In the box below, draw a labelled diagram of the
with water, and invert them into the beaker so that no equipment set up.
air enters the test tubes. You will be collecting the
oxygen in these.
To a clean test tube, add 5 mL of hydrogen peroxide
solution, then a small pinch of manganese dioxide
powder.
Take care: hydrogen peroxide can damage skin and
clothing!
Quickly insert a bung with a delivery tube attached
into the test tube. Insert the end of the delivery tube
underneath one of the test tubes in the beaker. Collect
two samples of the gas.
Test the gas by lighting a splint and then blowing it
out so that it still glows. Insert the glowing end into
the mouth of the test tube. Remember that oxygen is
less dense than air, so don't turn the test tube mouth-
end up - the gas will be lost.
Observations Questions
Manganese dioxide is acting as a
catalyst. How does it work?
Why is it possible to collect the
oxygen by the downwards
displacement of water?
What advantage does collecting
the gas in this way give?
If a dry sample was to be collected,
how could this be done?
43
2 Heating potassium permanganate ( ).
When heated, potassium permanganate decomposes to form oxygen
gas, potassium manganate and manganese dioxide.
Equation ___
The oxygen gas is collected by the downwards displacement of water.
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Label the diagram below, which shows the

equipment set-up for producing oxygen gas by the
decomposition of potassium permanganate.
Water molecules are split using electrical energy, and oxygen and
hydrogen gases are produced (see Water chapter, page 57).
Industrial production of oxygen

As it makes up 21% of the air by volume, oxygen is extracted by the
fractional distillation of air. Filtered air is liquefied and then slowly
heated, so that each component boils off separately at its boiling point.
Oxygen boils at °C.
Reactions of oxygen
The chemical properties of oxygen are unique, and in many processes
no other substance can substitute for oxygen. In its reactions, it oxidises
other substances, and energy is released.
Combustion, respiration, photosynthesis and rusting are all examples
of redox reactions. The first three are processes that occur in the carbon-
oxygen cycle (see Carbon chapter, page 85). Rusting is an important
reaction of iron (see Metals chapter, page 109).
r . I Study the diagram below, and then answer the

i hvpfriup •
LACI questions that follow.
Plants Questions
'Carbon 9
^compounds/
fK^ rHacyram'?
IJ iv uiukii aiit.
10 Which arrows show the
movement of gases in and out of
^ ¾ ¾ plants at night?
li Write the balanced equation for
the respiration process.
12 Write the balanced equation for
the photosynthesis process.
Summary of the carbon-oxygen cycle.
Combustion
Most substances burn vigorously in pure oxygen to produce oxides.
DEMONSTRATION Combustability
Test the combustibility of the following substances by first heating in air on a deflagrating spoon,
and then by placing the hot substance into a gas jar of oxygen.
Observations
Substance Burning in air Burning in oxygen Equation
Carbon (coal)
Iron wool
Sulfur
Conclusion
13 What is the difference between

heating a substance and burning
Uses of oxygen
it?
Pure oxygen is required in large quantities for industrial and medical
uses. 14 What is the definition of the
• Manufacture of steel. Oxygen is used to remove excess carbon from ittiflps word 'combustion'?
the molten steel (see Preparation of metals and their compounds 15 What is the definition of the
chapter, page 113). word 'fuel'?
• Welding and cutting metals. Acetylene ( ) gas is a 16 How does the test for oxygen
fuel that burns cleanly in pure oxygen to produce a very hot flame work?
(3200 °C). This is hot enough to cut metals.
C2H2(g) + 0 2 (g) • C0 2 (g) + H 2 0(g) Balance me!
• Breathing apparatus: in hospitals for surgery, intensive care and for

lung disease patients; in space for astronauts; for diving and
mountaineering.
• Oxidising agent for fuels: in fuel cells (see Hydrogen chapter, page
50); in rockets (as a liquid or a compound) for space travel.
Properties of oxides
When oxygen reacts with other substances, oxides are produced.
j| Complete this table of oxides of the elements of the third period.
Element Na Mg A1 Si P S CI
Formula
Type of bonding
Appearance
Solubility in water
45
Chemical properties
Oxides can be classified according to their behaviour with acids and
alkalis.
• Basic oxides will react with acids, forming soluble salts.
• Acidic oxides will react with alkalis, forming soluble salts.
• Amphoteric oxides will react with both acids and alkalis.
• Neutral oxides will not react with either acids or alkalis.
Note: soluble oxides can be classified as acidic, basic or neutral by
checking the pH of their solutions.
ACTIVITY What is that metal oxide like?

1 Place three small amounts (a pinch!) of each oxide below into clean test tubes. Note their appearance.
2 To the first test tube, add 5 mL of water. Observe carefully. Test the pH of the solution with a few drops of universal
indicator.
3 To the second sample, add 5 mL of dilute sulfuric acid. Observe carefully. Put into a beaker of warm water if
necessary.
4 To the third sample, add 5 mL of dilute sodium hydroxide. Observe carefully. Put into a beaker of warm water if
necessary.
Results
Oxide Appearance Test with Reaction Reaction
indicator with acid with base
Magnesium oxide
Calcium oxide
Copper oxide
Zinc oxide
Aluminium oxide
Conclusions
Non-metal oxides are discussed individually in later topics.
Summary
Choose from the following words to complete these sentences.
{ above, acidic, acids, amphoteric, bases, basic, below, blue, neutral, insoluble, red )
Most metal oxides are in water. They will react with and are classified as
oxides.
Examples
Soluble metal oxides react with water to form solutions with pH values 7. These solutions turn
litmus . They will also react with and are classified as oxides.
Examples
46
Some metal oxides are . They react with both acids and alkalis.
Examples
Most non-metal oxides react with water to form solutions with pH values 7. These solutions turn litmus
. They will also react with alkalis and are classified as oxides.
Examples
Some non-metal oxides do not react with water when they dissolve, and do not change the pH of the water. They are
classified as oxides.
Examples N,0, H 2 0, CO
Preparation of oxides
There are two ways to prepare an oxide.
• Synthesis (combustion).
Write balanced equations to show how the following oxides can be produced by synthesis: water, carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide, magnesium oxide.
• Decomposition of carbonates, hydroxides, nitrates and sulfates.

Metal carbonate heat • metal oxide + carbon dioxide
Examples
Note: alkali metal carbonates (Li, Na, K) do not decompose.

Metal hydroxide —ea • metal oxide + water
Examples
Note: alkali metal hydroxides do not decompose.

Metal nitrate 1"":'at» metal oxide + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen
Examples
Note: alkali metal nitrates decompose to produce metal nitrites and oxygen.
Metal sulfate htMt » metal oxide + sulfur trioxide
Examples
Note: sulfates of Li, Na, K, Mg and Ca do not decompose.
47
9. Hydrogen

1 describe the structure and physical properties of hydrogen, and the test for
NCEA Achievement Standards hydrogen gas
Chemistry 1.3, 1.5, 1.6 2 describe the production of hydrogen gas in the laboratory and industrially.
Science 1.4 3 describe the uses of hydrogen gas.
The element hydrogen

Mass number Number of protons Number of neutrons
Number of electrons Electron arrangement Formula of ion
Name of ion Molecule formula State at room temp
Draw the Lewis diagram of one molecule of hydrogen.
Hydrogen is the lightest element, and is by far the most abundant

element in the universe. It makes up about about 90% of the universe by
weight, although it is not found on Earth as a free element.
Hydrogen as water (H 2 0) is absolutely essential to life and is present
in all organic compounds. Hydrogen gas was once used in lighter-than-
air balloons for transport, but is now known to be far too dangerous
because of the fire risk. Not since the Hindenberg disaster has hydrogen
been used to inflate airships. But was this element really to blame?
On 6 May 1937, ten hours late for its landing at Lakehurst, Ohio, after
a two-day trip from Frankfurt, the Hindenberg descended to about 100
metres and crew members dropped anchor lines. Suddenly, a fiery
explosion occurred which killed thirty-five on board and one man on
the ground.
The cause of the explosion was in dispute from the start. Investigations
said the probable cause was a leak of hydrogen, the gas that filled the
airship, complicated by looming thunderstorms and a spark of static
electricity from the landing lines dragging on the ground below. But new
evidence suggests it is more likely that a static spark ignited the airship's
outer cover, which was made of cloth coated with a highly flammable
varnish. The varnish contained aluminium.
Scientists at NASA have carried out tests on the remains and have
looked at film taken as the disaster happened. They have concluded that
the bright flames in the fireball were more likely to have been produced
by the combustion of aluminium - much like flames produced by the
booster rockets on the space shuttle (which burn aluminium). Hydrogen
burns with a colourless flame.
48
Reactions of hydrogen
Hydrogen is a reactant in many redox reactions. These include synthesis
and combustion reactions.
• Combustion
Hydrogen burns well in oxygen with a colourless flame, producing
water gas and heat energy. This is also an example of a synthesis
reaction.
Equation
• As a reducing agent
Hydrogen can remove the oxygen from some metal oxides, to leave
the metal. Lead and copper oxides can be reduced in this way. A stream
of hydrogen gas is passed over the oxide in a glass container heated
with a Bunsen flame. The hydrogen accepts the oxygen, and forms
gaseous water.
Copper oxide
The reduction of copper oxide using hydrogen gas.
Equation
Production of hydrogen gas

In the laboratory
There are many ways to make hydrogen in the laboratory. Most
frequently, the reaction between a dilute acid and a metal is used. Nitric
acid is not suitable, however, as this acid does not produce hydrogen
(see Nitrogen chapter, page 62). As hydrogen is not soluble in water, it
can be collected by the downwards displacement of water. The apparatus
below shows the set-up.
Thistle funnel
with hydrochloric acid
Hydrogen gas
Gas jar
Questions
Water
1 Give two reasons why it is
necessary to have a tap on the
— Pneumatic thistle funnel.
trough
Zinc 2 What advantage does collecting
metal Beehive the gas by the downwards
Delivery tube shelf displacement of water have?
Producing a sample of hydrogen gas. 3 What other metal could be used
to produce hydrogen safely using
Equation dilute acid?
4 Which metals will react with cold
water to produce hydrogen?
The collecting jar must not have any air in it, as some mixtures of air and
hydrogen can react explosively.
49
ACTIVITY The 'pop' test Questions
1 Put some zinc granules into a clean test tube.
5 Is the metal-acid reaction
2 Add 5 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid, and place your thumb over endothermic or exothermic?
the mouth of the test tube.
6 What reaction is taking place
3 As the reaction proceeds, feel the bottom of the test tube. when you carry out the pop test?
4 After a minute or so, test the gas by holding a lighted splint near 7 Where is this reaction used on a
the mouth of the test tube. (Note: if you are too slow getting the large scale?
splint to the test tube, the hydrogen will escape before reacting!)
8 A hydrogen rocket will not
5 Rinse any left-over metal carefully and return it. explode until it has a ratio of two
parts hydrogen to one part
Observations oxygen. Explain this using an
equation.
9 If you wanted 18 g of water to be
produced from this reaction, what
mass of oxygen would you need?
Industrial production
In New Zealand, hydrogen gas is made by the steam reforming (reacting
with steam) of natural gas. Natural gas, or methane, comes from the
Maui and Kapuni wells in the Taranaki area. It is heated to 800 °C with
steam and is passed over a nickel catalyst. Hydrogen and carbon
monoxide gases are produced.
Equation
The products are referred to as synthesis gas, because they are used
to synthesise methanol in another reaction.
Passing steam over hot coke or charcoal produces hydrogen gas (see
Carbon chapter, page 86).
The electrolysis of water can produce large amounts of hydrogen gas
(see Water chapter, page 57). This does not rely on using fossil fuels as
other methods for producing hydrogen do.
Uses of hydrogen
Hydrogen gas has many uses. It will become very important
commercially in the future, as alternatives to burning fossil fuels are
required. Current uses include the production of ammonia by the Haber
process; hydrogenation of fats and oils; methanol production; rocket fuel;
welding; production of hydrochloric acid; reduction of metallic ores;
cryogenics; and various nuclear processes.
Fuel
• In rockets as propellant. The exothermic reaction between hydrogen
and oxygen provides the thrust needed to escape Earth's gravity. The
two liquids are stored in separate compartments in the main external
tank on the space shuttle.
• Fuel cells use the controlled reaction between hydrogen and oxygen
to produce electricity. This is the opposite reaction to the one that occurs
when water is electrolysed. The electric current generated is used to
run motors and electrical circuits on board spacecraft.
50
Hydrogen in Water out
Anode (ox) 2H2 + 4 0 H " — 4 H 2 0 + (4e"
to
Electrolyte circuits,
motors
Cathode (red) 4 0 H " - > — 0 2 + 2 H 2 0 + (4e~W
Oxygen in
Diagram of a fuel cell.
Fuel cells may become the substitute for fossil fuels in vehicles of the
future. They have many advantages over petrol engines. They are 90%
cleaner than petrol engines, are 50% more efficient at producing energy
from the reactants, and the reactants are easily obtained from water and
air.
In 1997, the Chrysler car company unveiled a concept car which uses
fuel-cell technology for its power. One disadvantage is that petrol is used
to generate the hydrogen needed - but only because it is difficult at the
present time to find a service station able to supply compressed
hydrogen! The technology is expensive and still at the developmental
stage, but Chrysler claim that as fuel-cell technology becomes less
expensive, renewable fuels such as hydrogen, methanol and ethanol will
become more readily available (as demand increases).
Hydrogenation of margarine
Hydrogenation is the process of changing a liquid oil into a hard or
solid fat by adding hydrogen. Oils are long-chain organic compounds
that have several double carbon-carbon bonds (C = C) in their structure.
The double bonds give the oil a low melting point. We say that the
compound is unsaturated (because not every carbon has the maximum
number of hydrogen atoms attached to it).
Margarine is made from vegetable oils that have had hydrogen added
to their structure, removing the double bonds and turning the oil into a
solid. We say the compound is saturated (every carbon atom has the
maximum number of hydrogen atoms attached), and the melting point
is higher.
The oil is mixed with hydrogen, pressurised and heated to 200 °C.
The mixture is passed over a nickel catalyst, which helps to break the
double bonds and add on hydrogen.
Summary reaction
H H
H \ / H Ni I I
/C==CX + H 2 (g) • ••—C— C — •
H H
10. *Water

1 describe the physical properties of water and the tests for water
2 recognise the effects of water hardness on soap action
3 explain what causes temporary and permanent water hardness
4 describe how hard water can be softened
5* label a diagram of a cell used to electrolyse a dilute solution, and describe the
process that occurs.
The compound water

Appearance Melting point Boiling point
Density Acidic/Basic? Reactivity

Draw the Lewis diagram of one molecule of water.
The other planets in our solar system have sunlight and some have an
atmosphere, but only Earth has water in the liquid state. Seventy percent
of Earth's surface is covered by water, and two-thirds of a person is made
of it. Water is more important than food - most people could survive 60
days without food, but only 3 days without water.
What makes water so special? Water is a very unusual compound in
several respects.
1 Water has unusually high melting and boiling points.
This means that at the temperatures found on Earth, it is present as a
liquid.
2 It can absorb a lot of heat energy for only a small change in temperature.
Water is described as having a high heat capacity. This means that
oceans can absorb a lot of heat energy and still maintain a fairly
constant temperature. This is significant for two reasons: life in the
sea is more sustainable if temperatures do not vary too much (scientists
believe that life probably began in the oceans); and the oceans help
moderate the Earth's climates and prevent sudden, extreme
temperature changes.
3 Water expands as it freezes.
As ice crystals form, the water molecules spread out into a regular
pattern, leaving larger spaces in between the molecules than other
compounds do. As a result, ice is less dense than its liquid state, and it
floats on water. This means that in very cold areas, oceans and lakes
do not freeze from the bottom up. This allows aquatic organisms to
survive underneath the ice.
In the space below, sketch diagrams of how water molecules are arranged in the solid and liquid
I Exercise states.
52
ACTIVITY How big can that ice cube get?
Plan and carry out a simple experiment to find out the percentage increase in volume of a sample of water when it
freezes. Hint: What piece of equipment is used to measure the volume of a liquid?
Aim
Method
Results....
Conclusion
4 Many different solids, liquids and gases can dissolve in water because it is a
polar solvent.
This allows life to exist, because cells use water as the matrix for all of
their chemical reactions. Non-polar substances do not dissolve well
in water, because water molecules are polar. The rule is 'like dissolves
like'.
Gases are more soluble in cold water. This is important for aquatic
organisms living in smaller bodies of water. If the water heats up too
much, the amount of dissolved oxygen will decrease and the animals
and plants will die. This can happen naturally in warmer weather, or
by industry dumping hot coolant water into a river or lake. This is
called thermal pollution.
Ionic and polar solids (solutes) are more soluble in warmer water.
For example, to dissolve a lot of sugar in a cup of tea, it is easier if hot
water is used.
ACTIVITY Solubility and temperature

Plan and carry out an experiment to investigate the solubility of potassium nitrate crystals in water at a range of
temperatures, using only a total of 20 mL of water for the whole experiment.
Aim
Method
Results.
Conclusion ....
ACTIVITY The tests for water

Using tongs, hold a piece of blue cobalt chloride paper above a beaker of water while you heat it. Return the
paper to the dessicator after it has been carefully dried.
Observation
2 Add a drop of water to some anhydrous copper sulphate in a crucible or boiling tube. Gently reheat the crystals
when finished. Return them, when cool, to the dessicator.
Observation
53
ACTIVITY Hard and soft water
1 To each of two clean test tubes the same size, add 5 mL of distilled water.
2 To the first test tube, add 5 drops of a solution containing calcium ions. Add 5 drops of distilled water to the
second test tube.
3 Add similar, small amounts of soap solution to each test tube, and shake for 5 seconds. Place in a test tube rack
and observe.
Observations..
What is hard water?

