Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing

Accurate UWB Radar 3-D Imaging Algorithm for Complex Boundary

without Wavefront Connections
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Journal: Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing

Manuscript ID: TGRS-2008-00376

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Manuscript Type: Regular paper

Date Submitted by the

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25-Jun-2008
Author:

Complete List of Authors: KIDERA, Shouhei; Kyoto University, Graduate School of Informatics
Sakamoto, Takuya; Kyoto University, Graduate School of
er

Informatics
SATO, Toru; Kyoto University, Graduate School of Informatics

Radar imaging, Radar resolution, Radar signal processing,

Keywords:
Ultrawideband radar, Inverse problems, Imaging
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Page 1 of 10 Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing
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Accurate UWB Radar 3-D Imaging Algorithm for
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Complex Boundary without Wavefront Connections
7 Shouhei Kidera, Member, IEEE, Takuya Sakamoto, Member, IEEE, and Toru Sato, Member, IEEE,
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12 Abstract—Ultra-wide band (UWB) pulse radars have immea- of small range errors. To produce a more stable image, we
13 surable potential for a high-range resolution imaging in the near have already proposed a real-time 3-D imaging algorithm
14 field and can be used for non-contact measurement of precision named Envelope [10], [11]. This method uses an envelope
15 devices with specular surface or identifying and locating the
human body in security systems. In our previous work, we of spheres, which are determined with antenna locations and
16 observed ranges, to create a stable image without requiring
developed a stable and high-speed 3-dimensional (3-D) imaging
17 algorithm, Envelope, which is based on the principle that a derivative operations. It has been confirmed that this method
18 target boundary can be expressed as inner or outer envelopes robustly reconstructs a high-resolution 3-D image for objects
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19 of spheres, which are determined using antenna location and of simple shape, including those with edges when combined
20 observed ranges. Although Envelope produces a high-resolution
image for a simple shape target that may include edges, it requires with the range compensation method termed SOC (Spectrum
21 Offset Correction) [11]. However, the image obtained with
an exact connection for observed ranges to maintain the imaging
22
quality. For complex shapes or multiple targets, this connection Envelope becomes unstable for complex boundaries because
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23 becomes a difficult task because each antenna receives multiple it requires an appropriate range connection. For a complex
24 echoes from many scattering points on the target surface. This surface, this connection is often difficult because each antenna
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25 paper proposes a novel imaging algorithm without wavefront

connection to accomplish high-quality and flexible 3-D imaging observes multiple echoes, and there are too many candidates
26
for various target shapes. The algorithm uses a fuzzy estimation for the connections. A connection algorithm using a Kalman
27
for the direction of arrival (DOA) using signal amplitudes and filter has been developed to track exact ranges in cluttered
28 realizes direct mapping from observed ranges to target points. situations [12]. Furthermore, Hantscher et al. have developed
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29 Several comparative studies of conventional algorithms clarify

30 an iterative wavefront extraction method for multiple targets,
that our proposed method accomplishes accurate and reliable
31 3-D imaging even for complex or multiple boundaries. which recursively subtracts scattered waveforms to resolve
32 multiple echoes [13]. However, once the range connections
Index Terms—UWB pulse radars, accurate and stable 3-D
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33 fail, there is non-negligible inaccuracy in the images obtained

imaging, complex boundary, multiple targets, DOA estimation,
34 wavefront connection by these conventional algorithms. A global optimization al-
35 gorithm based on waveform matching has been developed
36 [14], yet it still requires a long calculation time. In any event,
I. I NTRODUCTION
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37 all conventional algorithms specific to either SEABED or

Envelope have a substantial problem in that they are extremely
38
39 U WB pulse radars have great potential for use in super-
resolution imaging, which is required in near field sens- sensitive to inappropriate connections of wavefronts.
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40 ing applications such as target identification and self location This paper proposes a novel algorithm based on direct group
41 by robots or automobiles. They can be applied to surveillance mapping from observed ranges to target boundary points with-
42 or security systems for intruder detection or aged care, where out having wavefront connection. This algorithm involves a
43 an optical camera has the serious problem of intruding on fuzzy estimation for the direction of arrival (DOA) using signal
44 privacy in bathrooms or living rooms. They are also suit- amplitudes, which eliminates the range connecting procedure.
45 able for non-contact measurement of reflector antennas or The idea is based on a simple principle yet it remarkably
46 aircraft bodies that have high-precision and specular surfaces. enhances stability and accuracy even in complex boundary
47 Although various kinds of radar algorithms based on data extraction. First, the algorithm for a 2-D model is presented for
48 synthesis have been proposed, such as synthetic aperture radar simplicity, and it is then extended for a 3-D model. This paper
49 (SAR) [1], time reversal [2] and other optimization algorithms also presents comparative studies using several conventional
50 [3]–[5], they all require intensive computation, and are hardly algorithms, such as SAR and Fourier transform. The numerical
51 applicable to the above applications. Contrarily, the high- simulations indicate that our proposed method has a significant
52 speed 3-D imaging algorithm SEABED achieves direct and advantage in accurate and stable imaging even for complex
53 non-parametric imaging based on reversible transforms BST shape or multiple targets.
54 (Boundary Scattering Transform) and IBST (Inverse BST)
55 between the time delay and target boundary [6]–[9]. However, II. 2-D P ROBLEM
56 imaging using SEABED becomes unstable for noisy data be-
57 cause the range derivative in BST can enhance the fluctuation A. System Model
58 The upper diagram in Fig. 1 shows the system model. It
59 The authors are with the Dept. of Communications and Computer Engineer-
ing, Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan. E-mail: assumes that the target has an arbitrary shape with a clear
60 kidera@aso.cce.i.kyoto-u.ac.jp boundary, and that the propagation speed of the radio wave
 Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing Page 2 of 10
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3 s (X,Z’)
2 Quasi wavefront
3
3 Target boundary ε1
0.6
4 2
(x,z) 0.4
0.2
5 2 0
z
-0.2

