Total

Heritage New Curriculum

Studies HERITAGE STUDIES Book 3

B B Matseketsa
S Mashaah
P Manyoni

i
 Priority Projects Publishing
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©Priority Projects Publishing 2017

First published in 2017 by Priority Projects Publishing

ISBN: 978-0-7974-7823-7

EDITORS: Edwin Muzanenhamo, Emilia Manjoro

DTP & COVER DESIGN: Rodney Fenga

All rights reserved.

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not satisfied with the quality of this book, contact us immediately on the
above numbers.

ii
CONTENTS

1 Socialisation........................................................................................ 1

2 Identity: Family, Local and National identity..................................... 32

3 Cultural Heritage: Norms and Values ................................................ 59

4 National History: Sovereignty and Governance.................................. 109

5 National Heritage............................................................................... 147

6 The constitution of the Republic of Zimbabwe amendment no.20..... 173

7 Right and Responsibilities.................................................................. 199

8 Production and Destribution of goods services .................................. 222

9 Global Issues ...................................................................................... 238

iii
 Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the following for their help during the course of writing
and research of this book:
1. Terrence Matseketsa for the following photos...
2. Vimbai Mamombe (Meteorological Services Department of Zimbabwe officer)
for insights of drought in Zimbabwe.
3. Caroline Makoni (National Arts Council of Zimbabwe officer) for insights on
dances in Zimbabwe.
4. Alouis Sagota (Dzikwa Trust Arts and Culture Coordinator) on drama views.
5. Tineyi Chipise – Sanyati area for drama views and Midlands’ cultural practices.
6. Kudzai Mandizvidza from Vhudzi village in Chirumhanzu on interviews on
cultural practices in the Midlands province.
7. Sheryl N. Nleya -Dombodema village in Plumtree on interviews on Kalanga
practices.
8. Mukachana Hanyani- Chiredzi South.
9. Veterans of the Liberation Struggle on insights on 1st and 2nd Chimurenga

10. Government of Zimbabwe and Departments for clearance, engagement

and interviews
• Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education and Harare Province for clearance to
engage with schools- (i) Allan Wilson High School and students (ii) Harare High
School and students (iii) Mount Pleasant High School and students.
• Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare- Social Welfare Department.
• Environmental Management Agency (EMA).
• Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA)
• Meteorological Services Department of Zimbabwe.
• National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe (i) Harare Region- Zimbabwe
Museum of Human Sciences and (ii) Eastern Region- Mutare Museum.
• National Arts Council of Zimbabwe (NAC).
• Curriculum Development Unit (CDU).

iv
Introduction

Heritage studies............

v
 1 Socialisation

Unit Objectives You will also learn about the advantages

By the end of this Unit, you should be
able to;
• Define a community.
• State the role of the community
in the socialisation processes.
• Describe the role of religious
beliefs in socialisation.
• Identify the various forms of
media
and disadvantages of using the media as
a socialising agent.
Warm Up Exercise
1. What is the importance of
community leaders in African
society?
2. In your community, how do you
create and maintain relations?

• Describe the effects of the media Topic 1

in socialisation. The role of community in
• Describe the advantages of the socialisation
media as a socialising agent. Key Words
• Use the media responsibly Socialisation: is a process whereby
an infant becomes
Introduction
self-aware and a
In this Unit, you will gain knowledge on knowledgeable person
the role of the community in socialisation, in skills to understand
describe the role of religious beliefs in and share the culture
socialisation and identify the forms of
into which he or she
media and their effects to socialisation.
was born formally or

1
 informally. internet, among other
Beliefs: the state of mind which forms of communication.
trusts that something Ritual: ceremonies that are repeatedly
exists without seeing it. done in a set manner.
Community: a place where people People live in communities and these
collectively live, share communities shape their everyday
common resources such lives and behaviours. Communities are
as a dip tank, road, river,
grazing areas, water
sources, recreational
centres and worship,
among other things.
Culture: the way of life that
encompasses language,
ideas, behaviour and
food. High density suburbs
Heritage: this is a birth right which
we identify ourselves
with. Such things like
the land, minerals,
culture, mountains and
rivers, our wealth and
natural resources.
Norms: accepted standards of
Low density suburb
behaviour in a particular
society. known to develop relations that help
The media: these are means through to preserve culture, beliefs and values
which different type which are integral in our present and
of information are future lives. The process of passing
conveyed to people. knowledge, universal values and norms
These include the is referred to as socialisation. The term
newspapers, telephones, is widely used by sociologists and social
televisions and the psychologists in describing human

2
 However,
communities do
not force their
members to
follow the rules
and traditions
observed from a
different locality.
Every member
is socialised
through a natural
persuasive process
of learning from
others called
socialisation. The
A home in rural areas way people talk,
beings social learning.
Each community has distinct values
peculiar to its geographic location or
social status. For example, a community
in high density areas like Sakubva in
Mutare is socialised differently from
those who stay in low density suburbs Bigman
like Borrowdale in Harare, Murambi
in Mutare, Hillside in Bulawayo and Winky D (Zimbabwean artist)
Ascot in Gweru. The difference is seen
in terms of music preferences where
those in low density love western music
and other soft music genres whereas
‘ghetto youths’ go for Zimdancehall,
Reggae and even ‘sungura’. Similarly,
those in Mt Darwin have their unique
and peculiar socialisation aspects
different from those in Mberengwa or
Zvishavane. Chris Brown and Drake (foreign artists)

3
respect the dead and the living, preserve
natural and other resources and observe
social gaps tells a story about how
communities socialise their members.
Communities coordinate with other
socialisation agents like religion, school
and the media to instil discipline and
a value chain of religious and social
beliefs.
Community ceremonies and rituals
Dynamic societies experience some
shifts, the majority of which are sudden
while some shifts are gradual in nature.
The way communities celebrate events
also change to suit the time. Despite
all these, modern and traditional/
simple societies have their ways of
celebrating life. Ceremonies and ritual
performances have stood the test of
time in most communities.
In Zimbabwe, some communities
conduct rain making ceremonies when
the country experiences droughts,
famine and related disasters.
Most traditional ceremonies largely
depend on what are known as
Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS)
and these vary from one community
to the other. In the same way, rituals
or rites are performed when death and
other culturally important events occur.
In societies where men and women
4
graduate into adults, ceremonies and
rituals are performed and the practice is
socially transferred from one generation
to the other by concerned communities.
Some ceremonies and rituals are
however discouraged as they conflict
with human and women rights issues.
Among discouraged practices is a
system whereby young girls’ genitals are
mutilated to suppress sexual feelings.
Again, such activities would not only
take place without a correct procedure
acceptable in a given community.
Case Study:
Shangani male Initiation Ceremony
The Shangani people are located in Chiredzi
South, the Save area and Mwenezi. They
are a unique ethnic group because their
culture of circumcision of both men and
women has managed to withstand time.
The practice is also noticed among Varemba
in Mberengwa.
In the past, the Shangani would start
their initiation ceremony in June and
graduated in August. But due to the fact
that education is a basic right and children
are not allowed to be withdrawn from
school, they are now conducting their
initiation rituals in August of every year.
It is important to note that there is no age
restriction to this cultural practice and it
is a taboo to divulge what happens during
the initiation ceremony.
Those men ready for circumcision are taken
into the forest where they only return
home after graduating. They are taught
by teachers known as vadzabhi who
teach them about adulthood, love, respect,
discipline and what they are expected of as
they grow up and start their own families.
The male initiation process is called hoko.
In the forest, they are served sadza only by
women who would have also undergone
female circumcision because they would
have passed through female circumcision
process which is known as Khomba. The
women cooking for the recruits are not
allowed to
(i) mix and mingle with men
undergoing circumcision
(ii) go back home
(iii) have any sexual intercourse during
this period.
When the recruits finish preparing dishes,
women take the sadza at a distance where
they shout “Hatsva! Hatsva! Hatsva”
signalling for the Vadzabhi to come and
collect sadza. Vadzabhi would acknowledge
by saying “Tsvanani! Tsvanani!” They
then go and collect the sadza from women
who will be in a respectful pose. They avoid
eye contact as a gesture/sign of respect. At
times a woman gives her back as men hit
the ground with a stick as a sign of respect
before taking the sadza meant for the new
recruits.
After Vadzabhi are satisfied with the
process, at the eve of graduation ceremony,
the recruits change their names, thus
differentiating them from uncircumcised
man. Names like Mukachana, Lisenga,
Musisinyani, Hanyani, Kazamula and
Gezani, among others are associated with
the hoko graduands. They move from the
forest holding two small sticks which they
will be using to sing hoko songs while in
a single file without looking back. They
sometimes wear white t-shirts and shorts
as a sign of cleanliness. In the past they used
to wear nhembe. Upon graduation venue,
boys sit on rupasa/bonde/or rukukwe. Their
mothers come to congratulate them and pay
a small amount as a token of appreciation
to the teachers (vadzabhi). There will be
a form of a graduation parade. After the
graduation parade is over, people socialise,
drink beer and share food.
In the Shangani culture, a man who is
not circumcised is regarded as a ‘Shivurhi’
and he is not included in critical family
and village issues under discussion. He
is regarded as a nobody unless they are
circumcised.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Activity/Practical
In groups of 10, list any ritual ceremonies
5
conducted in your community. Role
play on how this is done briefly in about
20 minutes.
Problem Solving
Identify countries in the world where
women’s rights are violated through
genital mutilation. How can this
problem be resolved?
Typical Exam Questions
Section A: Multiple Choice
1. When people come together
they;
(a) Talk and greet each other
(b) love each other
(c) socialise
(d) fight each other.
2. Socialisation in communities
differ according to;
(a) geographic location
(b) type of people
(c) people of influence
(d) communication.
3. Communities do not exist in
isolation in the socialisation
matrix. This implies that,
(a) they need each other to
survive
(b) they are not the only agents of
socialisation
(c) they are the ideal socialisation
6
agents
(d) Communities evolve over
time.
4. Rituals are depended on,
(a) communities
(b) indigenous Knowledge
Systems
(c) elderly
(d) prophets and Pastors.
5. When are rituals unacceptable?
(a) When they are conducted by
young people
(b) when they are conducted
wrongly
(c) when they infringe other
people’s rights
(d) when one generation fails to
transmit knowledge to others.
Section B: Structured Questions
6. (a) List any four socialisation
agents found at community level.
(b) With reference to Zimbabwe,
describe socialisation in;
(i) Low density suburbs
(ii) High density suburbs
(iii) Rural areas.
(c) To what extent do rituals affect
people’s human rights?
 Further Research
Using a case study of your choice,
identify two ritual practises in your
community and make a presentation
in class narrating its benefits and how
entrepreneurs are making a living. (If
you have a laptop at your school try your
presentation using Power Point).
Topic 2
Role of Religious beliefs in
Socialisation
Warm Up Exercise
Do you think religion has a role to play
in the Socialisation process? Justify your
answer.
Key Words/Terms
Religion: a system of worship of
the Supernatural.
Multi religious: allowing more
than one religion to
worship.
Fundamentalist: rigid adherence
to past principles and
high levels of intolerance
to other views.
Extremist: holding to a view which
most people consider
incorrect or unreasonable.
It has elements of fanatic.
Resurrection- coming back to life after
death.
Forebears: a family member who
died in the past.
Appease: to satisfy or accept to
demands.
Ostracised: banned or to exclude.
Radicalisation: process of hardening
individuals.
Terrorism: use of the threat of
violence to achieve a
political objective.
Religious fundamentalism- an extreme
form of religion which
does not tolerate other
points of view
Jihad: a holy war
The Constitution of Zimbabwe provides
for many religions in the country.As such,
Zimbabwe is a multi-religious nation.
Religions such as African tradition,
Christianity, Islamic, Buddhism and
Rastafarianism convey certain messages
to their followers. Such messages have
the power to influence behaviour and
beliefs and life processes. Globally,
Islamic and Christian fundamentalists
have been on collision path, with bloody
clashes dominating.
It is important to note that, all religions
pay homage to God except for Satanism,
though applying different divine names
and means. It must be noted that,
religious extremism is not a preserve
7
for a particular religion although it has
been associated generally with Muslim
believers.
Types of religions
(i) Christianity
(ii) The
Religion
The cross (A symbol showing Christianity)
Christianity compliments other
socialisation agents by providing
a link between human love and
God. Christianity thus teaches
its people simple but critical
values such as respect for parents,
leaving a faithful life that will be
rewarded by everlasting life and
living a life according to God’s
standards. As young people grow
into adulthood, they will continue
to respect their parents and strive
to do well in the community as a
way to identify themselves with
8
Christianity.
Christianity disconnects itself
from the dead and believes that
once a person is dead, the only way
they will connect to that person
is only after resurrection. Any
connection before that is referred
to as bad spirit.
African Traditional
Ancestral spirits manifesting
It is a composition of religious
beliefs and practises of Africans.
It is a religion that is based on
sustaining beliefs held by the
forebears of the present Africans.
The religion is passed from one
generation to the other orally as
it seeks to connect the past with
the present and the present with
eternity. Those who practise this
religion to date rely on history as
the religion is not written on paper,
but it is only the hearts and minds
 and capacity to recall that drives
the religion. The religion keeps
hope among its followers that
there exist ancestors (vadzimu)
who act as mediators between
them and God. Ancestors are
more of one’s descendants. They
are believed to provide guidance
and protection spiritually but they
are long dead. The living believes
that if they appease the ancestors,
they will talk to God to mitigate
droughts, starvation, diseases and
provide good future for them.
(iii) The Islamic religion
Islams in their Mosque
It is the largest religion and
fellowship in the world that
draws big number of congregants.
Muslim refers to “someone
who submits to God.” Unlike
the Christians who believe and
socialise their members that
Jesus is the son of God, Islam
believes in God whose name is
Allah and Prophet Mohammed
is the last prophetic messenger.
Mohammed is believed to have
received verbatim word from God
in the Quran. Islam believe that
their religion is universal and a
monolithic God.
Muhammad Gandhi
Every year through the Islamic
Lunar calendar, members of this
religion worldwide converge at
different sites to commemorate
the month of Ramadan where they
fast and abstain from food, drinks
and other physical needs during
day light like sex. The significance
of Ramadan is due to the fact that
it is believed Mohammed received
the word of God during the 9th
9
 month on the lunar calendar.

As they commemorate the

Ramadan event, Muslim believes
it is the time to purify the soul, and
further improve their relationship
with God. It is the time to sacrifice
one’s life towards doing Godly
things.

(iv) Rastafarianism

Emperor Haile Selaise of Ethiopia

Marcus Garvey

There is no agreed date as to

when Rastafarianism emerged.
Historical archives trace its
Bob Marley
emergence between 1920 and
10
 1930. Some scholars even traced
further into the biblical times
of Samson. Rastafarianism has
strong roots in Jamaica through
the teachings of Marcus Garvey
(1887-1940). Later this religion
was embraced by the likes of Bob
Marley who spread the message
through reggae music.
Rastafarians believe in the messiahship
of Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia
who is believed to have been crowned
in around 1930. He is taken as a force
of resistance to oppression and a pride
to Africa’s heritage.
The religion has roots in Judaism and
Christianity with its main teachings
drawn from the Old Testament laws,
its prophecies as well as the book of
Revelation. Thus, it is referred to as a
Judeo-Christian religion.
They believe that God is black and
that there is a black man’s God. Their
socialisation teachings are a reaction
from historical imbalances where
whites dominated blacks in all aspects
of life including religion. This deep
thought likens the imperial powers
(Europe and America) to a Babylon
system that led to the enslavement and
impoverishment of the blacks. They
claim that this demagogue “Babylon”
must one day be brought down.
Members usually wear regalia with
different colours that resemble diversity
and unity.
The place of religion in Socialisation
• Religion is an integrative social
force that binds people together
as cement do to concrete. It thus
shapes collective beliefs into
collective identity.
• Religious gatherings such as
national and international
conventions foster solidarity and
cohesion among individuals. For
example, members of the Jehovah’s
Witnesses held an International
Convention in Harare which
attracted membership across the
globe.
Prophet W Magaya
11
 converge differently yearly for the same
purpose

Jehovha’s Witness International Convention

in Zimbabwe

Prophet E Makandiwa

United Family International church led

by Emmanuel Makandiwa conducts
Judgement Nights yearly allowing
people to meet and share experiences.
Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM),
Anglican, Apostolic sects, United Evangelist Muparinga
Methodist, Roman Catholics, Bethsaida
Church, and ZAOGA members
• Religion provides
some form of social
control . This is done
through religious
sanctions whereby
deviant members are
ex-communicated, and
or are counselled by
the Elders. Therefore,
as people socialise in
Apostle Guti and Amai their community, they

12
 are aware of the consequences of
deviant behaviour hence they are
bound to confine themselves to
the good order. In some societies,
deviant members are tortured
and excommunicated or are given
tough punishment like that of
Stephen the Martyr who was
stoned to death, ridiculed and
sometimes ostracised.
• Religion is also a vital
instrument that is used for
prisoners or convicted persons
to shun indecorous behaviour.
The Zimbabwe Prison and
Correctional Services (ZPCS) use
religion to rehabilitate prisoners
by inculcating moral values.
• Religion also assists in nation
building. This is done by teaching
people to accept negative life
experiences.
• Religion teaches about holy
morals that are provided by a
supreme being who is God. For
Christians, issues like the sanctity
of marriage, murderous behaviour
and importance of life. Those who
obey these sacred morals and
commandments are rewarded
with everlasting life. Therefore, as
people socialise, they carry behind
the hope and promise of life after
death. For some Muslims who are
radicalised, they believe that if one
dies fighting for a cause through
suicides and war, then he will go
straight to Allah and receive 70
virgins. With this in mind, it is
easy to deduce that the kind of
society cultivated by this religious
belief is full of vigilance, violence
and on-going fighting. Some
Muslims preach peace and unity
but it is overridden by those who
are radicalised.
• Religion provides comfort.
Case Study on Rastafarian practises
Rastafarianism is shrouded in controversy
but it is believed that the majority of those
who practise this religion use marijuana
(also known as ganja/herb or holy weed).
They use marijuana for medicinal purposes
and as a symbol in Rastafarian. In doing
so, they derive the use of marijuana from
Psalms 104:14 King James Version (KJV),
“He causeth the grass for the cattle and
herbs for the service of man: that he may
bring forth the food for men.” By quoting
the Bible, the religion seeks to vindicate
itself from the use of this illicit drug.
13
Interestingly, the Rastafarians perform
two rituals which are Reasonings and
Nyabinghi. Reasonings is a gathering
where people smoke marijuana pipe in
rounds whereby one member lights its
and recites a short prayer while other
members bow their heads. The pipe is
pulled and passed to all members. On
the other hand, Nyabinghi is a special
dance conducted and it lasts for several
days. It brings people together from
all walks of life. This is believed to be
practised in Jamaica where marijuana
grows in abundance.
Although it is still debatable, one cannot
rule out that if voluntary intoxication by
church members is done on a massive
scale, then societies of drunkards, lazy
people, cartels and illicit traders will
emerge.
Religion and terrorism - A global
perspective
Recently, terrorist activities in the
21st century have been committed
under the religious banner of Islamic
fundamentalism where people are
radicalised or to commit acts of terror.
Boko Haram, an Islamic militant group
in Nigeria has killed thousands of
Christians from 2012 and in 2014 they
abducted Chibok girls in Borno State
at a government boarding school who
14
were sitting for their final examinations.
They hid them in the Sambisa forest
near the Cameroon border. Boko Haram
militants are against western education
which they believe violates values and
teachings of Muslim religion. The
Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS)
and later Islamic State of Syria and the
Levant (ISIL) terrorist groups commit
terror attacks in the name of religion,
seeking to establish an Islamic Calipha.
Al Shabaab, an Islamic terrorist group
based in Somalia committed atrocities
in Kenya by attacking the Westgate Mall
killing 67 and wounding hundreds. They
also attacked Garissa University killing
Christians in April 2015. Terrorist acts
in the name of religion are a revenge for
Kenya’s military deployment in Somalia
following Operation Linda Nchiu,
aimed at preventing insurgent groups
in Somalia. They are basically waging a
jihad against as enemies of Islam.
In some cases, Christians become violet
due to failure to accept the existence of
other denominations.
Karl Marx’s views on religion
A philosopher, Karl Marx had
divergent views on the role of religion
on socialisation;
(i) He believed that religion is a
deception that provides excuses
to keep society functioning.

Karl Marx
(ii) Religion sides with oppressors
as often religion was used to
oppress other weaker members.
For example, the colonisation of
Southern Africa was a result of
intensive efforts by missionaries.
(iii) Religion is a sign of the oppressed
creature, the heart of a heartless
world, just as it is the spirit of a
spiritless situation.
(iv) Religion is the opium of the people
that often leads to submissiveness.
(v) Marx called for the abolishment of
religion to remove the impression
of happiness.
Religion and sexuality in Zimbabwe
Some unscrupulous church members
take advantage of the spiritual plight
of congregants and later physically,
emotionally and psychologically abuse
them.
There are numerous cases reported to the
Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP) of
prophets who rape female congregants
on the excuse that the Holy Spirit
would have commanded so.
Religion world over has been taken as
a business with church founders living
in luxury and opulence. In Zimbabwe
some church founders own huge
properties and businesses as a result of
contributions paid by their members.
In some cases, girl child has been on
the receiving end as parents through
certain denominations allow them to
be married before the age of 18 years.
They drop out from school and become
mothers at a tender age. This is a form
of abuse which can be challenged in the
courts.
I am a good citizen because………
• I shun religious fundamentalism
and religious linked violence.
• I respect and fear God.
• I don’t consume illicit drugs in
the name of religion.
15
 • I don’t condone Religious (a) Christianity
extremism.
• I don’t sexually abuse female (c) Islam
congregants if I am a pastor.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Problem solving
Using a religion of your choice, explain
how it has helped to mould your
character and how it has helped to
develop your community. You can share
with others humanitarian assistance
programmes conducted by that religion.
Typical Exam Questions
Section A: Multiple Choice
1. Religion is an agent of ______.
(a) Beliefs (c) Ethiopia
(b) socialisation
(c) Multi-religion
(d) the people and God.
2. Early form of religion in Africa is
_____.
(a) Buddhism
(b) Christianity
(c) Islam
(d) African Tradition.
3. The world’s largest religion is
_____.
16
(b) Rastafarianism
(d) Buddhism.
4. Karl Marx had radical views on
religion. He opined that religion
is ________.
(a) a link between the people and
God
(b) is a cement that binds people
together
(c) opium of the people that leads
them to docility
(d) connects the living with the
dead.
5. Rastafarianism has origins in
______.
(a) Zimbabwe
(b) Jamaica
(d) in the Bible.
Section B: Structured Questions
6. (a) Identify any four types of
religions found in Zimbabwe.
(b) Outline the role of religion
in Socialisation process in a
community.
(c) To what extend does religion affect
socialisation in a community?
Further Research
Outside of what was discussed in this
topic, may you conduct a research (using
interviews to elders in your community)
and find out how other agents affect the
socialisation processes?
Topic 3
Effects of Media on
Socialisation
Warm Up Exercise
1. What is the media?
2. List the forms of media you know.
3. Why is the media important?
Key Words/Terms
Media: collective term used to
refer to all means of
communication.
Hard information: printed and
published information.
Soft Information: information that
is not printed. Usually
you read it on the
computer, your phone or
see it on television.
Print media: physical paper
publications like
newspapers, books,
magazines and journals.
Propaganda: biased or deliberate
falsified information
circulated and meant to
brainwash,mislead or
change the insight of
citizens to the socio-
political and economic
thoughts of those in
power.
Agenda setting: media selectively
promoting certain lines
of thinking for discussion,
policy considerations or
directing opinion.
Media hegemony: control of the media
by those in power.
Fifth column: a secret group of
individuals who side
with an enemy to destroy
the unity of a country.
The media plays an important role in
the socialisation processes and it can
play a positive role while at times its
role is harmful. The media plays the
following roles;
The media role can be split into four
broad categories, namely, entertainment,
providing information, interpretive and
agenda setting.
(a) Agenda setting- it refers to the
ability of news houses or platforms
to pick prominent issues on the
public agenda.This is done through
repeated publishing of the same
noticeable issue in pursuance of a
certain line of thinking. Therefore,
media can decide to publish issues
17
 of corruption, rape, preferred Forms of the media
candidates in elections, and certain
voting insights, among others.

(b) Informative- the media informs

the public about politics, economy,
and religion, cultural and social
views. Newspapers, television Magazines
stations, radio stations and social
network platforms provide facts,
analysis and discussion about
certain topical issues. This assist in
educating the public. Politicians use
the media to put out their political
manifestos, programmes, unity and
peace messages as well as policy
guidance to its constituencies. Newspapers in Zimbabwe

Schools use the media to promote

education and sponsor further
research.

(c) Entertainment- the media is a

source of entertainment in that it
provides music, dramas, movies,
jokes, puzzles and life styles.

(d) Interpretive- the media through

opinion and analysis slots and
editorial comments, assists in Textbooks
interpreting events to the public.
They normally explain why, who, Media exist in two forms that are print
when, what, where and how or electronic. Print are physical paper
(5Ws+H) of news events. publications like newspapers, text
18
 Billboard

Twitter

A Flyer Whatsapp

19
 media in Zimbabwe are The Herald,
Sunday Mail, H-Metro, NewsDay,
The Standard, The Independent,
DailyNews, DailyNews On Sunday,
Manica Post, Chronicle, Sunday
News, The Patriot, People’s Voice and
many more.

Media hegemony
Television set
Both print and electronic media in
Africa have been used to further neo-
colonial or destabilising agendas while
in the developed countries it is used
to emphasise hegemonic tendencies.
This is done through powerful media
Radio (home theatre) platforms like CNN, BBC, Fox News,
The New York Times and The Mirror,
among others which shape international
opinion twisted in favour of the major
world powers.

Media as Fourth Estate

The media is often referred to as the
The internet Fourth Estate because it is a force to
reckon with in governance as it shapes and
books, magazines, billboards, pamphlets
influences public opinion including the
and flyers while electronic media are
course of politics the world over. This is
those publications that are not printed
usually the work of the Fifth Columnists
and they are produced electronically for
and hostile media organisations who
example through the use of Internet,
publish stories apparently to cause alarm
Radio, Television, WhatsApp, Twitter,
and hopelessness among the general
Facebook, Instagram, Skype, and
populace.
Viber among others. Example of print

20
Media influence on Socialisation
• If media is not used responsibly,
children can grow a habit of
watching unlawful pornographic
movies and pictures that
circulates. This is a challenge to
school children and young adults
who may want to experiment with
their others. This will in turn load
our health institutions as they take
on the responsibility of treating
people with sexually transmitted
diseases (STDs). If children are
“intoxicated” with this media
culture that spreads glamour,
sexual behaviour, promiscuity and
vulgarity, it becomes a cause of
concern.
• Media promotes aggressive
behaviour. In the United States
of America (USA), more children
are exposed to television violence
and violent behaviour. This is
because parents can afford buying
ICTs for their children to the
extent that children have their
own televisions in bedrooms. A
research conducted by Eugene
Beresin, the Director of Child and
Psychiatry Residency Training
at Massachusetts General and
Mclean Hospital, revealed that
a typical American child will
view more than 200 000 acts of
violence including more than 16
000 murders before attaining the
age of 18 years. This teaches a
violent mentality among youths
who sometimes become violent
to others in the community. In
Zimbabwe, youths watching action
movies and wrestling sessions are
likely to become bullies as they
apply manoeuvres displayed on
television. In the United States of
America, social scientists and legal
practitioners relate high levels of
violence, deviance, drug addiction
and immoral behaviours among
the youths to media influence.
Watching of horror films, the
social media, sex tapes and
videos, as well racial and gender
discrimination have a huge impact
on the awareness of the people.
• Media is used by terrorist groups
to put out propaganda. Al-
Shabaab militants who operate in
Somalia and carried out bombings
in Kenya operate a station called
Radio Andalus. They use this
station to spread threatening
messages by blocking frequencies.
Al-Shabaab also operates a Twitter
21
 account with over 8 000 followers.
On the other hand, Boko Haram
militants in Nigeria decapitate
their adversaries in full view of
the media. This raises a sense of
insecurity in Nigeria, thus scaring
away tourists and investors.
• Media is used to spread hate
and discrimination. More often,
Africans have been portrayed
by hegemonic owned media as
backward and senseless than
Whites. The media especially, in
Rwanda in the 1990s was used to
spread hate messages by the Hutus
against the Tutsis. The Tutsi were
described by Radio Television
Libre des Mille Collines
(RTLMC) as cockroaches which
deserved to be killed. Kangura
newspapers and other cartoonist
publications portrayed Tutsis
as people who were deserved to
be eliminated. This hate speech
plunged the country into a
genocide (slaughter) which saw
close to a million deaths in a short
space of time.
• The media is also used by both
young and old as a dating
22
platform. There are internet
sites and radio programmes that
encourage computer-generated
dating. For example, internet sites
such as Fling Adult dating, Fun.
Love devotion and other free chat
rooms have connected people in
various parts of the country who
feed in their profile for sexual
escapades. If that happens, people
just hook up and have sex without
even going for blood tests. For
school children, this has brought
drastic consequences in their life
that includes early pregnancies,
contraction of sexually transmitted
diseases (STD) and HIV/AIDS.
• Media also affects mental
development in children who
are continuously exposed to
cartoons with hidden violence
and programmes that promote
gangsters. The internet,
newspapers and radio programmes
also encourage dishonesty among
children where the clever ones are
portrayed as heroes and cheaters
are praised. This usually breeds
“town boys” and “town girls” who
are seen as cleverer than their rural
counterparts. This is why in places
like Mbare, Highfields (Cherima)
 and Epworth “pa booster” and the • Media promotes a false of beauty
Avenues, among others are seen as to women as it misrepresents
Harare’s hotspots.