We call water containing calcium or magnesium ions hard water. Hard
water will not form a lather with soap. Soft water contains no such ions,
and lathers well.
The cleaning ingredient in soap is a salt called sodium stearate.
Normally this dissolves in water, releasing the stearate ions which go on
to remove dirt and grease from the skin. If either calcium or magnesium
cations are present in the water in moderate amounts, they form an
insoluble precipitate with the stearate ions which prevents any cleaning
action. The soap does not lather and a grey scum forms along the edge
of the water surface.
Equation
2C17H35COO"(aq) + Ca2+(aq) • (C17H35COO")2Ca2+(s)
If water flows over rocks containing soluble minerals with these
cations, the water will become hard. Limestone ( ), gypsum
( ) and dolomite [CaMg(C0 3 )J are examples of minerals
that could provide the cations.
Temporary and permanent hardness

Hard water falls into two categories, depending on the type of compound
dissolved in the water.
Temporary hardness results if the water runs over rocks containing
calcium or magnesium carbonate. The following reaction occurs:
CaC03(s) + C0 2 (aq) + H20(1) • Ca(HC03)2(aq)
Water containing dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the limestone
to produce dissolved calcium (or magnesium) bicarbonate. This is the
same reaction as the one that occurs when extra carbon dioxide is bubbled
into cloudy limewater (see Carbon chapter, page 82).
If the water is boiled in a kettle, the heat decomposes the calcium
bicarbonate. Calcium carbonate forms as a precipitate and builds up on
the sides of the kettle. This is called 'scale' or iime'. The water no longer
contains calcium ions, so is soft again. Since this form of hardness is
easily removed by boiling, it is called temporary hardness.
Equation
Scale can be a problem in kettles and irons. If it is not removed
periodically, it can reduce the efficiency of the element to heat the water.
In an iron, scale can flake off and block the small steam vents. There are
several commercial products that will remove scale from appliances.
Seawater contains large amounts of dissolved calcium and magnesium
ions. Normal soap and shampoos do not clean in sea water. What do
people use instead?
54
Permanently hard water is much more difficult to soften. It forms
when water runs over rock containing calcium or magnesium sulfates.
The dissolved sulfates do not decompose when heated, and so boiling
water will not remove the problem cations. Instead, chemical reactions
are used to remove the cations from the water.
Adding washing soda ( ) crystals to water removes the
cations, precipitating out an insoluble carbonate. Sodium sulfate remains
dissolved in the water.
Equation
Sometimes chemical 'sieves' may be installed to treat permanently
hard water before it is used. There are several types of 'water softener'.
A simple design involves a tank filled with fine gravel to which rock salt
( ) is added. The salt dissolves, providing sodium ions. As the
water trickles through, the sodium ions swap places with the calcium
ions, removing them from the water. The sodium ions eventually run
out, and more salt must be added to the tank.
ions
Diagram of a simple water softener.
Ion-exchangers are more sophisticated. They are cylinders filled with

small beads of resin. The resin molecules have charges on their surfaces
which attract the cations out of the water; they are then replaced with
hydrogen ions. One type of resin can remove cations and another anions,
so it is possible to pass water through two columns to produce de-ionised
water - water that contains no ions. This de-ionised water is preferred
to distilled water in many laboratories.
Water and electricity
Pure water will not conduct an electrical current, because there are very
few charged particles free to move about. If some acid is added or a
small amount of a soluble salt is dissolved, then the solution will conduct
a current.
ACTIVITY Conductivity of water

1 Set up a conductivity circuit, like the one shown below. A 6V DC current is sufficient.
6 V -
Beaker -
Electrode Solution tested
2 Make a prediction about the conductivity of each substance in the table below.
3 Test the substances to see if they are conductors. Rinse the electrodes and beaker carefully between each test, and
return each substance when finished.
Substance Prediction Observations

pure water
sugar solution
ethanol solution
dilute acetic acid
dilute sulfuric acid
dilute sodium chloride solution
uestion
A solution that conducts an electric
current is called an electrolyte.
Electrolytes contain dissolved
ions. Which of the above solutions
would you classify as electrolytes?
56
Electrolysis n/ w a l e f
When doing the e x p e r i m e n t a b o v e , y o u m a y have noticed s o m e b u b b l e s
coming off the electrodes in some of the tests, after the current was turned
on. These bubbles indicate that a chemical reaction was taking place.
In a conductivity circuit, the electrical current supplies electrical energy

to the solution. This energy is enough to decompose water into its
component elements - hydrogen and oxygen. When water is
decomposed by electrical energy, the process is called electrolysis (Greek:
electro = electricity; lysis = to split). The equipment used is called an
electrolytic cell.
| Label the parts of this electrolytic cell.

Exercise
57
Reactions
There are two processes occurring.
• The electrical energy carried by the current splits water into hydrogen
ions and hydroxide ions.
H20(1) • H+(aq) + OH"(aq)
• The ions are attracted to the charged electrodes. There, they gain or lose electrons to form each gas. This is a redox
reaction.
cathode ( ) attracts cations 4H+(aq) + 4e • 2H,(g)
anode ( ) attracts anions 40H (aq) • 0,(g) + 2H,0(1) + 4e"
Summary reaction 2H20(1) • 2H,(g) + 0,(g)
Questions
4 Which process shows reduction
and which shows oxidation?
5 Twice as much hydrogen gas is
produced as oxygen. Why is this?
6 Why are the electrons not shown
in the summary reaction?
58
11. Nitrogen
OBIECTIVES By t he end of this topic you should be able to:
l describe the structure and physical properties of nitrogen
2 state how nitrogen is produced industrially
Chemistry 1.6
3 interpret the nitrogen cycle
Science 1.4
4 describe the properties of the oxides of nitrogen, and how they are prepared
5 explain the consequences of the production of oxides of nitrogen
6 list the properties and uses of nitric acid
7 describe how nitric acid is produced in the laboratory
8 describe the reactions of nitric acid
9 list the properties and uses of ammonia gas
10 describe how ammonia is produced industrially and in the laboratory
11* describe the types and composition of proteins, and carry out the protein
test.
The element nitrogen

Name of ion Molecule formula State at room temp.
Draw the Lewis diagram of one molecule of nitrogen.
Appearance Boiling pt. Density
Nitrogen forms 78% by volume of the air on Earth, and as such it is the most abundant uncombined element. (Compare
this with 2.6% on Mars!) Nitrogen is also found in gases from volcanoes, springs and mines. Natural sources of its
compounds include nitrate deposits in dry areas such as Chile. The nitrogen in seawater occurs in ions such as ammonium,
nitrites, and nitrates.
Production and uses

Nitrogen is prepared industrially by the fractional distillation of air. Liquid nitrogen boils at °C.
The main use of nitrogen is in the synthesis of ammonia, which is then used to produce fertilisers and nitric acid.
Liquid nitrogen is used as a supercoolant in cryogenics, the study of the characteristics of materials at low temperatures.
Because of its lack of reactivity, nitrogen gas is used to form an inert atmosphere in which reactive substances can be
stored or processed. Nitrogen is also used to prevent oxygen in the air reacting with foods, for example when coffee is
roasted.
The nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen is vital for life - it is a major component of protein and DNA, the macromolecule that carries the genetic
information in cells. Nitrogen is continually cycled in nature between atmospheric nitrogen and various nitrogen-
containing compounds. Atmospheric nitrogen is unreactive; it cannot be absorbed or converted into useful compounds
by most animals and plants. Only certain forms of bacteria have this ability, and they are important links in the natural
cycling of the element.
59
r • I Use textbooks or other sources to draw a summary
Questions
txercise • of the n i t r o g e n c y c l e
1 How do plants get the nitrogen they
need to make proteins?
2 How do animals get the nitrogen
they need to make proteins?
3 Why are legumes, such as clover,
important?
4 Name three processes that remove
nitrogen from the soil.
5 How do farmers replace nitrogen
Disruption to the cycle that has been removed from the
soil?
Farming and the application of fertilisers to compensate for losses has
disrupted the natural balance of the nitrogen cycle. Bacteria and lightning 6 What process does the term
fix just 90 to 140 million tonnes of nitrogen per year, but humans are nitrification describe?
now adding at least 140 million tonnes annually by manufacturing and 7 What process does the term
applying fertiliser. Human nitrogen fixation is adding more nitrate into denitrification describe?
the soil and water than can be used by plants. 8 What are the main types of bacteria
It may seem reasonable to suggest that adding more nitrogen to the involved in the nitrogen cycle?
soil would bring benefits by increasing the growth rate of plants.
9 Soils in swampy areas are often low
However, soils in many areas of the world are now so saturated with
in nitrates. Pitcher-plants, sundews
nitrogen that nitrates are carrying away vital nutrients such as calcium
and Venus fly traps prefer swampy
and potassium into streams or groundwater.
conditions. How do they meet their
Too much nitrate in the water can lead to eutrophication. This is
nitrogen requirements?
characterised by noxious algal blooms, reduced oxygen levels and
dieback of underwater plants due to reduced light levels. The decrease
in oxygen levels may reduce numbers of fish and other species, as seen
in acidified lakes throughout Scandinavia, Canada and the northeastern
United States - the stream or lake can end up as a stinking, slimy mess.
What can be done about the problem?
• Apply less fertiliser and test soil nitrate levels accurately. Farmers
would need to rotate crops, including a legume in the rotation cycle.
Returning animal faeces to the land, including human wastes, would
reduce the need for artificial fertiliser.
• Prevent leaching into waterways. We would need to stabilise hillsides
with plants to prevent soil erosion; limit deforestation and provide
buffer zones along waterways where leached nitrates could be
absorbed by plants; and stop putting wastewater and sewage into
waterways.
• Clean up waterways. This could be done by dredging nutrient-rich
sediments and spraying them back onto farmland; removing excess
algae arid plants by harvesting, spraying or introducing herbivorous
fish.
The oxides of nitrogen

*Nitrous oxide ( )
Also called nitrogen(I) oxide or dinitrogen oxide. This is a sweet-smelling gas that is soluble in water, producing a
neutral solution. It is fairly unreactive, although it does have greenhouse gas properties and can be considered to be a
pollutant. When inhaled, it has anaesthetic properties and is sometimes referred to as 'laughing gas'. It is also used as a
source of oxygen in rocket fuels, because it decomposes when heated to form nitrogen and oxygen gas.
*Nitric oxide ( )
Also called nitrogen(II) oxide or nitrogen monoxide. A colourless, unstable gas that is only slightly soluble in water. It
reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide. It is a pollutant produced when fuels are burnt, and can severely damage
lung tissue if inhaled. Recently, it has been discovered that nerve cells use nitric oxide to transmit nerve impulses, and it
may be involved in memory functions in the brain. White blood cells use it to destroy pathogens.
60
Nitrogen dioxide ( )
A brown, smelly, toxic gas that dissolves in water to form nitric acid
and nitrous acid.
Equation
It is denser than air, and so is collected by the upwards displacement of
air. Nitrogen dioxide is a dangerous pollutant found in the air of most
cities around the world.
The problem with nitrogen oxides (NOx)

Under the high pressure and temperature conditions in an engine, nitrogen and oxygen atoms in the air react to form
various nitrogen oxides, collectively known as NOx. Typical engine combustion takes place as follows:
fuel + air • unburned hydrocarbons + nitrogen oxides + carbon monoxide
+ carbon dioxide + water
Nitrogen oxides contribute to the formation of acid rain, where the

gases react with water in the atmosphere to form acids. The acids then
fall back to the ground whenever it rains or snows, affecting plant life,
contaminating water, and corroding structures (see Sulfur chapter, page
70).
Nitrogen oxides also form a part of a chemical cocktail called
photochemical smog. The smog is made up of the oxides plus unburnt
fuels and small particles. When light hits the smog, further chemical
reactions are catalysed and more toxic compounds are produced. Ozone,
which is an important UV-absorbing gas in the upper atmosphere, is The components of smog
produced in this smog. It is in fact toxic if inhaled, causing lung damage,
and is found in high amounts on busy street corners.
Nitric acid ( )
Properties
This acid is a colourless or pale yellow liquid that turns brown on
exposure to light, due to nitrogen dioxide formation. Because of its strong
oxidising ability, it can react with metals that will not react with other
dilute acids.
Uses
The biggest use this acid has is in the production of the fertiliser,
ammonium nitrate ( ). It is also needed for the production of
explosives used for mining, and is used to clean the surfaces of metals.
*Production of nitric acid

• In the laboratory, nitric acid is made by heating concentrated sulfuric
acid with sodium nitrate.
Equation __
It works because the nitric acid produced is more volatile than the
sulfuric acid. Only glass apparatus is used, because cork and rubber
are attacked by the nitric acid fumes.
• In industry, it is prepared by heating ammonia and oxygen over a
platinum catalyst, and then mixing the nitrogen dioxide formed with
air and water. This is called the Ostwald process.
61
Glass stopper
Glass retort
Sodium nitrate Cool water

and concentrated
sulfuric acid
Nitric acid
Preparation of nitric acid.
• In industry, it is prepared by heating ammonia and oxygen over a platinum catalyst, and then mixing the nitrogen
dioxide formed with air and water. This is called the Ostwald process.
Reactions of nitric acid

Nitric acid is a substance with a 'split personality'. It undergoes normal acid-type reactions with water, alkalis and
carbonates.
• It reacts with water to produce hydronium ions and nitrate ions.
Equation
• It reacts with other substances to form salts called nitrates ( ).
^ Complete the following equations.

I Exercise
1 Nitric acid + potassium hydroxide •

2 Nitric add + copper carbonate •
When nitric acid reacts with metals, the metal nitrate and water are produced, but hydrogen gas is never produced,
unlike other acid-metal reactions. Instead, an oxide of nitrogen is given off. Often, this is the brown, toxic gas nitrogen
dioxide.
Example Mg(s) 4HN03(aq) Mg(N03)2(aq) 2N0 2 (g) 2H,0(I)
Copper metal will not react with dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acids,
but it is oxidised by dilute and concentrated nitric acid. Again, the product
includes an oxide of nitrogen, because the nitric acid is reduced. With
dilute nitric acid, nitric oxide is produced. With concentrated nitric acid,
nitrogen dioxide is produced.
Dilute 3Cu(s) 8HN03(aq) 3Cu(N03)2(aq) 2NO(g) 4H20(1)
Concentrated Cu(s) 4HN03(aq) Cu(N03)2(aq) 2NOz(g) 2HO(l)
This last reaction can be used to prepare a sample of nitrogen dioxide gas. Small pieces of copper are used and the gas
is collected by the upwards displacement of air. The reaction is exothermic, and must be carried out in the fume hood
due to the poisonous nature of the gas.
Exercise
Label the following diagram
showing the equipment set-
up for preparing a sample of
nitrogen dioxide gas.
62
Ammonia gas ( )
Properties
Appearance Boiling point Density

Draw the Lewis diagram of
one molecule of ammonia gas.
ACTIVITY The ammonia fountain

A small amount of concentrated ammonia is put into
a round-bottomed flask which is stoppered with a
bung. The bung has a section of glass tubing inserted
into it. A beaker of water is prepared, with a few drops
of indicator added. The flask can be gently warmed,
and is then inverted so that the tubing enters the water.
In the space alongside, draw a labelled diagram of
the equipment set-up.
Observations
Explanation _
Reactions
Ammonia gas
Ammonia molecules react to form ammonium ions ( ).
• Ammonia gas dissolved in water is a weak base. Some of the molecules will react with water to produce hydroxide
ions. These raise the pH of the solution to above 7.
NH3(aq) + H20(1) x - NH/(aq) + OH(aq)
• Ammonia, being basic, will neutralise acids. The product is an ammonium salt. If a test tube containing a small
amount of concentrated ammonia solution is tilted so that the mouth of the test tube is near another test tube containing
hydrochloric acid, white 'smoke' forms. The smoke is really tiny particles of ammonium chloride that form when the
two gases react.
NH3(g) + HCl(g) • NH4C1(S)
Tests for ammonia gas

1 Place a piece of damp red litmus paper in the gas jar. A change to blue indicates ammonia gas may be present.
2 Bring a sample of concentrated hydrochloric acid near. White clouds indicate the presence of ammonia.
Ammonium salts
• Ammonium salts decompose when heated. If a small sample of ammonium chloride is heated, ammonia and hydrogen
chloride gases form.
NH4C1(S) • NH3(g) + HCl(g)
• Ammonium salts are very soluble in water. They dissolve to produce acidic solutions. Some of the ammonium ions
reacts with water to form hydronium ions. These lower the pH of the solution to below 7.
• NH4+(aq) + H20(1) • H30+(aq) + NH3(aq)
Fertilisers that contain ammonium ions will lower the pH of the soil, so farmers need to consider this when selecting
an appropriate fertiliser.
63
Uses
Approximately 85% of the world's ammonia production is used for fertiliser. It can be applied directly to the soil, but is
mostly converted into solid fertiliser for convenience. These soluble fertilisers deliver nitrogen to the soil, ready for
uptake into the plant roots. The most common ones are listed below.
• Ammonium nitrate, made from ammonia and nitric acid. This can be prepared in the laboratory by the titration
technique, and is an example of an acid-base reaction. Ammonium nitrate is an acidic fertiliser.
Equation
• Ammonium sulfate, made from ammonia and sulfuric acid; another example of an acid-base reaction. Ammonium
sulfate is also an acidic fertiliser, but has the added benefit of being able to supply sulfur to the soil.
Equation
• Urea ( ). Urea is a soluble carbon compound that contains two nitrogen atoms; it can therefore deliver a lot
of nitrogen to the soil. Urea is made by reacting carbon dioxide with ammonia gas under pressure.
2NH3(g) + C0 2 (g) • CO(NH2)2(s) + H 2 0(g)
It is more expensive than ammonium nitrate, but is easier to handle. It is also neutral, so will not alter the pH of the
soil.
Ammonia is a most useful intermediate chemical, and has many important industrial applications. The most common
are in refrigeration, extraction of metals, effluent treatment, and detergents. It is a good solvent and is found in dilute
form in many household cleaning products.
Preparation of ammonia
Industrially by the Haber process
Nitrogen gas separated from the air and hydrogen gas extracted from
natural gas are the reactants used. The mixture is pressurised and passed
over an iron catalyst.
Fe
N,(g) + H2(g) • NH3(g) Balance me!
The ammonia is condensed into a liquid and collected.
In the laboratory
Ammonium salts decompose to form ammonia gas when heated. If a
hydroxide is added, the other two products are a metal salt and water.
The metal salt will remain behind, and all that remains to do is to remove
the water and collect the ammonia gas.
The ammonia gas is dried by passing it through anhydrous calcium
oxide (as this is a base, the ammonia will not react with it). It is collected
by the downwards displacement of air.
2NH4C1(S) + Ca(OH) 2 (s) • 2NH 3 (g) + CaCl2(s) + 2H Z O(g)
| In the space below, draw the equipment set up.

