Pressure Groups

What are pressure groups?

A pressure group is an organised group that seeks to influence government (public) policy or protect
or advance a particular cause or interest.

Groups may promote a specific issue and raise it up the political agenda or they may have more
general political and ideological objectives in mind when they campaign.

Pressure groups operate at: Local; Sub National (Regional); National and International level
(including European Union)

PRESSURE GROUPS AND POLITICAL PARTIES

Pressure Groups are different from Political Parties

(1) Different objectives

Parties seek representation and power through elections whereas pressure groups in the main seek
political influence. Parties often focus on the national interest whereas groups may be concerned
with sectional issues / single issues.

(2) Structure and organisation

In the main political parties are inherently more democratic. There are internal elections for the
leadership and this is only sometimes the case with some pressure groups (most commonly trade
unions).
(3) Size, resources and support

Political parties used to be mass membership vehicles. In the 1950s support for and membership of
the main political parties was vast. Today the membership of political parties has significantly
reduced in comparison. Pressure groups are much larger vehicles of political participation. The trade
union movement for example boasts approximately 7.6m million members. Though, like parties
membership is in decline, the number of trade unionists outnumbers the members of political
parties by a ratio of about 20-1.

(4)Tactics

Political parties will employ traditional tactics of communication and campaigning which are seen as
legitimate forms of expression. Pressure groups will also adopt the same tactics but many reserve
the right to use protests and tactics of civil disobedience to put their points across. Pressure groups
may also resort to deliberate law breaking.

(5) Success.

Political Parties enjoy, to a greater or lesser extent, some assurance of political success. Even the
more fringe parties can lay claim to having achieved their aims. Plaid Cymru, the SNP, The Green
Party, UKIP & the BNP have all experienced some limited forms of success, and for the first time
since the National Government during the war the Liberal Democratsonce again play a pivotal role in
government.

The success of pressure groups is more difficult to judge. Pressure groups vary enormously in their
ability to influence public policy. The major core insider groups such as the CBI and the BMA will
have vast (though often unseen) influence in terms of shaping policy. Outsider groups by contrast
such as the Stop the War coalition will usually fail even with significant degrees of support. BY
contrast the Gurkha’s successful campaign to settle in Britain had a high degree of public visibility.

There is inevitably some overlap in functions and roles of groups and parties!

Many smaller parties fight elections but have no realistic hope of achieving political power. They
may in effect focus on a single issue and though they have a party label and may contest elections
they are effectively more akin to pressure groups than they are to political parties.The Referendum
Party was a single issue party, thus more closely resembling a pressure group than a conventional
political party.

Some organizational and funding links between some groups and political parties

You will need to take into account both the similarities and differences between political parties and
pressure groups.

SECTIONAL INTEREST GROUPS

Represent common interests of a particular section of society Membership is often closed /

restricted Sectional groups seek to represent the majority of their particular group of members
Members of the group often stand to gain personally from the success of their campaigns

Sectional groups might include; TUC, the Confederation of British Industry, the Institute of Directors,
British Medical Association, Federation of Small Businesses, National Farmers Union, the Law
Society.
 Royal British Legion, Association of Radical Midwives, British Road Federation, Chambers of
Commerce, Society of Motor Manufacturers, Magistrates Association, Chief Superintendants
Association

Freight Transport Association, Country Landowners, Musicians Union, British Nuclear Test Veterans’,
Association Royal College of Surgeons

PROMOTIONAL/CAUSAL PRESSURE GROUPS

Causal groups often promote a particular set of economic / politics objectives or ideas. These
objectives may not be directly linked to the people who support / are actively involved with the
group. Causal groups tend to have an open membership – seeking to gain a critical mass of popular
support and campaigning strength.

It is important not to confuse mass membership with political influence – many small causal groups
have significant political clout. Members of these causal groups are often driven by a very strong
desire to initiate change or change society’s attitudes

Welfare Causal Groups

Shelter, Low Pay Unit, Child Poverty Action Group, National Association on Mental Health

Fair Trade, Action on Smoking & Health, LIBERTY, NACRO, Victims of Abortion

Age Concern, Prison Reform Trust, Outrage, War on Want

NSPCC, National AbortionCampaign, Families Need Fathers

Environmental Causal Groups

Greenpeace, FOE, Countryside Alliance, WWF, Campaign for Preservation of Rural England

Living Earth, Ramblers, Pedestrians Association, RSPB,

Compassion in World Farming, Reclaim the Streets, Transport 2000, British Trees Earth First