Z’
6 Z1 Z2
Z3 -0.4
7 1
Z4 ε0 -0.6
r-space
8
1
9 0
10 Omni-directional -1 0 1 2
antenna x -2 -1 0 1 2
11 Observing Imaging
12 X
3
13 Z4 Fig. 2. Output of the Wiener filter from the sinusoidal target boundary.
14 Z2
15 Z3 3 I(x,z)
Z1
16 0.6
Z

Quasi wavefront
17 0.4
1 0.2
18 2 0
-0.2
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d-space
19

z
-0.4
20 0
-0.6
X -1 0 1 2
21 X 1
22 True
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23 Fig. 1. Relationship between target boundary in r-space (upper) and quasi
24 wavefront in d-space (lower). -2 -1 0 1 2
x
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26 Fig. 3. Estimated image I(x, z) with SAR.
27 is a known constant. An omni-directional antenna is scanned
28 along the x axis. We use a mono-cycle pulse as the transmitting
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29 current. R-space is defined as the real space in which the target method accomplishes a stable imaging even for a complex
30 and antenna are located, and is expressed by the parameters target boundary, the spatial resolution is insufficient to extract
31 (x, z). The parameters are normalized by λ, which is the
32 a clear boundary. Furthermore, this method requires search-
central wavelength of the pulse. We assume z > 0 for ing operations for the entire assumed region (x, z) and the
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33 simplicity. s0 (X, Z 0 ) is defined as the received electric field

34 calculation time is more than 60 sec using a 2.8 GHz Xeon
at the antenna location (x, z) = (X, 0). s(X, Z 0 ) is defined as processor. It is not applicable to the assumed applications, in
35 the output of the Wiener filter with the transmitted waveform,
36 terms of resolution and calculation time.
where Z 0 = ct/(2λ) is expressed by the time t and the speed 2) SEABED: We have already proposed a non-parametric
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37 of the radio wave c. We connect the significant peaks of

38 imaging algorithm, known as SEABED, that drastically short-
s(X, Z 0 ) as Z for each X and refer to this curve (X, Z) as ens the calculation time for target boundary extraction [7],
39 quasi wavefront. D-space is defined as the space expressed by
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40 [8]. It uses the reversible transform BST (Boundary Scattering

(X, Z). Fig. 1 shows the relationship between (x, z) in r-space Transform) between the point (x, z) in r-space and the point
41
and (X, Z) in d-space. The transform from d-space to r-space (X, Z) in d-space. IBST (Inverse BST) is expressed as
42
corresponds to the imaging, dealt with in this paper. ¾
43 x = X − Z∂Z/∂X
44 p . (2)
B. Conventional Algorithms z = Z 1 − (∂Z/∂X)2
45
46 1) SAR technique for near field imaging: The SAR tech- This transform provides a strict solution for the assumed
47 nique is the most useful in radar imagery and is based on inverse problem. The observed range and its derivative are
48 signal synthesis [1]. In the near field case, the distribution directly transformed to the target boundary by IBST. We con-
49 image I(x, z) obtained using SAR is expressed as firm that this method achieves high-speed and non-parametric
50 Z ∞ ³ p ´ imaging of a simple target. However, for a complex one,
51 I(x, z) = s X, (x − X)2 + z 2 dX. (1) the image produced by SEABED is quite unstable, as shown
52 −∞ in Fig. 4, where the same data as in Fig. 2 is used. This
53 The target boundary can be extracted from its focused image is because IBST uses the derivative of the quasi wavefront.
54 I(x, z). An example of applying SAR is presented here. The The small range fluctuations due to multiple interferences are
55 target boundary is assumed to be sinusoidal curve and is enhanced by the range derivative ∂Z/∂X, even if the condition
56 expressed as z = 2.0 − 0.2 cos (2πx). Fig. 2 shows the |∂Z/∂X| ≤ 1 is used. IBST also requires an appropriate
57 output of the Wiener filter and the extracted quasi wavefront wavefront connection to calculate an accurate derivative. For
58 (X, Z), where each signal is received at 101 locations for the complicated quasi wavefront shown in Fig. 2, this opera-
59 −2.5 ≤ X ≤ 2.5. Fig. 3 shows the estimated image with tion is extremely difficult. To overcome this difficulty, several
60 SAR, and the target boundary is highlighted. Although this methods for finding an appropriate wavefront connection have
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3 3
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5 2 2
z

z
6
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8 1 1
True True
9 Estimated Estimated
10 -2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
11 x x
12
Fig. 4. Estimated image with SEABED. Fig. 6. Estimated image with Envelope.
13
14 z 3
15 (x,z)
Target
16 boundary
17 2
18

z
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19 (x,z)
20 Z
1 True
21 Z
Estimated
22 Zi
-2 -1 0 1 2
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23 X
X’i xp(X i) X x x
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25 Fig. 5. Relationship between target boundary and envelopes of circles in Fig. 7. Estimated image with Fourier transform and IBST.
26 2-D problem.
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28 for the complex one. This is because Envelope requires appro-
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29 been developed, such as adaptive tracking with a Kalman priately connected quasi wavefronts to obtain a stable image.
30 filter [12], iterative wavefront subtraction for multiple target Complex targets, in general, have many scattering points on
31 recognition [13], and using a global optimization algorithm their surfaces, and each antenna observes many ranges. The
32 connection procedure is a complicated problem because each
based on waveform matching [14]. However, they all have a
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33 point of (X, Z) has multiple connecting candidates around

substantial problem in that if the wavefront connection fails,
34 itself. If the connection fails, the image estimated by Envelope
there is serious image distortion because an incorrect range
35 has non-negligible errors because it uses an incorrect envelope
connection causes large derivative errors.
36 of circles with mistakingly determined νX .
3) Envelope: To suppress the instability due to fluctuation
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37 4) IBST with Fourier Transform: An imaging algorithm