Exercise
Questions
10 Why is the ammonia collected by
the downwards displacement of
air?
11 Why can't ammonia be dried using
concentrated sulfuric acid?
12 How could you make sure that the
gas produced was ammonia?
64
*Proteins
Proteins are molecules that are essential in maintaining the structure
and function of all living organisms. Examples include:
• structural proteins - keratin in hair, fur, wool and nails; collagen and
elastin in bone and skin
• transport proteins - haemoglobin in red blood cells
• immune system - antibodies and antigens
• enzymes - digestion and cell metabolism
• regulatory proteins - hormones and neurotransmitters
• contractile proteins - muscle, actin and myosin.
Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Amino acids are carbon compounds that contain nitrogen, and we use 20
different ones. Our cells are constantly breaking down old protein and building new. The nitrogen in the amino acids is
converted into ammonia and then urea, which is excreted by the kidneys. It is impossible to store protein in your body,
and if excess is eaten, it is stored as fat.
The protein in our diet supplies our bodies with the necessary amino acids to make our own unique proteins. Some
foods have high amounts of protein, and others low amounts. Someone with a diet low in protein will be unable to
replace old protein. In extreme cases, a deficiency disease called Kwashiorkor develops.
65
12. Sulfur

1 describe the structure and physical properties of sulfur
2 state how sulfur is produced industrially
Chemistry 1.6
3 describe the structure of the three allotropes of sulfur
Science 1.4
4 describe the reactions of sulfur with oxygen and metals
5 list the properties and uses of sulfur dioxide gas
6 describe how sulfur dioxide reacts with water and how this can lead to acid
rain
7 explain how sulfuric acid is prepared by the Contact Process
8 describe the reactions and uses of sulfuric acid
9 explain how superphosphate is manufactured, and its importance in
agriculture
10* describe the characteristics of some sulfates, bisulfates, sulfites and sulfides.
The element sulfur

Natural sulfur crystals are made up of molecules,

with eight atoms arranged in a puckered ring.
Draw one molecule of sulfur.
Appearance Melting point Boiling point
Solubility —
Production of sulfur
There are three useful sources of sulfur:
• underground deposits of pure sulfur. These are often in volcanic areas,
e.g. White Island, Bay of Plenty and Lake Rotokawa, Taupo
• in metal sulfides, e.g. galena (PbS), zinc blende (ZnS) and a mixed
sulfide copper pyrites (CuFeS2)
• as impurities in fossil fuels. NZ imports most of its sulfur from Canada,
where it is extracted from natural gas.
66
Extraction
If underground sources are available, the preferred Hot compressed air
way to extract the sulfur is via the Frasch Process. Molten sulfur, air
Because sulfur melts at only 119 °C, it can be and water out
Hot steam
liquefied by hot steam. Compressed air is also
piped into the source, forcing the molten sulfur
up to the surface.
There is estimated to be about 6 million tonnes
of sulfur at Lake Rotokawa, but it cannot be
Elemental sulfur
extracted by the Frasch Process as the overlying deposit
rock is mostly pumice and ash deposits. These are
too porous and soft to allow successful mining.
White Island is considered to be too unstable to
mine the sulfur there safely. Mining was carried
out in the volcano's crater until an accident killed
several workers. The mine was abandoned in 1934.
New Zealand's sulfur requirements are met by
importing refined sulfur from Canada. Mining sulfur by the Frasch Process.
Natural gas contains the highly toxic and smelly contaminant
hydrogen sulfide. In Canadian gas, this can be as much as 30%. The
hydrogen sulfide is separated from the gas easily. Methane will not react
with an alkaline solution, while hydrogen sulfide is acidic and reacts,
forming a salt. The salt is decomposed, releasing the hydrogen sulfide,
which is then oxidised to sulfur. Most of the sulfur produced around the
world is by this process.
The allotropes of sulfur

Sulfur occurs in two crystalline forms called rhombic sulfur and
monoclinic sulfur. Each type of crystal has a different shape, but they
differ from one another only in the way in which the S8 molecules pack
into the crystals.
^ Draw the shapes of the two forms of solid sulfur.

Exercise
The arrangement of the molecules in solid sulfur depends on the

temperature. Below 96 °C, only the rhombic form is stable; above this
temperature, only the monoclinic form is stable. We call these two solid
forms of sulfur allotropes.
Definition: Allotropes are different forms of the same element in the
same state. The particles in each allotrope are arranged differently, and
each allotrope has different physical properties.
ACTIVITY Heating sulfur

1 Heat a small amount of sulfur in a test tube until boiling. Watch carefully for changes in colour and viscosity.
Observations
2 When the sulfur has just begun to boil, pour it carefully into a beaker of cold water.
3 Remove the product and examine it closely. Is it a solid? Put it aside for a few days, then observe again.
Observations
67
Monoclinic sulfur melts at 119 °C, forming a pale yellow liquid
consisting of Sg molecules, which are free to move around. If heating
continues above 160 °C, the liquid turns a reddish-brown colour and
becomes extremely viscous (sticky). This is caused by the S8 rings
breaking open and then joining up to make long chains containing
thousands of atoms. The chains tangle easily and are not as free to move
as the rings. Above 250 °C, the viscosity of the liquid decreases as the
chains begin to break up into smaller units.
If molten sulfur at a temperature between 160 °C and 250 °C is
suddenly poured into cold water, a rubbery material known as 'plastic
sulfur' is formed. This is the third allotrope of sulfur, and is unstable.
This material, which consists of long, elastic sulfur chains, changes back
to rhombic sulfur after several days.
In the box below, draw the stages sulfur goes through when heated. Include notes about colour,
viscosity and the temperature at each stage.
Reactions of sulfur
Sulfur and metals
Sulfur will react exothermically with metals after initial heating to give
an ionic metal sulfide. This is a redox reaction.
Example Fe(s) + S(s) • FeS(s)
Metal sulfides are black, insoluble powders. They form naturally on

metals when the metal is exposed to hydrogen sulfide gas, present in the
air near industrial centres, and in thermal spring water. The tarnish on
silver is silver sulfide. Swimmers in thermal springs who wear silver
jewellery will notice that the silver is quite black afterwards, but the
sulfide coating is easily rubbed off.
68
Sulfur and oxygen
This combustion reaction is also a redox reaction.
DEMONSTRATION Burning sulfur in oxygen

1 Prepare a gas jar with oxygen.
2 Working in the fume hood, place a small amount of sulfur on a deflagrating spoon. Heat it over a Bunsen flame
until the sulfur begins to burn.
3 Quickly put the deflagrating spoon into the gas jar so that the cover seals the top.
Observations
Equation -—
4 When the reaction has stopped, add a small amount of water to the gas jar, replace the lid and shake.
5 Test the resulting solution with red and blue litmus paper or universal indicator solution.
Observations
Equation
Sulfur dioxide ( )
Appearance Density Solubility.
Acidic / Basic?
Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to form sulfurous acid

( ). Sulfurous acid is not as strong as sulfuric acid, but it
does have the ability to bleach coloured objects, as it is a good reductant.
Preparation of sulfur dioxide gas using a sulfite

Sulfur dioxide can be prepared by warming sodium sulfite ( )
with dilute hydrochloric acid. Because the gas produced is denser
than air, it can be collected by the upwards displacement of air.
Na2SQ3(s) + 2HCl(aq) • 2NaCl(aq) + H,0(1) + SO,(g)
69
Uses of sulfur dioxide
• Food preservation
Sulfur dioxide is added to foods to prevent oxidation and spoiling by
micro-organisms, especially in processed meats and in wine. It is added
to wine to kill yeast so that further fermentation in the bottle is not
possible. Some asthmatics have experienced severe attacks when
opening bottles, due to the pungency of the gas.
• Disinfecting
Wine-makers sometimes burn sticks of sulfur inside barrels to destroy
any micro-organisms that could spoil the wine. During disease
epidemics, people used to burn sulfur in the house to disinfect the air.
• Bleaching
The gas is used in the pulp and paper industry to bleach wood pulp
from brown to white.
• In the manufacture of sulfuric acid.
The problem with sulfur dioxide

Sulfur is found in fossil fuels, and when these are burnt the sulfur is
converted into sulfur dioxide gas. This in itself can increase the incidence
of asthma and bronchitis in people living in smog-affected cities. But the
gas also reacts with moisture in the atmosphere, lowering the pH of
rainwater; a phenomenon known as acid rain.
Environmental damage from acid rain has been reported in Europe
and North America. High levels of acid rain have also been detected in
other areas of the world, such as above the tropical rain forest of Africa.
Acid rain destroys plant and animal life in lakes, damages forests and
crops, endangers marine life in coastal waters, erodes buildings and
vehicles, and contaminates drinking water.
The biggest source of sulfur dioxide gas is the burning of coal by
industry. Petrol, oil and natural gas usually have low levels of sulfur, or
have had it extracted. Coal is the preferred fuel for boilers and for
electricity generation by steam turbines.
Limiting amounts of the gas can be achieved in four main ways:
• reducing output during times of severe pollution
• raising smoke stacks so that the pollutants are released higher and
can be dispersed by wind more effectively
• removing pollutants from smoke by installing chemical 'scrubbers'
or filters into chimneys
• changing the type of fuel used.
Even if one country manages to put controls in place on its own
industry, it may be affected by pollution being blown across from a
neighbour. This is the case in Canada - the Canadian Government has
introduced strict controls on emissions, only to find that the problem is
no better due to wind drift from the industrial north of the USA.
70
The manufacture of sulfuric acid by the
Contact Process
When sulfur dioxide is added to water, sulfuric acid is not formed. To
make sulfuric acid, it is necessary to add an extra step. The set of three
reactions is called the Contact Process.
Thousands of tonnes of sulfuric acid are used every year in New
Zealand to make fertiliser. Sulfur is the only major cost, as it is imported;
the oxygen is available in the air and water is generally plentiful. Each
reaction is exothermic, and so the excess energy released keeps the plant
running.
This is the Contact Process:
| Waste gas to
be filtered
A- • Water
Gas
so2
cooler Absorption
Catalyst Sulfuric
Gas tower
chamber acid
cooler
Sulfur- S03 -J
air ~~! Burner
S03-
Reaction 1 Reaction 2 Reaction 3
Diagram of a sulfuric acid plant.
1 Molten sulfur is burnt in dry air to make sulfur dioxide, in the burner.
Equation
2 The sulfur dioxide is reacted with oxygen to produce sulfur trioxide. A catalyst, vanadium pentoxide
( ), is used to speed the reaction up to make the process more economical. Temperatures are kept between
400 and 500 °C.
This reaction controls the rate at which the sulfuric acid is produced, and is sometimes called the limiting step.
Equation
3 The sulfur trioxide is cooled as it passes up an absorbing tower. It is absorbed by water contained in sulfuric acid
passing in the reverse direction.
Equation
The resulting sulfuric acid is very concentrated, as nearly all of the water is removed by the reaction in step 3. This
allows the acid to be stored in mild steel tanks without corroding the iron. This may seem strange, but if there is little
water present the acid molecules stay as molecules, and no hydrogen ions are generated. If there are few hydrogen ions
present, no corrosion can occur.
Escaping gases could cause harm to the environment. This is prevented in two ways:
• conversion of the sulfur dioxide through to sulfuric acid is almost complete, at ninety-nine percent, so very little
escapes
• filters and scrubbers are fitted to exhaust gas chimneys to remove any oxides of sulfur that may escape.
71
Sulfuric acid
Properties
Sulfuric acid is a strong, diprotic acid that undergoes normal acidic
reactions.
• Reacts with water to produce hydronium ions and sulfate ions. ' I uestion
1 Can you think of any metals that
Equation would not react with sulfuric acid?
Reacts with other substances to produce two types of salt; sulfates
( ) and bisulfates ( ).
| Complete the following equations. Assume sulfates are produced.

Exercise
1 Sulfuric acid + sodium hydroxide

2 Sulfuric acid + zinc metal
3 Sulfuric acid + copper carbonate
Concentrated sulfuric acid can be used as a dehydrating agent as it has

uestion
a high attraction for water. This property is useful when a sample of dry
gas is needed to be prepared. Only acidic or neutral gases can be dried 2 Can you think of a gas that could
this way because they do not react with the sulfuric acid. not be dried using sulfuric acid?
Uses
Sulfuric acid is so widely used in so many industries, that it is said that
the sulfuric acid production of a country is considered to be a most
reliable index of its industrial strength. The USA produced forty-three
billion kilograms in 1995, making it the top chemical in terms of
production.
A few uses of sulfuric acid are:
• agricultural chemicals
For dissolving phosphate rock in the manufacture of phosphate and
superphosphate fertilisers, and in the production of ammonium and
potassium sulfates.
• petroleum refining
For the production of 'high octane' petrol.
• chemicals
Used in a wide range of chemical manufacturing processes, including
explosives, aluminium sulfate and rayon, and for dehydrating other
compounds.
• extraction of metals such as uranium, copper, vanadium and
manganese from their ores
• cleaning the surfaces of metals
• detergents
• car batteries
• medicines.
72
Superphosphate manufacture
An adequate supply of phosphorus is essential for plant growth. During
superphosphate manufacture, insoluble calcium phosphate
( ) contained in rock phosphate is converted into a soluble
compound which plants can absorb.
Superphosphate is made by adding sulfuric acid to finely powdered
rock phosphate. Over a period of several weeks, the following reaction
occurs:
calcium phosphate + sulfuric acid + water • superphosphate
+ + • Ca(H2P04)2(s) + 2CaS0 4 .2H 2 0(s)
The fertiliser provides plants with phosphorus for photosynthesis and

sulfur for protein production. uestion
During the eruptions of Mount Ruapehu in 1995 and 1996, many Why would the farmers need to
tonnes of ash fell on surrounding farmland, some as far away as Gisborne apply more lime than usual to the
and Hawkes Bay. This provided an unusual opportunity for the farming soil?
community, who spend millions of dollars on fertilising pastures every
year. The sulfur was in elemental form, but was so fine that it quickly
reacted to form soluble sulfates in the soil. This 'free drop' allowed
^ ^ farmers to make savings on sulfur-rich fertilisers that they would
^ ^ normally have had to buy. Farmers were advised to apply fertilisers with
higher percentages of phosphorus and lime and lower percentages of
sulfur instead.
73
*Compounds containing sulfur
Sulfates ( )
Most sulfates are soluble in water. Two exceptions are barium sulfate ( ) and lead sulfate ( );
calcium sulfate ( ) is partially soluble. Soluble metal sulfates form neutral solutions when dissolved, and are
called normal salts.
Magnesium sulfate ( _ _ _ _ _ _ ) is used as a purgative and is known as Epsom salts. It is usually found in the
hydrated form ( ).
Calcium sulfate ( ) is slightly soluble and is found in the hydrated form called gypsum ( ).
Plaster casts made of 'Plaster of Paris' contain gypsum.
Copper sulfate ( ) is coloured greyish white in the anhydrous form and is blue when hydrated
( ). This makes it useful as a moisture indicator. Common names for the hydrated form are
bluestone or blue vitriol. It is found in 'copper' fungicide sprays for plants and is used to electroplate metals.
Bisulfates ( )
Bisulfates are acidic salts because they contain hydrogen; when they are dissolved, they form acidic solutions.
Example NaHS04(s) + H20(1) • Na+(aq) + S042"(aq) + H30+(aq)

They can be made by titration of dilute sulfuric acid with an alkali. If not enough alkali is added, the sulfuric acid will
not be completely neutralised and bisulfate will be present.
Sulfites ( )
Sulfites are salts formed from sulfurous acid, and are normal salts. They are usually soluble, except for barium sulfite
( ). They are used for bleaching, disinfecting and preserving foods. Some asthmatics react badly to sulfites
in food.
Sulfides ( )
Metal sulfides are generally black, insoluble, ionic compounds that form naturally on the outside of some metals when
exposed to the air. This reduces the lustre of the metal, and is called tarnishing.
Hydrogen sulfide ( ) is a smelly, extremely poisonous, acidic gas formed naturally by bacteria in anoxic
bogs. The black, smelly mud in the bottom of some lakes contains these bacteria. It has the smell of rotten eggs; cabbage
which is boiled for longer than five minutes also releases small amounts of hydrogen sulfide. It can be prepared in the
laboratory by adding hydrochloric acid to a metal sulfide.
Example FeS(s) + 2HCl(aq) ^ FeCl2(aq) + H2S(g)
74
13. Chlorine

1 describe the structure and physical properties of chlorine
2 describe the production of chlorine gas industrially
Chemistry 1.6
3 list the uses of chlorine
4 describe the test for chlorine gas, and the reactions of chlorine with water,
metals, non-metals, and sodium and calcium hydroxides
5 describe the bleaching properties of chlorine and the hypochlorite ion
6 describe the structure and properties of hydrogen chloride
7 describe the preparation of hydrochloric acid in the laboratory
8* outline how hydrochloric acid can be used to prepare a sample of chlorine gas.
The element chlorine
Draw the Lewis diagram of one molecule of chlorine.
Production of chlorine gas

Chlorine is produced industrially by the electrolysis of brine. Brine is a
very concentrated solution of sodium chloride ( ), and will
conduct an electrical current because it contains dissolved ions. As we
saw in the Water chapter (page 56), the electrode connected to the positive — - -
terminal of the power source has a positive charge and is called the anode.
It will attract the anions in the solution which are, in this case, chloride
75
Label this diagram of an electrolytic cell that
produces chlorine gas by electrolysis of brine.
Anode Membrane
The chloride ions have their electrons removed at the anode and
combine together to form chlorine gas. This bubbles out of the solution.
The reaction is called an oxidation reaction because the chloride ions
lose electrons.
Oxidation at the anode:
Cl-(aq) a 2 (g) Balance me!
What happens at the cathode is a bit more complicated. There are a

lot of sodium ions in the brine, but it is too difficult to reduce these to
sodium metal. Sodium ions are more stable than sodium atoms and will
not readily receive electrons. Instead, water molecules that are attracted
to the cathode are reduced and hydrogen gas is produced.
Reduction at the cathode:
2 H O(l) 2er H2(g) 20H"(aq)
Because of the reactive nature of the wet chlorine gas, the electrodes
used must be made of inert materials. Graphite is suitable because it is
unreactive but conducts the current well. Titanium, although more
expensive, is also used for anodes.
Two types of ion remain in the solution - sodium and hydroxide ions.
As a result, sodium hydroxide is a useful by-product of the reaction.
Uses of chlorine
The pictures below illustrate some of the uses compounds containing
chlorine have. Can you identify them?
Uses of chlorine
compounds.
76
f
Reactions of chlorine
Chlorine and water
ACTIVITY Chlorine bleaches
1 Place 1 mL of chlorine water into each of three test tubes.