A distinction between insider and outsider pressure groups is also made. Within this distinction
there are different types of insider and outsider

Functions of pressure groups

Pressure groups are a vital part of a healthy democracy. Indeed the sustained and rapid expansion of
pressure group activity and involvement in the political process is often heralded as a sign of growing
political involvement among many thousands of people. Among the role played by pressure groups,
large and small, we can identify the following:

 Promote discussion and debate and mobilise public opinion on key issues

 Perform a role in educating citizens about specific issues

 Groups can enhance democratic participation, pluralism and diversity

 Groups raise and articulate issues that political parties perhaps won’t touch because of their
sensitivity

 They provide an important access point for those seeking redress of grievance

 They represent minorities who cannot represent themselves

 Groups can be an important and valuable source of specialist information / expertise for an
overloaded legislature and civil service

 Many groups play an important role in implementing changes to public policy

 Pressure groups encourage a decentralisation of power within the political system. They act as a
check and balance to the power of executive government

Groups can become involved in influencing and shaping public policy at many different points. For
example, groups can seek to raise issues up the political agenda. This might speed up a process of
political reform that might already be in the minds of the government or the opposition. Groups can
be brought into the consultative process (see the distinction between insider and outside pressure
groups) and may try to have an impact when a bill reaches the stage of Parliamentary drafting,
debate and amendment. Finally as mentioned above, many groups are actively involved in
implementing political decisions and evaluating their relative success or failure.

Methods

Pressure groups have an enormous range of tactics and strategies at their disposal which vary in
their effectiveness. One way to examine these methods would be to look at the different
classifications of pressure groups and see which tactics they have in common and which are distinct
to each type of pressure group.

Insider Pressure groups Outsider Pressure groups

Remember first of all that there are three Remember first of all that there are three
different categories of Insider Group. Wyn Grant, different categories of Outsider Group. Wyn
Politics Review, 1999 distinguished between: Grant, Politics Review, 1999 distinguished
between:

 The Core Insider Group  The Potential Insider Group

 The Specialist Insider Group  The Outsider By Necessity Group
 The Peripheral Insider Group  The Ideological Outsider Group

Many of the tactics used by Insider Groups are

also shared by outsider groups. However there
are some forms of pressure group activity that are
beyond the scope of Insiders if they wish to retain
their insider status! We cannot imagine the BMA
dressing up as Batman and Robin and trespassing
on Crown property in order to get a point across!
The Insider Group is, of course, characterised as
having a closer set of relationships with policy and
decision makers.They
have:Frequent CONTACT with Government
Ministers, Departments, The Civil Service, Policy
Advisors to Senior Cabinet Members, Parliament
and even the Prime Minister.
The following Is a list of tactics that BOTH Insiders
and Outsiders might adopt.Some Outsider
Groups, will sometimes make use of the services
of professional lobbyists, where they cannot
hope to meet with ministers themselves

CONSULTATION with Government Ministers, Some Outsider Pressure Groups are likely to be
Departments, The CivilService, Policy Advisors to involved in Green Paper consultations
Senior Cabinet Members, Parliament and even
the Prime Minister.

NEGOTIATIONS Government Ministers,
Departments, The Civil Service, Policy Advisors to
Senior Cabinet Members, Parliament and even
the Prime Minister.
Some Outsider Groups will make use of political
advertising in order to promote their cause or
defend their members’ interests. However,
because advertising is expensive this tactic is
heavily resource dependent.

Particular Pressure Groups will have PRIVILEGED
ACCESS to particular departments. For example
the British Medical Association will have access to
Heath Department officials and Ministers and the
Prison Officers Association, the Home Office.
Occasionally the Pressure group will send an open
letter to the newspapers in the hope of
influencing both the public and the government.
They may also seek to place an issue high up the
political agenda through these means.

Some Insider Groups, with the exception of CORE
Insider groups, will sometimes make use of the
services of professional lobbyists
With the same aims in mind they may arrange
interviews with the broadcast media (radio and
television). Though they are less likely to obtain
access to the media they may still occasionally be
granted an interview.