38 in the range derivative, a stable and rapid imaging algorithm
Envelope has been developed [10]. This algorithm uses the using Fourier transform and IBST realizes stable imaging
39 because it does not require wavefront connections. The range
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40 principle that the target boundary is expressed as the envelope

of the circles, with a center point (X, 0), and radius Z. Fig. 5 inclination ∂Z/∂X can be calculated with the received 2-D
41 data s(X, Z 0 ). In this method, ∂Z/∂X for each point (X, Z)
42 illustrates the relationship between the target boundary and the
envelopes of circles. Fig. 5 shows that the envelopes of the cir- is approximated as
43
44 cles should circumscribe or inscribe to the target boundary, ac- ∂Z/∂X ' −kˆX /kˆZ , (4)
45 cording to the sign of ∂x/∂X = 1−Z∂ 2 Z/∂X 2 −(∂Z/∂X)2 ,
which denotes the target curvature. This method approximates where kˆX and kˆZ are calculated as
46
47 a target region (x, z) for each (X, Z) as (kˆX , kˆZ ) = arg max |S(kX , kZ )(X,Z) |. (5)
kX ,kZ
48 )
49 max xp (Xi ) ≤ x ≤ min xp (Xi ) Here, S(kX , kZ )(X,Z) is the 2-D Fourier transform of the
νX (Xi −X)<0 νX (Xi −X)>0
p , (3)
50 z = Z 2 − (x − X)2 spatially filtered signal around (X, Z) given as
51 Z ∞Z ∞
52 where νX = sgn(∂x/∂X), and Xi is a searching variable. S(kX , kZ )(X,Z) = Γ(X 0 , Z 0 ; X, Z)s(X 0 , Z 0 )
−∞ −∞
53 xp (Xi ) is defined as the intersection point between the circles, 0
+kZ Z 0 )
54 determined with (X, Z) and (Xi , Zi ), as shown in Fig. 5. · e−j(kX X dX 0 dZ 0 , (6)
55 Eq. (3) enables group mapping from the points (X, Z) to the where the gate function Γ(X 0 , Z 0 ; X, Z) is defined as
56 points (x, z) without derivatives. Thus, the instability caused ½ ¾
57 by range fluctuation is suppressed. 0 0 (X − X 0 )2 + (Z − Z 0 )2
Γ(X , Z ; X, Z) = exp − . (7)
58 It is confirmed that this method achieves high-speed and 2σF2
59 stable imaging for a simple target boundary. However, as The derivative for each quasi wavefront can be stably calcu-
60 shown in Fig. 6, the image produced by Envelope is unstable lated using the pulse waveform and amplitude. Fig. 7 shows
 Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing Page 4 of 10
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SEABED Envelope Proposed
2 Derivative Operation Required Not Required Not Required
3 Target Wavefront Connection Required Required Not Required
4
5 (x,z)
TABLE I
6 R EQUIRED PROCEDURES IN EACH METHOD .
7 Z Zj
Zi
8 Zk θopt (q)
9 θ(q, qi)
10 as,
11 Xk X Xi Xj x ¯ ¯
¯ Nq (X−Xi )2 ¯
12 ¯X − ¯
13 Fig. 8. Relationship between the target boundary and the convergence orbit F (θ; q) = ¯¯ s(Xi , Zi )f (θ, q, q i ) e 2σ 2
X ¯,
¯ (10)
of the intersection points. ¯ i=0 ¯
14
15 where the constants σθ and σX are empirically determined,
16 and Nq is the© number of the 2quasi
ª wavefront. The weight
17 the image estimated by combining the 2-D Fourier transform function exp −(X − Xi )2 /2σX in Eq. (10) yields a con-
18 and IBST for the same data in Fig. 2. σF = 0.2λ is set. vergence effect of intersection points to the angle estimation.
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19 The figure shows that the obtained image has many inaccurate The optimum angle of arrival for each q is calculated as,
20 points and the correct target boundary is hardly reconstructed.
21 This is because the accuracy for ∂Z/∂X is affected by θopt (q) = arg max F (θ; q). (11)
θ
22 waveform deformations caused by interferences from multiple
The target boundary (x, z) for each quasi wavefront (X, Z) is
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23 scatterers. Moreover, the method requires 240 sec for imaging,
expressed as x = X + Z cos θopt (q) and z = Z sin θopt (q).
24 which is not suitable for the real-time application.
This method realizes direct mapping from the points of quasi
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26 wavefront to the points of target boundary without wavefront
27 C. Proposed Algorithm connections, or derivative operations. Thus, the instability
28 occurring in the conventional algorithms can be substantially
1) Principle of the Proposed Algorithm: This section de-
avoided with this method.
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29 scribes a proposed imaging algorithm to resolve the problems

30 of the conventional algorithms. The proposed algorithm is
31 2) Procedure of the Proposed Method:
based on the simple principle that a target boundary point
32 Step 1). Extract quasi wavefront q, that satisfies
should exist on a circle, with a center at (X, 0) and radius
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33 of Z. Thus, each point (x, z) can be calculated using the ∂s(X, Z 0 )/∂Z 0 = 0,
34 corresponding angle of arrival. For the stable calculation of
35 s(X, Z 0 ) ≥ α max0
s(X, Z 0 ). (12)
the angle, the membership function is defined as, Z
36 " # The parameter α is determined empirically.
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37 {θ − θ(q, q i )}
2
Step 2). Calculate F (θ; q) in Eq. (10) and obtain θopt (q)
38 f (θ, q, q i ) = exp − , (8)
2σθ2 in Eq. (11), where η(q) is set as
39
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40 where q = (X, Z), q i = (Xi , Zi ) and θ (q, qi ) denotes η(q) = F (θopt (q); q). (13)
41 the angle from the x axis to the intersection point of the Step 3). Calculate the point on the target boundary (x, z)
42 circles, with parameters (X, Z) and (Xi , Zi ). Fig. 8 shows as ¾
43 the relationship between the intersection points of the circles x = X + Z cos θopt (q)
44 . (14)
and the angle of arrival. This method uses another principle z = Z sin θopt (q)
45 that the intersection point converges to the true target point
46 Step 4). Carry out step 2) to 3) for all points on the quasi
(x, z), when (Xi , Zi ) moves to (X, Z) along an exact quasi wavefront, and obtain each target point.
47
wavefront. For the exactly connected quasi wavefront, which Step 5). Remove the target points that satisfy,
48
satisfies a continuous and single-valued function of X, the
49 η(q) ≤ β max η(q i ). (15)
following proposition holds.
50 i
51 Proposition 1: If |X − Xi | ≤ |X − Xj | and (X − Xi )(X − β is empirically determined.
52 Xj ) ≥ 0 are satisfied, then,
Step 5) suppresses a false image caused by random noises.
53 |x − xp (Xi )| ≤ |x − xp (Xj )|, (9) This method is based on a simple procedure that avoids the
54 difficulty of connecting the quasi wavefront. Table. I shows the
55 where x = X − Z∂Z/∂X. required procedures for each method. The processes “Deriva-
56 Proposition 1 is proved in the Appendix. This proposition tive Operation” and “Wavefront Connection” yield instabilities
57 states that as Xi moves to X, the distance between x of the and difficulties for imaging in the case of complex boundaries,
58 target point and xp (Xi ) decreases. θ (q, q i ) then converges as described in Sec. II-B. The proposed method does not
59 to the true angle of arrival. According to these conditions, the require these procedures, and instability can be substantially
60 evaluation value F (θ; q) for the angle estimation is introduced resolved.
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3 True angle
2 1
3