• Media affects culture especially

among in terms of dressing.
Traditionally in Africa and
Zimbabwe in general, women
never wore trousers in whatever
form, citing that only prostitutes
can wear them, but as media
pushed for ‘civilisation’, women are
now wearing trousers, including
at work places. This was adopted
from Western movies, newspapers,
and internet and culture. For men,
the dress code has shifted from
dignified to “rembe” local lingo
for when trousers are dropped
so that they sag. Youths are also
coping Hip Hop artists like 50 Rihanna
Cent, Joe Thomas, Sean Paul etc
ideas on what is regarded as
in the clothes they wear and the
beautiful. Models like Rihanna
manner they put them on as they
have charmed our young girls
would have seen this on television.
resulting in semi-naked dressing.
As people are socialised in this
manner, morals in most cases
become loose.

• The use of the media has resulted

into hacking whereby personal
accounts are manipulated for
gains.
50 Cent

23
• Some people are now addicted to
the media especially Facebook,
Twitter and WhatsApp where
most of the time is spent on such
platforms instead of using time
productively, to the extent that
families no longer have time to
discuss issues. This in most cases
has led to family disputes and
communication breakdown.
• The use of the media has worsened
cheating in relationships. This
is because all communication is
private whereby people insert
passwords on their smartphones
or easily delete love messages. One
partner can use a finger print to
unlock a cell phone which means
his/her spouse is denied access.
• Media can be used to character
assassinate enemies while
promoting others. This was
witnessed by the multiplying of
social media controlled groups
like #Tajamuka/Sijikle #This Flag
and #My Zimbabwe Campaign
which sent sometimes conflicting
information and threatening
messages to the public about our
country from May to September
2016. Sensitive issues such as those
that relate to military, intelligence,
24
false border security alerts, state
information and confidential
circulars were circulated. This
makes investors and development
partners avoid investing in our
country.
In South Africa, campaigns like #Zuma
Must Fall and #Fees Must Fall, among
others were used to intensify up pressure
for President Jacob Zuma to resign.
Therefore, as people’s minds become
flooded with misleading information,
communities are bound to challenge
government orders, thus producing
individuals who are prepared to fight
the government.
Topic 4
Responsible use of the media
The following are the advantages of
using the media;
• Media provides education more
easily- the internet is widely
used to research information
so easily. Therefore, you should
take advantage of internet usage
through such search engines
as Google and Yahoo, among
others to look for information on
education, investment etc.
• The media provides entertainment-
the radio, television, movies and
magazines provide leisure and
entertainment.
• People are connected easily as
one merely through the click of
a button can share information,
meaning people are connected
more easily.
• Media promotes a democratic
society in that people can engage
in debates through the media
which debates contribute to the
development of society.
• The Media reaches various people
from various populations.
• Media raises awareness of
trafficking syndicates, drug
abusers, smuggling, instability in
other parts of the world, travel
alerts, weather patterns and
occurrences, road usage and health
tips among others.
• Culture and tradition is shared
easily by seeing pictures, searches
on the internet and even talking
with others. Internet, newspapers
and smart phones can do this
without challenges.
• Global connection- As our friends
and relatives go to other countries,
we can connect with them easily
and cheaply as they share their
experiences. This also helps us
compare our socialisation with
what we are told.
Qualities of a good media user
• Avoid pornographic sites because
this is a criminal offense.
• Avoid dating on internet sites.
• Avoid posting information whose
accuracy you cannot determine.
• Listen and wait for guidance from
the government on policy issues.
• Avoid violent sites.
• Avoid circulating sensitive
information that portrays our
country in bad light.
• Write positive things about your
country whenever you lay your
hands on media platforms.
Case Study
The use of the Media in three schools
in Zimbabwe (Harare Province)
The research was conducted on 6 and 7
December 2016. The objective was to
understand the extent to which school
25
children appreciate the media as a socialising
agent and the disadvantages associated
with the use of the media in general. The
researchers used group interviews as a way
of gathering data. Authors used purposive
sampling to come up with the three schools.
Harare High School was chosen because it
is one of the centres of excellence in Harare
province producing a significant number of
students with high passes from the ‘ghetto’
in Mbare and it represents high density
suburbs. Mount Pleasant High was chosen
because one of the authors teaches at the
school and Allan Wilson High because it is
located closer to Harare Central Business
District and represents diverse enrolment.
a) Allan Wilson High School
Allan Wilson High School
26
The school enrols boys only and 20
participated in the study. The following
are their views on the use of the media;
• The participants knew well the
types of media and what suits
them. For example they mentioned
cell phones, lap tops, television and
the internet.
• The school authorities do not
allow the use of cell phones at the
school. Initially, school children
were allowed to use their phones,
but a number of problems arose
which include theft. They ended
up calling the police to investigate,
hence learning time was lost.
• Some students bought cell phones
 in groups of 10 boys whereby they
pooled together their pocket money
and bought cell phones. However,
this became a burden to parents
as some would demand more
pocket money. Among members,
problems such as dishonesty later
arose whereby after buying a cell
phone for someone, he refuse to
reciprocate. So such cases were
continuously burdening the school
management hence they were
banned.
• The following problems arose
as well following the use of the
media; (i) interruption of studies
whereby more time was spent
watching movies and games (ii)
some students were exposed to
pornographic sites (iii) spending
more money in trying to upgrade
phones, to the extent of swapping
and topping up (iv) some became
preoccupied with cell phones to the
extent of not doing school work.
• At home, students watched an
assortment of movies ranging from
action, comedy, series, scientific
fiction, cartoons, adventure and
Biblical movies using the cell
phones.
• The net effect of some of the movies
is that apart from entertaining,
action movies have a tendency of
being imitated by viewers, leading
to misbehaviour.
b) Harare High School
Harare High School, which is located
in Mbare, has a different approach to
the use of the media and internet as it
believes it forms part of its academic
success story. The school received several
awards that demonstrate its academic
ability despite its location in the ‘ghetto’.
The school head allowed 11 students
to participate in this study - is 6 girls
and 5 boys. They were quite conversant
with the use of cell phones, laptops and
the internet. The school installed Wi-
Fi which is accessible to students upon
satisfying the following conditions;
(i) If you are Lower and Upper Six
student only
(ii) Submit the serial number of your
laptop and cell phone to the school
authorities
(iii) Only smart phones are allowed
because others which are not
cannot be used for research
(iv) If gadget is not registered, it is
confiscated by school authorities
The following are some of the challenges
27
they face as they use these platforms secretly making it difficult for
and media to socialise; teachers to even detect
(a) Some students end up losing
(e) Money is spent in trying to acquire
their cell phone to ‘thieves’ at
the latest phones
school

(b) Lack of concentration in class Programmes viewed by students at

(c) Some play music on their laptops
and phones, resulting in noise
pollution. One of the girl students
said, “Noise especially during time
of FIFA games especially from
these boys.”
(d) Abuse of Wi-Fi when viewing
pornographic material. This is
done by individuals and groups,
home
YGT, Muchaneta a local drama aired
on ZBC, Channel O, Trace, Disney,
ZBC News, SA Mindset programme
on Maths and Accounts, Channel
124, Keeping up with the Kardashians,
National Geographic, Wrestling and
Telemundo.
c) Mount Pleasant High School

Mount Pleasant High School

28
 Mount Pleasant High School students • Comedy
posing for a photo with their teacher
• Wrestling
Ms Silindiwe Mashaah at the front of
their administration block- Picture by
Besearch Matseketsa.
Mount Pleasant High School is located
Revision Exercise
in the northern suburbs and the 18 Pracademic Questions
students were quite aware of the various Activity/Practical
forms of the media and its usage. The
a) In groups, discuss how the
students are not allowed to use cell
media promotes peace, violence,
phones at school, but they pointed the
corruption and unity among the
following as some of the challenges
people.
associated with the use of ICTs at both
the school and at home. b) State the benefits of the social
(i) They raised issue of disruption media platforms in Zimbabwe.
from their studies
Problem Solving
(ii) Abuse of internet to view
Imagine that you are a Minister of
pornographic sites and playing
Information and Broadcasting Services.
games during learning hours
You want to end the practise of abusing
(iii) Promotes cyber bullying the media. What suggestions can you
make to the Cabinet and implement?
(iv) Theft increases as cell phones
are sold for money which can be
channelled towards buying drugs Typical Exam Questions
Section A: Multiple Choice
What they watch;
Questions
• Cartoons like Sponge, Simpsons
1. The deliberate misrepresentation
• Soccer matches of biased information is referred
to as
• Fantasy movies
(a) agenda setting
• Soapies and series for example
(b) public agenda
Korean and Indian productions.
29
 (c) Fifth column (b) hard copy information
(d) propaganda. (c) researched information
(d) academic information.
2. When the media is controlled
extensively by a few people, it is Section B: Structured Questions
called 1. (a) Identify any three roles of the
(a) indoctrination media.
(b) hegemony (b) With specific examples, describe
(c) political manifestos the way in which the media
(d) eliticism influences socialisation.
3. The media often referred to as the (c) The positive roles of the media are
Fourth Estate because far outweighed by the negative.
(a) there are only 4 publishers in Evaluate and validate this
Zimbabwe assertion.
(b) it is powerful Debate/Further Research
(c) it increases hegemonic views
The Ministry of Primary and Secondary
(d) it shapes and influences the
Education should allow the use of cell
course of politics the world
phones in all schools in Zimbabwe. One
over.
group is for and the other is against.
4. Which terrorist group uses Radio
Andalus to communicate to Unit Summary
people?
Communities shape human behaviour
(a) Boko Haram through community gatherings where
(b) Al-Shabaab people later identify themselves.
(c) Al Qaeda Religion is a powerful tool meant to
(d) thieves. socialise people in various ways. It also
instills respect, obedience order and it
5. Reading information on the creates hope for the future. There are
cell phone suggests that one is basically four religions in Zimbabwe
consuming that is, African Tradition Religion
(a) soft copy information (ATR), Islam Rastafarianism and
30
Christianity. Media exists in two forms,
print and electronic. It is regarded as one
of the most powerful tool that is used to
change peoples’ views on certain items
due to intense propaganda. However,
due to enhanced ICTs, media has also
been used to injure the personality of
others, spread hate language, spreading
foreign culture and it has exposed young
people to cheap pornographic material.
On the other hand, the use of the media
has widened the scope of democracy,
assisted in the quick dissemination of
information and connecting people in a
global village.
31
 2 Identity: Family, local and
national identity
Unit Objectives
By the end of this Unit, you should be
able to;
• Describe the role of the family
and surrounding community in
shaping one’s identity.
• List the indigenous community
gatherings and events.
• Describe the importance of
indigenous gatherings and events
• Identify different ceremonies and
rituals.
Introduction
In this unit, you will learn to describe
the role of the family and surrounding
community in shaping one’s identity.
The unit will also take you through
indigenous community gatherings and
events and describe their importance.
The unit looks at different rituals and
ceremonies practised by Zimbabweans
32
and explain their significance in family,
local and national identity.
Warm Up Exercise
1. What is your understanding of the
word ceremony?
2. What do you think will happen if
wedding ceremonies are banned in
your community?
3. Why do you think ceremonies and
rituals are conducted in society?
Topic 1
Family and the surrounding
community
Key Words
Socialisation: this is a process through
which social values are
passed from one
generation to the other.
Ceremonies: are formalities which
add value to events which
take place in communities
where people live.
Rituals: these have similar
meanings with
ceremonies. However,
rituals are more specific
to a particular event.
Communities: these are public areas
such as residential or
communal places.
Surrounding communities:
neighbourhood.
Family as a form of identity
Father, mother and children
Family is taken as the first point of
socialisation that has long lasting
impact on one’s identity. It is referred
to as the cradle of social qualities
because principles such as tolerance,
love, compassion, sacrifice, humility
and togetherness are taught there.
It is a fact that everyone belongs to
a certain family and it is this family
institution that has a bearing on one’s
identity. James Fearon (1999) pointed
that identity is used to refer to personal
characteristics or attributes that cannot
naturally be expressed in terms of
social category. Francis Deng (1995)
defines identity as the ways and groups
define themselves. Groups are rather
defined by others on the basis of race,
ethnicity, religion, language and culture.
Therefore, there is a basic relationship
between an individual and the family.
This is because as people grow up, they
usually show characters similar to their
families.
The type of family one grows up in has
a decisive bearing on the behaviour
and attitude of an individual. For
example, if the family is a united one,
and parents allow free communication
with them, the children are likely to be
confident in the manner they discuss
issues. On the other hand, a disjointed
family is likely to teach a sense of
individualism, unnecessary competition
and uncontrolled grudges within and
among its children.
A family also shapes one’s identity
in that individuals inherit family
activities which include traditions and
ceremonies. These activities will be
33
practised by individuals even if they
become mature and later decide to move
out of the family environment.
There are basically several types of
families, but we are going to discuss
the following types; religious families,
traditional families, business families
and political families.
(i) Religious families - Zimbabwe is
regarded as a country with an open
religious policy where everyone
has a right to choose a religion,
except for Satanism. Given this
background, some families teach
religious principles as examples to
their children such that when they
grow up, they will be following their
religious practises. One’s identity
may be shaped based on certain
church’s ideology for example, the
Seventh Day Adventist believe in
observing the Sabbath day every
Saturday, Jehovah’s Witness place
much value on preaching door
to door, Islam believers observe
enthusiastically their Friday
prayers and the Ramadan days and
Catholics allow their members
to even drink beer, smoke and
blend tradition as well. Thus,
life preferences and patterns on
behaviour is mainly controlled by
the teachings from these churches.
34
(ii) Traditional Families- Traditional
families are those that respect and
observe African traditional beliefs
that have a strong connection
to ancestors. These families are
common in Zimbabwe particularly
in all the ten provinces. These
families consult and connect with
the dead through biras (that is
returning the spirit in the family)
consulting ancestors about future
endeavours and kurova guva (to
reconnect with the dead). These
practises identify strongly with
family members who perform
them during their lifetime. The
family of Mbuya Nehanda is
likely to be traditional as they may
want to carry the inheritance of
this heroine from one generation
to the other.
This is so because they witnessed the
role played by spirit mediums
during the war of liberation
in Zimbabwe. The importance
of spirit mediums was also
mentioned by King Leopold II,
who negatively stated that; ‘If you
want to colonise Africa, colonise
their religion first’. That statement
was made in reference to a series
 of observations made on the role
of spirit mediums in Africa’s social
and economic life.
Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi
(iii) Political Families- These families
in most cases are aware of
political tendencies and are alive
to developments in the country.
They discuss with their children
political issues to the extent that
they make political choices be they
in the ruling or opposition party.
Children who discuss politics with
their parents are likely to follow
political views of their parents.
In an interview published by The
Sunday Mail on 14 August 2016
entitled, The making of a general
between Zimbabwe Defence
Forces Commander, General
Constantino Guveya Dominic
Nyikadzino Chiwenga and the
Sunday Mail Editor, Mabasa Sasa,
the General joined the liberation
struggle because of his grandfather,
Matangira, who in the 1930s
addressed an all-white meeting at
General Constantine Chiwenga
35
 Market Square, reminding them
that they never created Zimbabwe.
This charisma and boldness can
be a set of behaviours within the
family that resulted in the making
of General Chiwenga. There are
many families that you can think
of that have encouraged their
children in thinking in a certain
political way
(iv) Business/Career Families- some
families influence their children
to follow certain political paths or
choices. In some family sections,
they even influence their children
to carry on with family businesses
by teaching them business ethics
and principles during their
childhood. Most white and Indian
owned businesses across the world
follow this method. For instance,
an Indian
c o m p a n y,
Reliance
Industries,
is run by
Ambani
family. The
company
is worth a
fortune of
Simon Chopper Chimbetu and his son (Sulumani)
36
US $45billion. Mr Dhirubhai
Ambani founded the company
and he taught his children the way
this energy business is run to the
extent that his son Mukesh is the
Chairman and Chief Executive
Officer (CEO), while Nita, the
wife of Dhirubhai sits on the
board. If managed successfully, the
children are identified with that
business.
On the other hand, some families with no
business talent encourage their children
into becoming doctors, engineers,
pharmacists, musicians and comedians
among others. In Zimbabwe, there is
a success story of the Chimbetu family
in playing Dendera music, the Somanje
family as well, the Dembo brothers,
Peter Moyo, Selma Mtukudzi and the
Brown family where Amara Brown is
following her father’s music footsteps.
Andy Brown and his daughter (Amara Brown)

Tongai Moyo and his son (Peter Moyo)

37
The individuals identify themselves
with the type of music played by their
parents.
Some middle class families who are
prosperous in Small and Medium
Enterprises (SMEs) encourage their
children to seriously consider venturing
into businesses of any nature. The
children may also be attracted to venture
into SMEs business schemes, seeing the
benefits derived by their parents.
Psychosocial Identity Development
theory
Erik Erikson
The psychosocial identity theory was
developed by Erik Erikson in 1963,
addressing identity development of
individuals from early adolescence to
adulthood. He proposed eight stages
38
aimed at developing a healthy identity.
If this is not properly taught, the family
and surrounding may breed individuals
with offending behaviours who may
even go against the institution of family
and its established norms. Therefore,
the eight stages links history, culture,
traditions and ethical considerations
as part of principles that are found in a
family that links the process of identity
development.
Infant Level- (birth-18 months): It
is also called the Basic trust versus
Mistrust stage. The parents, through
the family institution, are responsible
in promotion of abilities and caring
for the child. This is the time when
the child develops trust, mutual
confidence and a sense of security as a
new entrant to life outside of mother’s
womb. If this is not well attended to, a
child may feel insecure and a general
mistrust of the world even if they
grow into adulthood.
14 Month old baby
Toddler/ Early Childhood Level
(18 months-3 years)
It is the stage also for independence
versus embarrassment. At this stage, the
child starts to learn new skills such as
walking, talking, crawling and running.
They also learn right and wrong as
parents normally punish them whenever
something wrong is done. If not well
managed, the child resists punishments
by becoming stubborn and tempers
can appear as well. If new skills are not
acquired well, they lose self-esteem and
confidence.
Pre Scholar Level (3-5 years)
Pre-school level (3-5 years)
Initiative versus Guilt – Here a child
begins to understand their surroundings,
know their relatives, play with toys
which can determine gender roles and
embark on a lot of experiments. They
usually mimic their parent’s behaviours.
For example, if the parents do a lot of
talking through their cell phones, the
child is likely to play with toy phones
more. If the parents love watching
political issues, their children are likely
to develop interests.
School Age Child (6-12 years):
Insert picture of a primary school pupil
Erikson also referred this level to
latency stage where children begin to
learn more skills, create and accomplish
new skills and knowledge. They build
relationships with neighbours and at
their schools. They begin to dream and
think about jobs found in the industry
and admire certain jobs particularly
those that are done by their family
members. If the child does not fully
experience this stage, he or she has
feelings of inadequacy and inferiority
complex developing within them.
Young Adult (18-35 years) Level
Zivai Musada, a 29 year old graduate
from the University of Zimbabwe
found love and married. She is a happy
mother and in this picture she holds
her daughter Shanice
When children grow up they graduate
into adulthood where they seek love
and friendship. They need closeness ad
39
 Mike Tyson (boxing celebrity) - Middle aged Adult

Late Adult (55-65 till death):

A young adult
relationships to the extent of starting
their own families where they will reflect
identities adopted from their families.
Those who are successful in this stage are
solid while some will become isolated
because of unwanted pregnancies, shaky
marriages and uncontrolled ambitions.

Middle Aged Adult (35-65 years)

This stage includes people trying to
John Maputseni Matseketsa who died
produce or create new things that make at the age of 97 years
a difference in societies. What they
create is generally a by-product of their This last level ensures that as people
families. grow older, they usually reflect their past
40
and count their fulfilments and loses. If
one has led a healthy life full of family
identities and their contributions to the
society, they feel happy to pass on their
culture, traditions and rituals to others.
They are satisfied having followed and
upheld their family traditions and their
satisfaction is derived from the fact that
they will be classified amongst the dead
in line with their family. Some will be
despaired as they look back and seeing
the things that their ancestors never
did but being practised in their families
weakening their true identity.
Surrounding community as a form
of identity
These are neighbourhoods or groups
of people that live near you. They
can range from homesteads, schools,
organisations, religious centres business
and service centres. They all exercise
certain influences on the ultimate
identity of individuals outside the
family. These surroundings shape
the character and thinking, let alone
identity of individuals. But unlike the
family where the parents, siblings and
the extended family have direct control
of the individual, the surrounding offers
a more independent environment where
the individual decides what to do and
how to act.
Society forms part of the surroundings
and it is divided into small communities
which share common lifestyles and
experiences. The sharing of these life
situations shapes the behaviour of
the people in these communities. For
instance, at a location close to a busy
shopping centre where sexual immorality
is widespread, the surrounding children
or people in that area get accustomed to
this practice and this may influence their
identity in the long run as they also take
up prostitution as a way to survival. For
example, when illegal diamond activity
was at its peak in Chiadzwa from 2005
to around 2009, several people of loose
morals crowded the place resulting in
both young and old men engaging in
sexual misdemeanours. For young girls,
it was an opportunity to get money.
This applies to mining towns including
Shurugwi, Zvishavane and Chipinge
among other areas. Therefore, the
surrounding community may negatively
shape the identity of people.
At times, members of the broader
community identify themselves with
the surrounding communities. In
its simplicity, the term surrounding
communities refer to organisations,
institutions, including infrastructure
and homestead. In his book, Facing
Mount Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta attached
41
a great importance to natural features
and the people who bordered with
them. These natural features shape the
identity of the people around it. The Lozi
people of Zambia are identified by the
surrounding rivers, hence their name,
‘people of the rivers’. In Manicaland
province, due to geographical makeup
of the province and the abundant rains,
the people from this province identify
themselves with mountains and rains.
Jomo Kenyatta
In as much as people identify themselves
with their immediate families, outside
communities such as neighbours play a
42
key role. People whose neighbours are
high achievers in life tend to identify
with such people and in some cases,
many have recorded successes as a
result to characteristic competition
and the need to achieve. From a social
psychology viewpoint, such practices
are known as copying or adaptation
processes.
This extends beyond our immediate
communities to include our neighbours.
The surrounding communities influence
identity in many different ways
including the following:
a) Members of the adjacent
communities protect each other.
In urban settings, this relationship
leads to formation of security clubs
and neighbourhood watch teams.
Such developments create a sense of
belonging and identity.
Case Study:
Another example is that of the Chikukwa
Community in Chimanimani which is
bound together by the need to provide
security of their livestock and food security.
A visit by the authors to Chikukwa village
in Chimanimani reveals a collective
herding programme called the ‘Holistic
Land and Livestock Management’ which
involves about 26 families herding cattle
to avoid environmental degradation and
preventing stock theft. Families also rotate
herding cattle in the Chisuko Mountains
and grazing area. During summer, the
herd is placed in movable kraals and
during winter, the communities use the
herd to fertilise their fields by confining
them in 25 x 25m kraals in the maize
field. They enclose the herd for about 3 to 4
days and the place is fertilised for the next
2 years. Apart from ensuing the immediate
security of their livestock, they are also
ensuring food security. The community is
supported by Towards Sustainable Use of
Resources Organisation (TSURO) which
undertakes training needs of the members,
buy drugs, tents, supplementary feeding
and exchange visits, among others.
b) In wealthy communities, people
do not make unnecessary noise.
Even those who have the character
tend to restrain themselves to
identify with their surrounding
communities.
c) They develop group rules based on
geographical space and they are
identified by such rules.
d) In Harare, the Celebration
Church emerged from such group
norm identity where residents of
Borrowdale and the surrounding
communities felt the need for
a church in their community.
This is one way that surrounding
communities become a form of
identity.
e)
In simple communities,
Durkheim made an observation
that community relations were
influenced by attaching value to
what others do. In that respect,
sociologists believe that skills were
passed on from one community
to the other as people sought to
identify with each other.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Activity/Practical
1. With one of your colleagues
being the moderator, you divide
yourselves into manageable groups
and discuss any example of a
successful/failing family business
in your community. Point out
the factors that are leading to its
success or failure.
2. Suppose your group is given
the opportunity to run a failed
business, explain how you can
strategise to revive it and increase
sales.
43
 Section B: Structured Questions Topic 2
1. (a) List any three types of families Indigenous community
found in Zimbabwe. gatherings and events
(b) Describe the Psychological Identity Warm Up Exercise
Development Theory. Write down songs that are sung during
community gatherings like Nhimbe and
(c) Evaluate the declaration that
Bira. The class can sing one of the songs.
surrounding the community is the
best form of socialisation.
Key Words/Terms
Practical research Indigenous community- local
Using the concept of business families, communities
identify areas where your school is Decolonisation agenda- an action of
not utilising any opportunities for a changing from colonial to
successful thriving and viable business. independent status.
Make a write up to the School head Division of labour- separation of tasks
asking for permission to run a class in any economic system
business. Traditional songs: songs and tunes
You need to include the following; which have been
• The type of business what you performed by custom
want to establish, over several generations.
• Where you want to place the Traditional authorities: a form of
business, leadership in which the
• The budget authority of an
• Expected profit margins and organisation is largely
• How you seek to assist the school held to tradition or
through that business? custom.
Reciprocity: a practice of exchanging
Remember that the government things with others.
through, Indigenisation and Economic
Empowerment laws support your Indigenous community gatherings
initiative. and events are those gatherings native
to Zimbabwe. They form part of
44
our tradition as a people and their
uniqueness identifies and separates
us on the international platform. The
indigenous events bring people together,
promote a sense of oneness and unity.
Some of the gatherings and events are
discussed below;
(a) Nhimbe/ilima
Nhimbe ceremony
This is a common practise in most parts
of the country where a certain family
may want help in weeding, cultivation,
winnowing, fencing, harvesting and
taking out cow dung from the kraal.
The family that wants assistance
communicates first with the traditional
authorities and after securing authority
send children or any representative to
notify neighbours about the work that
is to be done. They communicate the
day and time the event will start and
the time it is likely to end. On the day
in question, neighbours come and start
the job. They can sub-divide themselves
that is women and men or it can be
based on age. This division of labour
assists in easy of doing the work. Some
may sing traditional songs in order to
boost morale of participants. After the
job is done people are given food to eat,
sweet beer (mahewu) and beer in some
instances. No one is paid for coming,
but exchange is the norm. Nhimbe
brings people together and it creates
oneness and brings a sense of unity
within communities.
(b) Zunde ramambo/isiphala
senkosi- This form of gathering is called
for by the Chief where all people under
his/her chieftainship come together
and do some tasks that may include
cultivation, weeding and harvesting.
Excess food harvested from the Chief ’s
field is later distributed to the needy
who include widows, orphans and other
vulnerable people. In Honde Valley,
Chief Chikomba annually calls for the
event.
Kurova guva/magadziro/chenura/
Umbuyiso as a ritual
Facts
• They are done for those who died
living behind children.
• The event is not done for those
who died single.
45
• It is still practised in most
parts of the country (Midlands,
Matabeleland, Mashonaland and
Manicaland provinces).
• Ngavi? is slaughtered if the
deceased was a male and the
opposite is done if it was a
female.
• Done from August to end
October of each year
• Event done mostly for three days
from Friday.
• Traditional beer is brewed, which
is a special brew made over seven
days to be mature and ready to
drink.
Explaining Bira
• On Friday (first day) evening,
people will be playing drums in a
kitchen hut. Drums traditionally
arouse the spirits.
• On early Saturday morning
before sun set (2nd day), family
members, those in post menstrual
period go to the grave site and
pleaded with the spirit as they
pour beer. They then come home
playing and dancing.
• At home, relatives line up and
46
a goat, which will by then be
possessed by the spirit (mbudzi
yeshungu) is brought and these
relatives take turns to pour water
from a cup.
• Everyone has a chance of pouring
water regardless of the number
but, the goat that will shake off
the beer is said to be the one the
spirit wants to inherit.
• The one loved by the spirit
will then be instructed to sit
parukukwe (reed mat) in an
acceptance ceremony. The spirit
possesses this person.
• The goat is slaughtered and is not
seasoned by salt.
• Outsiders are given their part of
the meat in a pot and eat outside
the yard.
• On Sunday (3rd day) people then
disperse
(c) Mukwerera/ukucela izulu
This gathering is meant to plead for
rain, where traditional beer is brought
in clay pots by mostly pre-puberty
and post menopause women to a rain
making shrine to represent purity. In
Zimbabwe, places like Njelele and
Mabiya in Aberfoyle, Honde Valley
are some few examples of such shrines Thus, the spirit mediums attribute the
which are controlled by mhondoro irregular rainfall pattern to neglect of
dzemvura. As the traditional beer is these practises.
brought at the shrine, it is then left some Insert Njelele Mountain and Nyangani
few metres away with the messengers
or priest while the spokesperson kneels (d) Funerals
down and claps hands praising God and
asking for the rains so that people can In African culture, when their loved
survive. ones die, people in the surrounding
communities and others assemble to
After clapping session, God’s voice comfort the grieving family. It is during
according to believers would be heard this time that people come together to
advising messengers of the requirements pay their condolences and to give hope
and procedures to follow in order for to the surviving members.
the rain to come. At places like Njelele,
God’s voice used to be heard until 1914. Funerals can be family based- meaning
Interviews conducted by researchers that when a family member is dead
at Mabiya, Aberfoyle, suggest that the only few people come to recognise
menopausal women and men will strip that individual. Sometimes funerals
naked while they perform these rituals. can be community based, meaning
There was no word
that was heard at
this shrine but as a
sign of acceptance
of the ritual, they
would climb down
the Nyangani
Mountains with
rains falling. These
practises are no
longer being done
as this tradition
has been eroded
by the coming
of Christianity. People at a feneral

47
that the deceased would a community
figure whose works may have impacted
positively on a community for example
when a Chief, a celebrity and Headmen
or a businessmen of the local community
dies.At times,a funeral can be a provincial
one. This will be mostly political and in
our country, one is declared a provincial
hero given his/ her contribution to the
liberation struggle for the country to
attain independence. Here, the funeral
arrangements are taken over by the
State. From provincial funerals, there
is a national funeral where someone is The late First Lady
declared a national hero by the political Cde Sally Mugabe

leadership. This type of funeral draws

mourners from all walks of life to give a
huge send off to the national hero/
heroine. In our country, His Excellency
and Commander in Chief and President
or his representative addresses such
gatherings.