Insider Pressure Groups are likely to be involved Potential insiders may have liaisons with Local
in Green Paperconsultations Authorities devolved parliaments and assemblies
and even the EU

Insider Groups will make frequent use of political The following are methods used almost
advertising in order to promote their cause or exclusively by Outsider Pressure Groups
defend their members’ interests. This may be
done through newspapers or specialist magazines  Leafleting
 Street Stalls and Petitions
 Public Fund Raising and Donation

Campaigns

Insider Pressure Groups will seek to influence the
public and the public policy agenda through press
releases.
Outsiders are often frustrated at the lack of
government attention to their concerns. This may
manifest itself in the form of demonstrations and
marches as with the Stop the War coalition and
the Countryside Alliance
Occasionally senior members of the Pressure
group will send an open letter to the newspapers
in the hope of influencing both the public and the
government. They may also seek to place an issue
high up the political agenda through these means.
In 1983, at Greenham Common RAF base,
women’s groups organized a peace camp to
protest against the arrival and stationing of cruise
missiles.

With the same aims in mind they may arrange Groups wishing to exercise the right to roam have
interviews with the broadcast media (radio and often used mass trespass on private property as a
television). means of drawing attention to their cause.

Insider Pressure groups also have frequent The Fuel Protesters successfully used the tactic of
contact and liaison with Quangos and Next Steps blockading fuel depots, forcing the government
Agencies, the providers of public services. These into a review of the ‘fuel duty escalator’
also implement public policy. Decisions may not
be influenced (though they nearly always are to
some degree) but the implementationof these
policies can still be influenced.Similarly Insider
Pressure Groups will also liaise with Local
Authorities, where there is a reason for doing so.

Similarly Insider Pressure Groups will also liaise Some groups such as the anti globalization
with the devolved Parliaments and Assemblies in protesters, Reclaim the Streets and the
Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and London, WOMBLES, have often used violent protest as a
where there is a reason for doing so. tactic in order to achieve maximum publicity.

Many Insider Pressure Groups are now
increasingly aware that a large amount of
directives emanate from the European
Commission and have therefore established
offices in Brussels.
Occupy & Reclaim the Streets – Use of Protest
and disruption tactics with a wide variety of aims,
but essentially to disrupt and (eventually!) bring
down capitalism.

In all cases pressure groups will use a variety of methods, dependent upon their status, in order to
influence public opinion, policy decisions and the decision makers themselves.

KEY CONCEPTS

Sectional Pressure Groups – exist to advance or protect the (usually material and/ or economic)
interest of its members. Sectional groups defend personal interests, have closed membership
(meaning only certain individuals may join) and it benefits members only. An example is the Unite
trade union or the CBI.

Promotional Pressure Groups – cause groups who are altruistic (don’t benefit themselves) and
campaign on behalf of an issue. Open membership (anyone can join) – Charities (Oxfam, Save the
Children) Environmental Groups (Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth, Plane Stupid)

Welfare groups (Shelter, Child Poverty Action Group, Age Concern). Mostly but not exclusively
outsiders.

Pluralism – refers to the distribution and the diversification of power within the political system in
different hubs/centres – regional, local, national, international) Pluralism is characterised by a wide
spread of power. In the political process, pluralism promotes a forum for debate and scrutiny
between competing groups in society. In regards for citizens to participate in the political process,
pluralism allows individuals to be represented by various parties, pressure groups or new social
movements. In the UK there are an estimated 7000+ pressure groups, a clear expression of a diverse
distribution of power. This can be seen due the reason that in an ideally pluralist democracy, groups
have more or less equal access to the political process. Pluralism implies a range of groups and
pressure groups are both sectional (trade unions and business groups) and promotional
(environmental and welfare groups) representing a plurality of groups, causes and issues.

Insider groups – tend to have a closer relationship with the government with direct access to
Ministers and therefore hold more influence over government policies and decisions. Groups that
hold this Insider status rarely turn to forms of illegal or direct action as this is seen as unnecessary
for achieving their aims. Instead they enjoy frequent contact and consultation with Ministers, Civil
Servants and Parliament. IPGs ordinarily consist of a small and limited amount of members, most of
which are hidden from the public eye. Example of this would be the BAA, BBA, CBI, NFU, BMA

Outsider Pressure Groups – little or no government contract or government accessibility resulting in

outsider pressure groups resorting to methods of direct action such as demonstrations protests,
lobbying, leafleting etc. some of which could be illegal. They also do not have the favour of being
consulted by the government on policies and decisions which could relate to the group and its
members. The groups that are excluded from the policy processes are those which try to influence
the government policy from the outside like the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), Plane Stupid or
UKUncut. Overall elitism assumes that there is a ‘power struggle’ in political activity with winners
and losers. Elitism contradicts pluralist theory, where pressure groups promote a more even
distribution of power

Elitism – Elitism is the theory that political power is concentrated in the hands of the few, an elite.
Power is held to be narrowly concentrated in the hands of wealthy corporations, privileged social
classes and professional politicians and bureaucrats who share a similar usually conservative social
outlook. Power is thus exercised in the self interest of the elite. Elite groups enjoy frequent contact
and consultation with Ministers, Civil Servants and Parliament. IPGs ordinarily consist of a small and
limited amount of members, most of which are hidden from the public eye. Example of this would
be the BAA, BBA, CBI, NFU, BMA. Former Cameron advisor Steve Hilton has criticised the lack of
democracy and corporate dominance over government and parliament. Insiders commonly have
access to huge financial resources and legal expertise. Corporate donations to political parties-
hedge funds estimated to have donated £47m in five years to the Conservative Party.