2 To the first, add small pieces of red and blue litmus paper.
Observations
3 To the second, add a piece of coloured paper from a newspaper or magazine.
Observations
4 To the third, add a piece of starch-iodide paper.
Observations
The test for chlorine gas is
Summary Chlorine reacts with water to form an acid and a bleach.
Equation
Chlorine and metals

Chlorine gas will react with most metals to form a metal chloride.
Examples Questions
Na(s) + Cl,(g) • Complete me! 1 In each example above, which
+ • FeCl3(s) Complete me! reactant is being oxidised and
which is being reduced?
Cu(s) + Cl2(g) • Complete me!
2 Nearly all metal chlorides are
The products are ionic compounds. These are examples of synthesis soluble in water. Can you name
reactions, as elements are combining to form a new compound. In each one that is insoluble?
reaction, ions are formed as electrons are transferred. This means that
3 Apart from solubility, describe
these synthesis reactions are also redox reactions.
three other physical properties
that you would expect the metal
^ Chlorine and non-metals chlorides to have in common.
Chlorine reacts with most non-metals to produce covalent compounds. 4 What are the colours of each of the
Examples chlorides above?
Cl2(g) + H2(g) • 2HCl(g)
3Cl2(g) + 2P(s) • 2PC13(1)
These compounds are molecular and have low melting and boiling
points.
Chlorine and hydroxides

When chlorine gas is bubbled through sodium hydroxide, water and
two salts are formed:
Cl,(g) + 2NaOH(aq) • NaCl(aq) + NaOCl(aq)
+ H20(1)
A solution containing 5% sodium hypochlorite is a good bleach.
Hypochlorite ions can oxidise dyes and convert them into colourless
compounds. It also kills bacteria by oxidation and is useful as a
disinfectant, although it does not affect viruses. It can be used to disinfect
surfaces in the home, and is found in anti-mould products.
77
When chlorine gas is bubbled through calcium hydroxide solution,
calcium hypochlorite is produced:
CUg) Ca(OH),(aq) • Ca(OCl)2(aq) + CaCl2(aq)

+ H20(1)
The calcium hypochlorite is removed, dried and sold as 'pool chlorine'.
In dried form, it has a longer shelf-life than sodium hypochlorite, but
has the same effect on bacteria. When added to a pool, hypochlorite
ions oxidise the organic substances and bacteria introduced into the water
by the swimmers (note that 1 dog has the bacterial flora of 100 humans!).
Sunlight eventually breaks down the hypochlorite ions, and more of the
salt must be added to keep the water free of contaminants.
Swimmers complaining of red, stinging eyes are not reacting to the
'chlorine' in the pool. In fact, when insufficient calcium hypochlorite is
added, compounds called chloramines form - it is these which cause
the stinging. Adding more of the salt removes these compounds. Since,
as we know, chlorine is a toxic gas, it is really misleading to talk about
adding 'chlorine' to swimming pools!
Hydrogen chloride
Formula Colour Density
Solubility . Acidic/Basic? Reactivity
Draw the Lewis diagram of one molecule of hydrogen chloride.
Hydrogen chloride dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid.

Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, as nearly all of the dissolved molecules
react with water to form hydronium ions.
Equation
Production of hydrochloric acid

In the laboratory
The gas hydrogen chloride is prepared by the action of concentrated
sulfuric acid on a metal chloride and is then dissolved in water to form
hydrochloric acid. Normally, sodium chloride is used because it is cheap
and readily available.
H ; S0 4 (aq) + NaCl(s) • HCl(g) + NaHS0 4 (aq)
Concentrated Thistle funnel

sulfuric acid
Delivery tube uestion

5 Why does no sulfuric acid collect
in the beaker?
Funnel
Water
Sodium Beaker
chloride An inverted funnel is used to dissolve the
gas without creating 'suck-back' problems. A
greater surface area of water is also made
Preparation of hydrochloric acid. available for the dissolving process.
78
Industrial production
Hydrogen chloride is prepared industrially by synthesis from hydrogen
and chlorine. The hydrogen chloride is then dissolved in water.
Cl2(g) + H2(g) • 2HCl(g)
^Preparation of chlorine gas by oxidation of

hydrochloric acid
The chloride ions in concentrated hydrochloric acid can be oxidised to
chlorine gas if a strong oxidising agent is used.
2C1" a2(g) 2e~
Potassium permanganate ( ) is a good oxidising agent. In
turn, this is reduced to manganese dioxide (.

This reaction is done in a fume hood due to the toxic nature of chlorine
gas. The tap on the thistle funnel allows only controlled amounts of
hydrochloric acid to be added, and prevents the gas escaping through
the funnel.
nnrontrotcirl
Making chlorine gas by oxidation of hydrochloric acid.
Chlorine gas is toxic, destroying lung cells. The lung tissue reacts by producing extra fluid
(oedema) in the damaged region, and this fluid build-up can cause suffocation.
During World War I, the German Army launched the first large-scale poison gas attack against
Allied troops near Ypres, Belgium on 22 April 1915. Compressed chlorine gas was released from
cylinders and was carried by the wind to the Allied troops, who at the time had no means of
defence. The Allies in turn developed the technology for gas attacks. Attacks were not particularly
accurate, and wind changes often blew back the gas onto the side launching it.
Later, two poison-gas compounds containing chlorine, mustard gas and phosgene were used
instead. These were greatly feared by troops because they were more potent. Stockpiles of these
compounds remain in many countries, and it is known that during the Iran-Iraq war of the early
1980s, mustard gas was deployed.
The horrific injuries sustained by the use of these weapons in World War I prompted the USA to
propose a halt to the use of the technology. The Geneva Protocol of 1925 sought to prevent first
strikes using chemical weapons, although it did not prevent their use in defence. No chemical
weapons were used in World War II, although the development of new nerve gases went on in
secret. More recently, in 1992, thirty-eight member nations of the United Nations signed an
agreement to destroy all chemical weapons.
79
14. Carbon
OBJECTIVES B>/ the end of this topic you should be able to:
l list the common sources of carbon
2 recognise graphite and diamond as allotropes of carbon, and list their properties
Chemistry 1.6 and uses
Science 1.4 3 describe the properties and uses of carbon monoxide
4 describe the structure, properties and use of carbon dioxide
5 describe the production of carbon dioxide industrially and in the laboratory
6 interpret the carbon cycle
7 explain the consequences of carbon dioxide production
8* describe the production of water gas, producer gas and coal gas fuels
9 identify inorganic and organic carbon compounds.
The element carbon
No. of electrons Electron arrangement Bonding
The common sources of carbon

There are five main reservoirs of carbon on the Earth. Carbon is found
in all living things, making up the structures of carbohydrates, fats and
proteins. When living things die, the carbon may be converted into fossil
fuel compounds, such as coal, natural gas and oil, found in the Earth's
crust. The air and the oceans contain carbon dioxide and rocks in the
Earth's crust contain carbonates. Lastly, carbon is found in the elemental
form as deposits of diamond and graphite.
Allotropes of carbon
Carbon as an element can be found in two forms: diamond and graphite.
The carbon atoms in each crystal are arranged in different ways, and
this gives each form quite different properties. We call these forms
allotropes.
80
I Exercise
Crystal Diamond Graphite
Appearance
Hardness
Melting point
Electrical conductivity
Structure and bonding
Uses
Two other impure forms of carbon can be made by heating a fuel in

the absence of air. This process is called destructive distillation. Charcoal
and coke are produced this way.
Charcoal is made of minute graphite crystals, although it does not
have any defined structure. It has a very large surface area making it a
good filtering substance, so it is used in gas masks, shoe inserts that
remove odours, and in sugar purification. It is also used as fuel,
particularly for barbeques. It can be made by heating wood strongly in
the absence of air.
Coke is similar to charcoal, but is made by heating coal in the absence
^ f e of air. Coke is a good fuel as it burns producing little smoke, and is the
^ ^ reductant when producing a metal from its oxide.
Balance this example of a reducing reaction:

Fe304(s) + C(s) • Fe(s) + CO(g)
Lamp black, or soot, is another impure form of carbon produced when

fuels burn incompletely.
Balance this example:
C3H8(g) + 0 2 (g) • C(s) + H 2 0(g)
Lamp black is used in the manufacture of tyres and is a component of

some inks.
81
The oxides of carbon
Carbon monoxide ( )
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless gas that is insoluble in water.
It is very poisonous, because of the way that it binds tightly to
haemoglobin in the red blood cells. Once bound, it prevents oxygen being
carried in the blood; death can result from inhaling even very small
amounts of carbon monoxide. It is a dangerous pollutant, produced by
the incomplete combustion of fuels.
CH4(g) + 0 2 (g) • CO(g) + H 2 0(g)
Exhaust from car engines and cigarette smoke contain high amounts
of the gas, and it is very dangerous to use camp stoves without good
ventilation.
Uses of carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide gas is useful because it burns well, releasing a lot of
energy.
CO(g) + 0 2 (g) • C0 2 (g) Balance me!
It is also a good reductant, and is used in the production of metals.

1 Draw the Lewis diagram
Balance this example: txercise 1
for one molecule of
Fe 3 0 4 (s) + CO(g) • Fe(s) + C0 2 (g) carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide ( )
Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless gas that is denser than air and
slightly soluble in water. As a solid, it undergoes sublimation
( °C) and so is sometimes called 'dry ice'.
Carbon dioxide does not support combustion; when dissolved, it

reacts with water to produce acidic solutions.
Example C0 2 (aq) + H20(1) H 2 C0 3 (aq)
As a non-metal oxide, it behaves like an acid and will neutralise a

base.
Example 1 2NaOH(aq) + C0 2 (g) Na 2 C0 3 (aq) + H20(1)
Sodium hydroxide solution is often used to remove carbon dioxide Questions
from air in this way.
1 What do you observe when you
bubble carbon dioxide through
Example 2 Ca(OH)2(aq) C0 2 (g) CaCO (s) H2O(1)
calcium hydroxide solution?
This is the limewater test for carbon dioxide. 2 What would you observe when
more carbon dioxide is added?
If more carbon dioxide is added, a further reaction takes place:
CaCO (s) H20(1) + C0 2 (g) Ca(HC0 3 ) 2 (aq)
Uses of carbon dioxide

• Fizzy drinks
The carbon dioxide is dissolved in the drink at high pressure. It comes
out of solution as bubbles of gas when the lid is removed. Some of the
gas reacts with the water to form carbonic acid, and this gives some
of the flavour of the drink.
82
Fire extinguishers
As carbon dioxide is heavier than air, it smothers fire like a blanket,
preventing oxygen getting to the fuel. It doesn't support combustion,
so the fuel won't burn in it. These extinguishers are useful for electrical
fires because they contain no water, and the carbon dioxide is non-
conducting.
Refrigerant
Solid carbon dioxide is a lot colder than ice from a freezer, so keeps
foods very cold. As it sublimes when warmed, the food is also kept
dry as no liquid forms, unlike ice.
Storage of fruit
Carbon dioxide slows down the respiration process in fruit, so it ripens
more slowly. Other organisms won't live in this environment, and so
are prevented from causing spoilage.
Baking bread and cakes
Raising agents produce carbon dioxide; the gas rises through the
mixture, puffing it up and giving the food a finer texture. Yeast
produces carbon dioxide when it respires, and is used to raise the
bread dough.
Equation
Baking powder contains baking soda ( ) and an acid. The

baking soda reacts with the acid when added to the wet mix, producing
carbon dioxide gas. Heating the mixture in the oven speeds this
reaction up, releasing more carbon dioxide and causing the cake to
rise. Often baking soda is used on its own, as in the making of hokey
pokey and ginger bread. How does this work?
ACTIVITY Making hokey pokey
Wash and dry your hands. Put into a clean cooking pot 2T sugar then IT golden syrup. Get It baking soda
ready and a square of greaseproof paper about 20 cm x 20 cm.
Set up Bunsen and tripod, light Bunsen, adjust flame to blue and heat mixture gently so that it just keeps
boiling. If it is too hot, it will burn. Stir occasionally with a clean spoon.
After it has boiled for 7 or 8 minutes, test mixture by dropping a little into cold water. It is ready if the cooled
sample snaps when you bend it. If not, keep heating and testing.
When ready, stop cooking and add the baking soda. Quickly stir mixture and tip onto greaseproof paper
before it sets.
What chemical reaction occurs at this step?
Equation
Leave to cool while you tidy up. Remember not to eat the hokey pokey in the lab!
• Fermented drinks
Beer, cider and sparkling wines contain dissolved carbon dioxide gas
which is released when the drink is opened. Unlike soft drinks,
however, the carbon dioxide is produced by the yeast as it ferments
the sugar in the drink. This process is carried out in the absence of
oxygen, so that alcohol is produced, and is called fermentation.
Equation
• Fizzy tablets and sherbet

Some vitamin tablets and indigestion powders contain compounds
that react when dissolved in water to produce carbon dioxide gas.
Sherbet also contains these compounds.
ACTIVITY Making sherbet
1 Wash and dry your hands. Using the back of a spoon and a clean, dry bowl, grind together It tartaric acid with
It citric acid until fine and powdery.
2 Mix in It baking soda, 1 cup of icing sugar and 2t drink powder (any flavour). Crush any lumps as you stir.
3 Divide the mixture up and put it into small paper or plastic bags. Wash your gear and tidy up. Taste the sherbet.
What type of reaction is occurring?
Word equation
Production of carbon dioxide

In the laboratory
• Metal carbonate and acid
This is the simplest way of making and then collecting a sample.
Example CaC0 3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) • C0 2 (g) + CaCl2(aq) + H20(1)
Draw the equipment set-up needed to collect a sample in this way. How should the gas be collected?
• Thermal decomposition of a metal carbonate

Apart from lithium, sodium and potassium carbonates, metal
carbonates will produce carbon dioxide gas when heated.
Example MgC03(s) • C0 2 (g) + MgO(s)
• Complete combustion of fuels

Examples C(s) + 0 2 (g) • C0 2 (g)
C3H8(g) + 50 2 (g) • 3C0 2 (g) + 4H 2 0(g)
This is the reaction when lab gas is burnt in a Bunsen burner with the
air hole open.
• Cellular respiration
Using yeast, either in plentiful oxygen or by fermentation.
84
Industrially
• Extraction from natural gas
In New Zealand, natural gas from the Kapuni gas field contains about
40% carbon dioxide, and gas from the Maui field about 14%. The gases
can be separated and the carbon dioxide compressed and stored.
• Complete combustion of fuel oil
This is done in a furnace with a good air supply; the resulting carbon
dioxide is collected.
• Large-scale fermenting operations produce a lot of excess carbon
dioxide.
• Heating limestone ( ) in kilns produces carbon dioxide
by decomposition.
The carbon-oxygen cycle

Carbon and oxygen are being continually cycled in nature by the
processes of respiration, photosynthesis and combustion.
Carbon dioxide gas is fixed by plants on land and in the oceans into
carbohydrates by photosynthesis, using energy from the sun. The carbon
in the plants is passed along the food chain as consumers feed. It is
released again through respiration by plant and animal cells.
Oxygen is consumed by respiration and produced by photosynthesis.
When the plants and animals die, decomposers release carbon dioxide
back into the atmosphere as they respire. The carbon moves relatively
quickly in this part of the cycle.
At various times in the Earth's history, some plant and animal bodies
were protected from the natural agents of decomposition and converted
into substances such as coal, oil and gas.These fossil fuels have remained
locked under rock and the carbon has been unavailable to the cycle. The
carbon cycle, temporarily interrupted in this manner, is completed as
fossil fuels are mined and then combusted by humans. The carbon
dioxide and water are again added to the atmosphere for reuse by living
things, and the solar energy stored by photosynthesis long ago is released.
0 2 co 2 o2 co 2 o2 co 2 o 2 co 2 o 2 co 2
Eruptions
The carbon-oxygen cycle.

Consequences of carbon dioxide production
Carbon dioxide is sometimes referred to as a 'greenhouse gas'.
Greenhouse gases absorb heat radiated back from the Earth's surface,
preventing excess heat loss. This helps to maintain an average
temperature over a long time, and is of great importance. Other
greenhouse gases include water vapour, methane, and
chlorofluorocarbons.
Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has caused the levels
of these gases, and carbon dioxide in particular, to increase. The burning
of fossil fuels and the clearing of forests have helped to increase the
concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, currently by about 0.5%
each year. This change may be too rapid for living things to adjust; some
scientists believe a gradual increase in the Earth's average temperature
could result. A large enough increase could have three main effects:
• the sea levels could rise as warmer water expands. If temperatures
rise sufficiently to melt polar ice, this would be enough to submerge
low-lying land
• changes to climate could result. Some areas may become dryer and
others wetter. Snow lines could rise in alpine areas; northern New
Zealand could experience tropical weather, including more cyclones
• changes to plant and animal life. Some habitats could disappear and
others form as sea levels rise, colder areas warm up and other areas
become wetter or drier. For example, southern areas of New Zealand
may become suitable for crops that were previously grown in warmer
areas, and northern areas might be able to cultivate tropical plants.
Although scientists cannot agree on what the effects may turn out to
be, most accept that levels of carbon dioxide are increasing faster than
they have ever done before. Most nations have signed agreements to
limit the emissions of greenhouse gases by early next century. The biggest
task is to find ways of reducing reliance on fossil fuels for energy needs.
*Gas fuels from carbon

Before natural gas was discovered in New Zealand, gas for cooking and
heating was made by three methods, and stored in large tanks in each
town.
• Water gas
This is made by passing steam over hot coke:
C(s) + HzO(g) • CO(g) + H2(g)
• Producer gas
This is made by passing air over hot coke:
coke + air • CO(g) + N2(g)
This gas produces less energy when burnt than water gas, because
hydrogen combusts easily at lower temperatures whereas nitrogen
gas is reactive at very high temperatures only.
• Coal gas
This is made by the destructive distillation of coal in the absence of
air. Three substances are produced: coke, ammoniacal tar and coal
gas.
coal • coke + tar + H2(g) + CH4(g) + CO(g)
86
Organic chemistry - the final frontier?
Historically, organic chemistry was the study of chemical substances
obtained from plants and animals only. Then, in 1828, the German chemist
Wohler synthesised the first organic compound - urea - in the laboratory.
Today, organic chemists synthesise as many as 30 000 new organic
compounds a year, and over 4 million are known. Unlimited numbers
remain to be 'discovered'.
Why are there so many organic compounds, and why is only carbon
capable of forming so many? The answer lies in the electron arrangement
of the carbon atom. Carbon has four valence electrons, and can share all
four electrons to form four covalent bonds. More importantly, carbon
atoms are able to bond to one another to form long, stable chains of carbon
atoms. This property is called catenation.
No other element can do this to the same degree. Silicon, being in the
same group as carbon and having the same number of valence electrons,
can catenate - but only up to a maximum of eight atoms at any one time.
Science-fiction writers have speculated that if there is life on other worlds,
it may be silicon based. This would be most unlikely, because the
processes of life need to have a huge variety of compounds to operate,
and only mighty carbon can build such variety.
All compounds can be classified in the following manner:
• minerals • fuels
• metals, their salts and oxides • foods
• non-metals and their compounds • fibres
• water • plastics
• mineral acids • adhesives
• clay, sand and rocks • dyes
• medicines
• detergents
• solvents
Organic chemistry can be defined as the chemistry of carbon and its

compounds whose molecular structures are based on rings or chains of
carbon atoms.
15. Hydrocarbons

1 define the term hydrocarbon
2 describe the physical properties of the alkanes
Chemistry 1.4
3 name the sources of alkanes, and explain how alkanes can be separated out
of crude oil by fractional distillation
4 list the main uses of the alkanes, and name the components of CNG, LPG,
petrol and diesel fuels
5 describe the chemical reactions of the alkanes
6 describe the physical properties of the alkenes
7 name the sources of alkenes
8 describe the chemical reactions of the alkenes, including the test for
unsaturation, hydration and polymerisation
9 list the uses of alkenes
Hydrocarbons
Organic compounds can be called hydrocarbons if they contain carbon
and hydrogen and no other elements. Alkanes and alkenes are all
hydrocarbons. Alcohols and carboxylic acids are not hydrocarbons
because they contain oxygen in their molecules.
Alkanes
General formula Functional group -
Fill out the following table for the first six alkanes and cyclohexane.
Name Molecular formula Structural formula State at room temp.
methane
ethane
propane
butane
88
pentane
hexane
*cyclohexane
The alkanes are non-polar molecules that are insoluble in water. They
are also less dense than water, and will float on top. The term immiscible
describes how they form two layers with water. The atoms in the
molecules are covalently bonded, so there are no free electrons or charged
particles that could conduct a current.
The first four alkanes are gases, the next sixteen are liquids, and the
rest are waxy solids at room temperature.
Com the table below.