Cde Victoria Chitepo Former Army Commander

General Solomon Mujuru

48
 people in the country. Security services
will be present, including the members
of the diplomatic corps who will be
showing solidarity with our nation.
Lastly, funerals can be classified as
beyond a single nation to an international
gathering. The death of Joshua Nkomo
was more of an international one with
invitations to various Heads of State
and liberation movements in Africa.

Cde Vivian Mwashita

It will be time to give hope to the nation
and preach unity among the various

Nelson Mandela (Former South African President)

Although close relatives play a critical

role, it can be said that this funeral is
beyond them. The death of Nelson
Mandela saw a number of Heads of
State attending the funeral in solidarity
to the enormous contribution played by
Mandela in the decolonisation agenda
Late Vice President
in Africa and beyond. The same can be
Joshua Nkomo said about the death of Princess Diana,

49
Pope John Paul, among others. These
funerals are symbolic in nature and
they also reflect a level of togetherness
among countries.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Practical 1
The Culture and Heritage Club can
lead the following process. Develop a
calendar of all the gatherings/events in
your community and take turns to attend
them with your school representative.
Those who attend should come and
share with the class their experiences,
its importance and how this can be
passed on to future generations. Explain
financial avenues that can be derived
from such practises.
Practical 2
In groups, chose any one community
gathering you have learnt so far that is
practised in your community. If there is
no such gathering in your community,
research and make presentations on
how others do it. You then sing songs
and role play rituals as done in the
community you would have researched
on.
50
Problem Solving
Most of community gatherings/events
are slowly disappearing and being
abandoned. Come up with a proposal to
the Ministry of Culture and Heritage
Preservation on ways the country can
adopt in order to revive community
gatherings and events.
Typical Exam Questions
1. (a) List any four indigenous
community gatherings practised
in Zimbabwe.
(b) Describe the importance of, (i)
Mukwerera (i) Bira gatherings.
(c) Discuss the view that Christianity
has negatively affected indigenous
community gatherings.
2. (a) Explain any the importance of
Nhimbe gatherings.
(b) Describe the procedures taken to
conduct a Nhimbe gathering.
(c) Analyse the importance of
funeral gatherings in Zimbabwe.
Further Research
Describe the process that takes place
when someone is declared a national
liberation hero/heroine up to the
time he/she is buried. Explain the
significance of a military parade, the
parade at Stoddard Hall in Mbare and
the proceedings at the National Heroes
Acre.
Educational Tour
Through the Culture and Heritage Club
and the help of your teacher, conduct a
tour of the District/Provincial/National
heroes’ acre, depending on where you
are. Take down notes of the important
information that the tour guide tells
you.
Topic 3
Ceremonies and Rituals
Warm Up Exercise
During Independence Day celebrations,
the President lights Independence fire.
What is the significance of such an
event?
Key Words
Ceremony- a formal or public occasion
such as a marriage ceremony.
Cleansing process- to free from dirt or
evil.
Multi-cultural society- a society that
have in its makeup three or more people
from different cultures.
National ideology- a system of ideas
and principles that is accepted by its
followers.
Rituals- a ceremony or action,
performed in a customary way
Siblings- one or two or more individuals
having one common parent
Psychologist- someone who studies the
human mind and human emotions and
behaviour.
Witch- a woman thought to have
magical powers especially evil one.
Conceptualising ceremonies and rituals
All of us may have seen or attended
ceremonies at some point in our
lives. It could have been a birth day
party, a wedding, a funeral, traditional
ceremony or celebrations of some
kind. Ceremonies can be conducted
at the family or at any other level. At
the national level, celebrations such
as Independence commemorations,
the National Tree Planting Day,
Defence Forces and Heroes’ Days are
characteristic examples. The significance
and importance of these events vary
from one religion, culture and belief to
the other. What is critical is that these
events are associated and headed by
appropriate rituals.
Every ceremony has its rituals, simple
or complex. Rituals are customs
51

President Mugabe lighting the flame
at independence day
which are observed when ceremonial
events take place. For instance, burial
ceremonies are headed by rituals such
as prayers with episodes of music, dance
and ululations in both the Christianity
and the traditional perspectives. The
music and dance are rituals believed
to connect the spirit of the dead and
the living. Professor Michael Bodilone
describes the Shona peoples regarding
burial rituals as;
a) Returning the dead person to his
or her ancestors
b) Completing the process of life
experienced by the departed
c) Exposing those responsible for
52
the death of a person. This is so
because from an anthropological
view, no person dies without a
cause
d) They are a show of respect to
deceased persons
While burials are common in
Zimbabwe, a decent burial is one that
observes the dignity of the deceased.
This is seen through the respect given
to old people’s burials in comparison
to their siblings. In some cultures, the
body of an adult is first taken to his or
her rural home before it is interred in
an urban setting, to communicate with
the ancestors that their child would be
buried outside their home. Such respect
is not accorded to young people who
upon death are not allowed to sleep over
for a night. Accordingly, such processes
are relevant and an appropriate rite
which completes the deceased’s live. As
the coffin is taken at the grave site, a
church session and prayer is conducted
by the church representative followed
by speeches from close relatives who
take turns to talk about the deceases.
After this session and prayer and
covering the grave with soil, in some
cultures, those women who are still
following menstrual cycle have to live
the graveyard. This is done as a sign of
respect of the dead. By the time the grave
is fully covered only men will remain at the
sight completing some finishing touches.
The next day, close relatives go to inspect
the grave yard to see whether “witches”
have disturbed peaceful sleep of the
departed relative. Some throw stones on
the grave as a way of giving a final send
off.
A procesion led by priests (funeral)
Although rituals vary in their nature
and occasions, their importance should
never be down played. Among the
Tonga people of Kariba, a woman who
loses her husband through death is
within thirty days expected to undergo
a cleansing ceremony to be headed by
traditional music and dance and the
cutting of her hair.
The custom of cutting the widow’s hair
symbolises;
a) A total disconnection of the
women from her late husband.
b) The beginning of her new social
life
c) Respected life the two
experienced together
d) That her separation was not by
their choice
e) That she was not responsible for
the death of her husband and
that
f ) She is free to choose to remarry
or to remain single
In that respect, if a widow has sexual
intercourse with another man before
the cleansing ceremony and rituals,
both the man and the woman are
considered unclean and possessed by the
late husband’s spirit and will undergo
another cleansing process, accompanied
by fines, depending on the harshness
of the crime. In unattractive situations,
deaths can be experienced within the
families of the offenders. While the
practice is hard on women, men also
go through similar, but moderate ritual
processes. For a man whose wife is
deceased, he is expected to cook for
himself until he is cleansed by relatives
of his late wife.
53
Kurova guva/magadziro/chenura
as a ritual
Facts
• They are done to those who died
living behind children.
• The event is not done for those
who died single.
• It is still practised in most
parts of the country (Midlands,
Matabeleland, Mashonaland
provinces).
• Ngavi? Is slaughtered if the
deceased was a male and the
opposite is done if it was a female.
• Done from August to end October.
• Event done mostly for 3 days from
Friday.
• Traditional beer is brewed. (7 days
beer).
• On Friday (first day) evening,
people will be playing drums in a
kitchen hut. Drums traditionally
evoke the spirit.
• On early Saturday morning before
sun set (2nd day), family members
those on post menstrual period go
to the grave site and pleaded with
the spirit as they pour beer. They
54
then come home playing and
dancing.
• At home, relatives line up and a
goat which will then be possessed
by the spirit (mbudzi yeshungu)
is brought and these relatives take
turns to pour water from a cup.
• Everyone has a chance of pouring
water regardless of the number
but the goat will inovhizura to the
one the spirit wants to inherit.
• The one loved by the spirit will then
be instructed to sit parukukwe in
an acceptance ceremony. The spirit
solidifies on that person.
• The goat is slaughtered and is not
seasoned by salt.
• Outsiders are given their part of
the meat in a pot and eat outside
the yard.
• On Sunday (3rd day) people then
disperse.
Christianity as a threat to
traditionalism
The Kurova guva/ Magadziro/
Ukubayisa event is under threat from
Christianity which is slowing replacing
this important traditional event. Pastors,
Bishops and elders, among others, have
persuaded indigenous people to distance
themselves from conducting death
rites in a true traditional sense. They
attack this practise as ancient, naughty,
ungodly and unclean in front of God.
Instead, they have replaced kurova guva
with the nyaradzo/ unveiling tombstone
death rite.
Nyaradzo as a modern ritual
• The event is a result of the
institution of the church which
sought to insult traditional birth
rites which our ancestors used to
practise.
• Nyaradzo is meant to console the
bereaved family, explaining death
and its reality.
• Nyaradzo is usually held after a
month or two and above given
availability of resources the
bereaved family has.
• In some instances, the church
may order time frame like after 2
months, 3 months and so forth.
• The bereaved family then notifies
relatives and friends of the date,
time and venue. From now and
then, the family will be mobilising
for resources to host the event.
• On the day in question, the event
follows a church service led by
Pastors, Elders, and Bishops
and so on whose address will be
mainly taken from Bible verses
relating to death, faith, hope and
resurrection.
• After the sermon and singing,
people are served with food and
sweet beer. But to such churches
which allow other types of liquor,
they are allowed to ‘involuntarily
intoxicate themselves.’
• People are allowed to disperse.
• Soon after the nyaradzo event,
close family members will then
assemble and distribute the estate.
Thereafter, if the surviving spouse feels
that he/she wants to get married, the
Bible allows them to do so.
The significance of ceremonies
Ceremonies are a get together platform
reflecting memorable events and
activities of people’s lives. As a nation,
we identify ourselves through a number
of activities including participating in
ceremonies, especially those of national
significance. Ceremonies make up our
national ideology and unity. Marriage
ceremonies signify love and acceptance
55
among couples and their respective
families.
In that regard, ceremonies enhance
dignity and encourage positive
competition among members of society.
Since ceremonies are conducted for
different reasons and causes. They play
a socialisation role which is passed on
to generations. As observed by Albert
Bandura, an American psychologist,
children learn through observing what
their elders do, how and why they do
that.
They also play an interactive role,
whereby the young generations learn
how certain practices are conducted. In
addition to their informal teachings, they
also entertain. Above that, ceremonies
act as sources of cultural preservation
which they promote through exercising
the spirit of Ubuntu/Unhu among the
different groups in society. Through
ceremonies, we learn to be responsible
with our lives, resources and property.
Ceremonies build and cement relations
among individuals in communities.
Ceremonies have been used for talent
sporting. They also create a sense of
solidarity and unity of purpose in
society. They are therefore a source
of continuity of norms and values in
society which they attempt to maintain
through interaction and participation.
56
Role players at ceremonies
We have heard or seen a couple of people
conducting ceremonies. A person who
directs a ceremony is called a master
of ceremonies. A master of ceremonies
is usually a cheerful, entertaining and
sociable person. In some countries,
being a master of ceremonies is a well-
paying profession. However, not all
ceremonies require paid officials as
some do so through family relations.
Through ceremonies and gatherings,
talents are revealed, therefore the link
between ceremonies and role playing.
Role playing assists in uniting family
members.
This is more so at weddings and funerals
where emotions are always high and
burning. In Zimbabwean culture, a
family friend, (sahwira/umgani) is the
only person who is allowed to make
challenging jokes about the deceased
without causing anger. However, the
sahwira/umgani must be a socially
calculative individual who knows what
to say, when and how so as to avoid
creating divisions among the bereaved.
We must all understand this so that
when we see and hear such people make
comments at our beloved ones’ funerals,
we do not attack them.
Importance of rituals
Rituals are an essential component in
cultural and religious activities. Rituals
formalise ceremonies by adding value
to traditional events. For instance, the
National Tree Planting Day ceremony
is incomplete without the planting of
trees. President Mugabe has planted
a tree on this day since the start of
the programme. In that respect, it is
ceremonial to plant a tree as a sign of
honour of that particular day.
During burials, relatives and friends of
the deceased take turns to cast the soil
into the grave, a custom symbolising
return of the deceased’s body to the dust
from which we are believed to have been
created. Rituals also satisfy our beliefs.
Rituals are done to authorise ceremonies.
In many cultures, rituals act as means
of transportation which deliver the
leaving’s requests to the spirit world for
further transmission to God, the creator.
Rituals are conducted by a select few.
For that reason, they are a disciplinarian
process only given to the most deserving
to undertake the exercises.
Rituals range from simple to complex.
Complex rituals or rites demand
honesty, purity, attentiveness and a rich
official knowledge on the problem to be
addressed. Rituals of rain making nature
are done by elderly people, in most cases
spirit mediums. If such people proceed
to undertake rituals after engaging in
sex, the event is bound to fail and will not
achieve its objectives. If that happens,
culprits will be requested to pay beasts
as payment to the angry spirits.
Rituals are not peculiar to traditional
cultures in Africa, but also apply in
modern day cultures and religions.
The process of baptism is one such rite
conducted before a member is fully
integrated into a religious sect such as
the Apostolic faith.
NB: Other rituals like Kurova Guva
and Mukwerera were covered already in
Unit 2 Topic 2. Our emphasis.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Activity/Practical
Visit a Spirit Medium in your
community who takes part in
rain making ceremonies. Book an
appointment and interview him / her
about how the process is conducted.
The Heritage and Culture Club should
spearhead the idea of creating a School
Museum.
Section B: Structured Questions
1. (a) List any five symbols of
cutting a widow’s hair.
57
 (c) Explain any three significance of
rituals.
2. (a) List any three rituals practised
in Zimbabwe.
(b) Describe the Kurova guva/
ukbuyisa process in the Shona
and Ndebele cultures.
(c) To what extend has Christianity
affected rituals in Zimbabwe?
3. Role play any of the ceremonies and
rituals you learnt about in this unit as a
class.
Unit Summary
The family shapes individuals by
58
teaching positive and negative
behaviour. There are basically four
types of families; traditional families,
religious families, political families and
business families. There are a number
of indigenous community gatherings
and events that are observed in the
Zimbabwean culture. These are meant
to keep the communities together.
These include nhimbe, zunde ramambo,
bira, Mukwerera and funerals. There
are ceremonies and rituals conducted
by Zimbabweans. Among the most
common ceremonies observed and still
are kurova guva and nyaradzo. However,
some individuals have abandoned
indigenous practices, favouring
nyaradzo as a death ritual.
 3 Cultural Heritage: Norms
and Values

Unit Objectives • Describe the importance of dance

By the end of this Unit, you should be and drama.
able to;
• Explain the norms and values at the Introduction
work place.
This Unit will help you to appreciate
• Define the concept of threat
norms and values at work places to
• Identify the threats to norms and
produce a conscious being who will
values in the community.
live according to set standards. You
• Define the concept of birth rites and
will further be exposed to the threats
death rite.
to norms and values in the community
• Explain the significance of birth and
given that the world is increasingly fast
death rites.
becoming a global village where ICTs,
• Describe the inheritance and
urbanisation and peer pressure are
heirship practices in contemporary
taking the centre stage. This Unit will
families.
discuss birth and death rites and their
• Define the concept of courtship
significance in our culture and heritage.
• Distinguish between indigenous
You will learn about inheritance and
and contemporary courtship
heirship in a modern setting. As those
• Describe the indigenous procedures
we love or hate die, they leave behind
to marriage.
estates which should be inherited
• State the values of marriages in
and managed. If not well managed,
indigenous perspective.
it can result in conflicts among the
• Define the concepts of dance and
beneficiaries. You will also learn
drama.

59
and discuss indigenous and modern one woman.
courtship and procedures practiced Child marriage: marriage before the
in various communities. You are then age of 18 years.
made aware of the value of marriage Predictability: the state of knowing
as treasured by our forefathers. Lastly, when something will
you are taken through dance and drama happen
as forms of entertainment, leisure and Accountability: accepting
employment creation in a Zimbabwean responsibility.
setting. Norms: informal standards of
behaviour
Topic 1 Values: statements and standards
which address what is
Norms and Values at Work important in order to
Warm up Exercise achieve objectives /
In groups, narrate how birth and death accomplish a certain
rites are conducted in your community. mission

Key Words Norms exist in various forms. They

may exist in unwritten form. Norms
Birth rite: a traditional rite
are sometimes referred to as informal
performed to welcome
standards of behaviour which originate
a child to the family,
as a result of communication. They
community and world.
basically act as a guide to how people
Death rite: a ceremony held in
around a community interact, how
connection with burial or
decisions are made, how conclusions are
cremation of a dead
arrived at, how issues are communicated,
person.
how business is done and at time extend
Estate: a person’s property
to dress codes at social gatherings as
often used to refer to the
well as at the work place. Norms shape
network of a deceased
individuals’ correct behaviour and the
person.
right mental ability that will collectively
Ancestor: a person related to you
assist a team to do work and discourage
who lived a long time ago.
rascal behaviour that disturbs a team’s
Marriage: a union of one man and
60
efficiency, effectiveness and usefulness. • Team work
Values on the other hand are statements • Responsiveness
and standards which address what is • Predictability
important in order to achieve the main • Fairness
objectives or to accomplish a certain
mission. Therefore, values are not
actionable. Let’s look briefly at examples
of values in some of the companies in
Zimbabwe;

Delta Corporation (insert logo)

Delta logo

Core Values
Potrza logo
• Clear Accountability
• People as enduring advantage Zimbabwe Electricity Supply
• Team Work Authority (ZESA) Holdings
• Respect and understanding Private Ltd
customers and consumers needs • Team work
• Indivisible reputation • Innovation
• Growth oriented • Conducive environment
• Research and development • Social responsibility
• Productivity
Postal and Telecommunications • Customer delight
Regulatory Authority of Zimbabwe • Professionalism
(POTRAZ)
NB: Thus, norms and values at work are
• Integrity
those agreed set of standards, patterns,
• Transparency
61

ZESA logo
behaviours that come as a result of
working together as a team. At work
places, teams build patterns of what they
should do, not do, must then do and not
do as this then moves into norms which
people then follow to for the good of
the organisation. Once adopted, they
become examples of the organisation’s
success or failures. Think of personnel
that steal from their work place! Such
values should not be set by open-minded
individuals as companies are our source
of life. However, effective teams at work
places enjoy shared approaches to work
and generally agree on how these things
are done and how problems are solved
62
to maintain an effective and healthy
working environment. It is important to
note that norms and values as they may
be generated work as defences to the
main objective or the mission statement
in organisations.
The following are some of the norms
and values found at work places
(i) Responsibility
This has to do with a list of
duties as directed by the employer.
This involves working towards
accomplishing the requirements of
the duties from your contract which
include, working days, holidays, leave
days, break time, lunch, reporting for
work etc. If one is not responsible,
then the organisation can lose revenue
through wastages. Sociologists relate
lack of responsibility to social crimes. It
is a crime to be irresponsible. Many lives
are lost partly due to some irresponsible
workers. Drivers are always reminded
to be responsible on roads to avoid
unnecessary loss of lives due road traffic
accidents.
(ii) Accountability
This refers to the ability of the
employee to accomplish assigned tasks
in a manner that fits the job description
and to relate their presence. It also refers
to how individuals respond to their core
values at work place. It also involves
being able to tell what you are doing
or even balancing off finances if your
job requires such. A highly accountable
workforce promotes corporate integrity.
In work places, everyone should be
accountable for their actions, decisions
made and the implementation of
decisions that benefit the organisation.
Lack of accountability results in collapse
of firms.
(iii) Respect
The Marriam Webster Dictionary
defines respect as, an understanding
that someone/something is important,
should be taken serious and should
be treated in an appropriate way.
This involves respecting order at your
organisation. Some people think that
order is only found in the military and
is not so important in other work places.
This is a misunderstanding because
organisations have specific orders which
need to be respected. Thus, when one
is doing the work, it should be taken
seriously.
Respect also extends to keeping
close to the chest the operations and
secrets of the organisation. If people
just reveal information about their
organisation, they will surrender
to competition and later affect the
performance of the organisation.
(iv) Integrity
This is the state of one being
honest and continuously bound by
moral principles. If conditions are
changed, the principles are not changed.
For example if a client forgets his/
her change, a person of integrity will
never take this but will proceed to
alert superiors or keep such chnge for
the client. If it is in the government, a
person of integrity will never demand
bribes on investors, the marginalised or
those in need of the government service.
Therefore, integrity involves the highest
degree of trustworthiness and noble
mindedness in everything one does for
his/her organisation.
Thus, a person of integrity is fair
minded, bound by moral and ethical
standards which include snubbing
corruption, stealing, demanding bribes,
sexual exploitation to access services,
among others.
(v) Transparency
At work places or stations, team
mates need to be honest and accept
inspection. If one withstands inspection,
63
businesses will flourish.
• Avoid hidden agendas or secret/
covert dealings.
• Give full information that is required
as and when it is needed.
NB: As you shall be assigned with
responsibilities in the government,
Small and Medium Enterprises
(SMEs), even in the private sector
and some will own businesses through
indigenisation programmes, you just
need to be transparent, failure of which
your business or work will never succeed.
(vi) Commitment
Refers to being dedicated to a
cause, activity, job etc.
It means given your best effort
and devote your time, energy to
accomplish something you believe in.
Committed businesses always
become successful and a committed
employee is also loyal to the beliefs and
values of the organisation.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Educational Tour
Choose any two companies in your
community and explain their norms
64
and values. Assess their impact on
organisational performance. If possible,
visit these companies and experience
how they implement these values and
norms.
What weaknesses have you noted at
these companies? What values can
you add to increase viability at these
companies?
Section B: Structured Questions
1. (a) List and explain any five norms
and values found at work places.
(b) Using one company of your choice,
describe its values.
(c) Lack of proper norms and values
affects a company’s output.
Discuss
Topic 2
Threats to norms and values in
the community
Warm Up Exercise
Think of threats to norms and values
and list the threats. In what ways can
threats affect norms and values?
Key Words
Threat: an expression of intention
 to inflict pain, harm or are facing challenges in observing
punishment. norms and values due to foreign
Chisi: an important day observed influence, the advent of ICTs,
in the rural communities peer pressure and urbanisation.
where people do not till Schiller (1973) noted the threat
the land or do any work of the mass media to cultural
on a given day. imperialism as forthcoming. Such
Ghettoism: the act of growing up in threats are expected and are also
the ghetto. real. In some instances, instead
Hegemonic powers: a group or regime of passing on norms and values
which exerts undue from one generation to the other,
influence within a society. they suddenly disappear, are
Information Communication neglected and discarded. Some
Technology (ICTs) - all equipment, of the norms and values that are
applications and services under threat include dressing,
that involves sexuality, death rites, birth rites,
communications. chisi and marriage, among others.
Mass Media: any of the means In other words, these threats are
of communication threatening ubuntu/unhu, which
through radio, television, are the supports of our culture.
internet, newspapers etc
Corrosive effect- eating away. (ii) Threats to norms and values
(a) Foreign Influence
Indigenous Knowledge Systems
(IKS): knowledge systems This refers to external or outside
developed by a our borders’ influences. Due to
community. international migration, people
are travelling from one country
(i) The concept of threat: to another. As they do so, some
people from other countries come
Refers to the disturbances and to Zimbabwe as investors, workers
interferences,usually predictable to and even as refugees. Some norms
the observance of norms and values and values peculiar to Zimbabwe
in the community. Communities are then weakened. For example at