Pressure groups and political parties – pressure groups aim to exert influence on government
externally, whereas parties seek to exercise power through obtaining representation in
representative bodies such as parliament. Parties do this by putting candidates up for election, in
hope of gaining representation and forming, or taking part in government as occurred in the 2015
General Election. Another difference is that Pressure groups, whether sectional or promotional, have
a narrow or single issue focus whereas parties put forward manifestos and a wide range of issues of
public policy ranging from education, health, welfare, the economy, defence and foreign policy.

Political participation – one of the main functions of pressure groups. Pressure groups have become
increasingly important agents of political participation. Mainly outsider groups seek to exert
influence on the government by mobilizing popular support through movements such
as; petitions, demonstrations, marches and other forms of political protest. An example of political
participation was the demonstration on tuition fees in December 2012, organized by the National
Union of Students. Also in December 2010 there was a sit-in in Top Shop organized by UKUncut.
Pressure groups can mobilize public participation through petitions. The Hillsborough Justice
campaign launched a petition through the GOVUK website which eventually obtained 154,202
signatures forcing the government to release all the documents relating to the disaster. March for
Women January 2017. RMT South East Rail Strikes January 2017. Junior Doctor Strikes Autumn 2016.

PAST PAPER QUESTIONS

Part a) Questions – 5 Marks (AO1 only)

a) Using examples, distinguish between a sectional and promotional pressure groups.

The differences between promotional groups (PGs) and sectional groups (SGs) include the following:

 PGs seek to advance ideas, ideals or political causes, whereas SGs aim to advance or defend
interests
 PGs are concerned with the well being of others or society in general whereas SGs are concerned
with the well being of their own members.
 PGs have an open membership, whereas SG membership is restricted to people in particular
occupations, professions or positions.
 Examples of SGs include the National Union of Teachers, the Law Society and the Confederation
of British Industry, whereas examples of PGs include Greenpeace, Shelter and Oxfam.

a) What is meant by pluralism?

Pluralism relates to the diversification and distribution of power within the political system. It can be
said to have the following features.

• It supposes a wide dispersal of power along various avenues and channels.

• There is no concentration of power in narrow sectional elites.
• Supporters of pluralism argue that open and free debate is to be welcomed. and encouraged as
this advances the pluralist route and secures the democratic ideal.
• Citizens can be represented not via a single representative but through group membership, this
can be multiple membership of differing groups.
• Furthermore groups will have opposites on many topics.
• All the above groups have power in the political process.

a) Using examples distinguish between insider and outsider pressure groups.

Wyn Grant developed the classification of pressure groups to have insider and outsider status, they
can be distinguished as follows:

• An insider pressure group has a close and productive relationship with the government whereas
an outsider has little or no government contact.
• This relationship may mean that insiders will be consulted before and during policy
implementation whereas outsiders do not enjoy this favour.
• Insider groups will be highly unlikely to use direct action or break the law whereas outsider
groups may under certain circumstances be attracted to law breaking
• Examples of insider groups include the NFU and the BMA
• Examples of outsider groups include Earth First and the Animal Liberation Front.

a) Distinguish between pluralism and elitism.

• Pluralism and elitism are terms which make reference to the distribution of political power.
• Pluralism is a theory which believes that power is to an extent evenly distributed and that it is not
concentrated.
• Pluralism has a positive view of pressure groups and considers a multiplicity of then to be good
for the body politic.
• Elitism by contrast implies that there is a concentration of power in a narrow and exclusive
grouping.
• Elitism implies that this alleged unequal and unfair distribution of political power in the system
may posit problems for the body politic

a) Outline two differences between pressure groups and political parties.