Normalized evaluation value

4 0.8 F (θ; q)
5 2
0.6
z

6
7 0.4
8 1
True 0.2 f (θ, q, q i)
9 Estimated
10 -2 -1 0 1 2 0
11 x 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
θ [degree]
12
Fig. 9. Estimated image with the proposed method.
13 Fig. 12. Evaluation example for f (θ, q, qi ) and F (θ; q) at q = (0.0, 2.05).
14 150
Envelope Quasi wavefront
15 4 s (X,Z’)
Number of estimated points

16 1
100 Fourier + IBST
17 3 0.5
18 0
Fo
Proposed
19 2 -0.5

Z’
50
20 -1
21 1
22 SEABED
r
0 -3
23 10 10
-2
10
-1
10
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2
ε
24 X
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25 Fig. 10. Error distribution for each method at the complex target.
26 Fig. 13. Output of the Wiener filter and the extracted quasi wavefront for
True Estimated S/N =20 dB.
27 2.5

28
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30 Here, we discuss the effectiveness of the proposed method.
Z

31
Fig. 11 is an enlarged illustration of the quasi wavefront in
32 2
Fig. 2. Fig. 12 shows each value of f (θ, q, q i ) and F (θ; q)
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33
for the case of q = (0.0, 2.05). We recognize a maximum for
34
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 θ ' 115◦ around the true angle, in spite of the local inclination
35 X
of the quasi wavefront ∂Z/∂X being roughly estimated as 0,
36
which corresponds to θ = 90◦ . This is because each angle of
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37 Fig. 11. Enlarged view for the quasi wavefront in Fig. 2.

38 arrival can be calculated from the global distribution of the
39 quasi wavefront, and this avoids inaccuracy in the angle of
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40 arrival due to the derivative or miss-connection of the quasi

D. Performance Evaluation of the Numerical Simulation
41 wavefront. It is shown that the calculation time of the proposed
42 1) Complex Boundary: Fig. 9 shows the image estimated method is within 0.2 sec for processing on a Xeon 2.8 GHz
43 by the proposed method for the same data as those in Fig. 2. computer, and this time is suitable for real-time operation. The
44 σX = 1.0λ, σθ = π/50 α = 0.2 and β = 0.3 are set. This high-speed imaging is possible because the method uses only
45 result verifies that the proposed method significantly enhances the ranges and amplitudes, and this decreases the calculation
46 the stability of the estimated image, even for a complex target cost for the boundary extraction when compared with SAR
47 boundary. Fig. 10 shows the distribution of the error ², which and other data synthesis algorithms.
48 is defined as, Next, the application example of a noisy situation is pre-
49 ² = min kx − xie k2 . (16) sented. Fig. 13 shows the output of the Wiener filter and the
x
50 extracted quasi wavefront for S/N = 20 dB. Here, S/N is
51 Here, x and xie express the location of the true target point defined as the ratio of peak instantaneous signal power to the
52 and that of the estimated point, respectively. The figure reveals averaged noise power after applying the matched filter. As
53 that the number of estimated points with ² ≥ 2.0 × 10−1 λ shown in Fig. 13, there are many incorrect range points due
54 is significantly less than the numbers for other algorithms. to the random noise. Fig. 14 shows the target image obtained
55 Also, we introduce ² as the mean value of ² for all estimated with the proposed method, and a stable image is produced
56 points. It shows ² = 0.845λ for SEABED, ² = 0.215λ for even for the noisy environment. The accuracy for each method
57 Envelope, ² = 0.129λ for Fourier+IBST and ² = 0.075λ for is quantitatively compared for various noisy cases using the
58 the proposed method. This result quantitatively shows that the evaluation value µ, which is defined as the root mean squares
59 proposed method has a significant advantage for the accurate of ². Fig. 15 shows the relationship between S/N and µ for
60 imaging. each method. The figure verifies that the proposed method
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3 4
2
3
4 Concave boundary
3
5 2
z

z
6
7 2
8 1 True True
Small circle
9 Estimated Estimated
1
10 -2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
11 x x
12
Fig. 14. Estimated image with the proposed method for S/N = 20 dB. Fig. 17. Estimated image with the proposed method for the small circle and
13
concave boundary.
14
4 4
15 1 Target boundary Dense
16 3
Quasi wavefront
3
17 SEABED
µ

z (Z)
18 2 2

z
Fo
19 Envelope
Fourier+ IBST 1 1
20 Proposed Small power
Intersection point
21 0 0
0.1 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
22 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 x (X) x
r
S/N [dB]
23
24 Fig. 18. Relationship between receiving power (left) and density of
Fig. 15. µ for each S/N at the complex target boundary. intersection points (left) for small circle.
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26 Quasi wavefront 4 4
4 s (X,Z’) Target
Target boundary
Boundary

27 1 3
Quasi wavefront
Quasi Wavefront
3
Sparce

28 0.5
er
z (Z)

29 3 0 2 2

z
30
Z’