65
 Tongogara Refugee Camp, some
refugees end up not valuing the
institution of marriage as women are
susceptible to rape as they migrate
from DRC, Rwanda, Burundi,
Somalia and Eritrea. Thus this
worsens level of immorality. If this is
adopted by adjacent communities, it
will have a destructive effect on our
norms and values.
Princess Diana at Tongogara refugee camp
here in Zimbabwe
(b) ICTs
Zimbabwe embraced
technological advancement as
advocated by the International
Telecommunications Union
(ITU), a world body that regulates
telecommunications across the
world. This involved the use of
the latest technology for the
betterment of the lives of the
people. Communication has been
66
made easier by the arrival of cell
phones, satellite communication,
internet, Facebook, Instagram,
Twitter, Hang outs and
WhatsApp, among others.
ICTs support and encourage the
spread and publicising of the
norms and values. The world is
connected instantly and people
share their experiences and values
with other people. Therefore, the
development of ICTs should be
viewed on the idea of promoting
human rights that are connected to
norms and values, diverse cultures
and even IKS. However, ICTs
have been used as a ‘double edged
sword’ whereby they now promote
norms and values, but at the same
time they are being manipulated
by hegemonic powers to stifle and
destroy those norms and values,
especially of the developing world.
These ICTs have also increased
access to issues of sexuality like
pornography to anyone regardless
of age. Thus, naughty young
people are now accustomed to
viewing such immoral things. This
has exposed them to early sexual
experiences leading to unwanted
pregnancies and diseases. Unlike
 traditional norms where sexual
intimacy was a privilege of married
people, the arrival of ICTs has
disturbed the moral fabric that
bind young e as well as elder
people.
(c) Peer pressure
More than ever before, peer
pressure has often threatened
norms and values that bind both
young and older people. For
instance, when a group of people
from different backgrounds meet,
weaker characters are persuaded
to abandon norms and values they
grew with. Some are made to view
values such as respect for marriage
or marriage before indulging in
sex as no longer important. If such
pressure is so intense, some will
end up accepting such characters.
In some cases peer pressure has
led to the abandonment of burial
values such as the need to be
buried alongside one’s ancestors.
Some people are persuaded to
view transporting the body of a
deceased to rural home as senseless
and no longer hold value in the
contemporary times. Some people
end up being buried in towns
and cities instead of their rural
homes because of this shunning
of traditional practices of burial.
In some cases, peer pressure has led
to teenagers embracing dressing
code and the truant behaviour
characterised by the ‘ghetto’ that
has seen some youths wearing
dreadlocks, smoking marijuana
and partying at pools. In the early
2000s, wearing trousers for women
was seen as immoral as the norms
regarded decency and dignity
of a female being. However, the
occurrence has increased in towns
and cities and has become rife
even in rural areas.
(d) Urbanisation
The movement of people into
urban areas has severely eroded
norms and values that bind
communities. People from
different communities, countries
let alone backgrounds stay together
in towns. There are no chiefs,
headman or even kraal heads who
are custodians of the enforcement
of norms and values. This has
resulted in the abandonment
of chisi, a day accorded to rural
communities to rest. In towns,
every day is a working day.
67

Rural home
A home in an urban area
Urbanisation has also eroded norms
and values that include respect for the
elderly. For example in supermarkets,
bus termini or even in queues, youths no
longer give first preference to elders, but
often rush to be the first to be served.
To date, if one goes to any any rural
area, youths greet their elders and give
them respect, but in urban areas there
is nothing like that, it is a one man for
himself scenario.
68
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Section A: Multiple Choice
Questions
1. The following norms and values
are under threat except for
(a) Birth rites (b) Marriage
(c) Death rites (d) Human rights
2. Foreign influence refers to;
(a) External or outside our
boarders influences
(b) International migration
(c) People travelling from one
country to another
(d) People who come to
Zimbabwe as workers
3. Peer pressure has led young
people especially teenagers to do
the following except;
 (a) Smoke marijuana Topic 3
(b) Wear dread locks
Birth and death rites
(c) Go to church
ceremonies
(d) Pool partying.
Warm Up Exercise
1. Have you ever attended any birth or
Section B: Structured Questions
death ceremonies?
1. (a) Explain the concept of threat 2. Quickly narrate what transpired to
to norms and values. the class.
(b) Describe any two threats to norms
and values. Key Words

(c) How has urbanisation affected Ancestors: a person related to you

norms and values in Zimbabwe?
Practical
Chiefs and their representatives are
regarded as the custodians who enforced
norms and values in the community in
a traditional way. Visit any Chief in
your community and interview him/
her about how they used to observe
norms and values and contrast this with
modern times.
If you are in a setting without Chiefs or
Headman, your school can arrange for
the visit of chiefs to give a lecture on
norms and values.
Problem Solving
Traditional authority is not found in an
urban setting. Suggest ways in which
those staying in urban areas can benefit
from traditional norms and values
who lived a long time ago.
Bereaved family: a family deprived by
death of a loved one.
Birth rites: a traditional rite
performed to welcome
a child to the family,
community and world.
Death rites: a ceremony held in
connection with burial or
cremation of a dead
person.
Deceased: a dead person.
Grave yard: a burial ground.
Rites: a religious or other solemn
ceremony or act.
Spiritual realm: relating to the spirit
or soul and not to physical
nature or matter.
Samukuru: the official intermediary
between the two families
69
 who is the most
competent witness to the
transaction according to
Shona law.
Defining rites
Rites are established social customs
or practises that are conservatively
observed. In Africa, examples of rites
include birth, adulthood, eldership,
marriage and ancestry rites. We will
discuss birth and death rites.
Importance of rites in general
Insert picture of a newly born baby
Professor Manu Ampin in The
African Studies pointed out four
points regarding the importance
of rites;
• They represent a complete set
of plans that prevent the inborn
conflicts between various age
groups or the systematic ill
treatment of children, women,
and the elderly.
• They represent a complete united
initiating system that has given
indigenous African cultures the
stability and permanence to
provide a model of consistent and
intergenerational unity.
70
• They provide a way of solving
social conflicts and contradictions
and individuals discover and fulfil
their life mission and unique
contribution.
• They are part of culture that can
be passed from one generation to
another.
(a) Births rites
Birth rites were developed by our
ancestors while they were still
alive to help individuals to link
with their community which is in
turn linked to the spiritual realm.
With time, they were passed to
other generations until to date. In
a general sense, these birth rites
are not uniform, but they vary
from one community to the other
as well as one nation to the other.
Birth rites involve customary
processes that are taken up from
the time the baby is born up to
infancy. In the USA, if a new baby
is born, the rites include baptism
and circumcision is part of birth
traditions. In Zimbabwe, among
the most important birth rite
is the dropping of umbilical tie
(rukuvhute) that ties the identity
 of the baby to the place of their
ancestors.
Midlands perspective: The process
starts from the first pregnancy
where towards deleivery time, the
mother is sent to her parents at
around 8 months of pregnancy.
The process is called kusungira
which is a one day event. The son-
in- law is mandated to submit
2 goats as follows, 1 she goat is
given to the grandmother and
another one is for the father-in-
law. The goat for the father is then
killed. While being cooked, the
meat is mixed with traditional
medicines and left to simmer.
The dish is then served murusero/
winnowing basket together with
sadza rezviyo/English equivalent?.
The dish is eaten by the
pregnant daughter, her parents
and samukuru together. The
husband is not allowed to eat.
After performing this initial rite,
samukuru and the husband will
then leave the wife behind in the
care of her parents until she gives
birth. In today’s societies where
women are now employed, they
may decide to leave together.
After giving birth, the new
mother is given care by her parents
who then make sure that their
daughter recovers. They notify
the son-in-law and his parents
who then come to see the baby.
They leave their daughter-in-law
again. After a couple of days, the
aunt, her sister and samukuru will
accompany daughter-in-law to
her husband.
After arriving with the child, the
receiving family welcomes the
new born baby, through dance and
showering him/her with presents.
In some families, herbal medicines
are given the child to confirm
ancestors of the baby. If the baby
is accepted, the baby is accpepted
as part of the family and they start
kugadzira nhowa/ fontanelle.
Kalanga birth rites
• The Kalanga share most of their
culture with the Ndebeles, mainly
in Matabeleland provinces. Some
of the practices are also done by the
Shona people, especially when the
child is customarily married. The
interesting part of this culture is
when a Kalanga girl is impregnated.
• The aunt and the girl will visit the
71
 son-in-law’s home to notify of the
pregnancy.
• After notifying, they both return
together with the impregnated
girl. They wait for the son-in-law
to come and acknowledge. If they
fail to come it means the pregnancy
has been disowned.
• If the son- in-law is sure that he
is the one, he brings a goat which
is killed. The sons- in-law will then
take all offal and leave the rest of
the meat. The responsibility is for
them to bring a knife to kill the
goat. It symbolises that indeed
they bear the responsibility for the
pregnancy.
• They also bring with them a head
scuff, wrap around cloth and
maternity dress for the wife and
they go, leaving behind the wife
until she gives birth. After birth
in about three months, she will be
accompanied to her husband.
• They go and prepare for the
customary lobola payments which
they place so much value on cattle.
• It is important to note that there is
no masungiro for the Kalangas, but
due to evolving culture, one or two
families might be practising that.
72
Proving paternity in Kalanga
culture
There has been cultural suspicion
that if a girl is impregnated,
there are chances for her to have
been dating other men. So there
was need to prove paternity in a
traditional way. The elderly of
the family took the newly born
baby to the river bank and left
it to sleep alone for the whole
night. There was a belief that if
the child’s paternity is the same as
the family’s genes, then ancestors
would protect the child, but if they
fail to find the baby early in the
morning, it meant that the baby
does not belong to that dynasty/
ancestry.
Umbilical cord unveiling
The mother would put the baby
on her back and walk for a long
distance until the umbilical cord
detached itself. After it falls off,
the mother will then return home.
As the child grows, the elderly
will then conduct Mutetelelo so
that the ancestors will guide and
provide support for the baby.
Kalanga death rites
In the past, they used to bury their
 loved ones in animal skins mainly
from a cow. They would dig a grave
and insert the wrapped body and
a clay pot with water is placed as
well. Before the grave was covered,
amahlanga was conducted that is
putting the reeds according to
the number of kids one had (and
later covers it). If the deceased
did not have children or was not
married, a rat or guri was placed
alongside the body. This is because
the people believed that the dead
will resurrect and haunt the living
demanding that he/she needs
children in their name.
After a month or two depending
on resources, the family organises
kurova guva. Before the event,
traditional beer, brewed for seven
days beer is brewed.
Day 1: The event done mainly from
August to October - a cow was
selected and brought before the
family members and beer would
be poured. If the beast shakes
itselt, it means the ancestors have
allowed the event.
Day 2: Early morning the family
members congregate to the
eastern side of the homestead
in a circle with a clay pot with
beer in the middle. An elderly
person anodeketera (pleads with
ancestors) first and then sips the
beer and only spinkles beer from
his mouth around the clay pot.
Every other close family member
does that in turns. Among the
family members, the one who
sneezes is most likely to have
ancestral spirits coming to him/
her.
People then proceed to kill the
cow/bull and outsiders are then
allowed to come and share.
Feasting, singing and dancing can
extend throughout the night. No
radios are used but drums and
hosho are used for entertainment.
Day 3: People disperse .
(b) Death rites
Death is a devastating experience
and it pains a lot. It brings shock
to the remaining members. When
this happens, there is always a belief
that the spirit wanders around
while the flesh later decomposes.
Death rites have to be conducted
in order to calm down the spirit.
The process of connecting the
73
 dead to the living is known as
‘kurova guva/ukubuyisa’.
Death rites start when a loved
one is confirmed dead.
Body veiwing ritual
• The elderly people are called in
to straighten the deceased and to
close eyes which in most cases will
be wide open.
• The message of the death is
circulated. If the deceased had
parents, they are notified in a
traditional manner whereby a
messenger is sent to announce
the death of their relative. The
messenger is given any amount
of money which he/she can hand
over to that family.
• The deceased is left to sleep in his/
her house mainly in the kitchen
for a night. (A sign of bidding
farewell).
74
• In the morning, the body is then
given a dry bath with a dish, towel
and vaseline.
• After that, the body is dressed and
placed in a coffin.
• Then men start to dig the grave
after a person representing father
first pegs the place (kutema
rukawo). A grave is dug by men
and not women. After completion,
some men return home while
others remain guarding the grave.
People digging a grave
• At home a church service is
conducted followed by testimonies
by friends and relatives on how
they used to interact with the
deceased.
• What follows is moving as the
deceased is taken out of the
kitchen and paraded out for people
to view, paying their last respects.
Close to his head, two females will
 be holding a white cloth to shield
the body from the sun as people
take turns to view the body.
Members of Johanne Marange Apostlic Church body
viewing the deceased
The body is then taken to its resting
place
The coffin is already in the grave at Nyatsungu
cemetery
• At the grave site, few speeches
are given and then a prayer before
the men move in to cover the
grave.
• Traditionally, women who have
not reached menopause were not
allowed to stay until the grave is
fully covered and children as well
were not allowed at the grave site.
With time, this cultural practise
was lost and women in some parts
of the country stay with their
children to the last proceedings
and then finally departure.
Picture shows women at Nyatsungu grave yard in
Honde Valley (during burial)
• The next morning, close relatives
visit the grave site to check
whether witches visited the place
and to “greet” the dead.
NB: After this event, people can go
home. In Manicaland, the next day
after burial, close relatives assemble to
75
solve inheritance issues and distribute
whatever wealth or goods the deceased
possessed. Mourners will then disperse.
In areas like Masvingo, Mashonaland
West, Mashonaland East among others,
inheritance issues are then looked into
once the nyaradzo has been conducted.
After a year, there is the need to
reconnect the spirit of the deceased with
the living members whereupon, the
decesed’s spirit is expected to be called
back to look after the remaining family.
The process of reconnection (kurova
guva/magadziro/ujkubuyisa) begins.
Revision exercise
Pracademic Questions
Multiple Choice Questions
1. In Zimbabwe the most important
birth rate is;
(a) The dropping of umbilical tie
(rukuvhute)
(b) Kusungirwa
(c) Kugadzira nhowa
(d) Kutema rukawo
2. The reason why close relatives
visit the grave site the following
76
morning is to ;
(a) Check whether the witches
visited the place
(b) Greet the dead
(c) Sweep the grave site
(d) Cover the grave
3. The living relatives need to
reconnect with the spirit of the
deceased after
(a) 3 years (b) 1 year
(c) 5 years (c) 2 years
Activity/Practical
In groups of 10, conduct interviews on
how cultural practises on death rites
are being affected in the contemporary
society.
Section B: Structured Questions
1. (a) List the importance of rites.
(b) Describe how birth rites are
conducted in Matabeleland
region.
(c) To what extent are death rites
being practised today?
Topic 4 Executor: someone who makes sure
that things are done
Inheritance and heirship
according to the wishes in
practices in contemporary
a dead person’s will.
families
Heirship: the legal right to receive
money and possession
from someone who has
died.
Inheritance: money or property which
you receive from someone
who has died.
Inheritance dispute: contradictions
that arise as a result of
The Master of the High Court in Harare corner
wanting to benefit from
Herbert Chitepo Avenue and Sam Nujoma Street
the estate of the deceased.
Testator: a person who makes the
Warm Up Exercise will valid.
1. Did you receive anything when one Will: legal document in which
your relatives died? a person states who
2. Can you recall the process? should receive his or her
3. What happened to the surviving possessions after he or
spouse and the kids? she dies.
4. How was the property distributed?

After the death of our loved ones, there

Key Words
Beneficiary: a person who derives
advantage
something.
Estate: everything comprising
the net worth of an
individual, including land,
money and family.
are two important issues that need to
be resolved which are inheritance and
heirship. In some cultures, heirship is
from
solved after kurova guva/kuchenura/
ukubuyisa ceremony. In Manicaland
heirship issues are done the day after
burial. On the estate left behind, will
writing has proved to be the best

77
weapon to combat disagreements or
greediness that arises after the death of
a bread winner.
Insert Picture of Courtrooms, Family
Distributing Wealth the traditional way
(a) Inheritance practices in
Zimbabwe
In the event of death without a proper
will, closes relative must within 14 days
register the estate. Estates are registered
at the High Court or at the Magistrates
Courts.
Even if the deceased left the will behind,
a copy should have been left at the High
Court. If this had not happened, the
will needs to be registered at the High
Court.
If the spouse remains behind with
the children, they have a right to
automatically inherit both movable and
immovable properties left until such a
time when the estate is wound up.
After the death of a spouse (male or
female), the Master will call upon the
surviving spouse and five children who
will then choose the executor. If they
fail to find one, then the Master has a
right to choose for them.
Other types of marriages and
inheritance situations
All other types of marriages are valid in
78
terms of inheritance laws in Zimbabwe.
If the deceased is a husband who left
behind more than one wife, the first
wife gets two shares more than others
who will get the remainder of the equal
shares.
When the deceased (husband) has five
wives, each having been staying in her
house, they get ownership of the houses.
If they were staying in the same house
and it is impossible to share or divide
the house, they all have the right to use
the house.
If the deceased (husband) lives behind
one wife and several children, the wife
will get ownership of the house. If
she thinks otherwise, she may sell the
property and divide the proceeds among
the children.
If both parents die at the same time
and are survived by children, they
automatically inherit the estate.
The Executor
(i) Prepares an account which
bears all the assets available,
including a list of creditors and
then distributes the assets to the
beneficiaries.
(ii) List the property of the deceased
in an inventory.
(iii) Responsible for publishing the
 estate in a government gazette
and newspapers circulating in
the district where the deceased
resided.
(iv) Maintenance of any beneficiaries.
Importance of Will writing
• A will outlines ways and means
applied in the management and
distribution of the deceased’s
estate. Once you have an estate,
you can write a will. It is not age
based.
• It acts as a guarantee that will
protect and settle inheritance
disputes. In this case, the estate
will be distributed according to
the way the deceased wanted/
wished.
• Failure to write a will or if the
will is declared invalid, you would
have died unheard. This results in
your estate being distributed in
accordance to inheritance laws of
the country.
• To ensure successful filing of a will
the writer (testator) needs to sign
it and submit a copy to the Master
of High Court for safe keeping (it
cost US $1). A number is given as
a reference.
• After successfully completing this
process, the testator must then
brief family members of the move
and to some extent the contents
of the will. This assists surviving
family members to test whether
the will has been tempered with.
• If the testator does this after
death, the family members simply
notify the Master of High Court
within 14 days if the estate was
registered.
Advantages of a Will
(i) The testator has the liberty to
choose his/her own beneficiaries
unlike allowing the law to
determine.
(ii) It allows the testator to choose a
guardian of his/her choice
(iii) One can review the will timely.
(iv) It can be kept safely.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic sections
Multiple Choice Questions
1. After the death of our loved ones,
79
 two important issues that need to
be resolved are;
(a) Inheritance and heirship
(b) Kurova guva and kuchenura
(c) Disagreements and greediness
(d) Beneficiaries and Estates
2. In the event of the death without
a proper will, a close relative must
register the estate within how
many days
(a) 14 days (b) 20 days
(c) 30 days (d) 18 days
3. After the death of a spouse,
male or female, the master will
call upon surviving spouse and
________ children who will then
choose the executor.
(a) 10 children (b) 2 children
(c) 5 children (c) 4 children
Section B: Structured Questions
1. (a) List five functions of the
Executor.
(b) Describe inheritance practises in
Zimbabwe.
(c) Evaluate the importance of the
concept of Will writing.
80
Mock Court Session/ Research
Arrange a mock Inheritance Court
session at your school where a
quarrelsome inheritance issue is brought
before the court. You must research as
groups on how court proceedings are
handled and then provide a ruling.
Practical
Find out what is required to attend
Inheritance Court proceedings in your
community. If your age requires, make
an effort as a citizen to attend such
proceedings.
Or Design a flyer with details inheritance
practices in Zimbabwe. After designing
the flyer, the best can be pinned in your
classroom.
Topic 5
Indigenous and contemporary
courtship
Warm Up Exercise
1. From what you have heard, how did
your grandfather win the heart of
your grandmother?
2. What methods were used to court
girls?
3. Are the methods still the same as is is the way people date and react to social
done in this day and age? forces such as technology, the media
and other socialisation processes.

Key Words The concept of courtship existed in

Bridegroom: a man who is just about
to get married.
Contemporary courtship: modern
ways of dating.
Bride: a woman who is just about
to wed.
Humility: the quality of being
humble.
Sacred: considered being holy
and deserving respect.
both the traditional, also known as
indigenous and modern societies.
Courtship is a term used to describe
the process of engagement or dating for
marriage purposes among the different
peoples of a community. It is also defined
as wooing or persuading an individual
into accepting a proposal, usually of
marriage. Every adult man is expected

The Concept of Courtship

Societies change as the world changes.
This has been the natural arrangement
since the creation of mankind and his
universe. As these changes happen,
peoples’ social relations also change.
When talking about social relations,
focus is on ways through which people
live and interact as social groups.
Social interactions result in dating
and marriages, among other important
relations. People do not simply start as a
family. Families are a result of assembled Dating couple

affairs between men and women, with

by his society to have developed skills
the children being the products of this
of approaching women for marriage
practice. Important to this arrangement
purposes at a certain age level.
81
(a) Indigenous courtship
The indigenous courtship involved more
than just two people. A man looking for
a woman to marry would not wake up
one morning with that dream wife. The
process had to start with identifying
a suitable woman. Among the Shona
peoples, marriages were sacred activities,
involving ceremonies and rituals before
people were allowed to stay together as
husband and wife. Although a man had
unlimited rights to over a woman of his
choice, much of the courtship was done
through their female relatives after an
approval and opinion from both sides
of the two families that the man was
serious in his plan and objective.
It was a known practise that women
would not simply reveal their inner
feelings and intentions at initial stages of
courtship. The man’s serious intentions
were verified by the commitment he
showed to the women over a reasonable
period of visits to the girl’s homestead.
That commitment included among
others, his interaction with the woman’s
aunties in addition to a particular display
of good behaviour or Ubuntu/Unhu.
During that time, resources were not
necessarily considered as a priority.
Resilience, honesty, hard work, and
humility were the major attributes to
winning the heart of a woman. Virgins
82
were the most preferred ahead of non-
virgins. Women competed for that virtue
and men knew they were marrying
real women. The process of courtship
was maintained during the course
of the marriage. There were certain
communication processes that required
a go-between as a way of respect to
both the marriage and the families of
the groom and the bridegroom. In most
cases, women were accompanied by an
adult female relative during routine
meetings. Where necessary, a reputable
community elder was engaged to
communicate with the woman’s and
man’s relatives instead of the couple itself.
The process of courtship was rather long
and involving. It was almost difficult to
keep a secret in indigenous courtship.
That method had its advantages over
the modern ways. There were very few
cases of divorces and pre-marital sexual
relationships than they are today. There
was enough time to study one another
before one committed him/ herself into
a marriage.
If they agreed to stay together in a
traditional way, they were allowed to do
so at any given time of the year except
in November. This is because November
was a scared month.
In one of the prominent cases in the
history of modern Zimbabwe, then
Prime Minister Morgan Tsvangirai paid
lobola for Locardia Karimatsega Tembo
in the sacred month of November in
2011. He was then summoned by Chief
Negomo (Luscious Chitsinde) and was
fined two cattle, two sheep, 10 metres of
cloth and a ball of snuff.
The move to fine the then Prime
Minister was in the interest of preserving
our culture so that future generations
respect the month of November.
Sociological Perspective-Emile
Durkheim
As Emile Durkheim, a French
Sociologist noted that people are tied
together by collective forces and ethics
of their societies. His observation
attempts to unpack the role played
by culture, religion and technology in
both the traditional and modern day
marriages. As noted above, the post-
19th century witnessed a total shift in
the way people used to live in society.
Dating and marriage are certainly the
most affected practices in today’s society.
(b) Contemporary courtship
We all know that communication
processes are by far the most developed
in most societies these days. These have
replaced the role of the family unity
and even that of individuals themselves.
Dating is now done through the
radio, phone, other platforms such as
WhatsApp and newspaper platforms.
For example on Radio Zimbabwe,
there is a programme known as Ida
Anokudawo which connects those
searching for loved ones while on
the internet a number of websites are
aiding online dating without physically
meeting the person. Contemporary
courtship no longer involves a group of
people to decide on what a couple plans
to do.
Unlike in indigenous societies where
men had the sole authority over women,
the situation has changed. It is normal
for women to entice a man. Decisions
are prompt and do not require other
people in the planning process. For that
reason, the contemporary courtship
and marriage takes the shortest time to
conclude.
However, compared to the indigenous,
the contemporary courtship and
marriages are not long-lasting. Since
courtship is secretive with only two
people making decisions, there are
more divorces due to mistrust. Some
important aspects are ignored in favour
of financial resources. In most societies,
many people are dying because of the
short cuts in courtship. Since there is
little time to understand their partners,
83
people contract incurable diseases and
poor health conditions such as HIV and
AIDS.
Good Citizen Corner....
• Cultivate a transparent and dignified
courtship.
• Stop courting multiple partners.
• Make a decision and accept one
partner.
• Avoid nude and filthy dating sites.
• Avoid sharing your phone numbers
and emails on online dating sites.
• Uphold indigenous courtship
practises, they are safe.
Before two people agreed to stay as
wife and husband, families had to agree
on terms and references regarding the
arrangement. In some communities,
both the woman and man would
exchange gifts as since of commitment
and engagement. Gifts could be
anything of value. A skirt and shirt
were considered as an important show
of love and acceptance to the marriage
plan. After gifts were exchanged, the
woman was considered taken and would

Further Research
In your community, find out why the
month of November is regarded as
sacred. What happens to those who
break this cultural rule?