Pressure groups and political parties differ along many avenues some of which include:

• Pressure groups do not normally seek governmental office and to hold power, they seek to
influence power holders.
• Pressure groups often have less internal democratic structures than political parties.
• Some pressure groups will resort to illegal action to achieve their aims, whereas political parties
are highly unlikely to endorse law breaking
• Political parties as a result of their nature hold views and ideas across a range of topics, pressure
groups by contrast are more specific and may have more circumscribed aims.
• Pressure groups have enjoyed in recent years a growing membership whereas political parties
have experienced a declining roll.
• Pressure groups have fewer restraints on funding and finance than political parties who are
closely audited. Other relevant factors may be advanced to illustrate how the two differ.

a) Using examples, distinguish between promotional and sectional pressure groups.

Pressure groups are common features of a pluralist democracy. They may be divided into sectional
and promotional/cause groups. A sectional pressure group can be defined as:

• Promoting the interest of one element or ‘section’ of society.

• These sectional groups can be economic or social sections.
• They tend to be exclusive and have restricted rather than open membership.
• Examples include professional bodies, trade unions etc.

A promotional or cause group can be defined as:

• Having open membership.

• Motivated not only by self interest but could be driven by altruistic aims.
• Perhaps more numerous than sectional groups.
• Examples include environmental groups and animal welfare groups.

a) How do pressure groups promote functional representation?

Functional representation is where pressure groups supplement or add to the democratic process in
society. Pressure groups are said to promote functional representation in several ways:

• It is alleged that in a representative democracy where political parties aggregate their polices and
water down their creeds it is beneficial that pressure groups can speak on behalf of the specific
and the unique. Thus promoting functional representation
• It is therefore operatively beneficial that pressure groups break out (or supplement) the
constraints of representative democracy and function to articulate the needs of the minority.
• Building on the above they widen the democratic framework and air specialised needs.
• These minorities may be linked to economic interests, hence business pressure groups speak on
behalf of employers and owners and trade unions on behalf of workers. Again this is beneficial for
functional representation
• Functional representation can be promoted by representation of demographic groups and also
minority opinion. These minorities may speak for a particular or distinct group; this may be based
on ethnic or religious lines.

a) What is the link between pluralism and pressure groups?

Pluralism and pressure groups have a close and meaningful link, some of these include:

• Pluralism considers how power is distributed in society. Pluralism views that it is healthy to have
multiple sources of power. Pressure groups are an integral part of this possible dispersal.
• Pluralism requires minority representation which is facilitated by pressure groups.
• Pluralism is linked to diversity and choice: pressure groups again facilitate this with their diversity
and proliferation. Pluralism theory considers governments listening to a range of pressure groups
and deciding policy through consultation, a vast range of pressure groups create this and support
pluralist theory.
• Pluralism accepts that some pressure groups will succeed and others fail, this is an accurate
reflection of pressure group activity. Other links may be advanced and developed.

a) Describe two ways in which pressure groups promote political participation.

a) What is pluralist democracy? (June, 2014)

Pluralist democracy is a model of democracy in which no one group dominates politics and
organized groups compete with each other to influence policy.

a) Outline TWO differences between sectional and promotional pressure groups. (June 2015)

a) Using examples identify two functions of pressure groups. (June 2016)

Part b) Questions – 10 Marks ( 7 AO1 and 3 AO2)

b) Explain the methods used by pressure groups to influence government.

b) Why is it sometimes difficult to distinguish between pressure groups and political parties?

b) Explain three political functions of pressure groups

b) How and why do some pressure groups use direct action?

b) Explain three factors which may restrict the influence of a pressure group.

b) Explain why different pressure groups use different methods to achieve their aims.
b) Explain three reasons why pressure group activity may undermine democracy.

b) Using examples explain three reasons why pressure groups may fail to achieve their objectives
(June 2014)

b) Using examples, explain three methods used by pressure groups to achieve their objectives
(June 2015)

b) Explain why some pressure groups choose to use illegal methods (June 2016)
Part c) Questions – 25 Marks ( 8 AO1, 9 AO2 & 8 AO3)

c) To what extent do pressure groups promote pluralist democracy?

c) To what extent have pressure groups become more important in recent years?
c) To what extent do pressure groups promote political participation in the UK?

c) To what extent do pressure groups undermine democracy?

c) To what extent are the largest pressure groups the most successful ones?

c) Is pressure group politics in the UK better described as pluralist or elitist?

c) Are pressure groups becoming more powerful, or less powerful?

c) To what extent do pressure groups strengthen pluralist democracy?
c) To what extent is the success of pressure groups a reflection of their level of public support?
 c) To what extent do pressure groups undermine democracy? (June 2014)

c) DO pressure groups concentrate or distribute power (June 2015)

c) To what extent has the power and influence of pressure groups changed in recent years? (June 2016)

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