-0.5
1 1
31 2
-1
Large power Intersection point
Intersection point
32 0 0
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-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
33 x (X) x
34 1
-2 -1 0 1 2
35 Fig. 19. Same relationship in Fig. 18 for concave boundary.
X
36
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37 Fig. 16. Output of the Wiener filter and the extracted quasi wavefront for
the small circle and concave boundary.
38 figure, the density of the intersection points decreases when
39 the curvature radius of the target boundary is close to that of
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40 circle because the intersection points are less converged on

41 the circle for q. However, the power of each received signal
provides an accurate and stable image in noisy situations, and
42 becomes relatively large because the scattering paths converge
43 µ holds within 0.15λ for S/N ≥ 20 dB.
to each antenna location. This example verifies the relevance
44 2) Multiple Boundaries: We show that the proposed algo-
of the evaluation value in Eq. (11) in the reconstruction of
45 rithm achieves stable imaging, where multiple boundaries with
various target boundaries.
46 large and small curvatures are intermingled. Fig. 16 shows
47 the output of the Wiener filter in the case of the concave
48 boundary and small circle. Fig. 17 shows the produced image III. 3-D P ROBLEM
49 by the proposed method. The figure confirms that the image
50 A. System Model
expresses both target boundaries and this method is applicable
51 to general multiple target boundaries. This is because the Fig. 20 shows the system model for a 3-D problem. The
52 evaluation value in Eq. (10) approximately reflects the physical target model, antenna, and transmitted signal are the same of
53 scattering model. The left and right diagrams in Fig. 18 show those assumed in the 2-D problem. The antenna is scanned
54 the relationship between received power and the density of along the plane, z = 0. We assume a linear polarization in the
55 intersection points for a small circle. As shown in Fig. 18, direction of the x-axis. R-space is expressed by the parameter
56 the power of each received signal becomes small because (x, y, z). We assume z > 0 for simplicity. s0 (X, Y, Z 0 ) is
57 the target has large curvature; however, the intersection points defined as the received electric field at the antenna location
58 converges to the small region, and this increases the evaluation (x, y, z) = (X, Y, 0). s(X, Y, Z 0 ) is defined as the output of
59 value F (θ; q) in Eq. (11). Fig. 19 shows the same relationship the Wiener filter with the transmitted waveform. We connect
60 as in Fig. 18, for a concave boundary. As shown in this the significant peaks of s(X, Y, Z 0 ) as Z for each X and Y ,
Page 7 of 10 Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING, VOL. XX, NO. Y, MONTH 2008 106

1
Target boundary Quasi wavefront
2 Z
z
3
2.5
4
5 2
6 ε0 (x,y,z) 1.5
7
1
8 x Z
9 0 0.5
2
10 (X,Y,0)
Omni-directional
1 2
Y 0 1
11 antenna -1 0 X
y -2 -1
-2
12
13 Fig. 20. System model in 3-D problem. Fig. 22. Extracted quasi wavefront for the 3-D complex target.
14 Quasi wavefront Quasi wavefront
z
3 3 s (X,Y,Z’) x=0
15 1 True Estimated
16 2 2
0.5
z
2
0
17
Z’

-0.5
Z’

1
18 1 1
-1 2
Fo
-2 -1 0 1 2
19 y

20 0
-2 -1 0 1 2
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 1
z
y=0.6
Y X
21 2
2
22 Fig. 21. Output of the Wiener filter and extracted quasi wavefronts at X = 0 1 2
r
y 0 1
23 (left) and Y = 0.6 (right). -1
-2 -2
-1
0 x 1

24 -2 -1 0
x
1 2
Pe

25
26 Fig. 23. Estimated image with SEABED for the 3-D complex target.
27 and call this surface (X, Y, Z) a quasi wavefront. D-space is
28 defined as the space expressed by (X, Y, Z).
er

29
calculates the target boundary (x, y, z) for each (X, Y, Z) as
30
B. Conventional Algorithms 
31 max x3d
p (Xi ) ≤ x ≤ min x3d
p (Xi ) 
νX (Xi −X)<0 νX (Xi −X)>0 

32 1) SEABED: SEABED algorithm for 3-D problems has 3d 3d
Re

33 been developed. It achieves real-time and nonparametric 3-D max yp (Yi ) ≤ y ≤ min yp (Yi ) , (18)
νY (Yi −Y )<0
p νY (Yi −Y )>0 

34 imaging with IBST [8]. The IBST from the quasi wavefront 
z = Z 2 − (x − X)2 − (y − Y )2
35 (X, Y, Z) to the target boundary (x, y, z) is formulated as
36  where Xi and Yi are searching variables and νY =
vi

37 x = X − Z∂Z/∂X  sgn(∂y/∂Y ). yp3d (Yi ) is defined as the intersection point

38 y = p Y − Z∂Z/∂Y . (17) between the projected circles of two spheres determined by

39 z = Z 1 − (∂Z/∂X)2 − (∂Z/∂Y )2 (X, Y, Z) and (X, Yi , Zi ) on the plane x = X. x3d p (Xi ) is
ew