I Exercise I Plete
180-
O
Alkane No. of bp (°C) o
C atoms 150
o
Q.
methane -161 O)
£ 120
ethane -89 o
CO
3 -42
90
4 7
pentane 36 60
hexane 69
30
heptane 98
octane 126 0
nonane 151
-30-
decane 174
—
-60-
Then plot the data on the axes. Mark each point

with a cross X, and connect them with a smooth -90-
line.
From the graph, the boiling point of butane is - 1 5 0 -—
°C.
-180
Now answer the questions on the next page. 1 1 1 1 1
6 7 8 9 10
Number of C atoms in alkane
89
Sources of alkanes Questions
Alkanes are extracted from fossil fuels such as natural gas and crude oil.
These substances contain varying mixtures of many alkanes. The deposits What is the relationship between
of gas and oil were formed in marine sediments over long periods of the number of carbon atoms and
time from the remains of microscopic plankton. Plankton use oil droplets the molecular mass of each alkane?
to aid flotation; when the organisms die, the oil is released. As the weight What is the trend that the graph on
of sediments falling on top of the oils increases over time, pressure and page 89 is showing?
heat build up, turning the oils into natural gas and crude oil. Sometimes How would the size of the
crude oil is called petroleum, 'pet' meaning 'rock' and 'oleum' meaning molecule determine its boiling
'oil'. point?
New Zealand's largest known natural gas deposits are in Taranaki,
both on- and off-shore (Maui and Kapuni gas fields), but there are others,
such as Wairoa on the East Coast of the North Island, that are being
developed. The mixtures from each well have different compositions,
and must be treated differently.
Maui gas is mostly methane (70%), with the rest being made up of
carbon dioxide (12%), ethane (8%), propane and butane (6%) and nitrogen
(2%). It can be used as fuel without any treatment. Kapuni gas is much
higher in carbon dioxide (40%), with less methane (50%); the remainder
is mostly ethane and propane (9%) and some nitrogen (1%).
Exercise
Find out where the New Zealand gas wells are, and mark these on the
map at the back of this book.
Draw a pie graph showing
the components of each
mixture (Maui gas and
Kapuni gas).
New Zealand does not have large oil reserves and

must import crude oil to meet the demand for the larger Fraction boiling point
alkane fuels. The oil, mostly from oil wells in the
Middle East, is shipped to the Marsden Point oil Gases <40 °C
refinery near Whangarei (mark this on the map at the
back of the book), where the alkane components are
separated out of the mixture. The separation process
uses the different boiling points of the alkanes, and is Petrol <100 °C
called fractional distillation.
Fractional distillation *- Kerosine <250 °C
Crude oil is a mixture of many hydrocarbons, each with

a different boiling point. If the mixture is heated to 100 Diesel <300 °C
°C, all of the compounds that boil below this
temperature will become gases, and can be collected
and condensed back into liquids. If the temperature of
Fuel oil <350 °C
the remaining mixture is raised to 150 °C, the next set
of liquids will boil off. The liquids collected in this way Crude
are called fractions. Fractions are mixtures of oil
hydrocarbons with a small range of sizes and similar Tar, wax >350 °C
lubricants
boiling points.
This process is carried out in a fractionating column,
like the one here. The column is hotter at the bottom,
Diagram of a fractionating column.
90
where the crude enters, than at the top. Liquids with high boiling points
condense first, and are collected near the bottom. The hydrocarbons with
low boiling points will not condense until they reach the coolest parts at
the top. The bubble caps that cover the entrance to each level help the
condensing process.
Uses of alkanes
Alkanes separated from petroleum have a wide variety of uses.
• Fuel
In vehicles, aircraft and shipping. Fuel oil is also burnt to produce hot
water for boilers and steam to generate power. The oil refinery at
Marsden Point is used periodically to generate electricity for the
national grid in times of water shortages. However, it is an expensive
and wasteful method, used as a last resort. Gas and kerosene are also
used for cooking and heating purposes.
• Lubricants
Oil, grease and wax are the most common lubricants for machinery.
• Roading
Tar or bitumen is used to seal roads. uestion
• Synthesis of other organic compounds involved in the manufacture 4 Think back to the list of
of plastics (PVC, polythene), synthetic rubbers for tyres, synthetic substances classified as organic
fibres (nylon, polyester), detergents, pesticides, adhesives and substances (page 87). Many of
medicines. these are made from the
compounds in petroleum. What
It is claimed that after food, petroleum is the most important effects will there be when reserves
commodity on the planet, as far as our way of life is concerned. of petroleum eventually rim out?
Fuels
Each fraction is used differently. Four hydrocarbon fuels available at
your local service station are compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), petrol and diesel. Uses of different fuels are given
in the table below.
Fuel State Component alkanes Fuel use
CNG gas under pressure methane, some ethane cars, cooking

LPG gas under pressure propane and butane cars, cooking, heating
petrol liquid pentane to decane cars
kerosene liquid decane to C16 jet fuel, heating
diesel liquid C 16 toC 2
(1
diesel engines
heavy gas oil liquid C 20 toC 25 ships, power stations
residue liquids and solids over C25 candles, solid fuels, tars, lubricants
Reactions of alkanes
Alkanes are unreactive molecules, due to the stable, single covalent bonds
between the carbon and hydrogen atoms. However, they do produce
three types of reactions.
Combustion
Questions
Alkanes burn in oxygen well, releasing a lot of energy. This is the reason
why they are useful fuels. The products produced depend upon the 5 How does opening the air hole
amount of oxygen available. Small alkanes burnt in air react completely, in a Bunsen burner cause
producing carbon dioxide and water. Lab gas, or propane, burns in the complete combustion?
following way: 6 What advantages does
propane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water complete combustion produce?
7 How does closing the air hole
on the Bunsen burner cause
incomplete combustion?
8 Soot made in this fashion is
This produces a hot, blue flame, seen when the air hole on a Bunsen useful for hardening the rubber
burner is open. This is called complete combustion, because all of the in tyres. Does this type of
carbon atoms have completely reacted with oxygen to produce carbon combustion have another
dioxide. advantage?
Closing the air hole on the Bunsen produces a cooler, yellow, sooty 9 What are the disadvantages of
flame. Not all of the carbon in the gas is combining with oxygen. This is incomplete combustion?
called incomplete combustion. The products are carbon (in the form of
10 In what everyday situation is
soot) and water:
carbon monoxide produced?
propane + oxygen • carbon + water 11 Why is it dangerous?
12 Compare the amount of oxygen
reacted in each of the three
balanced equations. What is the
pattern?
Another product is produced if the amount of oxygen is in between 13 What advantage does using
these two levels. The poisonous gas carbon monoxide can be produced low-molecular-size fuels (such
by incomplete combustion. as CNG and LPG) in cars have?
14 Besides producing pollution,
propane + oxygen • carbon monoxide + water
what other disadvantage is
there when petrol and diesel
combusts incompletely?
15 How do engines maximise the
chances of complete
The amount of oxygen available in the air is fixed at %. combustion?
Hydrocarbons with a higher percentage of carbon need more oxygen to 16 What are some ways in which
burn completely Larger alkanes tend to burn incompletely in air, vehicle drivers can ensure that
producing a mixture of carbon products. The exhaust products of cars more fuel can combust
and trucks are examples. An aircraft such as a Boeing 747 can emit completely?
45 kg of polluting gases in one take-off alone.
Cracking
Long-chain alkanes can be split to produce smaller molecules. Heavy
oil is heated in the presence of a catalyst. One of the carbon-carbon bonds
breaks, producing a smaller alkane and an alkene. This can be done in
the laboratory, using liquid paraffin or kerosene.
Equation
The alkanes produced are usually those found in petrol, kerosene and
diesel fractions. This is useful because it allows the production of alkanes
that are in the greatest demand.
92
In the space below, make a labelled drawing of the
tXerCISe equipment set-up for cracking.
Alkenes
General formula . Functional group.
Exercise • Using textbooks or other sources, fill out the following table for three important alkenes.
ethene
propene
*cyclohexene
93
Alkenes have similar physical properties to alkanes. They show the
same trends in melting and boiling points, are immiscible with water,
and have a lower density than water.
Sources of alkenes
Crude oil and natural gas do not contain large amounts of alkenes, so
they have to be synthesised. There are two methods.
• Cracking a larger alkane to produce an alkene and a smaller alkane.
This is the way large amounts of ethene and propene are produced.
• Dehydration (removing water) of an alcohol.
Concentrated sulfuric acid can remove a molecule of water from
ethanol to produce ethene. This can be done in the laboratory, but
only small amounts of ethene are produced.
^Xgrcjs^^l In the space below, draw a labelled diagram to show

the equipment set-up for dehydration.
Reactions of alkenes
Alkenes undergo two types of reaction: combustion and addition.
Combustion
Alkenes react with oxygen in a similar way to alkanes, producing
water and carbon dioxide in a good oxygen supply, or carbon/carbon
monoxide in a limited oxygen supply. In air, they tend to burn with a
smokier flame than alkanes do.
Write the molecular equations for the complete and

exercise I
incomplete combustion of ethene.
ethene + oxygen • carbon dioxide + water
ethene + oxygen • carbon + water
Addition reactions
Alkenes are much more reactive towards other substances than the
alkanes are. This is because the double bond between the two carbon
atoms is easily broken, allowing other atoms to add on to the molecule.
These reactions are called addition reactions.
94
Addition of water (hydration)
Alkenes react with water in the presence of a catalyst to produce an
alcohol.
Example
ethene + water • ethanol
H H
H H H3PO4
\ /'
C=C H—OH H—C—C—H
/ \,H
H OH
The catalyst is phosphoric acid, and heat and pressure are applied.
The ethanol produced is very pure.
Addition to other alkenes

If a sample of ethene is heated under pressure with a catalyst, the double
bonds break and each ethene molecule joins up with the next. The
product is a very large chain called a polymer. If ethene is used, the
product is called 'polyethene' or 'polythene'. The reactant ethene units
are called monomers. The process is called polymerisation, and plastics
are produced in this way. Here is the process for polythene.
Questions
17 Polythene is the soft plastic used
/r H3P04 in cling film and plastic bags.
C=C ,C=C
XH
What properties of polythene
H VH H7
make it suitable for these
H H H H H H products?
18 What are some disadvantages of
c—c—c—c—c—c polythene?
H H H H H H
Other polymers have different properties, depending on the

monomers they are made from. The basic molecule of the polymers in
the examples that follow is called a monomer.
• PVC or polyvinylchloride is a tough polymer with many uses. It is
made from the monomer 'vinyl chloride'. Vinyl is another term for
ethene, so vinyl chloride is an ethene molecule with one of the
hydrogen atoms replaced with chlorine (i.e. chloroethene).
Exercise • Complete the reaction below showing the formation of the polymer.
CU cix /H CI X /H
c=c .C—C C—C
V H \H H \H
PVC has many advantages. It is a hard plastic that can be softened
easily. It can be brightly coloured, and is resistant to harsh weather
and chemicals. It can be found in any 'vinyl' product, from records to
flooring. Guttering, electrical insulation and some types of clothing
are also made from PVC.
Polypropylene is made from propene monomers. It is used in
synthetic carpet and toys, and can be spun into fibres for clothing.
'Polypro' thermal undergarments are warm when wet, easy to dry,
and lightweight.
Complete the reaction below showing the formation of the polymer.
CH M CH /H CH 3 \ r
3\ + 3\ /
,C=C c=c C—C
\H
Non-stick coatings on cookware and irons are often made from polytetrafluoroethene
(PTFE), or 'Teflon'. The monomer used is tetrafluoroethene.
95
Complete the reaction below showing the formation of the polymer.
F \ /F F \ /F F \ /F
C—C + C=C + C—C •
F \F F \F F7 V
• Polystyrene is a rather brittle polymer. When expanded with air, it
finds use in toys, bean bag fills and packing. Most commonly, it is
used as an insulator in items like disposable cups as it is a poor
conductor of heat. The monomer used is styrene (phenylethene).
Exercise • ^- om P^ ete reacti°n below showing the formation of the polymer.
/H /H 0^ /H
c = c + C=C + C= C
7 X 7 X 7 X
H H H H H H
Plastics have been available for only a short time. Polythene was one
of the first to be developed, and was in production by the beginning of
World War II. Plastics have revolutionised everyday life and we often
take them for granted (remember Hoggle's delight at being given a plastic
bracelet in the movie 'Labyrinth'!).
| Complete the following table on the use of plastics.

Exercise
Object Used to be made from Modern material Advantages of modern

over old
raincoat oiled fabric PVC longer lasting, cheap, can be

coloured, no smell, dries quickly
bucket
soft drink bottles
plastic bag
guttering
toys
toothpaste tube
What did people use before cling wrap?

As our reserves of fossil fuels run out, plastics could become more
expensive, and recycling will become important. Many plastics do not
break down when buried, or give off toxic fumes when burnt.
Questions
Uses of alkenes 19 What types of plastic are currently
Ethene is the most useful hydrocarbon. In 1995, production of ethene in
being recycled in New Zealand?
the USA was 21 billion kilograms, placing it fourth behind the production
of sulfuric acid, nitrogen and oxygen. Propene was ranked number 9. 20 Why is the recycling of plastics not
Here are some uses of ethene. common in many areas?
ethanol anti-freeze 21 What happens to used plastic in
your town?
Ethene
T
fruit/flower ripening organic chemicals polythene
96
16. Alcohols and carboxylic acids

1 recognise and name an alcohol from its formulae
NCEA Achievement Standard 2 describe the physical properties of the alcohols
Science 1.4 3 describe how methanol can be prepared industrially by the Mobil process
4 list the main uses of methanol
5 describe how ethanol can be prepared industrially
6 list the main uses of ethanol
7 describe some chemical reactions of the alcohols
8 recognise and name a carboxylic acid from its formulae
9 describe the physical properties of the carboxylic acids
10 describe how ethanoic acid can be prepared industrially
11 give examples of the acid nature of ethanoic acid
12 list the main uses of ethanoic acid
13* describe how esters are made using carboxylic acids.
Alcohols
General formula . Functional group.
An alcohol is simply an alkane that has had one hydrogen atom
substituted with a hydroxyl group ( _ _ _ ). Note that this is not a
hydroxide ion!
To name an alcohol once it has been identified, follow the system as
for an alkane by counting the number of carbons in the molecule. Then
remove the -e and add -ol.
^ Using textbooks or other sources, fill out the following table for the first two alcohols.
i Exercise
methanol
ethanol
Methanol and ethanol are polar molecules that are very soluble in
water. The atoms in the molecules are covalently bonded, so there are
no free electrons or charged particles that could conduct a current. They
are liquids at room temperature, with higher boiling points than the
hydrocarbons.
Preparation of methanol
Unlike ethanol, methanol cannot be made by fermenting sugar. It was
once prepared by distilling wood in the absence of air, and is still
sometimes called 'wood alcohol'. It is now produced from natural gas,
97
although when this non-renewable fuel runs out, methanol may once
again be made from plant products.
In New Zealand, methanol is made at the synthetic petrol plant at
Motonui in Taranaki. The plant started producing methanol in 1983 and
was the first of its type in the world. It uses a two-step technique called
the Mobil process.
First, natural gas is converted into synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen gases. The reaction is carried out under pressure
and a nickel catalyst is used. This is sometimes called steam reforming.
CH4(g) + H,0(g) • CO(g) + H2(g) Balance me!
In the second step, synthesis gas is passed over a copper catalyst.
High temperatures and pressures help to convert the gas to methanol.
CO(g) + H2(g) • CH3OH(g) Balance me!
Uses of methanol
• Fuel
Either in pure form or in mixtures for racing cars, dragsters, motorbikes and speedboats. In small amounts methanol
may be added to normal petrol, but the timing of the engine must be adjusted and additives used as it dissolves rubber
seals. Methanol burns cleanly and at a cooler temperature than petrol, so gives a greater energy output. It can also be
used in fuel cells (see Hydrogen chapter, page 50) as an alternative to hydrogen.
• To make petrol
Methanol can be converted into alkenes by removing water. The alkenes can be linked up to form alkanes. If the size
of the alkanes is controlled, a petrol mixture can be formed. A catalyst called ZSM-5 is used. It is a box-shaped molecule
that allows the alkenes to link up to a certain size and no more. The petrol made this way is more pure than that
distilled from crude oil. Up to 20% of New Zealand's petrol needs are met by this process.
• Solvent for plastics, paints and varnishes
Methylated spirits, or 'meths', is a mixture of methanol, ethanol,
oil and dye. Questions
• Making other organic chemicals, including formaldehyde. 1 Why would synthetic petrol be
purer than that distilled from
Preparation of ethanol crude oil?
There are two methods used to produce ethanol: fermentation and 2 What benefits would this have?
hydration of ethene. 3 Methanol is a dangerous toxin
which can cause blindness and
Fermentation death if ingested or inhaled. What
The process of using yeast to produce alcohol is an ancient one, with do manufacturers of meths do
records of brewing dating back to 7000 BC in Mesopotamia. The to try to prevent accidental
knowledge was passed on through the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and poisoning?
then on to Mediaeval Europe.
Starch in grain is converted into sugar (malt). When yeast is added,
the sugar is consumed by the yeast cells. They use up oxygen and when
levels are low enough, alcohol is produced. This is sometimes called
'anaerobic fermentation' because it occurs in the absence of oxygen and
only yeast cells can produce ethanol by this process.
glucose • ethanol + carbon dioxide
Ethanol is toxic to all cells, and if levels rise above fifteen percent in
the solution, the yeast cells die. Concentrated solutions of ethanol cannot
be made by fermentation alone.
To produce solutions with a higher concentration of ethanol, the
mixture must be distilled. The boiling point of ethanol is °C,
and so it can be separated from water to produce solutions with
concentrations up to 95% ethanol. The last 5% of water cannot be removed
by distillation.
98
Hydration of ethene
Fermentation is useful for producing diluted solutions of ethanol, but
too slow and costly when higher concentrations are needed for industry
I uestion
Instead, water can be added to ethene to produce ethanol. This is called
hydration and is an addition reaction (see Hydrocarbons chapter,
pages 94-95). What conditions are necessary for
the reaction to take place?
Equation
Uses of ethanol
• In dilute form in alcoholic beverages
• Fuel
Used in a similar way to methanol, where normal petrol is blended
with varying amounts of ethanol to produce 'gasohol'. Unmodified
engines can run on a petrol mix containing up to 17% ethanol. More
than 4 million cars run on ethanol in Brazil as a result of a government
programme to make fuel from sugar cane.
• Solvent
Methylated spirits is mostly ethanol, with methanol added.
• Anti-freeze may contain ethanol, or a product of ethanol
It is added to the radiator coolant to prevent ice forming and bursting
the radiator in cold weather.
• Medicines
Some cough mixtures contain ethanol. Baby 'gripe water' used to
contain a small amount of ethanol, until only a few years ago!
• Production of other organic compounds, such as ethene.
Chemical reactions
Combustion
Methanol and ethanol burn cleanly in air and so are useful, non-polluting
fuels.
ethanol + oxygen • carbon dioxide + water
£ Dehydration
Ethanol can form ethene if a molecule of water is removed. Sulfuric acid
is used to do this.
H 2 SO 4
ethanol • ethene + water
Oxidation
Alcohols can react with oxygen to form organic acids. This can occur
naturally, such as when ethanol in wine is oxidised to vinegar by bacteria.
ethanol + oxygen • acetic acid
An oxidising agent can also cause this to happen. Potassium
dichromate ( ) solution can oxidise ethanol. During the
reaction, the potassium dichromate is reduced and changes colour. The
colour change can indicate the presence of an alcohol, and is a useful
test.
99
ACTIVITY Testing for alcohols
1 Put 1 mL of methanol and 1 mL of ethanol into two clean test tubes.
2 To each, add 10 drops of dilute sulfuric acid, followed by 2 drops of potassium dichromate solution. Shake gently.
3 Place into a beaker of warm water and observe.
Observations _ __
Questions
Carboxylic acids This reaction was used to check