Topic 6
Indigenous procedures to
marriage and value of marriage
Warm Up Exercise Nack chains and bungles can be exchanged for gifts
From your family experiences, what
is given to someone as a sign of not date any other man until unforeseen
love? circumstances such as death before the
completion of the process.
Marriages were sacred in the past. The roles of the aunties (/tete/ubabakazi)

84
were not limited to providing a word of the involvement of some community
advice to their niece. They also provided members was a record enough for the
physical security to the young lady to marriage ceremony. Some rich families
avoid embarrassment resulting from loss would take pictures of the processions
of virginity during the waiting period. although this was considered a luxury.
They also made sure that the girl was Methods of marriage
ready for the husband. Most women
Zimbabwe is a multi-cultural society.
were married in their early teens, hence
As the country moves with the rest
the monitoring process to avoid the
of the world under the processes of
consequences associated with early
globalisation, various forms of marriages
pre-marital sex.
emerge, replacing old methods. Some
The aunties/tete/ubabakazi would also
of the methods are now banned as they
accompany their niece to her husband
are violations of women rights. One
after certifying her as a woman. The
such practice is musengabere in Shona.
procedure was preceded by a ceremony
This was a forced marriage where a
to communicate with the spirits that the
man would waylay and forcibly carry a
child was to start life in another family.
woman of his choice to his homestead
Upon arrival, the associates would
without previous arrangement with the
present the bride groom to her husband
woman.
and wait for report the next morning on
However, some rituals were first
the virginity status. That was the most
conducted to make the women less
defining moment for the aunties. If the
resistant during abduction. According
report from the husband confirmed
to the Shona tales, the man would
virginity, the team accompanying the
first consult with his ancestors before
new wife was rewarded with a token of
embarking on that mission. The
appreciation for the role they had played
consultation involved the use of spirit
in the preservation of their niece’s
mediums and traditional healers. This
virginity. The aunties were expected
was done to avoid taking a witch or an
to give back a report to their brothers
unsuitable woman. Under the United
about their journey.
Nations Declaration of Women Rights
The procedure of indigenous marriage
and the Convention on the Elimination
was not filmed as is the situation
of all forms of Domestic violence
these days. However, some rituals and Against Women, (CEDAW), the
85
practice was deemed criminal, leading
to its abolishment in societies which
practiced it.
Even though a ceremony and rituals
were conducted in respect of a new wife,
at her new family, the rituals doubled as
introducing a stranger to the ancestors
as well as welcoming the woman so
she would reproduce children. Beasts
were slaughtered and served with
traditionally prepared beer.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The following are the items that
can be exchanged as gifts by a
man and women who want to get
married
(a) Shift (b) Skirt
(c) Handkerchief (d) Car
2. In the past most women were
married in their teenage to avoid
(a) Early marital sex
(b) Getting pregnant
(c) Staying at their parents home
(d) Embarrassment
3. Among the Tonga people of the
Nyami-Nyami district in Kariba
a father of a girl who failed to
attract men for marriage was
accused of
(a) Casting a bad omen on his
86
daughter
(b) Having sexual intercourse
with his daughters
(c) Sleeping with his daughter
(d) Refusing to marry off his
daughter
Section B
1. Identify any three methods of
marriages
2. Describe the role played by the
countries in the marriage of the
girl child
3. Why was musengabere was
banned
Topic 7
Value of marriage in indigenous
perspective
Key words
Drama: a play for a theatre, radio
or television
Entertainment: It is a form of
activity that holds the
attention and interest
of an audience, or gives
pleasure and delight
Dance: to move ones feet
or body, or both,
rhythmically in a pattern
of steps especially to the
accompaniment of music
Marriage is a sign of responsibility
and dignity to many people in
traditional African societies. Its value
is immeasurable. However, we need to
understand that we are all products of
marriages. It provides a sense of security
to women and the children. It was also a
source of economic standing in society.
After getting married, a man had access
to resources such as the land to settle on
with his family.
Married women were considered
honest, responsible and caring. In that
respect, every woman endeavoured
to get married to avoid labelling and
stereotyping associated being single.
In some societies, single women
were associated with witchcraft,
loose morals among others. As such,
marriages remained the most important
achievement that any adult woman
dreamt about getting in her useful life
time.
Happily married couple
Families would spend considerable
amounts of resources in an attempt to get
their daughters married for acceptance
in their communities. In some cases,
blame was carried to mothers of girls
who failed to secure a marriage. Others
understood the condition of marriage
failures to goblins possessed on by
parents of the girls. As such, marriage
became a serious measurement of family
purity in indigenous societies.
Among the Tonga people of Nyami-
Nyami district in Kariba, the father
of a girl who failed to attract men for
marriage was accused for having sexual
intercourse with his daughters. The
Tonga people believed the practice
of having sex with daughter or any
young girls cast bad omen on the girl
and she would not marry in her life. In
that respect, villages and communities
where exposed to cleansing processes
to discourage parents from engaging in
witchcraft.
Typical Exam Questions
Structured Questions
1. Define drama.
2. Identify two forms of drama.
3. Identify the 5 major aspects of
drama.
4. Describe a comedy.
87
 5. Why is drama important? Give an
explanation.
6. Which school in the Harare won
the National High Schools drama
Drama
Act out one type of a drama as a class.
Perform in front of the whole school at
the end of the term.
Topic 8
Dance and drama as a form
of entertainment, leisure and
employment creation
Dances have been part of the
Zimbabwean culture to entertain each
people for a long time. They are played
according to the events at hand for
example, religious, social and political.
Dances help to teach social values,
Ubuntu/Unhu, recite history, encourage
people to work, console people at
funeral proceedings, celebrate festivals
and to connect with ancestors.
There are basically 12 prominent
traditional dances in Zimbabwe namely:
• shangara
• mbira dance
• dinhe
88
• mbakumba
• muchongoyo
• jerusarema
• mhande
• Isitschikitsha
• amabhiza
• ingquza
• chinyobera
• ngungu
Shona dances
Jerusalema Dance
The Jerusarema dance, also known
as Mbende, is widely regarded as the
most important and distinctive dances
of Zimbabwe. Jerusarema can be
performed at funerals, festivals and
other celebrations.
Jerusalem is practiced by the Zezuru
tribe in Murehwa and Uzumba-
Maramba-Pfungwe (UMP) districts
in Mashonaland East, Zimbabwe.
The dance was originally performed
during the marriage ceremony of a
chief ’s daughter, but it is now open to
everybody. The dance is characterised
by a single poly rhythmic drum sound
accompanied by woodblock clapper
sounds, handclapping, yodeling and
blowing whistles.
The music is performed by one master
drummer. In the course of the dance,
men often crouch while jerking both lot of war actions and movements of joy
arms and vigorously kicking the ground are portrayed in this dance. A number of
with the right leg in imitation of a songs are used to accompany the dance,
burrowing mole. and the mood is important in inviting
This ancient fertility dance was called the ancestral spirits.
Mbende, the Shona word for mole
which was regarded as a symbol of
Mbakumba dance
fertility, sexuality and family.
It is a poly rhythmic dance that is
Mbira dance traditionally performed after harvest
and is still used today for entertainment.
Mbira dance is perhaps the most
religious of all Shona dances because
it is usually performed by community Mhande dance
elders at important ancestral ceremonies
This is mostly popular among
such as bira. The dance is accompanied
the Karanga people of Masvingo,
by mbira music and used as a medium
Zimbabwe. The dance use indigenous
to invite ancestral spirits into the
ritual context or spirituality (known
midst of the community. Mbira dance
as Chikaranga). It is characterised by
and music play a significant role in
strict rhythms and melodies, slow and
bringing the spirits of the ancestors
dignified foot movements and the use
into the community. It is regarded as
of hand-held objects and substances
unique for its intricate foot movements,
such as snuff and ceremonial beer
graceful pauses and high energy jump
which symbolize interaction between
bursts. Besides being used for ancestral
the community and the ancestors.
appeasement, mbira dance can be a
Mhande dance is commonly performed
source of entertainment and building
at the popular kurova guva ceremony
physical strength.
which is performed by Shona people to
welcome the return of a deceased family
Dinhe dance member’s spirit (mudzimu).

This is a religious dance that is also

Muchongoyo
performed to praise and invite the
The dance is popular among the
ancestors to speak to the community. A
89
Ndau people in Chipinge. Interviws amabhiza and Mutetelelo. Historically,
conducted with the Mtetwa family the muchongoyo dance was performed
reveals that muchongoyo was originally by men in preparation for war or after
a war dance meant to boost morale of war, and especially when the Ndebele
the warriors as they entered the battle. warriors were victorious. The dance is
However, since the end of the war typically performed with a stick and a
that brought liberation, muchongoyo shield. Men do the dancing and women
is now performed for entertainment. are responsible for singing. It is also a
The dance is characterised by elaborate social and recreational dance and does
choreography (dance composition) and not have a religious future, instead it
rhythmic drumbeats. Both men and highlights the events of the society.
women do the singing and dancing,
but women take the lead while men
mostly do the chanting. Typically of
the Ndau mannerism, muchongoyo
is such a humorous dance which
exploits dramatics such as miming and
somersaults. In entertainment, women
dance provocatively, enticing men as
they demonstrate sexual receptiveness.
The dance is significant in celebrating
communally shared values like
Ubuntu/Unhu, sexuality and unity. The
dance is also used during traditional
occasions like marking of a bumper
harvest, inauguration of a traditional
leader, traditional marriages and other
A Ndebele dancer
community festivals.
Isitshikitsha

Ndebele dances It is a ceremonial dance, historically

performed for the king’s pleasure.
Popular dances among the Ndebele
Isitshikitsha was also commonly
include Mushongoyo, isitshikitsha,
performed at the injelele, a rainmaking
90
ceremony held during drought seasons
by the Ndebele people in Zimbabwe.
The dance routine employs a unique
brand of rhythm and style. In modern
times, isitshikitsha is performed at
social gatherings, weddings or first
fruits ceremonies. It is accompanied
by singing, clapping, ululation and
whistling.
Mutetelelo
Normally performed by the Kalanga in
Matabeleland South. It is a is religious
dance whereby members will be dancing
and praying for the sick person to heal.
Traditional musical instruments
Drum
Most traditional Zimbabwean music
is accompanied by the drum/ngoma/
ingungu in Shona and in isiNdebele
respectively. The drums are varied and
they come in different sizes and shapes.
The bigger drums are played using sticks
while smaller ones are played using
open palms. The small drum plays to
accompany amabhiza, which is played
using one hand as the other hand will
be rubbing/scratching the drum using
a stick to produce an unusual screening
sound.
Muchongoyo music is also accompanied
by peculiar drums. These have animal
skins on both ends of the drum, which
are played using sticks, regardless of the
size of the drum.
Percussive instruments
Besides drums, traditional Zimbabwean
music has a variety of percussive
instruments such as;
Shakers (hosho)
Wooden clappers (makwa)
Mbira musicians also use chikorodza,
a notched stick scrapped by another
sick as well as kanyemba, an instrument
made of many bambiro straps that are
strapped together and filled with small
seeds for percussion.
91
Mbira
The most famous of the Zimbabwean
musical instruments is the mbira.
There are several types of mbira found
in Zimbabwe which are played during
both religious and secular activities
these are;
• Mbira dzavadzimu-has between
22 and 24 keys and is known for }
its ability to evoke the spirit
• Nyunga-nyunga-mbira is a
15 key mbira and has been widely
by Zimbabwe’s education sectors,
where it is taught from primary
school up to university level.

Extinction of traditional
instruments

Mbira

• Nhare (telephone) is the most

Traditional Mbira
common
• Mbira dzavadzimu (the ancestors Some traditional instruments facing the
mbira) danger of extinction are;
• Mbira dzedeze • Chizambi
• Nyunga nyunga mbira
• Chipendani
• Njari
• Matepe • Tsuri
• Mbira dzavandau
• Karimba/nyunganyunga • Mukwati wenyere
• Matepe/madebe dzamdhondoro/ Not all Zimbabwean traditional music is
hera accompanied by instruments Zimbabwe
92
has traditional acapella music such as;
• Imbube- it is associated with the
Ndebele people
• Makwaira – is associated with the
Shona people and was derived
from the word choir.
• Some songs for Shangwe
mukwerera rain making
ceremony.
The Zimbabwe National Traditional
Dance Association (ZNTDA)
The Zimbabwe National Traditional
Dance Association (ZNTDA) co-
ordinates the following dance festivals;
Jikinya Festival
Case study on dances
The 2015 Jikinya dance winners, St Peters
Tokoyo School in Manicaland went to
Turkey to participate in the Antalya Expo.
The students mesmerised fans and carried
the day. National Arts Council officials
accompanied the school for this grand dance
participation.
St Peters Tokoyo Jikinya dancers in
Turkey- Picture by Caroline
Makoni -NAC Programme Officer
In 2016, the national winners of the
Jikinya Festival were St Joseph’s
Primary School from Masvingo
province. The competitions starts at
local, district up to provincial level
and the final is held at national
level.
Ways to improve local dancing
skills:
• Training of the dances should be
done by trained and accredited
trainers.
• Schools need to invest in the
genre for example through
purchasing of costumes and
intense preparations.
• There is need for the right frame
of mind by the school and its
students.
Chibuku Neshamwari Traditional
Dance Festival
Jerusalem Dance Festival
Murehwa Uzumba Cultural Festival,
among others
Religious dances
The contemporary societies through
religion have also developed dances as
part of entertainment and worship.
(i) The Zimbabwe Church of Christ
(ZCC) calss their dances kutamba
mutowo. They jump up in the
93
 air both as part of their religious
dance. Music is played with
melodious sounds similar to those
played by the Zimbabwe Republic
Police (ZRP) band. The church
has origins in Masvingo province
with the founder being Nehemiah
Mutendi until it spread its wings
countrywide.
The church is mainly found in
Manicaland and Masvingo where
members spend the whole night
beating the drums and blowing
a cow horn with some bit of
preaching.
(iii)
Zion Church- members wear
large flowing garments
which sometimes reach the
ground. When the drum is
played, members will move
sideways in an attractive
manner. The dance also give
strength to its members.

Drama as a form of
entertainment

Drama provides a source

of entertainment in
Zimbabwe in both rural
and urban areas. It is also a
source of income and one
can survive out of acting
Defe brass group
dramas.

Drama
(ii) Jekenisheni Church- members of
Drama is an act or performance in front
this church usually play a dignified
of an audience. However, drama is also
dance in going round and round
the portrayal of life, a character or the
with men vigorously beating the
telling of a story through action and
drums. This is a religious dance.
dialogue.

94

Forms of drama during the act.
Drama can be a one man act or a group
performance. It can be either in prose
or verse.
Prose - Continuous
sentences and paragraphs.
Verse - Composed in lines
and stanzas.
Drama is a form of dialogue and stage
directions, hence actors know exactly
what to say when on stage.
Gifford Drama Club on Stage -National
High Schools Drama Competition at
Chinhoyi High School 2016 – Picture
by Alouis Sagota
Concepts of drama
There are five (5) major concepts of
drama and these are;
(i) Textual - refers to how the story
is composed e.g plot, storyline
theme etc.
(ii) Production- implies the use
of appropriate sound machines
and appropriate characters on
appropriate roles.
(iii) Performance- refers to the
actual act by characters, how they
articulate or dialogue and interact
(iv) Staging- is the use of appropriate
stage and correct dress.
(v) Critical- these are salient issues
like the appropriateness of the
drama or play to the time era and
audience. It encompasses the
whole act or performance.
Types of drama
(a) Comedy- The story is based
on real life characters and funny
experiences of life or any funnny-
provocative life situation. Gringo,
Kapfupi and Timmy na Bonzo.
Usually this has a happy ending.
(b) Farce- There is high improbable
or unexpected and stereotyped
characters for example Sabhuku
Vharazipi. There is a lot of
exaggeration and unimaginative
situations.
(c) Melodrama- There is exaggeration
of emotions and lures the audience
or viewers to continue watching.
Usually it portrays good and
bad evil aspects of the characters
involved.
(d) Fantasy- This complete fixation
95
 where characters display play called Mutambo Wepanyika
supernatural skills, more appealing was also presented by Chipawo at
to children. Usually there is Zimbabwe College of Music in 2013
presence of angels and superheroes and directed by Stephen Chipfunyise
involved in action. also had lessons about religious morals
and the results of sin. Drama should
(e) Music- There is the use of music
educate people to change their attitudes
in conveying a message or telling
from what is undesirable to the desirable
a story. The use of dance is also
in society. Many people are employed as
present. It is important that
professional artists and drama can be
music be in sync with the action.
a source of income for those involved
The music is used for self –
including script writers, directors,
expression.
actors and actresses and dancers.
Importance of drama Worldwide, many celebrities are known
as professional actors and actresses.
Education: Teaches people life outside
In Zimbabwe, this is the reason why
their world. Drama is created with
Midlands State University, University
the aim for people to gain knowledge
of Zimbabwe and Great Zimbabwe are
from it. Drama gives moral lessons
offering degree studies in theatre and
and socialises people on their cultural
film.
values. It must teach us something but
not always. A good example is a dance
Socialisation:
drama called Because I am a girl written
Drama teaches about our social norms
by Alouis T Sagota that was performed
and values that binds our society together.
by children from Dzikwa Trust at
Norms are specific guidelines about our
Harare International Festival of the Arts
behaviour in society like respecting your
in 2014. The play is about a king who
elders. Values are concepts that define
died without a son to inherit his throne.
what is desirable is society like success.
His daughter called Rumbidzai then
In other words drama should teach
stood up to take his father’s kingship.
people about their culture, their norms
This dance drama teaches that the girl
and values. Helping to create unity and
child can stand for her political rights
shaping how people must live in society.
in decision making and that girls should
It provide ways in which we can reflect
not be discriminated against. Another
96
our way of life in order to question it
and probably improve it.
Entertainment: Empowerment: In simple terms,
Brings entertainment, laughter,
happiness. Aristotle said that drama
involves music and dance to entertain
‘purging the young soul of unseemly
emotions and preparing for the worth
enjoyment of leisure. It occupies our free
time to enjoy ourselves with family and
our loved ones. Life without happiness is
not worth living and national happiness
is what we all strive for. Drama should
be a way of life in schools because it
gives children opportunities learn in an
entertaining way to at the same time
gaining skills. It also provide us means
to cope with trauma and to release
stress from home as we act our lives and
laugh. If that is not happening at your
school ask your teacher why is this is so.
Edutainment: with poetry and music empower pupils
In as much as it entertains, it also teaches
through laughter and children get to
commit to memory the same. Drama
is rich with information that change
people’s attitudes and knowledge at the
same time enjoying themselves. This
is the reason why drama is a means of
educating society continuously even
after they ‘finishing school’ in a more
entertaining way in order for people to
acquire knowledge in a tacit way.
to empower is to give power through
knowledge and skills. For children and
youths drama in not only important
when performed on stage, but in the
process of creating the play. Children
and youths, even adults acquire
knowledge through mastering scripts
and are empowered with skills through
rehearsals and training. Alouis T. Sagota
in his research work with children
involved performing arts discovered
that performing arts including drama
is empowering because it enhances
children’s emotional intelligence.
Which refer to the ability to reason
about ones emotions or simply the
ability to control ones emotions. Pupils
involved in drama gains skills to reason
about their emotions. Dance drama
to be confident, verbally articulate, and
critical of themselves and others, be
active in various activities, independent
and tolerant. Drama therefore
empowers young pupils with emotional
skills important for them manage
relationships within their families and
communities.
97
Case Study
(Interview with Alouis T. Sagota-
Playwright and Director)
Researcher: Tell us about your
background, how you developed
interest in performing arts.
ATS: I am not really sure about
how arts captured interest in me,
but let me say my interest developed
from seeing others performing at
St Anna’s Sadza Primary school in
Chiota. During those days, many
theatre groups came at our school
and we had to pay 10 cents to get
in. Although my mother could not
give me the, I would smuggle myself
98
in when others are down with
laughter. So I can say from seeing
drama performances from groups
like Prudence Dance Drama I was
inspired.
Researcher: Are you saying you then
automatically became an actor, a
script writer and director?
ATS: No it was not automatic,
but I slowly gained skills. I was then
actively involved in acting poetry
and creating plays. Teachers would
give us poems to recite for a what
was known as ‘Parents Day’ which
is price giving day and you know
there is nothing more inspiring that
seeing your mother applauding and
ululating. I really thank my mother
for that even though I would not
forgive her for not giving me that 10
cents to enjoys performances
Researcher: Did you start by acting at
primary school or something? When
did you write your first play?
Answer: My first play was
improvised when I was in grade
five and I think that was my best
play ever. What I remember is that I
was in grade five when our teachers
challenged us to create plays to for
a competition sponsored by Colgate
 Company in schools. Our play, the
one I created outcompeted the grade
sixes and sevens and was to represent
the schools at competition held at a
nearby school called Mukumba. In
the competition imagine against
plays created by teachers our play
came second out of nine school.
Researcher: How did that impact on
you?
ATS: The next morning at the assembly I
become a celebrity and from then on
I became an artist. I then developed
skill through active involvement
and mastered the art which I carried
to secondary school at Mukamba
Secondary. I nearly failed my o’levels
because of the love of performing
arts.
Researcher: So did you then study
Theatre and Film at University to
be an established artist?
ATS:
Well, I do not really like that
question, but will answer it anyway.
I learnt about performing arts from
primary school like I said and was
actively involved in Theatre at
Midlands State University, writing
plays and directing those including
directing students studying Theatre
and Film, thus was very motivating.
Creativity is enhanced by practice
and to master a particular art one
need practice and practice. In most
cases it’s a question of gift but one
need to acquire more knowledge and
skills in one’s area of interest. And
using John Maxwell’s word ‘talent is
not enough’
Researcher: Currently you are working
coordinating Arts and Culture
Activities for Dzikwa Trust what
can you say you have achieved
through children’s performing arts?
ATS: Personally I have lived a life of
joy with young children and made a
meaningful contribution to shaping
them. I think that is my greatest
achievement.
Researcher: How many plays have you
written and how many awards can
you say you have achieved?
ATS: I do have a development
background remember. And do not
count mouse among rodents. What I
can simply say is that I have written
three children’s plays that have
made my desired impact mostly in
dance drama. Nehanda and Kaguvi
which is about our heritage and child
protection, because I am a girl which
teaches about girl child rights and
99
 then The Dream a play that advocates
for the promotion of children’s talents
in a new curriculum that give value
to performing arts.
Researcher: Is this the play that won
National High Schools Competition
in 2016? And what was the secret?
Dzivarasekwa 1 High School Head
Mr Nemaramba (centre) holding
a trophy after the school won the
High Schools National Drama
Competitions at Chinhoyi High in
September 2016-Picture by Alouis
Sagota
ATS: Well the secret of success is the love
of what you do and taking care
of others with God’s guidance. I
managed to build a motivated team
and the team won. And I really
thank Dzivarasekwa High School
Headmaster Mr Nemaramba for
having confidence in my work.
Researcher: You have also contributed
your work in Shona anthologies that
are currently in the syllabus. You are
always training and teaching and at
the same time researching. How are
you managing all this?
ATS: There is no crowd on an extra mile.
Researcher: What do you mean by that?
100
ATS:
I work extra hours and my
wife Vongai is very tolerant and
supportive.
Researcher: How can you say performing
arts have made an impact in your
life?
ATS: I can say I have managed to
change Dzikwa Children through
performing arts and have done really
well. This has had an impact in my
life because we ought to live with a
purpose. Secondly my job currently
is coordinating arts and culture
activities and most importantly, I
am able to buy my wife what she
likes from the money I get from the
Shona poems I write on my phone.
Researcher: Let me ask you this last
question. What is your vision as an
artist?
ATS: To research and write a book about
children’s performing arts and to
provide performing arts training up
to tertiary level.
Alouis T. Sagota, Takawira Kindon
with Dzivarasekwa 1 pupils
after winning the High Schools
Drama Competition in Chinhoyi,
September 2016
 Dzikwa Trust Performing at the
Carnival Stage 2014
Dzikwa Trust Junior Performing at
the Carnival Stage 2016
Dzikwa Trust Team
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Question
In groups, select any type of dance you
are familiar with and conduct a dancing
competition. Find judges and the
different groups perform their dances at
assembly to the whole school. Design a
trophy to give to the first, second and
third placed group.
Unit Summary
Norms and values are organisation
specific whereby people generally agree
to be bound by rules and their conduct
regulated to achieve the organisations’
objectives mission statement. There
are threats to norms and values
namely; foreign influence or external
interference, the rapid growth of ICTs,
peer pressure and urbanisation. In
Zimbabwe, communities still practice
birth and death rites ceremonies. This
is because rites represent a complete
set of strategies that prevent conflict
between groups and an initiating system
that gave stability in our culture. Will
writing is the most important thing to
do while we are still alive. After writing
a will, it is kept safely by the Master of
High Court.
Indigenous courtship is fading away
and being replaced by modern courtship
practices such as internet dating, radio
programmes, Facebook and WhatsApp
platforms. Most communities still
practice indigenous marriage. However,
the church is blamed for influencing
people from traditional practices into
embracing court weddings and church
weddings.
End Term One Test (Chapters
1-3)
PAPER 1
1. (a) List and explain any four
socialisation agents found at
community level.
(b) With reference to Zimbabwe,
describe socialisation in (i) low
density suburbs (ii) high density
suburbs (iii) rural areas.
(c)To what extent do rituals affect
people’s human rights?
101
2. (a) Name any four types of
religions found in Zimbabwe.
(b) Outline the role of religion in
the socialisation process in a
community.
(c) To what extent does religion affect
socialisation in a community?
3. (a) identify any three functions of
the media.
(b) With specific examples, describe
the way in which the media
influences socialisation.
(c) How can the media be used
positively?
4. (a) Identify any six churches that
operate in Zimbabwe.
(b) Describe Karl Marx’s views on the
role of religion on socialisation.
(c) To what extent does religion keep
the society functioning?
5. (a) Identify any six forms of print
media.
(b) Describe the advantages and
disadvantages of using media in
socialisation.
102
(c) Evaluate the assertion that the
media is a great promoter of
disorderly behaviour among
youths.
6. (a) Identify any three types of
families found in Zimbabwe.
(b) Describe political and religious
families.
(c) How far do career families
influence career paths of their
children?
7. (a) Identify the six stages proposed
by Erick Erikson on child
development.
(b) Describe in detail any of the three
stages Erick Erikson identified
on child development.
(c) To what extent do these stages
develop a healthy child?
8. (a) Identify and four indigenous
events practised in Zimbabwe
that are aimed at promoting
unity.
(b) Describe any three of the events
mentioned above.
(c) To what extent do funerals unify
families, the community and
nations?
9. (a) Identify six norms and values (b) Describe each of the threats.
found at work places.
11. (a) Identify any five functions of
(b) Describe any three of the norms the executor.
and values.
(b) Describe the importance of
10. (a) Identify four threats to norms writing a will.
and values in our Zimbabwean
society.

103
 End Of First Term O’level Examinations (Chapters 1-3)
Summative Assessment
Paper description
Paper Paper type Duration Marks Weighting
1 Multiple Choice 1 hour 15 mins 40 20%
2 Structured 2 hours 100 80&
Total 100%

Paper 1 consists of 40 questions and (c) people of influence

candidates answer all questions. It has
a total of 40 marks.
Paper 2 consists of 2 sections, section
A and B. Section A consists of 6 short
answer questions. Candidates answer
all questions. Section B consists of 5
essay questions and candidates answer
any 2 questions.
Paper 1 (Answer all questions)
1. When people come together
they...
(a) Talk and greet each other
(b) love each other
(c) socialise
(d) fight each other.
2. Socialisation in communities
differ according to ...
(a) geographic location
(b) type of people
(d) communication.
3. Communities do not exist in
isolation in the socialisation
matrix. This implies that,
(a) they need each other to
survive
(b) they are not the only agents of
socialisation
(c) they are the ideal socialisation
agents
(d) Communities evolve over
time.
4. When are rituals unacceptable?
(a) When they are conducted by
young people
(b) when they are conducted
wrongly
(c) when they infringe other
people’s rights
(d) when one generation fails to

104
 transmit knowledge to others.
5. Which phrasing correctly defines
Indigenous Knowledge Systems
(IKS)?
(a) norms and values
(b) a pattern of using wisdom
(c) a set of beliefs from
communities peculiar to
Zimbabweans
(d) borrowed pattern of life.
6. Early form of religion in Africa is
(a) Buddhism
(b) Christianity
(c) Islam
(d) African Tradition.
7. Karl Marx had radical views on
religion. He opined that religion
is...
(a) a link between the people and
God
(b) is a cement that binds people
together
(c) opium of the people that leads
them to docility
(d) connects the living with the
dead.
8. Ramadan is commemorated
during
(a) March on Passover
(b) December
(c) Islamic ceremony
(d) 9th month on the calendar.
9. Rastafarianism has origins in
(a) Zimbabwe (b) Jamaica
(c) Ethiopia (d) in the Bible.
10. When the media is controlled
extensively by a few elites, it is
called
(a) indoctrination
(b) Hegemony
(c) political manifestos
(d) Eliticism.
11. Why is the media often referred
to as the Fourth Estate because
(a) there are only 4 publishers in
Zimbabwe
(b) it is powerful
(c) accentuate hegemonic views
(d) it shapes and influences the
course of politics world over.
12. The following is a function of the
media except ____.
(a) Entertaining (b) interpreting
(c) informing (d) propaganda.
13. What are the advantages of
using the media as a form of
communication?
105
 (a) promotes beauty (b) Nyangani mountains
(b) it informs (c) Njelele
(c) easy viewing of pornography (d) Mabiya.
(d) connects different people
18. According to the National
easily.
Heroes Act [Chapter 10:16]
14. Which type of family consults ________ considers designation
ancestors for guidance? of heroes.

(a) Religious families (a) Minister of Local

(b) political families Government, Public Works and
(c) traditional families National Housing
(d) business families. (b) ZANU PF
(c) Vice Presidents
15. According to Erick Erikson’s
(d) the President.
Psychological Identity
Development Theory _____. 19. In the Shona culture, mbudzi ye
shungu will be
(a) Infant level
(b) Initiative versus Guilt (a) killed on the last day of
(c) School Age preparations
(d) Toddler. (b) seasoned by salt
(c) ate by close relatives in the
16. _____________ is a community
kitchen
gathering controlled by an
(d) possessed by the spirit.
indigenous leader?
20. _________ is a ritual condemned
(a) Nhimbe
by the International Law. (a) tree
(b) Mukwerera
planting (b) Nyaradzo (c) Bira
(c) Bira
(d) Musengabere.
(d) Zunde raMambo/Isiphala
senkosi.