40 defined similarly on the plane y = Y . Eq. (18) determines an

41 This transform give us a direct solution for the clear boundary arbitrary target boundary without derivative operations, which
42 extraction. An application example of SEABED is presented can suppress the instability caused by small range errors.
43 as follows. We assume a complex target boundary with si- Fig. 24 shows the image obtained with Envelope from the same
44 nusoidal surfaces as shown in Fig. 20. The quasi wavefront views as those in Fig. 23. It is confirmed that the fluctuation of
45 is extracted from the received data calculated by the FDTD the estimated points is suppressed without the use of the range
46 (Finite Difference Time Domain) method. The left and right derivative. However, there are significant image distortions
47 hand sides of Fig. 21 show the output of the Wiener filter because the miss-connection of the quasi wavefront produces
48 and the extracted quasi wavefront (X, Y, Z) at X = 0 and an incorrect envelope of spheres, which results in the large
49 Y = 0.6, respectively. We take the received signal at 51 errors for the estimated regions. This determination requires
50 locations for −2.5 ≤ x, y ≤ 2.5. Fig. 22 is the 3-D view a correct wavefront connection for the quasi wavefront, and
51 of the extracted quasi wavefront. Fig. 23 shows the estimated it often becomes more difficult than that in a 2-D problem
52 3-D image and its cross-section at x = 0 and y = 0.6, because each point must be correctly connected along both
53 respectively, using SEABED. The figure shows that there is the x and y axes.
54 a non-negligible fluctuation of the estimated points because
55 the image estimated by SEABED strongly depends on the
56 accuracy of the derivative of Z, which is quite sensitive to C. Proposed Imaging Algorithm
57 small range errors due to interference. To resolve the previous problems, we extend the proposed
58 2) Envelope: Envelope method for 3-D problems has been method to 3-D modeling. In this model, the orbit of intersec-
59 proposed to realize stable and high-speed 3-D imaging with an tion points between two spheres for (X, Y, Z) and (Xi , Yi , Zi )
60 envelope of spheres [11]. Similar to 2-D problem, This method becomes a circle. The projected curve of this circle on z = 0
 Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing Page 8 of 10
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING, VOL. XX, NO. Y, MONTH 2008 107

1 z z
x=0 x=0
2 True Estimated True Estimated
3 z 2 z 2

4
1 1
5 2 2
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
6 y y
z z
7 1 y=0.6 1 y=0.6
8 2 2
2 2
9 1
0 2 1
0 2
y 1 1 y 1 1
10 -1
-2 -2
-1
0 x -1
-2 -2
-1
0 x

11 -2 -1 0
x
1 2 -2 -1 0
x
1 2

12
13 Fig. 24. Estimated image with Envelope for the 3-D complex target. Fig. 26. Estimated image with the proposed method for the 3-D complex
14 target.
y
15 1000
16

Number of estimated points

Zi
17 750 Proposed
18 (Xi ,Yi,0)
Fo
19 500
(X,Y,0)
20 (x,y) Envelope
21 Z d(x,y, q 3d ,qi3d )
250
22
r
z SEABED
23 x 0 -2
24 Li 10 10
-1
10
0
Pe

25 ε

26 Fig. 25. Intersection line Li of two spheres on z = 0 plane.

Fig. 27. Error distribution for each method at the 3-D complex target.
27
28
er

29
becomes a straight line. We define this line as Li . Fig. 25
30 3d
shows the intersection line Li of two spheres on the z = 0 q z coordinate of each target point is given by z(q ) =
The
31 2 2
plane. Here, each angle of arrival corresponds to the location Z 2 − {x(q 3d ) − X} − {y(q 3d ) − Y } . The method elim-
32
for (x, y) for the assumption z ≥ 0. This method determines inates the connecting procedures of the quasi wavefront, which
Re

33
the target location (x, y) to simplify the calculation for 3-D can avoid instability due to the failure of range connections.
34
boundary extraction. The membership function for (x, y) is Thus, it achieves a direct mapping from the all points of the
35
36 defined as quasi wavefront to the points of the target boundary without
( ¡ ¢2 ) grouping.
vi

37 ¡ ¢ d x, y, q 3d , q 3d
3d 3d i
38 f x, y, q , q i = exp − , (19)
2σd2
39 D. Performance Evaluation in Numerical Simulation
ew

40 3d
41 where
¡ q =¢ (X, Y, Z), q 3d
= (Xi , Yi , Zi ), and
i This section presents an application example of a 3-D
42 d x, y, q 3d , q 3d
i denotes the minimum distance between the problem for the proposed method. Fig. 26 illustrates the image
43 projected line Li and (x, y). We use the extended principle estimated by the proposed method. σd = 0.1λ and σD = 0.5λ
44 that if (Xi , Yi , Zi ) moves to (X, Y, Z) along an exact quasi are set. The method remarkably enhances the stability and
45 wavefront, (x, y) converges to that of the true target¡point. For¢ accuracy for 3-D complex target imaging. This is because
46 stable locating of (x, y), the evaluation value F 3d x, y; q 3d it does not require a wavefront connection, and eliminates
47 is introduced as, instability due to an inappropriate range connection. Further-
48 ¡ ¢ more, the proposed method makes use of the distribution of
49 F 3d x, y; q 3d = the quasi wavefront along not only the x- and y- axes but all
¯ ¯
50 ¯ D(q 3d , q 3d 2¯
¯XNq i ) ¯ directions to obtain an accurate target point. Fig. 27 shows the
51 ¯ ¡ ¢ − 2σD 2 ¯ distribution of ², defined in Eq. (16), for the images estimated
¯ s(Xi , Yi , Zi )f x, y, q 3d , q 3d e ¯ , (20)
52 ¯ i ¯ using each method. This figure quantitatively shows that the
¯ i=0 ¯
53 ¯ ¯ proposed method increases the number of the estimated points
54 ¡ ¢ p with ² ≤ 1.0 × 10−1 λ. The ratio of the estimated points to
55 where D q 3d , q 3d i = (X − Xi2 ) + (Y − Yi2 ), σd and the total number with ² ≤ 2.0 × 10−1 λ is around 96.8%,
56 σD are empirically determined. The x and y coordinates of which is a significant improvement when compared with that
57 the target boundary for each quasi wavefront q 3d are then of SEABED (58.8%) or Envelope (73.1%). Also, the proposed
58 calculated as method obtains ² = 0.091λ, which is superior to those in
59 ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ SEABED (² = 0.215λ) and Envelope (² = 0.151λ). The
60 x(q 3d ), y(q 3d ) = arg max F 3d x, y; q 3d . (21) calculation time for this method is around 50 sec for a Xeon
x,y
Page 9 of 10 Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING, VOL. XX, NO. Y, MONTH 2008 108

1 z
z z
2 2 2 2 2 x=0

3 1.8 1.8 2
1 1.6 1 1.6 True
4 1.4 1.4
0 0
5 1.2

y
1.2

y
1 1
6 -1 -1
1
7 -2 Estimated
-2
8 x
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
9 x x y