whether a driver had been
General formula .Functional group. drinking or not, and was called the
Carboxylic acids are sometimes called organic acids. To name a carboxylic 'breathalyser test'. How did it
acid once it has been identified, follow the system as for an alkane by work?
counting the number of carbon atoms in the molecule. Then remove the What would you expect to see
-e and add -oic acid. happen if the potassium
dichromate solution was added to
a small sample of an alkane?
1 Exercise
J Using textbooks or other sources, fill out the following table for the first two carboxylic acids.
methanoic acid
ethanoic acid
Methanoic acid and ethanoic acid are polar molecules that are very
soluble in water. They are liquids at room temperature, with higher
boiling points than the hydrocarbons and alcohols. Some of the dissolved
molecules react with water to produce hydronium ions. These lower the
pH of the solution to below 7, and allow it to be a weak conductor of
electricity.
Preparation of ethanoic acid

Ethanoic acid is also called acetic acid, from the Latin term for vinegar
uestion
(iacetum). It is the compound that makes vinegar sour. Vinegar is a dilute
solution containing up to 6% ethanoic acid. It is produced when bacteria 7 Why should wine be consumed
oxidise the ethanol in wine or cider. The bacterial spores are present in within a few days of being opened?
the air naturally.
Equation
Concentrated ethanoic acid, sometimes called 'glacial acetic acid', is

not made by this method.
100
Chemical reactions
Carboxylic acids are weak acids, producing small numbers of hydronium
ions when they react with water. They will turn blue litmus red.
CH3COOH(aq) + HzO(l) • CH3COO"(aq) + H30+(aq)
The reactions of carboxylic acids with other substances are similar to
those of mineral (strong) acids, except they tend to be less vigorous.
Ethanoic acid forms salts called acetates.
Examples
ethanoic acid + magnesium metal • magnesium acetate + hydrogen gas
ethanoic acid + ammonium hydroxide • ammonium acetate + water
ethanoic acid + sodium carbonate • sodium acetate + carbon dioxide gas + water
Uses of ethanoic acid

• Food industry
Vinegar is a dilute solution of ethanoic acid.
• Pickles, preserves and sauces contain ethanoic acid (as vinegar) in them. The ethanoic acid provides the tart taste and
helps to keep the colour of the preserves. More importantly, most bacteria that cause food poisoning and spoilage
cannot survive conditions where the pH is below 5. This is especially important in food products containing egg, such
as mayonnaise. The vinegar in mayonnaise prevents Salmonella bacteria from causing harm.
• Production of synthetic food flavourings
Esters are compounds that give certain fruits their smell and taste. Some are made from ethanoic acid.
• Production of other organic compounds, such as dyes, plastics and insecticides.
• Production of rayon fibre.
*Esters
One type of reaction is unique to carboxylic acids. When heated with an alcohol and a small amount of sulfuric acid, they
form fruity-smelling, organic compounds called esters. This is called a condensation reaction, because two compounds
are joined together to make one larger compound.
H 2 SO 4
carboxylic acid + alcohol ester + water
101
ACTIVITY What does that ester smell remind me of?
Your teacher will provide you with a selection of carboxylic acids and alcohols to use in particular combinations. In
the results table below, record which combinations you are to react. For each pair, carry out the following steps
carefully.
1 Put 1 mL of the alcohol into a test tube. Add 2 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid.
2 Add 1 mL of the carboxylic acid, and place in a beaker of warm water for a few minutes.
3 Tip the contents of the test tube into a small beaker containing a solution of sodium carbonate. Smell cautiously
and try to identify the smell.
Results
Alcohol Carboxylic acid Ester smell Ester name
Here are some examples of esters and their fruit smells.

Questions
How did yours compare?
pears isopropyl alcohol and ethanoic acid 8 Why is it necessary to tip the ester
banana isoamyl alcohol and ethanoic acid into some sodium carbonate
oranges octanol and ethanoic acid solution?
apples methanol and butanoic acid 9 How soluble are esters in water?
pineapple ethanol and butanoic acid
10 What uses could these esters
have?
102
17. Metals

1 identify the common physical properties of metals
2 apply the physical properties of magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper,
Chemistry 1.3 lead and gold to their uses
Science 1.4 3 describe the properties of the alloys brass, stainless steel and solder, and how
they are used
4 describe the reactions of lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron,
lead and copper with oxygen, water and dilute acids
5 describe the displacement of metal ions by a more active metal
6 use the metal activity series to predict whether a reaction is likely to occur
7 list the factors that cause iron to corrode and discuss methods used to prevent
this.
Physical properties of metals

The metals make up 75% of the elements on the Periodic Table, and are
Questions
found in all but two of the groups. They all have five physical properties
in common: What is the difference between a
• shiny when polished physical property and a chemical
property?
• good conductors of electricity
Why do some metals like lead
• good conductors of heat appear dull?
• malleable Which metals are not solids at room
• ductile. temperature?
Most metals are solids at room temperature and are hard. Which metals are soft enough to be
cut with a knife?
Uses of some metals Name the two coloured metals.
Some metals are particularly useful, and are important in our everyday
lives.
Using textbooks or other sources, complete this table with examples.

Exercise
Metal Uses Property that makes it more

suitable than other metals
Iron
Copper
Zinc
Aluminium
Lead
Magnesium
Gold
103
Alloys
Alloys are mixtures of elements with metallic properties. Alloys of two
or more metals can be mixed to give unlimited compositions. The physical
properties of each alloy differ considerably from their separate
components. By careful choice of elements, alloys can be made that have
superior hardness, toughness, strength, and resistance to corrosion.
The composition of some common alloys is shown below.
Alloy Composition Use
Brass Cu + 10-50% Zn hard and strong: fittings, castings

Bronze Cu + 10% Sn corrosion-resistant: propellers, statues
Solder Pb 60% + Sn 40% low melting point: joining wires, pipes
Stainless steel Fe + 18% Cr, 8% Ni corrosion-resistant: food preparation
Some other common alloys
Carbon steels iron and carbon
(mild) < 0.2% C wire, cans, car bodies
(structural) 0.2-0.5%C beams, girders, springs
(tool) 0.5-1.5%C tools, razors, knives
Alloy steels iron and transition metals:

chromium hard, resistant to rust: knives, scissors
manganese strong, resistant to wear: rock drills
tungsten holds cutting edge: drills, machine tools
vanadium strength and springiness: spanners
Pewter Sn + Sb, Cu, Bi malleability, shiny: decorative utensils
Alnico Fe + Al, Ni, Co highly magnetic: magnets
Duralumin A1 + Cu, Mg light and strong: aircraft bodies
Reactions of the metals

Metals lose electrons in chemical reactions to form positive ions
( ). This is an oxidation process because
The reactions are exothermic, and light energy may also be produced by
some.
Metals and oxygen

Nearly all metals react with oxygen to form oxides. Most metals will
react vigorously with pure oxygen, although they will also react readily
in air.
Metal + oxygen metal oxide
Pure metals are shiny. As the outside layer of atoms reacts with the
oxygen in the air, it turns dull due to the oxide coating that has formed.
In some cases, this oxide coating is useful as it prevents the rest of the
metal underneath from reacting. This is the case with aluminium: this is
a very reactive metal, but due to the oxide layer is perceived to be
104
unreactive. It can be used without painting or further treatment. If the
coating is removed with mercury(II) chloride, the aluminium left exposed
can be seen to react with the oxygen in the air. The reaction is strongly
exothermic.
In other situations, the coating may make the metal unattractive, and
is called tarnishing. Polishing removes the tarnish. The corrosion of iron
is of particular concern, due to iron's wide usage. Rust ( ) is
crumbly and reduces the strength of the iron, and can be dangerous if
allowed to occur on load-bearing structures or vehicles.
ACTIVITY Metals and oxygen

From experiments or demonstrations, fill in the following table on the reactions of some metals in oxygen. It may be
necessary to remove any oxide coating beforehand with sandpaper. Write equations for any reactions that occur.
Metal Observations Reactivity Formula of oxide
lithium
calcium
magnesium
aluminium
zinc
iron
lead
copper
gold
Equations
Metals and water

Very reactive metals, such as those in Group I and calcium, will react
with water to form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas:
metal + water • metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas
Others, such as magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron, will react with
steam to produce a metal oxide and hydrogen gas:
metal + steam • metal oxide + hydrogen gas
Lead, copper and gold will not react with steam at all.
105
ACTIVITY Metals and water
From experiments or demonstrations, fill in the following table on the reactions of some metals with water or steam.
It may be necessary to remove any oxide coating beforehand with sandpaper. Write equations for any reactions that
occur.
Metal Observations Reactivity Formula of product
lithium
calcium
magnesium
aluminium
zinc
iron
lead
copper
gold
Equations
Metals and acid

Nearly all metals react with acids to form salts and hydrogen gas:
metal + acid • metal salt + hydrogen gas
The salt formed depends upon the acid used:
• hydrochloric acid produces chlorides
• sulfuric acid produces sulfates
• ethanoic acid produces acetates.
£ Usually dilute acids are used; however Group I metals and calcium
• react dangerously with acids and these reactions should not be
I attempted.
Note: nitric acid does not produce hydrogen gas when it reacts with
» a metal: nitrogen dioxide gas and a metal nitrate are produced. Nitric
acid will also oxidise copper, which does not react with other acids.
106
ACTIVITY Metals and dil. HCI
From experiments or demonstrations, fill in the following table on the reactions of some metals with dilute
hydrochloric acid. It may be necessary to remove any oxide coating beforehand with sandpaper. Write equations for
any reactions that occur.
Metal Observations Reactivity Formula of salt
magnesium
aluminium
zinc
iron
lead
copper
Equations
When metals react with water or acids, they displace the hydrogen
from the water molecules or from the solution, forming hydrogen gas. uestion
S
The hydrogen is reduced because it gains electrons from the reactive
metal. 6 From the three types of reaction
above, can you place the metals in
H+(aq) H2(g) Balance me! order of reactivity from the most
reactive to the least?
Displacement reactions with other metals

Just as some metals can displace hydrogen from water or acids, some
can also displace metal ions from a solution. This causes a precipitate of
the less reactive metal to form.
107
ACTIVITY A testing task
You will be given a selection of metals and metal nitrate solutions to use. For each
combination in the table below, place the cleaned metal into a test tube and add enough
solution so that it is covered. Observe carefully. Write equations for any reactions that
occur.
Metal Ion in solution

Mg2+ Zn2+ Fe2+ Pb2+ Cu2+
magnesium
zinc
iron
lead
copper
Equations
The activity series

Questions
From observations of the above displacement reactions, the metals can
be placed in order of reactivity. This activity series is useful because it 7 From your observations, can you
allows predictions to be made about whether a reaction could occur and p l a c e the metals in order of
what the products are likely to be. This diagram shows how the activity reactivity from the most reactive to
series works. The metals are ordered from the most reactive down to the the least?
least reactive. 8 Nitrate solutions are used because
lead forms insoluble coatings with
chloride and sulfate solutions.
Why is this necessary?
108
Activity series
Metal Reaction with Reaction Reaction with Reaction of

0 2 in the air with water dilute HC1 oxide with H2
\
K violent reaction
dangerous violent
Na fast reaction
burns easily with reaction
Ca bright flame slow reaction
> no reaction
Mg reacts with steam >
no reaction because
A1 of oxide coating > reacts quite well
Zn reacts slowly reacts with steam
Fe ' with heating reacts with steam reduced reversibly
Pb r no reaction slow with slow reduction
- 1 1 conc. acid
Hydrogen 1 f
8 M1'••"'•nil11™""1!
Cu rapid reduction
i i
i i
Ag no reaction | with water or steam | • no reaction
L J oxides reduced to
Au metal very easily
Note the relative position of hydrogen in the series. Metals above

hydrogen will displace it from acid, whereas those below hydrogen will
not.
A metal will displace another from solution if it is above it in the
series.
Example
Zinc metal is above silver. A piece of zinc will react with a solution of
silver nitrate. Silver crystals will form on the zinc.
oxidation Zn(s) • Zn2+(aq) + 2e~

^ ^ reduction Ag+ (aq) + e~ • Ag(s)
overall equation
Gold is a very unreactive metal, and it is found free in nature. Compare

this with potassium and sodium, which are found as compounds and uestion
are very difficult to reduce to the metal. So the series can also be used to
predict the ease of reduction of a metal ion. The more reactive a metal, 9 Which process is easiest to carry
the harder it is to reduce its ion. out?
Na • Na+ + e~
or
Corrosion of iron Na* + e~ -+- Na
Corrosion is the oxidation of a metal that is exposed to moist air or water.
The corrosion of iron is called rusting, and the product is a crumbly, red-
brown oxide ( ).
109
ACTIVITY What causes rusting?
Design a fair test to investigate the effect of oxygen and water on an iron nail.
Aim _ „
Method
Results
Conclusion
Millions of dollars are spent every year on various methods of rust prevention. Complete the following
table with some methods you have discussed.
Method Description Advantages Disadvantages
Questions
10 What W'
11 Why would
can experience less rust over

13 Roads that
should a car
14 Dilute aci
When w
110
18. Preparation of metals and their compounds
OBJECTIVES By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1 explain how metals are extracted from their ores by reduction
2 describe how copper(II) oxide and lead(II) oxide may be reduced using
Chemistry 1.3 hydrogen and charcoal
3 outline how iron is produced in New Zealand
4 outline how aluminium is produced in New Zealand
5 describe how metal compounds can be produced by:
• the reactions of acids with metals, soluble bases, oxides and carbonates
• synthesis reactions between metals and non-metals
• precipitation.
Production of a metal from its oxide

Only a few metals are found as free elements in nature. Most metals
I have to be extracted from compounds (minerals). These minerals contain
metal oxides, sulfides or silicates.
Ore is the term used to describe any solid material that is mined for
the minerals it contains. Ores can be mixtures of substances, some of
which are useful and some not. Minerals are the chemical compounds
found in ores, rocks and gems. They each have a definite chemical
formula.
Using textbooks or other sources, complete this table of some common ores.
Ore Mineral Mineral formula Metal extracted
Cinnabar mercury sulfide
Iron sand iron oxide (magnetite)
Bauxite aluminium oxide (alumina)
Extracting metals from these compounds is a three-step process.