17. The voice of God used to be Paper 2

heard at which shrine? Section A: (Answer all questions)
(a) Defe 1. List any four socialisation agents
106
 found at community level (2)
2. With reference to Zimbabwe,
describe socialisation in
(i) low density suburbs
(ii) High density suburbs (4)
3. How do rituals affect people’s
human rights? (3)
4. List any four types of religions
found in Zimbabwe (4)
5. Outline the role of religion in
the socialisation process in a
community (3)
6. Discuss Karl Marx’s views on
religion (4)
7. Identify any three functions of the
media (3)
8. With specific examples, describe
the way in which the media
influences socialisation (4)
9. To what extent do the media
influence socialisation?
10. Identify any six churches that
operate in Zimbabwe.
11. Describe Karl Marx’s views on the
role of religion on socialisation.
12. To what extent does religion keeps
the society functioning?
13. Identify any 6 forms of print
media.
14. Describe the advantages and
disadvantages of using media in
socialisation.
15. Evaluate the assertion that media
is a great promoter of unruly
behaviour among youths.
16. Identify any 3 types of families
found in Zimbabwe.
17. Describe political and religious
families.
18. How far does career families
influences career paths of their
children?
19. Identify the six stages proposed
by Erick Erikson on child
development.
20. Describe in detail any of the three
stages Erick Erikson on child
development.
21. To what extent do these stages
develop a healthy child?
22. Identify and 4 indigenous events
practised in Zimbabwe that are
aimed at promoting unity.
23. Describe any three of the events
107
 mentioned above.
24. To what extent do funerals unify
nations?
25. Identify six norms and values
found at work places.
26. List any three of the norms and
values
27. Identify four threats to norms
and values in our Zimbabwean
society.
28. Describe the four threats to
norms and values.
29. What are the 5 functions of the
executor.
30. Identify the importance of
writing a will.
108
Section B
1. Describe how the agents of
socialisation at the community
level assist in the socialisation
process of individuals. (20).
2. Evaluate the importance of the
media as a socialising agent (20).
3. Using one indigenous community
gathering, describe how the
event is done, its importance and
relevance in the 21st century. (20)
4. Define the concept of threat and
explain any 3 threats to norms
and values in the community.
5. Describe the importance of (i)
drama and (ii) dance as a form of
entertainment and employment
creation in Zimbabwe.
 4 National History:
Sovereignty and
Governance

Unit Objectives the heroes and heroines in the

Liberation struggle
By the end of Unit, you should be able
to: • Analyse the results of the Second
• Define Chimurenga/ Umvukela Chimurenga /Umvukela

• Outline the causes of the First • Identify the different systems of

Chimurenga/Umvukela governance

• Describe the events of the First • Compare democracy and

Chimurenga/Umvukela autocracy

• Outline the effects of the First • Identify the pillars of the central
Chimurenga/Umvukela government

• Identify the heroes and • Illustrate the structure of the

the heroines of the First
Chimurenga/Umvukela
• Outline the causes of the Second
Chumurenga/Umvukela
• Describe the role played by the
masses, freedom fighters and
spirit mediums
• Describe the role played by
central government
• Discuss the functions of the arms
of government
• Identify social services provided
by the government
• Explain the importance of
social services provided by the
government

109
Introduction you hear the word “Chimurenga”?
This Unit will look at the causes, course 2. What do you think it means?
and results of the First Chimurenga/ 3. Do you think the First Chimurenga\
Umvukela in Matabeleland and Umvukela is important?
Mashonaland. It will further look at 4. If yes, why do you say so?
the heroes and heroines of the First
and Chimurenga/ Umvukela. The Unit
Key Words/Terms
will also identify and discuss the causes
Chimurenga\Umvukela: a word
and analyse the results of the Second
which means to fight or
Chimurenga/Umvukela. You will
describe the role played by the masses, struggle.
freedom fighters, spirit mediums, heroes Independence: freed from being
and heroines of the liberation struggle. governed or ruled by
In this Unit you will learn about another country.
the different systems of governance, Rinderpest : a fatal infectious disease
democracy and autocracy and also of cattle, sheep.
compare the two. This unit will identify Demoralised: having lost one’s
the pillars of the central government confidence or hope.
and discuss the functions of the arms of Inspiration: something that gives
the government. Lastly, in this unit you a person ideas and
will identify the social services provided strength for doing
by the government and explain the something.
importance of services provided by the Collaborator: Africans who assisted
government. Chimurenga/Umvukela is
the settelrs in any
a word both in the Shona and Ndebele
way military or with
language which means to fight or
information during the
struggle or “a revolutionary struggle.’’
Chimurenga.
Causes of the First Chimurenga in
Topic 1
Matebeleland and Mashonaland
The First Chimurenga/
Loss of land
Umvukela 1896-97
Before the arrival of the settlers in 1980,
Warm up exercise
no one was without land amongst the
1. What comes into your mind when Africans. Land was owned by the whole

110
community and it represented life itself.
However, when the settlers invaded
Mashonaland in 1890, they grabbed
the most productive and rich lands to
set up their farms. Land to the Shona
traditionally belonged to the ancestors
with the Chief being the custodian of
the land. To the Shona, land was a birth
right and death right. As such, when
their land was grabbed the Shona felt
offended and degraded by the settlers.
This, therefore, instilled a sense of
resistance amongst the Shona and
unrest.
As for the Ndebele, two reserves were
created for them - Gwai and Shangani,
which were hot, dry and tsetse-fly
infested after their defeat in the 1893-
1894 Anglo-Ndebele War. The Ndebele
refused to move into these areas arguing
that they were like graveyards. However,
the settlers stood their ground and
insisted that the Ndebele move into
these areas. Thus land grabbing by the
settlers was a major grievance that made
the Africans to rise against the settlers as
revealed by the Ndebele leader Induna
Gumbo when he stated in 1897 that;
“One cause of dissatisfaction and unrest
is that after we have lived many years in
a land, we are told that the white man
has bought and we must go.”
Loss of Independence
Both the Shona and Ndebele lost their
independence which they wanted to
regain. Furthermore, the whites failed
to appreciate the political structure
of the Shona. All of Lobengula’s sons
who were eligible to claim the throne
were moved to South Africa where they
were to be educated to make sure that
no one could claim the Ndebele throne.
Furthermore, the indunas were stripped
of their traditional powers of authority.
Practically, this meant that both the
ordinary Ndebele people and those in
authority were angry. Therefore, there
was need to drive the white man out of
both Matabeleland and Mashonaland
and this forced the Africans to rise up
against the whites.
Forced Labour
The white settlers needed labour in their
farms and mines. The establishment
of Gwai and Shangani Reserves had
created a large reserve of cheap labour.
The Ndebele found it difficult to make
111
out a decent living from these two poor
and arid areas. Thus, they were forced to
seek work in mines and farms. However,
the creation of reserves did not meet the
settlers’labour requirements, accordingly
forcing the company and settlers to
resort to force to recruit labour.
loot to reward the settlers who had
participated in the 1893-1894 Anglo-
Ndebele War. Leander Star Jameson,
who was the company administrator,
claimed ownership of all of Lobengula’s
cattle by right of conquest.

Abuse by Europeans
The labourers, however, were very often
subjected to corporal punishment.
They were abused and whipped by the
settlers using hippo hide- the sjambok.
Those labourers who tried to escape
were given harsh punishment. Their
cattle were taken away, or sometimes,
whole villages were burnt when they
failed to produce labour. Ndebele men
were therefore resentful of these labour L.S Jameson
demands and punishments so much
that a revolt was unavoidable.
At the same time Jameson, he was not
able to differentiate between the king’s
Loss of cattle
The issue of cattle was also a major cattle and those that were privately
grievance. Cattle were vital to their owned. In the end, the loot committees
economy and social organisation. After ended up driving away those cattle
the 1893-94 war, the new company that belonged to private individuals.
administration dealt with the cattle The looted cattle were then sold very
issue very irresponsibly and showed cheaply to the new farmers and the
insensitivity to the Ndebele. Most settlers to stock their new farms. By
Ndebele cattle were impounded as
112
October 1895, only 40 830 from a total
of 250 000 cattle on the eve of 1893-
4 were now left in Ndebele ownership.
This, therefore, alone might have been
almost enough to drive a proud people,
especially a cattle loving people to a
revolt.
Police brutality
Police brutality also played a role in
bringing about the uprisings. The police
force was the most disliked of all the
company colonial instruments. The
colonial system employed a scheme
in which forced labour was enforced
by different people such as Ndebele
policemen who worked in Mashonaland
and Shona policemen who worked in
Matabeleland. The Ndebele hated this
as they understood this to mean that
they were socially reduced to the level of
the Hole people. This was therefore very
humiliating and could not be accepted,
thus forced the Ndebele to take up arms
against the white settlers.
Drought
The Ndebele uprising was also sparked
off by a severe drought in the 1895-
96 agricultural season. Crops failed
and a famine occurred. Matters were
worsened by a plague of locusts that
invaded the area during the 1895-96
agricultural season as the locusts ate
the little pastures and crops that had
survived the drought. Furthermore, the
country was also hit by a severe cattle
sickness called rinderpest. To prevent
this disease from spreading to the white
farms, the company administration
went on to slaughter thousands of
cattle, including the healthy ones. To
make matters worse, the people were
not allowed to eat the meat and the
cattle were burnt, thus giving rise to
the First Chimurenga as cattle under
Ndebele ownership were reduced to
a mere 14 000 by March 1896. This,
therefore, compelled the Africans to
rise up against the white settlers.
Abuse of African women
The abuse of African women also
contributed to the uprisings of 1896-97
by the Ndebele and Shona against the
white settlers. The native police and the
white officials were notorious for abusing
African women, married or unmarried.
Chiefs were compelled to give away
113
their daughters for immoral purposes.
This practice angered the Africans, thus
making the revolt unavoidable.
Taxation
When the settlers came and settled
among Africans, they did not have
much by way of food reserves and had
no labourers. Thus, they had to depend
on the local Africans and also engaged
in trade with the locals for their food
requirements. The Shona and the
Ndebele were not used to the cash
economy and had no value for the white
man’s money. Therefore, taxation was
one of the ways by which the economic
system was monetised. Thus, it created
the need for the Africans to raise the
cash needed for paying taxes which the
Ndebele/Shona people did not have. As
a result, the Africans were forced to work
for the white man in farms and mines to
raise money to pay taxes. The Shona saw
no reason for paying taxes and many
avoided it. Among the African leaders
who resisted the tax was Chief Kunzvi
Nyandoro who in 1896 refused to allow
the Native Police to collect hut tax from
his district and threatened to kill all
police and white men in his district if
114
the tax demands continued. Therefore,
this compelled the Africans to take up
arms against the white settlers.
The hut tax introduced in 1894 per hut/
household was a standard instrument
for producing a supply of labour from
the Africans. The hut tax required that
every male household head paid it every
month. However, the Africans were the
real owners of the land they occupied
so there was no basis to charge them
hut tax for the occupation of their own
lands. The Africans resisted. However,
tax evasions were usually followed by
unpleasant punishment, often public
beatings and cattle raids. Hut tax was
particularly annoying and humiliating
to both the Ndebele and the Shona. It
made their traditional and polygamous
marriages difficult in that men with
many wives were to pay more hut tax
to the BSAC. This meant giving more
cattle or sending many family members
to work to raise more money for tax.
Therefore, this meant spending less
time on their activities. Furthermore,
it separated them from their beloved
homes and forced both the Ndebele and
Shona to work for pathetic wages in the
mines and on farms of the settlers. This
could not be endured by the Africans
any more.
The activities of the department that
collected tax were undoubtedly the
main reason for the Shona hostility to it.
Failure to pay the taxes resulted in forced
labour. Chiefs and headmen were asked
by Commissioners to supply labour.
If they did not fulfil this expectation,
chiefs had their huts and grain silos
burnt and livestock appropriated for
failing to provide the labour or if the
labourers ran away. As described by a
native Commissioner in T.O. Ranger
(1967:78) “… so many cases of boys
running away from their employers have
occurred that to prevent it continuing,
we have seized all cattle and goats from
the chief whom I consider encouraged
the same….” Thus, the seized livestock
were not returned until the boys were
brought back and punished. The ill-
treatment that came with the collection
of taxes was not pleasant, so collection
of taxes was unpleasant so much that a
revolt was foreseeable.
The Jameson Raid
Insert picture of capture of L.S Jameson
The Jameson raid, though not a cause
of the uprising as such, provided the
suitable moment for the revolt to start
in Matabeleland. Jameson had planned
with Rhodes to invade and stage an
uprising in Transvaal Republic as they
wanted the Boer Republic under Paul
Kruger to accept the federation of South
under the British. However, Jameson
was defeated and imprisoned in the
Transvaal. The news of Jameson’s defeat
reached the Matabeleland in February
1896. The Ndebele then realised that
the BSAC was after all not invincible
and since they were just fewer than 40
white policemen left in the country, it
appeared the time was right to evict
the European settlers. This made the
Ndebele to take up arms against the
white settlers.
Events of the Chimurenga/
Umvukela
The war in Mashonaland
War broke out in June 1896 at Mazoe
with an attack on Alice Mine. This
was followed by the medium Mbuya
Nehanda Nyakasikana capturing
and executing the Mazoe Native
Commissioner, Pollard. Other religious
115

Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi
figures who led the rebellion include
Kaguvi Gumboreshumba, also known
as Sekuru Kaguvi, who was active in
the Goromonzi area and Mukwati,
a priest of the Mwari shrine who
was active throughout Mashonaland
and Matebeland. In addition to the
mediums, traditional leaders played a
major role in the rebellion, notably Chief
Mashayamombe, who led the resistance
in his chieftaincy in Mhondoro, south of
Harare. He was amongst the first chiefs
to rebel and the last to be defeated.
He was supported by many of the
surrounding districts, such as Chikomba.
116
Other chiefs who played an important
role included Gwabayana, Makoni,
Mapondera, Mangwende and Seke.
With war in Matabeleland ending,
General Carrington of the BSAC
was able to concentrate his forces
on Mashonaland and the fighters
retreated into granite kopjes. With
no central command to oppose him,
Carrington was able to bring maxim
guns against each stronghold in
turn until resistance ended. Mbuya
Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi
Gumboreshumba was captured and
executed in 1898, but Mukwati was
never captured and died a natural
death in Korekore land.
The war in Matabeleland
In March 1896, the Ndebele people
revolted against the authority of the
BSAC. Mlimo, the Ndebele spiritual
leader, is credited with forming much of
the anger that led to this confrontation.
He convinced the Ndebele and
Shona that the white settlers, whose
population had grown to about 4 000
were responsible for the drought, locust
plagues and the cattle disease rinderpest
devastating the country at that time.

Fredrick Courtney Selous
Mlimo planned to wait until the night
of March 29 in 1896, the first full
moon, to take Bulawayo by surprise
immediately after the ceremony called
the Big Dance. He promised through
his priests that if the Ndebele went
to war against the white settlers, their
bullets would change into water and
their cannon shells would become eggs.
His plan was to kill all of the settlers
in Bulawayo first, but not to destroy the
town itself as it would serve again as the
royal kraal for the newly revived King
Lobengula. Mlimo commanded that
the white settlers should be attacked
and driven from the country through
the Mangwe Pass on the western edge
of the Matobo hills, which was to be left
open and unguarded for this reason.
Once the settlers were removed from
Bulawayo, the Ndebele and Shona
warriors would head out into the
countryside and continue the slaughter,
all the settlers were either killed or fled.
On March 20, Ndebele troops shot and
stabbed a native policeman who was
working for the British South Africa
Company. Over the next few days,
other outlying settlers and prospectors
were killed. Frederick Selous, the
famous big-game hunter had heard
rumours of settlers in the country side
being killed, but he thought it was a
localised problem. When the news of
the policeman’s murder reached Selous
on March 23, he knew the Ndebele had
started a massive uprising.
Nearly twenty thousand Ndebele
warriors began the revolution in earnest
on March 24. Many, although not all
of the young police, quickly deserted
and joined the fighters. Armed with
Martini-Henry rifles, Winchester
repeaters as well as old obsolete guns,
assegais, knobkerries and battle axes, the
Ndebele headed into the countryside. As
the news of the massive rebellion spread
and the Shona joined in the fighting,
the settlers headed towards Bulawayo.
117
Within a week, 14 white settlers were
slain in Matabeleland, an additional
103 were killed in Mashonaland and
hundreds of settler homes, ranches and
mines were burned. In Matabeleland,
the whites in the rural areas then escaped
into the urban areas. The first days of the
war were marked by Ndebele success.
However, from April 1896, the tables
had turned against the Ndebele as the
settler forces under Fredrick Carrington
began defeating the Ndebele army.
Backups also arrived from South Africa,
Botswana and Europe. By June 1896,
the Ndebele were ready to quit the war
Effects/Results of the war
and settle for peace.
Reasons for the Ndebele/Shona
defeat in the First Chimurenga/
Umvukela
The defeat of Africans was caused by;
• Lack of unity among the Shona
and the Ndebele. The Shona
rebellion started in June at a time
when the Ndebele were giving up
• The Africans used inferior
weapons compared to those used
by the settlers. Specifically, they
used spears, battle axes and old
fashioned guns. The weapons did
118
not match the highly sophisticated
weapons of the settlers which
included machine guns and the
use of dynamites.
• Some African chiefs collaborated
with the whites for example Chief
Mutasa helped the whites to fight
Chief Makoni.
• The use of brutal methods by the
British such as the scorched-earth
policy.
• The capture and execution of spirit
mediums Kaguvi and Nehanda
demoralised the many Africans.
• Many people lost their lives, 8 000
African and 450 whites.
• Both the Shona and the Ndebele
lost confidence in their traditional
leaders such as Nehanda and
Kaguvi who were hanged. This
resulted in traditional African
religion losing ground to
Christianity.
• Changes were introduced in the
colonial administration – the
Ndebele indunas were recognised
and became salaried officials.
• A resident Commissioner was
 stationed in Rhodesia and the Revision Exercise
colony became answerable to the
Pracademic Questions
British government.
Project
• The First Chimurenga marked the
Dramatise the trial of Mbuya Nehanda
defeat of the Shona by the British.
and Sekuru Kaguvi. Relate all the
The Shona had not previously
historical facts up to the time they were
fought a war with the whites as
executed.
their regin had been occupied
because of the Rudd Concession
Typical Examination Questions
in 1890. This led to the Shona
being joined to the Ndebele to Section A: Multiple Choice
form one colony - the Rhodesian 1 The First Chimurenga was
or settler colony. fought from________________.
(a) 1893-1894 (b)1897
• Loss of land was accelerated both
(c) 1896 -1897
in Mashonaland and Matabeleland
(d) 1966-1987
with the first reserves created for
the Shona in 1898. 2 The word ‘Chimurenga’
means_________.
• Abuse of Africans continued.
(a) Freedom (b) To fight
• African chiefs lost their traditional (c) To struggle
power as Native Commissioners (d) War of Liberation
were given more authority to
3 Which of the following was not
deal with issues concerning the
a cause of the First Chimurenga/
Africans.
Umvukela of 1896/97?
• Although the Africans were
(a) Poor Education
defeated, the war became an
(b) Loss of Land
inspiration among the Africans (c) Hut tax
against colonial rule in the Second (d) Forced labour
Chimurenga.
4 The Mazoe Native Commissioner

119
 who was captured and executed
by Mbuya Nehanda in 1896 was
called____________.
(a) Leander Starr Jameson
1. Name the leading spirit mediums
(b) Cecil John Rhodes
(c) Henry Hawkins Pollard
(d) Fredrick Courtney Selous
2. What role did these leading spirit
5 Sekuru Kaguvi was also known
as_________.
(a) Nehanda
(b) Gumboreshumba
(c) Umlugulu
(d) Nyakasikana
Section B: Structured Questions
a) Identify any six causes of the First
Chimurenga\Umvukela.
b) Describe the main events of the
war between the Shona and the
British settlers during the 1896-
97 war.
c) Why were the Shona and Ndebele
eventually defeated by the British
settlers during the 1896-97 war?
Further Research
How did the First Chimurenga ignite
the spirit of nationalism amongst
Africans (Ndebele and Shona)?
120
Topic 2
Heroes and Heroines of the First
Chimurenga\Umvukela
Warm up Exercise
who participated in the Ndebele-
Shona Uprisings of 1896-97?
mediums play during the uprising?
Key Words/Terms
Spirit medium – a person who has
psychic abilities to see the
past, present and future
events.
Dispossession- taken away or removed
from what you own.
Armed rebellion- to fight against
oppressors using arms/
weapons
Plunderers: those responsible for
looting resources.
Terrorise: applying force to
intimidate people to
achieve a political
objective.
On April 27 1898, the architects
of the First Chimurenga – Mbuya
Charwe, the medium of the Nehanda
spirit and Sekuru Gumboreshumba,
the medium of the Kaguvi spirit also • Umlugulu
known as Murenga- were hanged by • Mukwati
the settler regime for being courageous • Nehanda
to challenge colonial dispossession. • Kaguvi
Interestingly, it was from the Kaguvi • Bonda
spirit, that was alternatively known • Chifamba
as Murenga meaning ‘war spirit’ that • Gumboreshumba
the name Chimurenga was derived. • Chaminuka
Sekuru Kaguvi, Mbuya Nehanda along • Nehoreka
with Zindoga, Hwata, Gutsa wrongly Notable Chiefs who took part in the
stood accused of murdering a brutal First Chimurenga/Umvukela
white Native Commissioner, Henry • Kunzwi-Nyandoro
Hawkins Pollard of the British South • Nyamweda
Africa Company (BSAC) who lived • Mangwende
near Mazoe and terrorised people in the • Mapondera
district. • Sango
• Seke
• Svosve
• Mutekedza
• Nyashanu
• Chinhamora

Role played by the heroes and

Mbuya Nehanda and the Mazowe crew
Heroes and heroines of the First
Chimurenga/ Umvukela
Spirit mediums who fought in the First
Chimurenga/Umvukela
heroines in the First Chimurenga\
Umvukela
The leading spirit mediums were
Mukwati in Matabeleland, Kaguvi in
western Mashonaland and Nehanda
in central and northern Mashonaland.
These traditional leaders, the indunas
121
and chiefs played significant roles in
the uprisings. The role they played in a
nutshell includes the following;
• Nehanda Charwe Nyakasikana
was a svikiro or spirit medium
of the Zezuru-Shona people. As
one of the spiritual leaders of the
Shona, she provided inspiration to
the revolt against the British South
Africa Company’s colonisation of
Mashonaland and Matabeleland.
• She commanded the Shona people
to expel the British from the land,
encouraging them to intensify the
struggle and rallying them on.
• Using secret messages to
communicate with each other, the
mhondoro effectively coordinated
their efforts.
• Sekuru Kaguvi was one of the
First Chimurenga leaders who
operated in the Goromonzi area
of Mashonaland.
• He was in fact the most influential
political- religious leader who led
the resistance of the indigenous
pre-colonial African societies in
the Zimbabwean plateau against
colonisation of the land.
• He co -ordinated the armed
122
rebellion against the so-called
‘Vapambepfumi Vasinamabvi’
meaning ‘Plunderers of wealth
without knees.’
• Mukwati was a Nyusa, a high
priest, a messenger who travelled
between God and the people.
• Because of the strategic position
he occupied and nature of the
duties, it was unavoidable that he
would mobilise people during the
First Chimurenga/Umvukela.
• During the Ndebele Umvukela
uprisings Mukwati assumed a
spiritual commander position
and was just as important as the
military field commanders at the
war front.
The spirit medium contribution
was:
• Uniting masses in gatherings.
• Distributing ‘muti’, thus making
fighters brave.
• Interpreting spiritual world to the
people.
• Interpreting natural disasters,
hunger, drought and the presence
of whites as a cause of spiritual
anger.
 • They were the leaders and driving Section A: Multiple Choice
force behind the Chimurenga/ Questions
Umvukela
1 Mbuya Nehanda was also known
• Instructing and disciplining the as________.
fighters. (a) Charwe
• Commanding the battles for (b) G u m b o r e s h u m b a
example giving directions and strategies (c) M u r e n g a
to the fighters. (d) Hwata
2) Murenga means ___________.
The role played by chiefs (a) Liberation Struggle
Chiefs played a very important role in (b) War Spirit
the war and their duty was to; (c) Uprising
- Organise warriors (d) To fight
- Uniting people 3 Which area was Sekuru Kaguvi most
- Leading soldiers in the war effective during the First Chimurenga?
- Some of them participated in (a) Mazowe
the war for example Mashayamombe (b) Goromonzi
and Chingaira. (c) Matabeleland
(d) Makoni
Revision Exercise 4 The leading spirit medium in
Matabeleland was ____________.
Pracademic Questions
(a) Mukwati
Financial benefit exercise
(b) Nehanda
Make portraits or artefacts of the heroes (c) Kaguvi
of the First Chimurenga. Try to sell your (d) Gumboreshumba
products during Parent’s Day, Prize 5. Which of the following is not one of
Giving Day or exhibit the art work at the spirit mediums who participated in
any cultural festival held in your area. the First Chimurenga?
(a) Nehanda
Typical Examination Questions (b) Mukwati
123
 (c) Bonda the First Chimurenga and Second
(d) Makoni Chimurenga are the same?
Section B: Structured Questions b) If so, compare and contrast the
1. (a) List six spirit mediums that causes of the First Chimurenga and
fought in the First Chimurenga / Second Chimurenga.
Umvukela of 1896-97. c) Do you know of any heroes and
(b) Describe the role played by the spirit heroines who participated in the Second
mediums in the First Chimurenga of Chimurenga? If yes, name them.
1896-97.
(c) To what extent did the execution Topic 3
of the spirit mediums signal the end of Debate questions on the
the war? Independence of Zimbabwe
Tour
Warm up Exercise
Visit the nearest local spiritual shrine to
1. Do you think the causes of the
learn about the work of a spirit medium.
First Chimurenga and Second
Take a notebook with you to write
Chimurenga are the same?
down all that you are told by the spirit 2. If so, compare and contrast the
medium. causes of the First Chimurenga and
Further Research Second Chimurenga.
Find out the names of spirit mediums 3. Do you know of any heroes and
in your area. What role are they playing heroines who participated in the
in modern Zimbabwe? Find out if Second Chimurenga? If yes, name
them.
spirit mediums have since abandoned
traditional culture in favour of
Christianity. Key words
Chimbwido : a female war collaborator
Topic 3: The Liberation Struggle who acted as freedom
(Second Chimurenga/Umvukela) fighters’ intelligence
network.
Warm up Exercise
Dejure: as a matter of law.
a) Do you think the causes of
124
Mujibha: a male war collaborator
who acted as freedom
fighters’ intelligence
network.
Guerrillas: a term used to describe
freedom fighters.
Sell outs: people who betray a
cause, a traitor.
Racial segregation: the separation
of human beings into
ethnic or racial groups.
War of liberation: 1966-1979
The second Chimurenga/Umvukela,
also known as the Rhodesian Bush war
or the Zimbabwean Liberation war,
refers to the guerrilla war of 1966-1979
which led to the end of white minority
rule in Rhodesian to the independence
of Zimbabwe in 1980.
Poem
The Liberation Struggle
The enemy had tentacles entrenched in
our society
It was like leukaemia all over a human
body
Brave cadres did to surrender
As we took arms to fight the enemy
Walking long distances to Mozambique
and Zambia,
Endureing bombs and massacres
Nyadzonya, Mboroma and Chimoio
were blood camps
Through bushes with hungry lions
Crocodile infested rivers
We marched
Determination overwhelmed us
But never to surrender
Till will freed our Motherland
Causes of the second
Chimurenga/Umvukela
Loss of land
• Land laws were introduced to
take away the land from the
Africans.
• Such laws were the Land
Apportionment Act and Land
Tenure Act.
• Africans were resettled in reserves
which had poor soils and had low
rainfall.
Lack of freedom/ independence
• Africans lost their freedom
• They were controlled by whites
and were given rules
• African movement was limited to
certain areas
• Africans were forced to carry
passes
125
Taxation
• Africans were forced to pay taxes
such as the hut and animal taxes
which were beyond reach. The
majority were unemployed while
those few working could not afford
to pay the outrageous amounts of
money needed.
Forced labour
• Africans were forced to work in
order to pay taxes.
• They worked hard but earned very
little wages and were often ill-
treated.
• They did manual jobs with little or
no pay. They also lived in squashed
accommodation or hostels for
example Matapi and Majubeki
in Mbare, Matida in Mutare and
other single or married quarters
where women were not welcome
in towns to see their husbands, but
made to stay as rural people.
Poor education
Insert pictures of the different kind of
schools- Group A and Group B
• African education was poorly
funded.
126
• The ‘bottle neck system’ was
often used to limit the number
of Africans who proceeded to the
highest level. The majority failed
Cambridge students ended up
as gardeners or labourers in the
white homes and industries.
• ‘Group A’ schools such as for
example in (i) Harare- Avondale
Primary, Mt Pleasant High
School while Harare High School
(Mbare), Highfield High School
(Highfield) were meant for blacks
and these were referred to as
‘Group B’ schools (ii) Bulawayo-
Evelyn Girls High, Milton Junior
and Northley High School, among
others were reserved for whites
(iii) Mutare- Mutare Junior and
Chancellor were for whites only
and B schools such as Sakubva
High School were for Africans
and (iv) Gweru- Fletcher High
School, Chaplin and Thornhill
schools were strictly a reserve for
whites.
Accommodation
• Africans were accommodated
in poorly built houses that were
overcrowded in townships such
as Makokoba and Nguboyembwa
(Mutare). In Gweru, old suburbs
like Mutapa, Mambo and
Ascot had communal
toilets where one toilet
accommodated about 10
families. There was also one
shower for many people.