10
Fig. 28. True target contour image. Fig. 30. Smoothed image with Envelope from the same view in Fig. 29.
11
12 2
z z x=0 2
z z
2 2 x=0
13 1.8 2 True 1.8 2 True
1 1
14 1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
15 0 0 1.2

y
1.2
y

16 1 1
-1 -1
17 1 1
Estimated Estimated
18 -2 -2
Fo
x x
19 -2 -1 0
x
1 2 -2 -1 0
y
1 2 -2 -1 0
x
1 2 -2 -1 0
y
1 2

20
21 Fig. 29. Estimated contour image with SEABED after smoothing (left) and Fig. 31. Smoothed image with the proposed method from the same view in
22 its cross-section view at x = 0 (right). Fig. 29.
r
23
24
Pe

25 2.8 GHz processor, because it requires a 2-D search for the reconstructed even for complex targets. This result shows that
26 assumed region for (x, y) for each quasi wavefront. there is a remarkable advantage in using the proposed method
27 Next, the smoothing examples for the obtained images in complicated surface imaging. Also, it shows ² = 0.081λ
28 are presented to clearly show that our algorithm offers a for SEABED, ² = 0.097λ for Envelope and ² = 0.060λ for
er

29 higher-quality 3-D image compared with the images for the the proposed method, and this evaluation quantitatively proves
30 conventional algorithms. Here, we apply the simple smooth- the effectiveness of our proposed method.
31 ing algorithm by combining an extended median filter and
32 the Gaussian function. First, we select the estimated points IV. C ONCLUSION
Re

33 (xi , yi , zi ), which are included in the preselected region for We proposed a novel imaging algorithm without wavefront
34
(x, y), and zi is updated with other points included in this connections for complex shape targets. First, we discussed the
35
region as, characteristic of the images estimated by the conventional al-
36  ½ ¾ gorithms as SAR, SEABED, Envelope and IBST with Fourier
vi

37  zi ≥ (1 − ξ) minj zj + ξ maxj zj ,
zmed ,
38
up
zi = zi ≤ (1 − ξ) maxj zj + ξ minj zj , transform. Next, we presented a stable and high-speed imaging
 algorithm with a fuzzy estimation of the angle of arrival, which
39 zi , (otherwise)
ew

40 (22) does not require wavefront connection. It was verified that

41 where zmed is the median value for z among the selected target the proposed method remarkably enhances the stability and
42 points. ξ is empirically determined. Second, the z coordinate accuracy of the estimated image even for a complex target
43 of the selected region (x, y) is smoothed with the Gaussian boundary. It was also shown that the calculation time for
44 function as, the proposed method 2-D model is within 0.2 sec, which is
45 P up n 2 2
o appropriate for real-time operation.
(x−xi ) +(y−yi )
46 i zi exp − 2σI2 We also extended the proposed algorithm to 3-D model-
z(x, y) = P n o . (23) ing, and made statistical calculation for the x and y target
47 (x−xi )2 +(y−yi )2
i exp − 2σI2 coordinates. It was confirmed that this method accomplishes
48
49 The left and right hand sides of Fig. 29 shows the estimated stable and accurate imaging even for 3-D complex targets.
50 contour image and its cross-section along x = 0 using The calculation time for this method is around 50 sec, and
51 SEABED, respectively. Fig. 30 shows the image estimated it is important in our future work to enhance the speed of
52 with Envelope from the same view as that in Fig. 29. the imaging. For simple target boundaries such as trape-
53 σI = 0.1λ and ξ = 0.2 are set. These figures show that zoidal or spherical targets, there are advantages in using the
54 the smoothed images with both methods hardly reconstruct conventional algorithm Envelope in terms of real-time and
55 a correct target boundary, and the characteristic of target super-resolution imaging. It is promising to select or combine
56 boundary is lost by the smoothing of inaccurate points. Con- appropriate algorithms for the assumed application.
57 trarily, Fig. 31 shows the image estimated by the proposed
58 method from the same view as that in Figs. 29 and 30. The ACKNOWLEDGMENT
59 figure confirms that the image smoothing is effective for the This work is supported in part by the Grant-in-Aid for
60 proposed method, and the target boundary can be accurately Scientific Research (A) (Grant No. 17206044) and the Grant-
 Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing Page 10 of 10
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING, VOL. XX, NO. Y, MONTH 2008 109

1
2 in-Aid for JSPS Fellows (Grant No. 19-497). [8] T. Sakamoto, “A fast algorithm for 3-dimensional imaging with UWB
3 pulse radar systems,” IEICE Trans. Commun., vol.E90-B, no.3, pp. 636–
644, 2007.
4 A PPENDIX [9] S. A. Greenhalgh and L. Marescot, “Modeling and migration of 2-D
5 P ROOF OF P ROPOSITION 1 georadar data: a stationary phase approach,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote
6 Sens., vol. 44, no. 9, pp. 2421–2429, Sep, 2006.
Here, we utilize the following proposition, which has been [10] S. Kidera, T. Sakamoto and T. Sato, “A Robust and Fast Imaging
7 Algorithm with an Envelope of Circles for UWB Pulse Radars”, IEICE
8 proved in [10]. Trans. Commun., vol.E90-B, no.7, pp. 1801–1809, July, 2007.
9 Proposition 2: If ∂x/∂X > 0 holds for all (X, Z), each [11] S. Kidera, T. Sakamoto and T. Sato, “High-Resolution and Real-time
target boundary (x, z) satisfies, UWB Radar Imaging Algorithm with Direct Waveform Compensations,”
10 IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., vol. 46, no. 10, Oct., 2008 (in press).
11 (x − X)2 + z 2 ≥ Z 2 , (24) [12] T. Seki, S. Kidera, T. Sakamoto, T. Sato, Y. Uehara and N. Yamada,
12 “Signal Classification for an Imaging Algorithm for UWB Pulse Radars
13 where an equal sign holds at only one point of (X, Z). in a Multiple Interference Environment with Kalman Filter,” Tech.
Report of IEICE, SANE2006-141, Feb, 2006 (in Japanese).
14 Here, the target point is defined as (x(Xi ), z(Xp
i )), which sat- [13] S. Hantscher, B. Etzlinger, A. Reisezahn, C. G. Diskus, “A Wave Front
15 isfies x(Xi ) = Xi − Zi ZiXi , and z(Xi ) = Zi 1 − (ZiXi )2 . Extraction Algorithm for High-Resolution Pulse Based Radar Systems,”
16 Substituting (x(Xi ), z(Xi )) to Eq. (24) gives Proc. of International Conference of UWB (ICUWB) 2007., Sep., 2007.
[14] H. Matsumoto, T. Sakamoto and T. Sato, “A phase compensation
17 algorithm for high-resolution pulse radar systems,” IEICE General
18 Zi2 + (Xi − X)2 − Z 2 − 2Zi ZiXi (Xi − X) ≥ 0, (25)
Conference, Mar, 2008 (in Japanese).
Fo
19 Contrarily, the derivative of xp (Xi ) for Xi is expressed as,
20
21 ∂xp (Xi ) Z 2 + (Xi − X)2 − Z 2 − 2Zi ZiXi (Xi − X)
= i .
22 ∂Xi 2(X − Xi )2
Shouhei Kidera received B.E. degree from Kyoto
r
23 (26)
University in 2003 and M.E. and Ph.D. degrees from
24 From Eq. (25), Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto University
∂xp (Xi )
Pe