Mining the ore and concentrating the mineral
The ore is dug out of the ground, crushed and stockpiled. Rock, soil
and debris are separated out by physical processes.
Reducing the mineral to the metal
This involves the chemical removal of oxygen or sulfur, and the
reduction of metal ions to atoms. The ions of unreactive metals are
easier to reduce than those of more reactive metals.
Metals at the bottom of the activity series can be reduced by heating
the mineral in air. This is the cheapest method. Mercury is produced
in this way:
HgS(s) + 0 2 (g) • Hg(g) + S0 2 (g)
Metals in the middle of the activity series, such as zinc and lead,
are extracted by heating their oxides with carbon or carbon monoxide:
ZnO(s) + C(s) Zn(s) + CO(g)
111
Metals at the top of the activity series cannot be extracted by
reduction of their oxides with carbon or carbon monoxide, because
the temperatures required are too high. Electrolysis of solutions
containing their salts does not work either, because hydrogen from
the water is produced at the cathode instead of the metal, as it is easier
to reduce. The only way to extract these metals is by electrolysing
their molten compounds. Potassium, sodium, calcium and
magnesium are produced by the electrolysis of their molten chlorides,
and aluminium by electrolysis of the molten oxide.
Na+(1) + e- • Na(l)
3 Refining the metal

Any impurities are removed from the molten metal by slag formation.
Alloying materials may be added at this stage.
Reduction of oxides in the laboratory

Lead and copper can be produced in small amounts in the lab by
reduction of their oxides. A suitable reducing agent and heat are required.
Hydrogen gas will reduce copper and lead oxides by removing the
oxygen from the compound. Black copper oxide produces pinky-brown
copper metal, and yellow lead oxide produces silvery lead metal.
I Exercise I
Label the diagram
to show copper
oxide being
reduced by
hydrogen gas.
Equation
Lead can also be produced by heating lead(II) oxide with carbon. The
carbon is in the form of a charcoal block.
Exercise •
Label the diagram to
show the equipment set-
up for reducing lead(II)
oxide by heating with
carbon.
Equation
Iron production
In New Zealand, iron and then steel are produced at the BHP New
Zealand Steel Ltd plant at Glenbrook, South Auckland.
The ore containing the iron is black ironsand. Ironsand is a mixture of
sand, clay, debris and titanomagnetite ( ), the mineral
containing the iron. This is found in great quantities along the west
coast of the North Island, from Wanganui to Auckland, and had its origins
in the volcano called Taranaki (Mount Egmont). Thousands of years of
erosion of the volcanic rocks produced the ironsand, and it has been
deposited northwards by sea currents.
112
The extraction process is given below.
The ironsand is dug up at the Waikato North Head mine site and is stockpiled. Larger pieces of debris such as wood
and stones are removed by screening.
The ore is then mixed with water to form a slurry and is passed through a series of rotating drums fitted with magnets.
These attract the magnetic titanomagnetite; most of the other non-magnetic material passes through. Some sand still
remains, so the next step is to separate the sand from the titanomagnetite by using differences in weight.
The slurry runs through a spiral-shaped gravity separator, where the heavy grains of titanomagnetite fall through
slots in the bottom; the lighter sand washes through. The mineral is now dried and is called concentrate. It is transported
to the steel mill at Glenbrook.
The concentrate, together with coal from Huntly, is fed into a rotating kiln where the mixture is heated to 1000 °C. This
temperature is not enough to melt the iron, however. The iron oxide in the titanomagnetite is reduced to iron by
carbon monoxide gas generated in the kiln.
Fe304(s) + CO(g) • Fe(s) + C0 2 (g) Balance me!
The coal reacts with the carbon dioxide to produce more carbon monoxide.
C(s) + C0 2 (g) • CO(g) Balance me!
The product is cooled, and magnetic separators remove any unburnt coal from the mixture. The iron produced by this
chemical reaction is called sponge or pig iron, and contains 70% metallic iron, with titanium dioxide ( )
and carbon making up the rest.
To make steel from the iron, the titanium dioxide and excess carbon must be removed. This is best done by melting the
sponge iron.
A mixture of sponge iron, scrap iron, limestone ( ) and alloying metals are put into the electric arc furnace.
Electrodes supplying a large electric current are inserted, and the mixture melts at 1600 °C.
The limestone combines with the titanium dioxide and forms a slag which rises to the top and is drawn off, leaving the
heavier molten steel at the bottom. Oxygen gas is bubbled through the steel to remove excess carbon that would make
the steel too brittle.
Once the steel is tested to see if it has the correct composition, it is poured, moulded and cooled.
In the box below, draw a summary of the steel-making process.
113
Aluminium production
In New Zealand, aluminium is produced at New Zealand Aluminium
Smelters Ltd at Tiwai Point near Invercargill.
The ore containing the aluminium is red bauxite. Bauxite is a mixture
of silicon dioxide, iron(III) oxide and alumina ( ), the mineral
containing the aluminium. This is found in large deposits in Northern
Queensland, Australia.
Here is the process.
1 The ore is mined near Weipa, and transported to Gladstone, Queensland where concentration takes place. The bauxite
is crushed and dissolved in concentrated sodium hydroxide. The silicon dioxide and alumina dissolve whereas the
iron oxide does not (a basic oxide). The iron oxide is filtered out, and the sodium hydroxide solution is pumped into
tanks. After a while, the alumina precipitates out of the solution and can be filtered off and dried. Pure aluminium
oxide is then shipped to Tiwai Point.
2 Reduction of the alumina to aluminium metal is done by electrolysis of the molten alumina. The electrolysis is carried
out in electrolytic cells or 'pots', of which there are several hundred. The steel pots are lined with carbon around the
sides, which forms the cathode. The anodes are carbon blocks.
Aluminium oxide melts at nearly 2000 °C, which is a very expensive temperature to produce. Instead of doing this, the
alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite which melts at only 970 °C. A large electrical current supplies the energy
needed to provide the high temperatures and the electrons for the reduction of the aluminium ions. The purpose-built
Manapouri power station in Fiordland supplies the huge amounts of electricity required.
The ions in the molten aluminium oxide are mobile, and are attracted to the electrodes where reduction and oxidation
takes place. The molten aluminium is drawn off and is 99.7% pure. Each pot can produce one tonne of aluminium per
day.
Exercise I Label the diagram below of a pot for producing aluminium by the electrolysis of aluminium oxide.
Equations cathode
anode
overall
The oxygen produced at the anode reacts with the carbon to form
carbon dioxide. The anodes have to be replaced regularly as a result.
114
3 The aluminium produced is almost pure and lacks strength. It can be alloyed with other metals to make it more
useful. Copper, manganese and magnesium can all increase the strength if added.
The thin, protective oxide coating that forms as the aluminium cools can be thickened in a process called anodising.
This gives the aluminium an increased resistance to corrosion and makes the surface stronger.
In the box below, draw a summary of the aluminium-making process.
r Exercise
| Complete this table to summarise iron and aluminum production.
Iron Aluminium
Ore
Mineral name and formula
Place mined
Mineral purification methods
Place reduced
Reduction reaction
Resources required
Uses
115
Reactions that produce metal compounds
Use the following key to identify appropriate methods of producing metal compounds.
1 Does the compound need to be anhydrous? YES go to 2
NO go to 3
2 Use the synthesis method metal + non-metal • metal compound
3 Is the compound soluble? YES go to 4
NO go to 9
4 Is the metal in the compound K, Na, Li or Ca? YES go to 5
NO go to 6
5 These metals are too reactive to react with an acid. Select a carbonate or a soluble base and react with the appropriate
acid instead.
6 Is the metal in the compound Cu or Pb? YES go to 7
NO go to 8
7 These metals are too unreactive to react with an acid. Select a carbonate or an oxide to react with the appropriate
acid instead.
8 If the metal is Mg, Al, Zn or Fe, select a carbonate or an oxide or the metal itself and react with the appropriate
acid.
9 Use the precipitation method.
To choose the appropriate acid:

• hydrochloric acid produces chlorides
• sulfuric acid produces sulfates
• nitric acid produces nitrates
Complete this table using the key above.
Compound to prepare Method Two reactants used
Copper hydroxide precipitation CuS04(aq) and NaOH(aq)
Zinc chloride metal and acid
Potassium sulfate
Anhydrous iron(III) chloride
Calcium nitrate
Lead chloride
Magnesium carbonate
Copper sulfate
Sodium nitrate
Anhydrous magnesium oxide
116
19. The properties of metal compounds

1 describe the basic nature of metallic oxides and hydroxides
2 describe the thermal stability and decomposition reactions of metal
Chemistry 1.3 carbonates, bicarbonates and nitrates
*3 identify hydrated metal compounds, and define the terms associated with
hydration: hydrated, anhydrous, water of crystallisation, hygroscopic,
deliquescence, and efflorescence.
Metal oxides and hydroxides

Most metal oxides can be prepared by synthesis or decomposition of a
metal carbonate, hydroxide, nitrate or sulfate. Hydroxides are prepared
by dissolving soluble metal oxides in water, or by precipitation. Sodium
hydroxide is made industrially by the electrolysis of brine.
ACTIVITY Testing the properties of some metal oxides and hydroxides

1 Place 5 mL of water into each of five test tubes.
2 Using a spatula, place a small amount of each compound below into each test tube.
Observe carefully. Test the pH of the solution with a few drops of universal indicator.
3 Rinse out the test tubes, and add new samples of each compound.
4 Add 5 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid to each sample. Observe carefully
5 To another test tube, add 1 mL of dilute sodium hydroxide solution. Test the pH of the solution with one drop of
universal indicator.
Results
Compound Formula Solubility Test with indicator Reaction with acid
Calcium oxide
Zinc oxide
Iron(III) oxide
Copper(II)
oxide
Calcium
hydroxide
Conclusions
117
j Group I, alkalis, acids, magnesium hydroxide, insoluble, ammonium hydroxide, bases }
Generally, the metal oxides and hydroxides are classified as , because they react with . Only
the oxides and hydroxides of and are soluble in water and are called . Calcium
and are slightly soluble, and the others are all .
uestion
1 What is the difference between a
Decomposition of carbonates, bicarbonates base and an alkali?
and nitrates
When some metal compounds are heated, they break down into two or
more products. They are thermally unstable.
ACTIVITY Investigating the decomposition of two carbonates

Place a marble chip into a boiling tube. Measure the mass of both on a balance.
Connect a delivery tube and bung to the boiling tube. Prepare another test tube with 3 mL of limewater, and
place the end of the delivery tube into the limewater.
Heat the calcium carbonate gently with a blue Bunsen flame and observe carefully. If suck-back occurs,
pinch off the delivery tube, stop heating and remove the delivery tube.
Let the equipment cool in a test-tube rack. Examine the marble chip. Measure the final mass, and record it.
Repeat steps 1 to 4 with a small sample of copper carbonate instead of the marble chip.
Results
Carbonate Initial mass Final mass Change in mass Observations
Conclusion
Equations
Group I metal carbonates (Li, Na, K) do not decompose. The ionic

bonds in these compounds are too strong to allow decomposition. They
are thermally stable.
Summary Metal carbonate • metal oxide + carbon dioxide
118
ACTIVITY What happens to a metal bicarbonate when it is heated?
1 Place a sample of sodium bicarbonate into a boiling tube. Measure the mass of both on a balance.
2 Connect a delivery tube and bung to the boiling tube. Prepare another test tube with 3 mL of limewater, and place
the end of the delivery tube into the limewater.
3 Heat the sodium bicarbonate gently with a blue Bunsen flame and observe carefully. If suck-back occurs, pinch
off the delivery tube, stop heating and remove the delivery tube.
4 Let the equipment cool in a test-tube rack. Examine the sodium bicarbonate. Measure the final mass, and record
it.
Results
Initial mass Final mass Change in mass Observations
Conclusion
Equation
Only the Group I metals form bicarbonates, and they all decompose
uestion
when heated. Of these, sodium bicarbonate is the most useful.
2 How many uses of sodium
Metal nitrates decompose to form a metal oxide, oxygen and nitrogen bicarbonate can you think of?
dioxide.
Metal nitrate • metal oxide + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen
""jjxercise^T"^3ânce following examples. uestion

3 What would you observe in each
Mg(N03)2(s) • MgO(s) + N0 2 (g) + 0 2 (g)
of these reactions?
CU(N0 3 ) 2 (S) • CuO(s) + N0 2 (g) + 0 2 (g)
The Group I metal nitrates decompose to produce metal nitrites

and oxygen.
KNO (s) KNO (s) o 2 (g)
Hydrated metal compounds
A compound crystallised from solution often includes water molecules
in its crystal structure. This water is often called water of crystallisation
and can be removed by careful heating, leaving the anhydrous compound
behind. Some common hydrated compounds are:
CuS04.5H20 COC12.6H20 MgS04.7H20
Some compounds absorb water from the air and dissolve in it. These
compounds are called deliquescent. You may have seen old containers
of chemicals that have absorbed moisture in this way.
Efflorescence occurs when a hydrated compound releases its water
of crystallisation into the air. The crystals in the compound revert to a
powdery solid.
ACTIVITY Crystals and water

1 Observing deliquescence. Place some crystals of copper nitrate on a watch glass and leave. Record their appearance
after some time and then overnight.
Observations
2 Heating a hydrate to form an anhydrous compound. Take a small sample of copper sulfate crystals and place them
in a crucible. Heat the crystals gently and observe. Remove some of the product for step 3.
Observations : :
3 Observing a hygroscopic compound. Leave a sample of anhydrous copper sulfate on a watch glass overnight.
Observations
4 Observing hydration. When the crucible from step 2 has cooled to room temperature, add one drop of water to the
anhydrous compound. Feel the bottom of the crucible.
Observations
5 Observing efflorescence. Place a large crystal of washing soda ( ) on a watch glass and observe. Leave
overnight.
Observations
120
Questions
4 Which of the following are hydrated compounds?
CUS0 4 .5H 2 0 (NH4)2S04 FeS0 4 .7H 2 0 NaOH
Fe(N0 3 ) 3 .9H 2 0 FeCl, Na 2 C0 3 .10H 2 0 CaS0 4 .2H 2 0
5 For each hydrated compound identified above, state the number of waters of crystallisation in each formula.
6 Why is the term 'water of crystallisation' an accurate description of these water molecules?
7 What is the difference between a hygroscopic compound and a deliquescent compound?
8 What problems are there in storing a deliquescent compound?
9 What is the effect of water on anhydrous copper sulfate?
Equation — —
ACTIVITY Growing crystals

Try growing copper sulfate crystals over a few weeks in the laboratory. Tie a seed crystal to some thread, and suspend
it in a super-saturated copper sulfate solution.
Observations
121
20. Research Topic: Chemistry and Technology

1 collect and process a wide range of appropriate information, from a
NCEA Achievement Standard range of reference sources
Chemistry 1.2 2 interpret information and write a report that explains links between
chemistry and technology, and thoroughly evaluate the research.
Chemistry in our everyday lives

Try listing all of the substances you have made use of today between the
times of getting out of bed and arriving at school. Group them under the
following headings.
Washing Food and preparation Clothing Transport
It is hard to imagine a day going smoothly without these items, as we

have come to depend heavily on the applications of chemistry in our
modern way of life. Where did these technologies come from?
On a larger scale, industrial applications of chemistry generate wealth
and employment for many New Zealanders. You have already read about
some important ones in previous chapters.
122
How do we apply chemical ideas to make useful items or processes?
Choose a New Zealand-based chemical industry or product to
investigate. You may like to look at:
fertilisers
soap
steel production
aluminium cans
alcoholic beverages
vinegar and food preservatives
synthetic fuels
plastics and polymers
gold mining
essential oils
oil refining
water treatment
glass
RESEARCH ACTIVITY
Collect information on your chosen topic from a wide variety of sources, such as text and reference books, newspaper
reports, journals, videos, CD-Roms, businesses, field trips to factories.
Summarise the information under the following headings. Try to include any chemical processes you are familiar
with.
Research summary
Name of industry / product
Location
Raw materials required
123
Sources of raw materials
How raw materials are processed (including any familiar chemical ideas or reactions)
124
Uses of final product
Environmental impact of the industry
Bibliography
Notes
126
Answers
1. AN I N T R O D U C T I O N T O CHEMISTRY: THE NATURE O F MATTER
Answers to questions Filtration
1 Ammonia - particles have less mass • mixture

filter f u n n e l
2 Ring disappears filter paper- W residue
3 Ring forms more slowly

4 Sand and salt, sugar and flour flask -
5 For reuse; it may be expensive; toxic

6 Heat gently - use a heating collar if available; use small - filtrate
volumes of mixture; use anti-bumping granules to
prevent large bubbles forming; clamp apparatus in Evaporation
position and support joints; ensure water flows in correct - w a t e r vapour
direction in condenser selution

evaporating dish
gauze m a t
7 Thermometer heat
tripod
10 Melting point is very high (ionic compound)
Exercise page 4
Crystallisation
solids: defined, arranged, pattern, particles, spaces,
kinetic, vibrations
liquids move, random, change, distance, greater,
dessicator
numbers, attraction, energy, separate evaporating dish
gases: randomly, speeds, kinetic, collide, container, gauze

c r y s t a l s of s o l u t e
great, volume, transparent, compressed dessicant
Exercise page 5 Decanting, page 7 (bottom)
heating a solid: 3,1, 2

heating a liquid: 4, 7, 6,5, 8
gas pressure: 10,11, 9
diffusion of gases: 15,14,12,13.
Demonstration page 6
m
clamps
c o t t o n w o o l s o a k e d in c o t t o n w o o l s o a k e d in
concentrated a m m o n i a solution concentrated hydrochloric acid
Exercise page 7 (top)

Sublimation, page 9 • glass funnel
Dissolving
y iodine c r y s t a l s
s t i r r i n g rod
'•'::;.'. iodine g a s
I ' 'I crucible
w
iodine-salt mixture
_ âa/
heat
undissolved solute
127
2. ATOMIC STRUCTURE A N D B O N D I N G
Lewis diagrams, page 16 (top)
Answers to questions
1 H
1 They are the masses of mixtures of isotopes. • X
2 & 3 Polyatomic ions: ammonium NH4+ (from ammonia), •C• H

x»
hydroxide OH~ (from water or a metal hydroxide), nitrate H
NO," (from nitric acid), bicarbonate HC03~ (from carbonic
acid), sulfate SO (from sulfuric acid), carbonate CO • • XX • •
(from carbonic acid), phosphate P0 4 (from phosphoric CI• CI CI•
• •
acid) XX
Common names of some ionic compounds, pages 1 4 - 1 5

Name Formula Common name Use •0% •O' fo!
H H
sodium bicarbonate NaHC0 3 baking soda raising agent in
baking
sodium carbonate Na 2 C0 3 w a s h i n g soda softening water
sodium chloride NaCI table salt food additive

I X
•N •
v
sodium hydroxide NaOH caustic soda clearing drains 'X N X

m a g n e s i u m hydroxide Mg(0H) 2 milk of magnesia antacid
IY *
m a g n e s i u m sulfate MgS04 e p s o m salts laxative
p o t a s s i u m carbonate K 2 CO 3 potash garden fertiliser
p o t a s s i u m nitrate KNO3 saltpetre garden fertiliser H; N I H

•x
p o t a s s i u m sulfate K 2 SO 4 sulfate of potash fertiliser H
calcium carbonate CaC0 3 limestone, marble buildings,
construction,
statues
calcium hydroxide Ca(OH), slaked lime gardening

• n , x r x*n*
calcium oxide CaO lime, quicklime fertiliser , w • x ^ x • Ui
calcium sulfate CaS0 4 gypsum plaster
copper sulfate CuS0 4 bluestone fungicide
a m m o n i u m hydroxide NH,0H cleaning
a m m o n i u m sulfate (NH 4 ) ; S0 4 fertiliser
mmmmtmmmmm
3. CHEMICAL C A L C U L A T I O N S
Formula masses, page 18
Answer to question, page 21
1 18
1 C;H_C1
2 44
3 40
Hydrated compounds, page 17 4 44
5 36.5
hydrated copper chloride2 9 4
6 17
hydrated cobalt chloride 6 21 4 7 159.5
hydrated iron(II) sulfate 21 81 8 189
hydrated calcium nitrate 4 21 4 9 203
10 46
hydrated copper sulfate 10 42
11 236
hydrated thorium nitrate 24 106 4
12 1354
Balancing equations, page 18 Percentage composition, page 20