• Low density suburbs such

as Mount Pleasant, Eastlea,
High density Suburbs
Chisipite, Borrowdale,
Avondale, Highlands and
Malbereign were for whites only.
(Bulawayo), Old Mbare,
In Bulawayo Caldry Park and
Highfields and Mufakose Emganwini were areas for whites.
In Gweru South
Downs, Windsor Park,
Athlone and Delsport
were meant for whites
who enjoyed large
hectares of land at the
expense of the black
majority.

Racial segregation
• People were
treated according to
their race (Coloureds,
Low density suburbs Asians, Whites and
Blacks). Some white
(Harare), Chisamba single, collar jobs were strictly reserved
Sakubva, Maonde and Grekas for Whites.

127
Roles played by the spirit mediums
in the liberation struggle
• In the Nehanda sector which
covered Dande area in Sipolilo
(now Guruve), Mazoe and
Centenary, spirit mediums such
as Chipfeni, Chidyamauyu,
Chiodzamumera, Mutota and
Mbuya Nehanda whose real name
was Nyamita played a major role
in the recruitment exercise.
• In the Chaminuka (Mount
Darwin) sector the spirit medium
of Chaminuka (whose real name
was Resipina Gweverende)
worked with combatants in Chesa
and Gwerere areas.
• The first shots in the war of the
decisive phase for the war were
fired in December 1972 by a
unit of 21 ZANLA men in the
Nehanda sector who attacked
Alterna Farm led by Rex Nhongo
(Solomon Mujuru).
• The spirit mediums gave guerrillas
traditional portions to confuse the
white soldiers.
• The spirit mediums predicted to
the guerrillas what was about to
happen and to avoid disaster by
128
changing routes to avoid being
armbushed.
• Chief Rekai Tngwena assisted
with information and helped
many guerrillas to cross into
Mozambique.
Role played by the masses in the
liberation struggle
Mao Tse Tung’s guerrilla war
philosophy;
• Soldiers are the fish and masses
are the sea.
• Just like the fish cannot survive
without water, so soldiers cannot
survive without the masses.
• The masses were information
sources as they told the guerrillas
the direction that had been taken
by the Rhodesian soldiers.
• The masses provided hiding places
for the guerrillas and hid them in
granaries.
• They informed the guerrillas of
the people who were betraying
them (sell outs).
• The masses gave the guerrillas
nutritious food. like chicken and
goat meat with sadza.
• The masses acted as recruitment
bases for guerrillas to train
in Mozambique, Russia, and
Zambia, Yugoslavia, China etc.
• The masses acted as luggage
carriers, carrying ammunition,
medicines and food for the
guerrillas.
• The chimbwidos (young girls)
formed the main part of the
choirs that sang war songs used
in the villages and broadcast on
the Voice of Zimbabwe, the radio
station which broadcast progress
on the war to Zimbabweans from
Mozambique and Tanzania.
• The mujibhas (young boys)
were also the chief ’s spies of the
guerrillas. They travelled long
distances to gather information
and to study the movements of
the Rhodesian forces.
• The girls cooked food and
delivered food to guerrillas the in
the bush.
• African businessman provided
clothes, shoes, medicines and
transport for the guerrillas.
• Some missionaries and
settler farmers also supported
the guerrillas by providing
information, food and medicines.
• A few whites (Liberals) also
supported the guerrillas
with guns and ammunition
from Zambia for fighters
of the Zimbabwe People’s
Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA)
inside Rhodesia.
Heroes and Heroines of the
Liberation struggle (Chimurenga/
Umvukhela
• James Chikerema
• Edison Sithole
• Ndabaningi Sithole-first Zanu
PF president
• George Nyandoro-ANC
secretary general
• Joshua Nkomo- ANC president,
NDP secretary of external affairs
and later become its president
• Joice Mujuru – later became first
woman Vice President of the
Republic of Zimbabwe
• Vivian Mwashita- woman cadre
• Oppah Muchinguri- woman
cadre
129
• Margaret Dongo- woman cadre
• Fay Chung- woman cadre
• Michael Mawema-NDP
president
• Leopold Takawira- ZANU PF
Vice President
• Jason Ziyapapa Moyo - ZAPU
• Herbert Chitepo- Zanu
Chairman, assassinated by car
bomb in Zambia in 1975
• Robert Gabriel Mugabe-
ZANU secretary general, later
became first Prime Minister of
independent Zimbabwe and later
Executive President in 1987.
• Morton Malianga
• Emmerson Mnangagwa- later
became Vice President
• Didymus Mutasa – provided
a place of hiding for freedom
fighters at Cold Comfort Farm in
Harare, later became a Cabinet
Minister
• Josiah Tungamirai- later became
Air Marshal for Air Force of
Zimbabwe
• Dick Joboringo-
130
Commanders of the Army
• Rex Nhongo (Solomon Mujuru)
ZANLA – first black Commander
of the Army in independent
Zimbabwe.
• Josiah Tongogara – Commander
of ZANLA forces who died in a
car accident in December 1979
• Perence Shiri (ZANLA)- became
Air Marshal of Air Force of
Zimbabwe, succeeding Josiah
Tungamirai
• Mayor Urimbo (ZANLA) -
• Josiah Tungamirai (ZANLA) -
became the first Air Marshal of
Air Force of Zimbabwe
• Alfred Nikita Mangena (ZIPRA)
• Dumiso Dabengwa (ZIPRA) –
became Home Affairs Minister
• Lookout Masuku (ZIPRA) –
became a commander in the
integrated army.
Results of the Second Chimurenga/
Umvukela
• When the whites began losing the
war, they negotiated for peace
• Talks were held between the Ian
 Smith government and ZANU,
ZAPU, UANC representatives
and hosted by the British
government at Lancaster House
in London from September to
December 1979.
• The talks paved the way for a
cease fire, guerrillas to assemble at
Assembly Points and elections to
be held.
• The end of the war in 1979 was
followed by elections in February
1980 in which Zanu PF and Zapu
participated
• On March 4 1980 the election
results were announced and they
were as follows:
• Zanu PF – 57 seats
• PF Zapu – 20 seats
• UANC – 03 seats
• RF-20 seats reserved for whites
• Zanu (PF) won the 57 of the The scary birds dropped more eggs for
80 seats. Its President, Robert
Gabriel Mugabe, was asked to
form the first independent
government in the country as
Prime Minister of Zimbabwe.
Poem
Viva Zimbabwe
It was this tragic day
I will never forget,
We were preparing for morning parade.
Falling, Falling, Falling....
Parade….. Still
Yes this was the order of our day,
Splitting my boots and left right left
right
This heavy morning, a heavy morning
Where metal birds of the sky flew and
dropped toxic eggs
Bombarding the whole place,
It was blood, blood and blood!
Scupper for cover!
Cover! Cover!
Echoed the voice of a comrade
In a split of a second, more and more
sought safety at sub machine gun,
Oh! Oh! Oh!
hours
I looked up, it was smoke and rivers of
blood
It followed the assault team....
Bayonets piercing the heart of
131
 breathing comrades,
To make sure....
They brutally massacred and left
Hours later, a familiar voice called
Just to check the survivors
Yes I survived!
I am a survivor
My God and Spirit guided me
I will carry on with the ethos of the
struggle
I will fight to the last
Until freedom is in our hands
People standing on top of a mass grave in Chimoio
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Research Project
Identify a veteran of the liberation
struggle in your area and find out any
significant information about how
132
Second Chimurenga was fought. From
the interview with this veteran of the
liberation struggle, look for the values
that youths of today should follow
and treasure in order to safeguard our
country from foreign influence.
Section A: Multiple Choice
Questions
1. Which of the following is not a cause
of the Second Chimurenga?
(a) Loss of land
(b) Loss of independence
(c) Taxation
(d) Natural disasters
2. Mao Tse Tung’s philosophy says that
the soldiers are the……………..
(a) fish
(b) sea
(c) masses
(d) sell outs
3. The masses gave the guerrillas______.
(a) people
(b) food
(c) guns
(d) radios
4 .The Second Chimurenga ended in
____________.
 (a) 1979 1. What do you understand by the
(b) 1966 words autocracy and democracy?
(c) 1980 2. What are human rights?
(d) 1975 3. Where do they come from?

5 Which party won the majority Key Words

of the 80 seats in February 1980?
(a) UANC
(b) ZANU PF
(c) PF ZAPU
(d) RF
Section B: Structured Questions
a) Identify any six heroes of the
Second Chimurenga.
b) Describe the role played by the
masses in the liberation struggle.
c) How important was external
support in this struggle?
Further Research
Compare and contrast causes of the
First and Second Chimurenga.
Autocracy: a system of government
by one person with
absolute power
Democracy: a system of government
in which power is vested
in the people who rule
either directly or through
freely elected
representatives
Majority rule: is a principle that means
in a group the majority
has the power to make
decisions that is binding
on the other group
Minority: the smaller part or
number
What is Autocracy?
• A system of government by one
person with absolute power.

Topic 4 • A form of government in which

a country is ruled by a person or
System of Governance
group with total power.
Warm up Exercise

133
 • A government type in which
a single person has unlimited
authority.
• A system of authority in which
supreme power is concentrated in
the hands of one person.
Characteristics of Autocracy
• Decisions are made by a small
group
• A single person is in power
• There is a strong army
• Concentration on security issues
• No independence of the judicial
system
• All sources of information are
supressed such as the media
• Any opposition to the government
is harshly punished
• No freedom of movement-
individuals need documents,
internal passports to move around
inside the country
• Little or no freedom of speech
• No freedom of assembly – citizens
are unable to hold meetings
without the approval of the
government
134
• Examples of such countries are
Saudi Arabia, North Korea and
Iran
What is Democracy?
Democracy can be defined as:
• A government by the people for
the people, emphasis on rule of
the majority.
• A government in which supreme
power is entrusted in the people
and exercised by them directly
or indirectly through a system of
representation.
• A government by the people
in which the supreme power
is bestowed in the people and
exercised directly by them or by
their elected agents under a free
electoral system.
• A form of government in which
people choose leaders by voting.
• A government in which power and
civic responsibility are exercised
by all adult citizens, directly, or
their representatives. Democracy
centres upon the principles of
majority rule and individual rights.
Characteristics of democracy
• Majority rule
• Individual rights
• Rule of Law
• Free and fair regular elections and House of Assembly and Senate
which are open to citizens of
voting age
• Decisions are made based on
majority rule and minority rights
• Citizens also have the
responsibility to participate in
the political system that in turn
protects their rights and freedoms
Democratic governments are committed
to the values of tolerance, cooperation
and compromise. In the words of
Mahatma Ghandi, “Intolerance is itself
a form of violence and an obstacle to
the growth of a true democratic spirit.”
Democracy rests upon the principles
of majority rule and individual rights.
Democracies guard against all powerful
central governments and decentralise
governments to regional and local levels
of the State which must be accessible
and responsive to the people as far as
possible.
Zimbabwe as a Constitutional
Democracy
Zimbabwe was born on 18 April 1980
through an election which was clearly
won by Robert Mugabe of Zanu
PF. Thereafter, Zimbabwe has held
methodically Presidential, Council
Elections without fail since 1980. This
is provided for in the Constitution.
Zimbabwe is a government where the
sovereign power is derived from the
Constitution. Thus, national decisions
are taken from the Constitution. The
government applies the Separation of
Powers principle where the three arms
of the government work independently
of each other. These are the Judiciary,
Legislature and Executive.
The people of Zimbabwe are the
ultimate source of authority through
elections and referendums.
Monarchy as a form of government
A monarchy is the type of government
whereby a family or a particular dynasty
is mandated to rule without going for
an election. Ultimate authority to run
the state affairs rests upon the King/
Queen.
Examples of such monarchical
governments are;
• Saudi Arabia under King Salma
• Swaziland under King Mswati
III
• Spain under Felipe VI
• Sweden under King Carl XVI
135
 Gustaf the Zimbabwean government
since 1980?
• Britain under the Queen
Elizabeth II
• Belgium Further Research
• Sweden • Compare and contrast democracy
• Brunei and autocracy.

• Lesotho • In what ways is your school

• Netherlands etc. democratic?

Revision Exercise Topic 5

Pracademic Questions
Structures and functions of
Problem Solving central government
Divide your class into two groups. One Warm up Exercise
group supports the topic and the other
1. Name the structures of the central
opposes it. Ask your teacher to become
government.
the adjudicator.
2. What is central government?
Topic: The death penalty is a violation
of the right to life. Is the government
Key words
of Zimbabwe justified to remove death
penalty? Executive: a person or group of
people having
Section B: Structured Questions administrative or
1. a) Identify any five human rights. managerial authority in
an organisation.
b) Outline the basic principles of Judiciary: the branch of government
democracy.
that is given the authority
c) To what extent have these to understand and apply
principles been implemented by the law.

136
Legislature: the body of politicians in
a state or country that
makes laws.
Zimbabwe is a constitutional democracy.
The Parliament of Zimbabwe
It is therefore appropriate that the three
arms of state, namely the Executive,
the Judiciary and the Legislature get
their existence and authority from the
Constitution. For the proper functioning
of the government, the above pillars of
the State, though respecting the principle
of Separation of Powers by maintaining
their independence from one another,
play different but complementary roles
in national government.
The Executive
The president is the head of the state
as well as the commander-in-chief
of the defence forces. He/she must
be a Zimbabwean citizen by birth or
descent, aged 40 years or above and live
in Zimbabwe. The president is elected
for a five-year term by all registered
voters and may be re-elected for any
number of additional terms. The
Zimbabwe Constitution provides for
two Vice Presidents at a time
and these are appointed by the
President. The Vice Presidents
and ministers can be removed
by the President or replaced
upon death or resignation.
The Judiciary
Judicial authority is assigned in the
The President and his ministers
Supreme Court, the High Court,
Constitutional Court and subsidiary
courts established by an act of parliament,
namely, Magistrate Courts. Traditional
courts are headed by the chiefs and/or
headmen and small claims courts. The
President appoints the Chief Justice,
who is the head of the judiciary and
Supreme and High Court judges after
137
consultations with the Judicial Service
Commission. Judges are removed from
office upon reaching retirement age or
due to illness of mind or body or bad
behaviour. The judge constitutionally
retires at 65, but a judge in good health
may retire at the age of 70.
The Legislature
The judiciary servie commission
In terms of Section 116 of the
Constitution of Zimbabwe,
Legislature consists of Parliament and
the President. The President is part of
the Legislature- in his capacity as Head
of State who holds the Public Seal and
accordingly, bills made by Parliament
need the President’s signature before
becoming law. Section 118 of the
Constitution of Zimbabwe states that
Parliament, consisting of the Senate, is
headed by the President of the Senate
138
and the Speaker heads the National
Assembly. Pursuant to section 135
of the Constitution, the Speaker of
the National Assembly is the head of
parliament. The Senate is composed of
80 members of parliament while the
National Assembly has 270 members of
Parliament. Cumulatively, Parliament
has 350 members. Therefore, it is
important to note that Zimbabwe has a
bi-cameral (two) system parliament.
Insert picture of parliament of
Zimbabwe
Roles and functions of Parliament
The most prominent role of the
Parliament is the legislative (law
making) function.
The Legislative function
the
The Speaker of Parliament
(Parliament session in progress)
The legislative role is to make or enact
laws. Legislative authority refers to the
making of laws that govern parties and
communications. In other words, the The functions of the executive
law builds and governs every person, The President and Cabinet are
natural or juristic as well as all State responsible for;
institutions. Legislative supremacy by • Initiating.
the legislature is exercised through the
• Coordinating.
passing of bills. Unless otherwise clearly
stated, a bill may originate in either • Executing of public policies and
house of parliament. A house where a programmes.
bill is initiated is referred to as the house Section 110 of the Constitution of
of origin. Section 130 of the constitution Zimbabwe highlights that subject to
provides that in the exercise of their the law, Cabinet is responsible for;
legislative authority, both the Senate and • Directing the operations of
the National Assembly have powers to government.
initiate, prepare, consider or reject any
• Conducting government business
legislation. This means that Parliament
in parliament.
should not just rubber stamp bills, but
should question them to ensure that • Preparing, initiating and
they are not only constitutional, but also implementing national
legislation.
address matters of national interest. Put
differently, Parliament is expected to • Developing and implementing
thoroughly debate and study bills so that national policy.
there is value addition. A Bill becomes
Functions of the judiciary
an Act once it has been presented and • Interprets the law.
passed in both houses of Parliament and
assented to and signed by the President. • Ensures that the Executive does
not violate the Constitution.
Finally, a Bill becomes an Act once it
has been presented and passed in both Functions of the Executive
houses of Parliament and assented to • Initiates legislation/laws.
and signed by the President.
139
 • Governing the country.
• Directing operations of the civil
service.
• Policy making.
• Ensures the holding of general
and local government elections.
Functions of the Legislature
• Debates and makes laws.
• Represents the people.
• Authorises the budget.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Structured Questions
a) State the three organs of the
Zimbabwe government and the
titles of the respective leaders.
b) Describe the functions of each of
the organs of the government.
c) How successful has the Judiciary
in Zimbabwe been in performing
its functions?
Further Research
Look at the duties of the Legislature.
How far has the MP in your area
140
been fulfilling his/her duties? What
challenges are likely to be faced by
MPs in carrying out their duties in
Zimbabwe’s constituencies?
TOUR
Arrange a tour to the Parliament
of Zimbabwe and understand its
operations. Make sure you take a
notebook with you to write down
important information.
Topic 6
Government as a social service
provider
Warm up Exercise
1. Can you identify social changes
that the Zimbabwean government
introduced in 1980?
2. Did the government extend its social
services to the rural population?
Key Words/Terms
Immunisation: to give someone a
vaccine to prevent
infection by a disease
Compulsory: required by law or rule
Bottle-neck: a system of
systematically side: lining Blacks by
Whites in the education
 system.
Prevalence rate :
Role of government in providing
social services
Colonial governments neglected the
African people in providing social
services like health, education and
shelter. They were treated as second
class citizens when it came to accessing
social services, most of which had been
developed to serve the white community
in the country. The government of
independent Zimbabwe moved quickly
to extend social services to the entire
population, especially basic services
such as health, education and shelter.
Health
Nurses in a classroom at Chitungwiza Hospital
Before independence, the best hospitals
with the best equipment were reserved
for the Whites, including all hospitals
either at mission institutions or in
towns. Rural areas were served by clinics
run by nurses. To reverse this imbalance,
the new government adopted a Health
for all by 2000 policy.
What this meant was;
• Increasing the number of hospitals,
clinics, doctors and nurses, health
workers and other staff at central,
provincial, district and village
health centres.
• Training medical and para-
medical staff to cater for the large
number of patients.
• Educating people in nutrition,
Harare Central Hospital
health, preventable diseases and
immunisation.
141
At independence in 1980, there were that 17-25% of antenatal patients
only two central hospitals, but these were positive in 1993. This figure rose
have since been increased to seven while dramatically in the first half of the
district hospitals have been increased 1990s, peaking and stabilising at around
from 28 to 60, rural clinics from 46 to
29% in 2002, 24,6 % in 2005 and at the
over 100 and rural health centres from
time of writing (December 2016) it
450 to above 1000.
The new government set up a four- stood at 16%. Since the late 1990s, the
tier system comprising of primary, HIV prevalence rate in Zimbabwe has
secondary, tertiary and quaternary. been on the decline, making Zimbabwe
Primary health care is the main vehicle one of the first African countries to
through which health care programmes witness such a trend.
are implemented in Zimbabwe. The Most of the health personnel working
main components of the primary in Zimbabwe health sector have been
health care (PHC) include maternal
trained at institutions in Zimbabwe
and child health services, health
such as Harare and Mpilo Hospitals
education, nutrition education and food
production, expanded programmes in and some nurses are trained at a number
immunisation, communicative disease
control, water and sanitation, essential
drugs programme and the provision of
basic and essential preventative curative
care.
The majority of health services in
Zimbabwe are provided by the public
sector (Ministry of health and Child
Care and Local Government, both in
the rural and urban areas).
Zimbabwe was one of the first countries
in the world to recognise HIV and Secondary school students

AIDS as a threat and offer protective of colleges, including some missionary

measures. Surveillance for HIV shows hospitals. Most of the doctors are
142

Primary school
trained at the University of Zimbabwe.
Education
In 1980, education was declared a basic
human right by then Prime Minister
Robert Mugabe, the leader of the Zanu
PF which had won the elections in
1980. Primary education was made free
and compulsory. Much emphasis was
put on the development of education.
The new government saw education as a
vehicle of economic development, hence
the importance that was attached to it.
Many children were to be given them
a chance to participate in the economic
development of the country. For that
reason, the new government decided to
immediately do away with the bottle-
neck education system of the colonial
days that was deliberately intended
to deny the African child secondary
education. As a result, enrolment figures
for both primary and secondary schools
greatly increased. A new curriculum was
also introduced and it was intended
to make education a vehicle to convey
the country’s cultural values and to
promote economic development.
Schools
Many schools were built in both
urban and rural areas. As a result,
enrolment shot up significantly. In
1979, there were 892 668 children
in Zimbabwean schools. The
figure shot up to 2 257 269 by 1989.
Correspondingly, the number of schools
increased from 2 401 primary schools
and 177 secondary schools in 1979
to 4 207 primary schools and 1507
secondary schools in 1989 respectively.
These increases justify the talk about
an educational explosion that some
analysts associate with the first decade
of Zimbabwe’s independence. For the
first time in the history of independent
Africa, a country was about to succeed
in educating its entire population. The
elderly who had missed out during the
colonial era were catered for through the
introduction of the informal education
department. The department organised
classes for them. The government also
abolished the two- tier education system
that classified the country’s education
into F1 and F2 schools as well as Group
‘A’ schools which were for Whites while
Group ‘B’ schools catered for Blacks.
143
Other changes in education included
the introduction of free and compulsory
primary education. Both primary and
secondary education became a right for
every Zimbabwean child. Like in the
health sector, the government did all it
could to train trained personnel to the
new schools. This was done through
opening new training colleges and High denstity suburbs in Budiriro Zimbabwe
expanding existing ones. The Zimbabwe
Integrated Teachers Education course
(ZINTEC) was introduced to solve
the problem of manpower shortage
in Zimbabwe’s primary schools. The
programme enabled teachers to receive
most of their training while serving in the
field. To solve the shortage of teachers
in critical subjects like Mathematics,
Science and English in secondary Low density suburbs in Zimbabwe
total of 1.9 million housing units were
schools, government signed agreements
built in urban areas. Despite all this
to get such teachers from Britain, West
effort, a huge housing backlog remained,
Germany, Canada, East Germany and
thus forcing government to introduce
Mauritius and sent students to Cuba
strategies to provide housing for all the
to train as teachers. The policy was to people who needed it. It was then that
construct a school within a radius of that the government encouraged people
10 km to avoid situations where pupils to form cooperatives and allocated
would walk long distances. those stands from government land.
Cooperative members serviced stands
Housing after which individual members went
The new government was determined on to construct their own houses.
to give all workers accommodation in Foreign donors and private companies
towns. Thus between 1980 and 1989, a were also encouraged to help out in
the provision of houses. International

144
organisations such as the World Bank,
the United Nations, USAID and the
Commonwealth Corporation made
funds available for this purpose. The
funds were sometimes given to the
building societies like CABS, Beverly
and Founders to administer. In the rural
areas, government introduced the rural
housing project to try and stop further
damage to the environment. Housing
units were built in resettlement areas
and at growth points. The people were
given loans payable with interests over a
25 year period.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Multiple Choice Questions
1. At independence the best
hospitals with the best equipment
were reserved for;
(a) Blacks (b) Indians
(c) Whites (d) Coloureds
2. How many central hospitals are
there in Zimbabwe?
(a) Seven (b) Two
(c) Five (d) Three
3. To solve the shortage of teachers
in Mathematics, Science and
English, the Zimbabwean
government sat students to
___________train as teachers
(a) West Germany
(b) Canada
(c) Cuba (d) Mauritius
Problem solving
1. If you were the Minister of
Education, how would you resolve
the educational challenges faced by
rural children since 2010?
Typical Examination Questions
Section B: Structured Questions
a) List any six inequalities in the
provision of social services that
existed in Rhodesia.
b) Describe the measures adopted by
the government during the first
decade of independence to redress
these inequalities.
c) How successful was the
government in addressing the
inequalities?
Further Research
Discuss ICT developments in schools
from the year 200. How has President
Robert Mugabe’s initiative to donate
computers helped school children to be
computer literate?
145
Unit Summary war was how spirit mediums directed

The First chimurenga (1896-1897) was the war and the important role of the

caused by loss of land,police brutality,loss masses. This followed Mao Tse Tungs’

of independence, forced labour, loss of philosophy on guerilla warfare. There

livestock, taxation, abuse of women and are two systems of governance which

drought which all affected the natives. are autocracy and democracy. There are

This Africans were defated because of also monarchies and federations, but

the use of unsophisticated weapons. the most common ones are autocracy

There were a number of leaders who and democracy. There is separation of

emerged during the first Chimurenga power (SOP) philosophy in our type

and these were Mukwati, Sekuru of government whereby there is the

Kaguvi, Mbuya Nehanda Nehoreka, Executive, Judiciary and Legislature

Umhlungulu, Chaminuka etc. From which are independent of each other.

1966 - 1979, the natives started another The government of Zimbabwe created

war dubbed the Second Chimurenga/ the Ministries of Public Service Labour

Umvukela. Some of the reasons for the and Social Welfare, Health and Child

war were forced labour, a stiffer taxation Care, and that of Local Government,

regime, and racial discrimination, and Public Works and National Housing to

inferior education, loss of land and cater for social services.

lack of freedom. Noteworthy in this

146
 5 National Heritage

Unit Objectives will also learn to appreciate the spirit of

the National Pledge and its significance.
By the end of this Unit, you should be
You will be able to state and identify
able to;
natural resources and how colonisers
• Identify, locate and explain the exploited our precious resources.
significance of national shrines and
monuments. Warm Up Exercise
• Recite the National Pledge.
1. Do you know of any shrines in
• Discuss the importance of the
Zimbabwe?
National Pledge.
2. How many shrines do we have
• Relate the National Pledge to the
outside our country?
National Anthem
3. Why are these shrines in other
• Explain how colonialism
countries?
disadvantaged Zimbabweans to
4. What are monuments?
access natural resources.
5. List any 3 monuments in Zimbabwe.
• Explain how unequal distribution of
natural resources led to the uprisings.
Topic 1
Introduction National shrines, monuments
and heritage sites
In this Unit you will be exposed to the
national shrines and heritage sites in
Zimbabwe. You will learn to identify and Key Words
relate the significance national shrines Cadres: a revolutionary group
and heritage sites in Zimbabwe. You AK 47: a Russian made assault

147
 rifle developed by Mikhail ruin or structure or remaining portion
Kalashnikov of a building, ruin or structure, or (b)
Colonial bondage: e n s l a v e m e n t statue, grave, cave, shelter, shell, mould
before independence or other site of similar king; which is
City of Kings: Bulawayo known or believed to have been erected,
Foreign Policy: set of actions and constructed or used in Zimbabwe
strategy of dealing with before the 1st January 1980. Thus,
other nations it is noteworthy to say that national
Freedom Fighters: those people who monuments and heritage sites are
participated declared by the relevant Minister or
Hideout: somewhere to hide or a anyone authorised by the President.
secluded place
Magnificent: extremely beautiful The National Shrines
Venerated: made of stones and
crafted in a veneer like
style

The national shrines, monuments and

heritage sites are important institutions
in Zimbabwe as they are part of our
tradition and culture passed on from
one generation to the other. These Njelele shrine
institutions are a reflection of our past
experiences that we should be proud
of as they differentiate us from other
countries. National shrines are those
sacred places where national leaders are
laid to rest while heritage sites are those
places that are kept and honoured for
their historical reference.
The National Museums and
Monuments Act Chapter 25:11 defines
ancient monument as (a) any building, Heroes’ acre

148
 (i) National Heroes Acre: it was
established in 1980 and is located
about 8km from the Central
Business District (CBD) in the
suburb of Warren Park 1. This
prestigious place was modelled
after AK 47 assault rifle which
was used by freedom fighters to
liberate our country.
• The place represents the struggle
for our hard won Independence
from the colonial bondage of
Britain.
Soldier’ which represents all unknown
cadres who perished during the war,
whose names are not known and they
have never been accorded proper burial.
Some of them just disappeared in the
bushes, rivers, mountains, caves and
some are buried in mass graves in and
outside the country.
NB: The National Heroes’ Acre is
sacred and only those whose work and
contribution are considered great, are
buried at this important place.