25 in 2005 and 2007, respectively. He is currently a re-

≥ 0, (27) PLACE search fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion
26 ∂Xi PHOTO of Science (JSPS) at Department of Communica-
27 holds. Also, if ∂x/∂X > 0, then Eq. (3) gives HERE tions and Computer Engineering, Graduate School of
28 Informatics, Kyoto University. His current research
(X − Xi )(x − xp (Xi )) ≥ 0. (28) interest is in UWB radar signal processing. He is a
er

29 member of the Institute of Electronics, Information,

30 Thus, and Communication Engineers of Japan (IEICE) and
31 ¾ the Institute of Electrical Engineering of Japan (IEEJ).
32 xp (Xj ) ≤ xp (Xi ) ≤ x, (Xj ≤ Xi ≤ X)
, (29)
x ≤ xp (Xi ) ≤ xp (Xj ), (X ≤ Xi ≤ Xj )
Re

33
34 is proved. For ∂x/∂X < 0, the following relationship also
35 holds with the similar approach, Takuya Sakamoto was born in Nara, Japan in 1977.
36 ¾ Dr. Sakamoto received his B.E. degree from Kyoto
xp (Xj ) ≤ xp (Xi ) ≤ x, (X ≤ Xi ≤ Xj ) University in 2000, and his M.I. and Ph.D. degrees
vi

37 . (30) from Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto Univer-

38 x ≤ xp (Xi ) ≤ xp (Xj ), (Xj ≤ Xi ≤ X) PLACE sity in 2002 and 2005, respectively. He is an assistant
PHOTO professor in the Department of Communications
39 Eqs. (29) and (30) correspond to the Proposition 1.
ew

HERE and Computer Engineering, Graduate School of In-

40 formatics, Kyoto University. His current research
41 R EFERENCES interest is in signal processing for UWB pulse radars.
42 He is a member of the Institute of Electronics,
43 [1] D. L. Mensa, G. Heidbreder and G. Wade, “Aperture Synthesis by Object Information, and Communication Engineers of Japan
Rotation in Coherent Imaging,” IEEE Trans. Nuclear Science., vol. 27, (IEICE), and the Institute of Electrical Engineering of Japan (IEEJ).
44 no. 2, pp. 989–998, Apr, 1980.
45 [2] D. Liu, G. Kang, L. Li, Y. Chen, S. Vasudevan, W. Joines, Q. H. Liu,
46 J. Krolik and L. Carin, “Electromagnetic time-reversal imaging of a
target in a cluttered environment,” IEEE Trans. Antenna Propagat.,
47 vol. 53, no. 9, pp. 3058–3066, Sep, 2005. Toru Sato received his B.E., M.E., and Ph.D. de-
48 [3] A. Massa, D. Franceschini, G. Franceschini, M. Pastorino, M. Raffetto grees in electrical engineering from Kyoto Univer-
49 and M. Donelli, “Parallel GA-based approach for microwave imaging sity, Kyoto, Japan in 1976, 1978, and 1982, respec-
applications,” IEEE Trans. Antenna Propagat., vol. 53, no. 10, pp. 3118–
50 3127, Oct, 2005.
tively. He has been with Kyoto University since 1983
PLACE and is currently a Professor in the Department of
51 [4] C. Chiu, C. Li, and W. Chan, “Image reconstruction of a buried PHOTO Communications and Computer Engineering, Grad-
52 conductor by the genetic algorithm,” IEICE Trans. Electron., vol. E84-C, HERE uate School of Informatics. His major research inter-
53 no. 12, pp. 1946–1951, 2001. ests have been system design and signal processing
[5] T. Sato, T. Wakayama, and K. Takemura, “An imaging algorithm of aspects of atmospheric radars, radar remote sensing
54 objects embedded in a lossy dispersive medium for subsurface radar data of the atmosphere, observations of precipitation us-
55 processing,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., vol.38, no.1, pp.296– ing radar and satellite signals, radar observation of
56 303, 2000. space debris, and signal processing for subsurface radar signals. Dr. Sato
[6] S. A. Greenhalgh, D. R. Pant, and C. R. A. Rao, “Effect of reflector was awarded Tanakadate Prize in 1986. He is a fellow of the Institute of
57 shape on seismic amplitude and phase,” Wave Motion, vol. 16, no. 4, Electronics, Information, and Communication Engineers of Japan, the Society
58 pp. 307–322, Dec. 1992. of Geomagnetism and Earth, Planetary and Space Sciences, the Japan Society
59 [7] T. Sakamoto and T. Sato, “A target shape estimation algorithm for pulse for Aeronautical and Space Sciences, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
radar systems based on boundary scattering transform,” IEICE Trans.
60 Commun., vol.E87-B, no.5, pp. 1357–1365, 2004.
Engineers, and the American Meteorological Society.