1 2 1 2 1 H 11%, O 89 %
2 2 1 2 2 C 82%, H 18%
3 1 2 1 2 3 Na 58%, O 40%, H 2%
4 1 2 1 1 4 C 27%, O 73%
5 1 2 1 1 5 H 3%, CI 97%
6 4 3 2 6 N 82%, H 18%
7 2 3 2 7 Cu 40%, S 20%, O 40%
8 1 5 3 4 8 Zn 27%, N 12%, O 41%
9 1 5 1 9 C 52%, H 13%, O 35%
10 2 2 4 1 10 C 56%, H 6.5%, O 16.5%,
128
Percentage water in hydrated compounds, page 21 Empirical formulae from percentage composition, pages
1 21% 21-22
2 53%
1 A CaCO, B K 2 Cr0 4 C C,H4C1 D C 7 H 7 N0 2
3 45%
4 63% 2 c C 4 H 8 CI, D C.H 7 NO 2
5 30.5% Sodium carbonate crystals, page 22
6 31% 1 5.72 g
2 3.60 g
Empirical formulae, page 19
3 Loss of water of cystallisation
HO CH3 CH, 4 Na 2 C0 3 .10H 2 0
Molecular formulae, page 2 0 Ratio method, page 19
p 4 o 10 C2H4O2 C4H4O4 1 176 g
2 29.5 g
3 48 tonnes
4. TYPES O F REACTION
Oxidising and reducing agents, page 25
Oxidised Reduced Oxidant Reductant
2 carbon monoxide iron(ll) oxide iron(ll) oxide carbon monoxide
3 magnesium oxygen oxygen magnesium
4 zinc hydrogen in HCI hydrogen in HCI zinc
5. ACIDS, BASES A N D SALTS

Salts formed by acids and metals (page 30)
CuCl2 CaCl2
NaN0 3 Mg(N0 3 ) 2 Cu(N0 3 ) 2 Ca(N0 3 ) 2 Fe(N0 3 ) 2
Na 2 S0 4 MgS0 4 CuS0 4 CaS0 4 Fe 2 (S0 4 ) 3
CH3COONa (CH3COO)2Mg ( C H , C O O ) 2 ICu (CH3COO)2Ca (CH3COO)3Fe
6. REACTIONS A N D HEAT ENERGY

Answers to questions Exercise page 3 6
1 Fats are larger molecules with many more bonds a spontaneous, exothermic
2 Heat content is the sum of all of the kinetic energies of
the particles; temperature is the average value of these b non-spontaneous, endothermic
kinetic energies
3 Weak bonds between molecules c non-spontaneous, exothermic
4 Combustion, light sticks
7. RATES O F REACTION
1 Deliver it into an inverted measuring cylinder filled 5 Increase the concentration of the reactants, stirring
with water 6 Heat the reactants
2 Reactants are being used up and so are less available to
react as time goes on
Reaction rates, page 37
3 t = 30 s
1 slow 2 medium 3 fast
4 fast 5 slow 6 fast
7 medium
1 —balance
129
Exercise page 4 0
Collision theory effect Effect on rate
more particles to react increase
fewer particles to react decrease
more particles to react increase
collisions more effective increase
collisions less effective decrease
more collisions increase
8. O X Y G E N
1 Depletion of ozone gas high in the atmosphere 9 respiration, photosynthesis, respiration, respiration,
respiration, photosynthesis
2 Aerosol propellants and refrigerants called CFCs
10 2 and 5
3 Lets more damaging UV radiation through - causes
mutations in cells 11 C6H1206 + 60 2 • 6CO, + 6H 2 0
4 Change propellants and refrigerants used, dispose of 12 6C0 2 + 6HzO • C
6 H
1 2 0
6 + 6 0
2
old refrigeration units carefully 13 Burning is a chemical change, with new substances
5 Increases the number of effective collisions by ensuring made. Heating does not involve making a new
reactant particles have the correct orientation substance
6 It is not soluble in water and, as a gas, is less dense 14 Burning in oxygen
than water 15 A substance that produces a lot of heat energy when
7 Can see how much is produced burnt
8 Pass gas through a drying agent e.g. conc. H,S0 4 16 Oxygen is needed for combustion of the splint, which
is acting as a fuel
Table of oxides, page 45
Na20 MgO
ai °
Si0 2 PAo so2 Cl20
2 3
ionic ionic ionic covalent covalent covalent covalent
white solid white solid white solid white solid white solid colourless gas colourless gas
dissolves slightly soluble insoluble insoluble react to form acidic solutions
9. H Y D R O G E N
1 To control the addition of acid and to prevent hydrogen
gas escaping through the thistle funnel
2 It is easy to see how much gas has been generated
3 Magnesium metal
4 Group 1 metals and calcium
5 Exothermic
6 Combustion of hydrogen (or synthesis or redox)
7 Rockets
8 2H, + 02 • 2H 2 0
9 16 g
130
10. WATER
Answers to questions Electrolytic cell, page 5 7
1 Dilute acetic acid, dilute sulfuric acid, dilute sodium

chloride solution
2 Hydrogen and oxygen
3 'Pop' test for hydrogen and glowing splint test for
oxygen
4 Reduction: 4H+ + 4e" • 2H2(g)
Oxidation: 40H- • 0„ + 2HO + 4e"
5 Because in the equation the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
is 2 : 1
6 Because the 4 on the left cancel with the 4 on the right
Water molecules, page 52
solid liquid
11. N I T R O G E N
Answers to questions Nitrogen cycle, page 6 0
1 From nitrates in the soil

2 From plant and animal protein that is eaten
3 They use special bacteria held in root nodules to
produce nitrates which they convert into protein
4 Leaching, denitrifying bacteria, crops
5 Nitrogenous fertiliser, planting and ploughing legumes
such as lupins and clover
6 Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates
7 Conversion of nitrogen compounds into atmospheric
nitrogen
8 Nitrifying bacteria, denitrifying bacteria, nitrogen-
fixing bacteria, decomposer bacteria
9 Capture insects, break down their bodies and absorb
the nitrogen compounds Exercise page 62
10 It is less dense than air, and is soluble in water 1 potassium nitrate and water
11 It is basic and would react with the sulfuric acid 2 copper nitrate + carbon dioxide gas + water
12 Test with damp red litmus paper or hold an Exercise page 62 (top)
unstoppered bottle of conc. HCI nearby
13 Brittle nails and hair, poor resistance to disease, skin Glass stopper
problems Glass retort
14 Subnormal growth and development
15 Meat, fish, eggs, cheese, beans Sodium nitrate Cool water
16 Pregnant women, burns victims, body builders, and concentrated
sulfuric acid
growing children G) Heat
17 Blue solution turns mauve
Nitric acid
131
12. SULFUR
1 Copper, silver, gold

2 Ammonia
3 Volcanic ash is acidic and would lower the pH of the soil. Lime would neutralise this acidity
Shapes of sulfur, page 6 8
r h o m b i c sulfur m o n o c l i n i c sulfur
(diamond-shaped crystals) (needle-shaped crystals)
> 9 6 °C 9 6 - 1 1 9 °C
Heating sulfur, page 6 8

over a few days
1
rhombic — • monoclinic —— • liquid sulfur sudden plastic
sulfur sulfur | cooling sulfur
1
yellow yellow yellow red/brown 1
crystals crystals liquid viscous 1
ofS8 1 °fs 8 S 8 rings free liquid | runny liquid
rings 1 rings to move long chains form I
1 a s rings break
i
9 6 °C 1 1 9 °C 1 6 0 °C 2 5 0 °C
solid liquid
Exercise page 72
1 sodium sulfate + water

2 zinc sulfate + hydrogen gas
3 copper sulfate + carbon dioxide + water
13. C H L O R I N E
Answers to questions Chlorine gas from electrolysis of brine, page 7 6
1 Cl2 is reduced, metals are oxidised Cl 2 g a s o u t H 2 g a s out
2 Silver chloride
3 High melting and boiling points, conduct electricity
when molten or dissolved, crystalline solids at room
temperature, brittle
4 NaCl is white, FeCl3 is brown, CuCl2 is blue/green
5 H.SO, is not volatile
2 4
Cathode
132
14. C A R B O N
Answers to questions Exercise page 84
1 Change from clear to cloudy white
delivery
2 Change from cloudy white to clear tube
3 Carbonates and bicarbonates, carbon dioxide gas,
carbonic acid — gas jar
marble chips
in HCI
15. H Y D R O C A R B O N S
Answers to questions Alkanes table, page 89
1 As the number of C atoms increases, so does the 1,2
molecular mass of the alkane propane, butane
2 As the size of the alkane increases, so does the boiling 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 , 1 0
point
3 Large molecules have a large number of attractive
Exercise page 93
forces between the molecules which require more
energy to break and separate than do smaller molecules iron wool
4 No plastics, dyes and medicines (synthetic), glue etc. (catalyst)
5 Increases air supply and amount of oxygen glass wool and /¾— alkene and smaller
paraffin oil
6 More heat energy, less pollutants alkane
7 Decreases air supply and amount of oxygen
8 Luminous flame - easy to see
• water
9 Pollutants, less heat energy
10 Car exhaust
11 Prevents oxygen carriage in blood Exercise, page 94 (top)
12 Decreases
13 Burn more cleanly
14 Less energy produced ethene
15 Mix air and fuel in carburettor or fuel injection -
controls the reactant levels accurately ethanol,
conc. H 2 S0 4L
16 Have cars tuned regularly, clean air and fuel filters aluminium • water
sulfate
17 See-through, stretchy, water can't get through
18 Low melting point, not biodegradable, breaks easily gentle heat
20 Expensive to collect, not economic, nowhere to process
it nearby
Combustion of ethene, page 94
C2H4 + 3 0 2 2C02 + 2H20
C2H4 + O2 2C + 2H.O
133
Exercises page 9 5
polyvinylchloride CI H CI H CI H polytetrafluoroethene F F F F F F
I I I I I I I I I I I I
— c - c - c - c - c - c — — c - c - c - c - c - c -
H H H H H H F F F F F F
polypropylene CHo H ChL H CH, H polystyrene

I I I I I I y H ^ H ^ H
• c - c —c — c - c —c- c—c-c—c—c-c
H H H H H H H H H H H H
Uses of plastics, page 9 6
bucket aluminium PVC lightweight, cheap, coloured

drink bottles glass polythene safe, cheap, light, but not recyclable
plastic bag paper polythene clear, waterproof
guttering steel/iron PVC rustproof, light, durable
toys wood, metal polypropylene cheap, no paint needed, durable
toothpaste tube aluminium polythene cheap, easy to squeeze
16. A L C O H O L S A N D C A R B O X Y L I C ACIDS
1 The size of the alkanes is strictly controlled and is not

a mixture as in a fraction
2 Cleaner burning fuel, better performance
3 Add purple dye
4 Phosphoric acid catalyst, heat and pressure
5 The orange crystals in the breathalyser turned green
when exposed to ethanol
6 No change
7 Natural oxidation of ethanol to ethanoic acid
8 To neutralise any unreacted acids
9 Not soluble
10 Flavourings
17. METALS
8 Lead nitrate is soluble and will not form a coating,
1 Chemical property - how the substance reacts
allowing the metal to react
chemically
9 Na • Na+ + e~
Physical property - describes what a substance looks
like and other measurements like density, melting 10 Painting them - cheap, practical and effective
point, etc. 11 Weaken the structure - cause an accident
2 Oxide or sulfide coatings 12 Air is dry and does not contain salt (not near the sea)
3 Mercury 13 Wash car down to remove salt splashes
4 Group 1 metals 14 Acid rain, roadworks
5 Gold, copper
134
Uses of some metals, page 1 0 3
iron: building supports, ship hulls cheap, strong
copper: wiring good conductor of electricity
zinc: rustproofing more reactive than iron
aluminium: drink cans unreactive, cheap, lightweight
lead: weights unreactive, high density
18. PREPARATION O F METALS A N D THEIR C O M P O U N D S

Reducing copper oxide, page 112
CuO
H20(g)
Reducing lead(ll) oxide, page 112
air
through
blowpipe
PbO a n d s o m e
powdered carbon
c a r b o n block
Aluminium pot, page 1 1 4
electricity s u p p l y
molten
cryolite and
alumina
m o l t e n Al
carbon cathode
135
Exercise page 115
Fe Al
Ore ironsand bauxite
Mineral name and titanomagnetite alumina

formula Fe304.Ti02 A l 203
Place mined West Coast, North Island Weipa, Australia
Purification method magnets, gravity dissolve in NaOH
Place reduced Glenbrook Tiwai Point
Reduction reaction Fe304 + 4C0 3Fe + 4C02 2AI203 4AI + 302
Resources required water, coal, electricity, limestone electricity, carbon, cryolite
Uses buildings, ships, furniture, steel cans cans, aircraft bodies, windows, boats, frames
Exercise page 1 1 6
zinc chloride metal and acid Zn(s) + HCI(aq)
potassium sulfate alkali and acid KOH(aq) + H2S04(aq)
anhydrous iron(lll) chloride synthesis Fe(s) + Cl2(aq)
calcium nitrate carbonate and acid CaC03(s) + HN03(aq)
lead chloride precipitation Pb(N03)2(aq) + NaCI(aq)
magnesium carbonate precipitation Mg(N03)2(aq) + Na2C03(aq)
copper sulfate oxide and acid CuC03(s) + H2S04(aq)
sodium nitrate carbonate and acid Na2C03(s) + HN03(aq)
anhydrous magnesium oxide synthesis Mg(s) + 02(g)
136
19. THE PROPERTIES O F METAL C O M P O U N D S
1 An alkali is a soluble base. Not all bases are soluble in water

2 Raising agent in baking, hokey pokey, antacid, treatment for stings,
fire extinguisher
3 White crystals turn to white powder, brown gas evolves
Blue crystals turn black, brown gas evolves
4 CUS0 4 .5H 2 0
FeS0 4 .7H,0
Fe(N0 3 ) 3 .9H„0
Na 2 C0 3 .10H 2 0
CaSO,.2H.O
4 Z
5 5,7,9,10,2
6 They are part of the crystal structure
7 A deliquescent compound dissolves in the absorbed moisture,
whereas a hygroscopic one does not
8 If the lid is not air-tight, the compound dissolves in water in the air
^^ 9 Turns grey-white to blue
Exercise page 1 1 9
2Mg(N0 3 ) 2 (s) 2MgO(s) + 4N0 2 (g) + 0 2 (g)

2CU(N0 3 ) 2 (S) 2CuO(s) + 4N0 2 (g) + 0 2 (g)
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This Workbook covers Level 6 of Chemistry in
the Neiv Zealand Curriculum, and these
externally assessed NCEA Achievement
Standards for Level 1:
CI.3 Recognise types of reactions
C1.4/S1.4 Recognise patterns in behaviour
and properties of groups of related
substances
CI.5 Demonstrate an understanding of
atomic structure and bonding
C1.6 Relate the chemistry of selected
non-metals & their compounds to
their impact on society
It also includes a research topic on Chemistry
and technology, which can be used for the
internal assessment of CI.2, and an extension
chapter on the properties of water.
Practical activities have been included

wherever appropriate, making the Year
22 Chemistry Workbook into a stand-
alone resource. (Many of the practicals
could be adapted to provide good
investigations for Cl.l.)
The Year 22 Chemistry Workbook

encourages students of this fascinating
subject to make this resource their own:
there's room to draw diagrams,
complete language exercises, and
discuss lab work. There is a substantial
question set throughout the book - the
answer section alone takes up 10 pages!
About the author

Raewyn Pevreal recently returned from London to rejoin the Rangitoto
College Science Department where she is currently teaching Chemistry.
She enjoyed the break, using the time to work in many different schools
as well as travelling through Africa and the Mediterranean.
Whitcuills
7°™W
i;;try
YrJ;C,hem" 392637
orMoik
Fifth F o r j f l e a r n i n g s
[ X 1)1
discover EJLfcJ

Year 11 Chemistry Workbook

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Year 11 Chemistry Workbook

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Year 11 Chemistry

This book is dedicated to my father, Bill.

Your comments on this book are welcome at

Pearson Education New Zealand Limited

Associated companies throughout the world

© Pearson Education New Zealand Limited 1998, 2000, 2002

Previously published as Longman Write-on Notes Chemistry 5

ISBN 0 582 54557 9

Produced by Pearson Education New Zealand Limited

1. An introduction to chemistry: the nature of matter 1 1.5

2. Atomic structure and bonding 10 1.5

3. Chemical calculations 17 1.3

4. Types of reaction 23 1.3

5. Acids, bases and salts 28 1.4

6. Reactions and heat energy 35

10. Extension topic: Water 52

11. Nitrogen 59 1.4,1.6

12. Sulfur 66 1.4,1.6

13. Chlorine 75 1.6

14. Carbon 80 1.4,1.6

15. Hydrocarbons 88 1.4

16. Alcohols and carboxylic acids 97 1.4

17. Metals 103 1.3,1.4

18. Preparation of metals and their compounds 111 1.3

19. The properties of metal compounds 117 1.3

20. Research topic: Chemistry and technology 122 1.2

Group Name Elements Description

I very reactive, soft metals

II alkaline earth metals

XVII F, CI, Br, I

Getting to know the first twenty elements and some

Using samples or a Periodic Table, complete this table.

Atomic number Name Symbol Description

1 colourless gas making up most of the

10 gas used in lighting

17 yellow-green, toxic gas

35 red, fuming liquid

80 liquid metal at room temperature

For each paragraph below, complete the sentences

j pattern, vibrations, defined, particles, arranged, spaces, kinetic

These have a shape because the particles are . in a regular.

Their movement is restricted to .

| random, numbers, distance, separate, move, greater, change, attraction, energy )

their shape. The between particles is slightly . than between the

is required to . the particles further.

{ compressed, collide, great, randomly, container, transparent, volume, kinetic, speeds }

In gases, the particles move at high and have large amounts of

energy. They _with

^ C o m p l e t e this diagram showing the arrangement of

Solid Liquid Gas

txercise « make sense

Dissolving, filtration, evaporation and crystallisation

I Label this diagram of the equipment used for

ACTIVITY Spin cycle

Add 1 mL of potassium iodide solution to 1 mL of lead nitrate solution

Aim To analyse water-soluble black ink.

^Igffjj^l Label this diagram to show how iodine crystals and

OBJECTIVES By the end of this topic you should be able to:

description of an atom's structure

number of neutrons. number of neutrons. number of neutrons.

number of electrons. number of electrons. number of electrons.

atomic number atomic number atomic number

mass number mass number mass number 9

element element element

Electrons occupying energy levels close to the nucleus have lower

fluorine atom gains 1 electron fluoride ion

1 Complete this table for the formation of some ions.