• It also represents thousands

of selfless men and women
who braved the weather and
risked themselves, crossing into
Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia,
Yugoslavia, China and Russia in
order to carry out the long war
against the Smith regime.

• The cadres deserve respect and Late Vice President Joseph Musika
honour for the great work they
did for this great nation.

• This is the place where only a

selected few who sacrificed their
precious lives for the liberation of
Zimbabwe as well as protecting its
territorial integrity are buried.

There is a ‘ Tomb of Unknown Late Vice President Jonh Nkoma

149
 contributions to the war is not
questioned.

There are 10 Provincial Heroes

Acres’ in Zimbabwe followed by
several District Heroes Acres
dotted around the country.

(iii) Mass graves- the mass graves

are those grave sites where many
people are buried at the same
Josiah Tongogara
time in one grave. Some of the
mass graves are in Zimbabwe
at Chibondo and Hebert Mine
Shaft in Mutasa district.

Other mass graves are found in

Mozambique and Zambia. The
sad thing about these mass graves
is that they were a result of brutal
massacre of our fighters through

Herbet Chitepo

(ii) Provincial Heroes Acre- The

provincial Heroes’ Acres serves
the same purpose as the National
Heroes Acre. Only those who
participated in the 1st or 2nd
Chimurenga are buried here
and they are also referred to as
national heroes/heroines whose
People sitting on a mass grave in Chimoio

150
 arm bushes and bombings by the
Rhodesian soldiers. Examples of
such graves are found in Chimoio
and Nyadzonya (Mozambique),
Mukushi, Mboroma, Morongoro
in Zambia.
Monuments
(i) Chinhoyi Caves
suppressed people living around the
caves whom they threw in the pool in
around 1830s. Some believe that the
place was a hideout by Nyamakwena
who used to kill people and threw them
in this silent pool . However, tragedy
befell this murderer who was killed by
Headman Chinhoyi.
Significance of Chinhoyi Caves
• It is a tourist attraction and
people visit the place and pay a fee
to view the place.

• The information surrounding the

caves and the pool will be passed
from one generation to the other.
Chinhoyi caves (ii) Great Zimbabwe
It is located about 30km from Masvingo
The caves are located about 8km from
town at an altitude of 1100m above
Chinhoyi town and 140km nort-west
the sea level and the area covers 720
of Harare. Some
Archaeologists and
Historians believe
that the place
‘Chirorodziva’ was
taken from the
horrific incidences
that relates to
the Angani tribe
who moved
northwards and
in the processes, Great Zimbabwe ruins

151
hectares. The monuments were built
around 1100 to 1450 AD by the Shona
people who demonstrated a high level of
architectural experience by constructing
respected houses. It is divided into three
partitions namely; Hill ruins, the Great
Enclosure and Valley ruins.
Hill Ruins- These were inhabited from
around the 11th to 15th centuries.
It was considered as the residence
of chiefs and to the western side
had birds used for ritual purposes.
The Great Enclosure- is located
south of the hill and it was built of
granite blocks in the 14th century.
It had a narrow passage that led
to a high conical tower. You can
also see huts within the stone
enclosure walls with two living
huts and a kitchen.
Valley ruins-these are constructed in
brick and dry stone masonry walls.
Significance of Great Zimbabwe
• It represents the values,
creativeness and hardworking of
the people of Zimbabwe.
• The place is a tourist attraction
where tourists from all over
152
the world come to view the
architectural works of the Shona
people. As they do so, they live
behind much needed foreign
currency.
• The structures are part of our
history which can be passed from
one generation to the other.
• It served as a basis of our
international relations and foreign
policy where trade of goods and
minerals were conducted with
the Portuguese traders, Chinese,
Indians, the Middle East and East
merchants.
NB: Great Zimbabwe facts
• It was built by the Bantu people
of the Iron Age
• Major activities included trade in
gold
• It was a symbol of powerful state
and orderliness
• The ruins were made of stones
and dagga
• Assertions that the ruins were
not built by the Shona are a
misleading notion by Europeans
who did not want to acknowledge
that African could build such
 structures.
(iii) Khami Ruins
Khami ruins
Khami ruins are located 22 km west of
Khami River from the City of Kings
(Bulawayo) and it is the second largest
stone structure after Great Zimbabwe.
The ruins are located on 1 300m hilltop
from a dam which was built in around
1928 -1929 and currently sits on about
108 hectares. Historically, the ruins
were the capital of the Torwa dynasty
which became prominent after the fall
of the Great Zimbabwe state.
In their researches, archaeologists
uncovered objects at this site which are
traced to China and Europe, suggesting
that the place was a centre of trade with
the capacity to attract merchants and
traders.
The setup of the ruins has a passage and
northern ruins. There were also huts
made of dagga and a Chief ’s residence
which was built towards the north of
the Hill ruin. The architectural work
was done by the local people.
Significance of Khami ruins
153
 • The place is a tourist attraction
• It is part of our history as it
reminds us of the past
• Provides a basis that informed our
foreign policy
(iv) Njelele
Njelele hill
The place is also known as Mabweadziva
or Matonjeni and is located to the
west of Matobo National Park which
is approximately 100km south of
Bulawayo. Information about this shrine
has been orally passed on where its
origins dates back to the 14th century.
Around the 19th century, Lobengula
was said to have used the place to house
Mwari cult priests where he would seek
advice during the time of danger .
The place is recognised as an important
shrine where rain making ceremonies
are conducted. The post-menopausal
and those who have not yet reached
154
puberty are the ones ‘who conduct the
rituals. Traditional beer was brought to
the shrine in clay pots. After performing
the necessary rituals, a voice was heard
directing them on what steps to take in
order for the rains to come.
Significance of Njelele
• The place connects people
spiritually.
• It is a place to ask for rains from
God.
• It is a tourist potential.
• Creates employment for locals,
for example sculptors, weavers
and even some end up working for
National Parks and Wildlife.
(v) Victoria Falls
The magnificent falls are found in
Matabeleland North province. The
place is a Unesco World Heritage Site.
They are 2km wide, over a basalt plateau
and plunges about 108m. There is
abundant evidence that later Stone Age
and the Middle Stone Age people once
stayed there. With time, they were later
displaced by Bantu tribes who included
the Tonga people who were also pushed
to Binga by the Ndebele, Batswana
and Makololo people. One thing in
 November 1855
after being
mesmerised
by these falls,
decided to honour
Queen Victoria
by naming the
falls, Victoria Falls
after his Queen.

Victoria Falls
common among these tribes is that
they named the place ‘Mosi-a- Tunya’
meaning “The smoke that thunders.”
With time, the town has experienced
massive developments, thereby pushing
people away from this natural feature.
Demystifying Victoria Falls
The Victoria Falls are one of the largest
natural falls in the world. Other falls
which are big as Victoria Falls are Niagra
Falls in the United States of America,
Inga Falls in Democratic Republic of
Congo, Wagenia and Chute falls.
• Indigenous people knew about the
existence of the falls as far back as
the Middle and Later Stone Age
as well as Iron Age.
• David Livingstone on
• It is not
entirely true
that David
Livingstone was
the first person to ‘discover’ the
falls; he is the first among the
White community to know about
the existence of the falls.
Significance of Victoria Falls
The Victoria Falls are significant in the
following ways;
• Source of our history and Culture
• Creation of employment as
sculptors and weavers sell their
traditional wares to tourists.
• It is part of our heritage
• Source of income through tourists
(both domestic and international)
as they pay to view this national
heritage site. Locals pay US$7
17 and foreign tourists $30.

155
 • Tourists also pay to view the
Devil’s Gorge
• It brings together Zambia and
Zimbabwe as they share the falls on
both side and the bridge connects
people of the two countries and
the whole Southern Africa region
and Africa as a whole.
• Because Victoria Falls is a tourist
destination, it has led to the
construction of hotels (Kingdom
Hotel, Elephant Hills hotel,
Victoria Hotel) and several lodges
which has created employment in
the country.
• There is also the creation of other
economic facilities and places
for entertainment for tourists for
example there is a crocodile farm,
helicopter tours, boat cruising,
supermarkets in the town among
others.
Revision Exercise
Pracademics Questions
Practical
In groups of 10, and using available
resources, design and make one model
of;
(a) Great Zimbabwe
156
(b) Khami Ruins
(c) Victoria Falls
NB: You can exhibit your artefacts at
the National Achieves and National Art
Gallery.
ICT Session
If you have internet facilities close
by, find a website for the Zimbabwe
National Museums and Monuments.
Find historical sites and download
pictures to share with others.
Typical Exam Questions
Section A: Multiple Choice
Questions
1. Where do you find the National
Heroes Acre?
(a) Belvedere (b) Mabelreign
(c) Kambuzuma
(d) Warren Park 1
2. The Tomb of the Unknown
Soldier is found at ______.(a)
Provincial Heroes Acre
(b) Chimoio Shrines
(c) National Heroes Acre
(d) Nyadzonya Shrine
3. Why were Zimbabwean freedom
fighters buried in mass graves?
(a) they were victims of brutal
 massacre Section B: Structured Questions
(b) they were killed in numbers
1. (a) List any three national shrines
and there was no time for proper
of your choice and two national
burial
monuments found in Zimbabwe.
(c) it is our culture to bury people
(5)
that way
(d) it was a directive from (b) Describe the features of any one
commanders. shrine in Zimbabwe. (10)

4. Great Zimbabwe is divided into (c) Evaluate the assertion that

three partitions namely; national shrines and monuments
have no historical relevance to
(a) Hill Ruins, Conical Tower
Zimbabwe. (10)
and Valley Ruins
(b) Great Enclosure, Valley Ruins Trip
and venerated houses Make a planned trip to any of the mass
(c) Valley Ruins, Great Enclosure graves in Mozambique and Zambia.
and Hill Ruins You can also visit the National Heroes
(d) venerated houses, ritual site Acre and Provincial Heroes Acres in
and masonry walls. your province.
5. It is true that _________.
Topic 2
(a) the Stone Age people once
The National Pledge of
lived in Victria Falls but were
Zimbabwe
chased away by Makololo tribe
(b) the Victoria Falls is the only
largest natural falls in the world
(c) David Livingstone was the
first person to discover Victoria
Falls
(d) the Bantu people chased away
the Stone Age and Middle Age
people from Victoria Falls
Students reciting Nation Pledge

157
 Warm up Exercise
1. Can you still remember National
Pledge at your last school?
2. In groups, recite the National Pledge.
Key Words
Preamble- an introduction in the
Constitution
National Pledge- oath of allegiance
Historical realisation- consciousness as
a result of self-reflection
Masses- the people
Colonial masters- former colonisers for
example the British
Patriotism- love for one’s county
Sovereign people- people who can
choose their own destiny
The National Pledge (NP) is an oath
of allegiance to our great nation,
Zimbabwe. It was launched by the
Government on 03 May 2016 at
Harare High School by the Permanent
Secretary in the Ministry of Primary
and Secondary Education, Dr Olivia
Utete-Masango.
The National Pledge was extracted from
the Preamble of the Constitution of the
Republic of Zimbabwe Amendment
(No.20).
The National Pledge is divided into the
following levels:
158
(i) Infant Level
(ii) Junior and Secondary Level
Junior and Secondary Level
Almighty God, in whose hands
our future lies
I salute the national flag
Respecting the brave fathers
And mothers who lost their lives in,
the Chimurenga/Umvukela.
We are proud inheritors of the
richness, of our natural
resources
We are proud creators and,
participants of our vibrant
traditions and cultures.
So I commit to honesty and the
dignity of hard work.
Comparative case studies of National
Pledges
(a) Ghana National Pledge
I promise on my honour
To be faithful and loyal to Ghana my
motherland
I pledge myself to the service of Ghana
With all my strength and with all my heart
I promise to hold in high esteem,
Our heritage, won for us through the blood
and toil of our fathers, and I pledge, myself
in all things to uphold and defend the name
of Ghana.
So help me God.
God bless Ghana.
Ghana’s National Pledge was developed
from a historical realisation leading to
their political independence. Ghana and
Zimbabwe share the same history that led
to the masses to take up arms and fight the
‘colonial master’. This is why both pledges
remind citizens of the sacrifices made by
sons and daughters who participated in the
war of liberation.
(B) Britain’s Oath of Allegiance (Similar
to the National Pledge)
I, (name), swear by Almighty God that, on
being a British citizen, I will be faithful
and bear true allegiance to her Majesty
Queen Elizabeth II, her heirs and successors
according to law.
I will give my loyalty to the United
Kingdom and respect its rights and
freedoms. I will uphold its democratic
values.
I will observe its laws faithfully and fulfil
my duties and obligation as a British
citizen.
NB: This oath of allegiance is taken by all
those applying for a British citizenship.
(C) United States of America (USA)
National Pledge
I pledge allegiance to my flag and with the
Republic,
for which it stands, one nation,
Indivisible, with liberty and justice for all,
I pledge allegiance to the flag of the USA
and the Republic
Which it stands one nation, indivisible,
with liberty and justice for all.
Notes: The National Pledge of the
USA was first composed in 1887. It
was adopted in 1942 by the Congress
but it only became official in 1945. The
USA government forced recitation of
the National Pledge in 1954, resulting
in many Americans dragging the
government to court, challenging the
constitutionality of the compulsory
recitation. Following this debate, there
were slight amendments on recitation,
giving pardon to members of Jehovah’s
Witnesses, but the contents remained
the same.
Significance of the National Pledge
• The National Pledge raises a
sense of patriotism among all
Zimbabweans.
• It prepares totally committed
cadres who are aware and able to
defend national interests whenever
they are threatened. These include
159
 national unity, peace and stability,
fair regional presentation, foreign
policy and good governance.
• The National Pledge assists
individuals to give allegiance to
God and our country.
• It reminds us to respect the
veterans of the liberation struggle,
ex-detainees and restrictees
who participated in the war of
liberation. In short, Zimbabwe
did not come on a silver plate.
• It reminds us that Zimbabwe has
plentiful natural resources to be
exploited for our benefit today
and in the future.
• It educates us on a duty and
requirement that is given to us by
participating in traditional and
cultural heritage ceremonies.
• The National Pledge instils values
of hard work and honesty in
every Zimbabwean. As citizens
of a prosperous Zimbabwe, we
must strive to empower ourselves
economically. This is achieved the
through indigenisation policy
framework.
160
Our National Anthem
English Version
Oh lift high the banner, the flag of
Zimbabwe
The symbol of freedom proclaiming
victory
We praise our heroes’ sacrifice,
And vow to keep our land from foes;
And may the Almighty protect and
bless our land.
Oh lovely Zimbabwe, so wondrously
adorned
With mountains, and rivers cascading,
flowing free;
May rain abound, and fertile fields;
May we be fed, our labour blessed;
And may the Almighty protect and
bless our land.
Oh God, we beseech Thee to bless our
native land;
The land of our fathers bestowed upon
us all;
From Zambezi to Limpopo
May leaders be exemplary;
And may the Almighty protect and
bless our land
Shona Version
Simudzai mureza wedu weZimbabwe
Yakazvarwa nomoto wechimurenga;
Neropa zhinji ramagamba
Tiidzivirire kumhandu dzose;
Ngaikomborerwe nyika yeZimbabwe.
Tarisai Zimbabwe nyika
yakashongedzwa
Namakomo, nehova, zvinoyevedza
Mvura ngainaye, minda ipe mbesa
Vashandi vatuswe, ruzhinji rugutswe;
Ngaikomborerwe nyika yeZimbabwe.
Mwari ropafadzai nyika yeZimbabwe
Children singing National Anthem
Nyika yamadzitateguru edu tose;
Kubva Zambezi kusvika Limpopo,
Navatungamiri vave nenduramo;
Ngaikomborerwe nyika yeZimbabwe.
Ndebele Version
Phakamisan iflegi yethu yeZimbabwe
Eyazalwa yimpi yenkululeko;
Legaz’ elinengi lamaqhawe ethu
Silivikele ezithan izonke;
Kalibusisiwe ilizwe leZimbabwe.
Khangelan’ iZimbabwe yon’ ihlotshiwe
Ngezintaba lang’ miful’ ebukekayo,
Izulu kaline, izilimo zande;
Iz’ sebenzi zenam’, abantu basuthe;
Kalibusisiwe ilizwe leZimbabwe.
Nkosi busis’ ilizwe lethu leZimbabwe
Ilizwe labokhokho bethu thina sonke;
Kusuk’ eZambezi kusiy’ eLimpopo
Abakhokheli babe lobuqotho;
Kalibusisiwe ilizwe leZimbabwe.
The National Flag
• The National Flag is a reflection
of our journey from colonial
domination to post-independence
and our future as a sovereign
people.
• The colours are very important
for us and they are the following;
(i) Red- represents the blood that
was shed during the brutal battles
and war of liberation (First and
Second Chimurenga)
(ii) Green- represents our vegetation
(iii) Yellow- represents our vast
minerals
(iv)
Black- represents the black
majority (that this country will be
ruled by us and for us).
161
 (v) The Red Star- stands for the
nation’s aspirations which are
sometimes thought to represent
the revolutionary struggle for
freedom and peace
(vi) The white triangle- represents
peace
(vii) The Zimbabwe bird- represents
The National Flag
the hungwe bird (fish eagle) that
was found at Great Zimbabwe
and represents the great history of
our land.
Relationship between the National
Pledge, National flag and National
Anthem
The National Pledge is similar in so
many ways to the National Anthem and
the National Flag in that;
(i) They all represent the liberation
struggle in the past, present and
future endeavours of our nation.
162
There is a general agreement
between the three - that is
recognition to the brave and
selfless men and women who took
part in the war of liberation. In
clear terms, the national anthem
stresses that Zimbabwe was
born out of struggle where a lot
of people spilled their blood. To
match with the national flag,
they are represented by the
colour, red.
(ii) The National Pledge
promises to salute the National
Flag. This is because by flying
the flag, it reflects a complete
independent Zimbabwe and
it reflects what the generality of
Zimbabweans should be doing.
The National Anthem on the
other hand combined the same by
producing or moulding a citizen
who is ready to defend Zimbabwe
from all kinds of threats.
(iii)They all ask God (Creator, Supreme
Being, and Almighty) to bless our
country and our future aspirations.
(vi) The National Pledge reminds us
that we are proud inheritors of
our natural resources endowed
with richness. On the other hand,
 the National anthem (stanza 2)
talks about the same richness
by asking Zimbabweans to
appreciate the mountains, good
rainfall patterns, fertile lands and
the free environment. These are
represented by the green colour
and yellow.
(vii)
The National anthem further
concludes by asking Jehovah to
bless our native (indigenous black
people’s country) land which was
inherited from the forefathers and
further implores leadership to be
exemplary. The NP concludes
by pledging to produce a citizen
who is honesty and committed to
the dignity of hard work. These
are virtues expected of everyone
including leadership. This is
represented by black colour on
the flag and white triangle and a
Zimbabwe bird.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Activity
Recite the Zimbabwe National Pledge
Typical Examination Questions
Section A: Multiple Choice
1. The National Pledge as an oath
of allegiance was launched on
________ at Harare High School.
(a) 18 April 1980
(b) 01 January 2016
(c) 03 May 2016
(d) 25 May 2016.
2. The National Pledge was derived
from the ________.
(a) the Ministry of Primary and
Secondary Education Policy
(b) Preamble of the Zimbabwe
Constitution
(c) Traditions and Culture
(d) Harare High School anthem.
3. The National Pledge is significant
except in that ________.
(a) it is a government policy to be
implemented in all schools
(b) it gives a sense of dedication
to duty towards safeguarding
Zimbabwe
(c) assists individuals to owe
allegiance to God
(d) it prepares youths to become
patriotic and love their country.
4. The red star on the National Flag
represents;
(a) all minerals
163
 (b) the blood spilled during the liberation struggle to state and explain
struggle the pledge to you.
(c) national aspirations
(d) our great history. Project

5. The tow military wings that With reference to three African

prosecuted the Second countries including Zimbabwe, find out
Chimurenga/Umvukela were their National Pledge and identify the
________ outstanding features that are also found
in the Zimbabwe National Pledge.
(a) Rhodesian Forces
(b) UANC
(c) ZANLA and ZIPRA Topic 3
(d) OAU
Natural Resources
Section B: Structured Questions Key Words
1. (a) List any five reasons for the
Depleted: diminish or used up.
National Pledge.
Sustainable:
something that can
(b) Using comparative studies, describe sustain lives for
the National Pledge of Zimbabwe. generations.
Colonial times: times when Blacks
(c) Validate the view that there is an
were under colonial
intricate relationship between
suppression.
the National Anthem and the
National Pledge. Native Blacks: the indigenous people
of Africa (Blacks)
Activity Destocking: controlling animals by
Download the Zimbabwe National killing them
Army war cry. In what way is it similar Mineral rights: authority to conduct
to the National Pledge? mining activities
If there is no internet at your school,
you can approach any member of the Natural resources are naturally
Zimbabwe National Army in your occurring sources of wealth that are
community or any veteran of the
used for economic gain, but if they are
164

Zimbabwe natural resources
not used sustainably, natural resources
can be depleted or exhausted. They
occur naturally and sustain humanity
and these include water, air, land, forests,
fish and wildlife, top soil and minerals.
Distribution of natural resources
during colonialism
The story of resource distribution
during the colonial period is a painful
one. Those who lived to tell the stories
of how natural resources were unfairly
distributed during the colonial times
in the then Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe)
agree that, it was disheartening to see
places and resources which native
Blacks should have been enjoying being
exploited by the white settlers. Key
life sustaining resources such as land,
minerals and even rivers were allocated
in a biased manner to the benefit of
the White settlers only.
Colonial policies prevented
the natives from owning
natural resources, pushing
them to life threatening
environments where they
were overcrowded, thereby
accelerating degradation.
These inequalities covered
1890 and only ended in
1979 when Zimbabwe
became an independent
and sovereign state.
(a) The Land: This resource belonged
to the Blacks, but with the coming
of the white settlers in 1890,
they were chased away from the
rich and fertile soils into thorny,
scrubby and semi-desert areas.
To achieve this, the white settlers
systematically enacted land
policies that gave them access and
power to displace black people.
This was sad.
Stage 1: Lippert Concession (1889)
legalised the occupation of Zimbabwean
land in 1890 and to stop any subsequent
pockets of resistance from the Shona
and Ndebele people once occupation
was done. The Act was instrumental
as it paved way for the British South
African Company, led by Cecil John
165
Rhodes to buy concessions from Britain.
The money was later sent to Britain and
not given to the indigenous people as
compensation of their land. Plainly, the
colonisers did not pay anything for the
land they grabbed but instead, they took
all income accumulated to Britain.
Stage 2: The Matabeleland Order in
Council (1894) which sought to assign
land for Africans in Matabeleland. They
were allocated Gwai and Shangani
reserves whose climatic conditions
were desert-like and the geographical
location not suitable for agriculture. The
places were far from communication
and transportation systems.
Stage 3: the Land Survey Regulations
(1895) further gave the BSAC the
monopoly over land, thereby giving the
same powers over land not surveyed.
The regulations further allowed for
the creation of a lands commission
to specifically administer land issues.
Indigenous Blacks were excluded from
this commission.
Stage 4: The Southern Rhodesia
Order in Council (1898) was aimed
at pushing the blacks from their areas
of origin which were fertile to places
they called Native Reserves (areas set
166
aside for Blacks). This was an order
that compelled every Black person to
move against his/her wishes to places
condemned for human habitation. Thus
the indigenous people were reduced to
ordinary people deprived of their means
of production and source of livelihood.
Stage 5: the Morris Charter (1925)
sought to recommend the separation
of land that was going to be owned by
the Blacks and Whites respectively. The
Blacks were then prejudiced of most of
the productive land.
Stage 6: The Land Apportionment Act
(1930) legalised the division of land,
allowing Whites to acquire vast lands
with fertile soils and climatic conditions
suitable for agriculture. Some went
to settle at Hampshire Estates, the
Eastern Highlands including Nyanga,
Honde Valley, Centenary, Mazvikadei
area, among other places.
Stage 7: the Native Land Husbandry
Act (1951) was then enacted to
enforce private ownership of land,
destocking of livestock and imposition
of conservation methods on Black
landholders. This act angered the Blacks
to the extent of revolting. By this time,
Black Nationalism and consciousness
was gaining momentum.
Stage 8: the Tribal Trust Lands (TTLs)
Act (1965) was enacted in order to
change Native Reserves, replacing
them with trustees of land. This led
to clustering and over population and
later degradation of the land in the
reserves. People were competing for few
resources in clustered settlements like
Manyene Tribal Trust Lands. By now,
Zapu and Zanu had been formed to
challenge these inequalities.
The above stages summarise the unfair
distribution of land which provoked
people in the communal areas to resist
White rule in their country.
(b) Forests- The laws that were
used to allocate land applied also to
forestry. The natives were pushed into
communal lands while the Whites
enjoyed large tracks of land across the
country, including forests. The State
then allocated “State forests” which
were used for conservation purposes
and a source of commercial timber.
According to records, the first forests
were demarcated in 1936 and 1941.
This resulted in:
(a) Disturbance of social safety nets
whereby people used to sell timber
in times of disaster or droughts for
survival.
(b) It also accelerated resource
depletion and land degradation
(c) Worsened human insecurity and
(d) Led to loss of revenue by Africans
As the natives (Blacks) were bunched
in communal areas, they became
overcrowded, resulting into a
squeeze on the few trees for
firewood and furniture. This
resulted in infringement into
underutilised farms in search of
firewood and livelihood, thereby
attracting great conflict with
the Whites. Mukwa and teak
Parts of the Eastern Highlands tea plantations in
Honde Valley
forests were monopolised by
the settlers. In Honde Valley,
Chimanimani and Chipinge, the
settlers displaced people from the
167
 rich mountainous places as they military aggression. This is because the
established tea estates. economically and militarily powerful
states do not have these resources, hence
(b) Minerals- Treaties such as the
they sponsor stand-in forces to disrupt
Rudd Concession and Moffat Treaty
the countries with abundant natural
signed by King Lobengula surrendered
resources.
mineral rights to the British South
There are also groups of traders,
Africa Company led by Cecil John
smugglers, corrupt officials, arms dealers
Rhodes. The British government,
and even mercenaries (private armies)
through Queen Victoria agreed that
who even avoid immigration laws
BSAC maintain the exclusive mineral
as they try to seize natural resources
rights in the colony. Blacks were not
for their benefit. In Angola, UNITA
allowed to carry out mining activities,
rebels led by Jonas Savimbi got access
but their role was limited to providing
to diamond fields which they used to
manual labour. The BSAC had a
sponsor terrorist activities and prolong
monopoly over gold and other mineral
the war after independence from
resources. The De Beers Diamond
Portugal in 1975.
Company explored for diamonds for
Powerful countries can sponsor or
the benefit of their mother country,
organise military coups, rebellion, and
which was Britain. The company was
regime change and provoke disorder,
founded by Cecil John Rhodes in 1888
thereby the paving way for looting of
and had ties with Anglo- America. The
natural resources.
presence of such big companies resulted
Minerals: The Democratic Republic
in the depletion of other minerals as
of Congo (DRC) has been rocked by
compared to a situation where African
several domestic and international
were mining on a small scale.
wars since independence from Leopold
II Belgium, owing to the vastness
Case Studies-Natural resource
of mineral resources ranging from
conflict in Africa
diamonds, coltan, zinc, gold, cobalt,
In Africa, natural resources have Uranium and copper found in the big
attracted serious consequences to the central African country. In 2009, the
economy as more often than not, they DRC had untapped mineral deposits
have invited both external and internal estimated to the value US$24 trillion

168
 Resource destrubution in Africa
dollars. On the other hand, there are
vast lands with rich soils, making it
suitable for agricultural activity, mainly
in North and South Kivu provinces. This
is coupled by the fact that the DRC is
located in the equatorial region where
water is abundant. These resources have
opened floodgates of rebels who are
looting them to finance their terrorist
and selfish aims.
Republic of Sierra Leone - The West
African country has relied over the
years on mining activities, especially
diamonds to support its economy. It
possesses large deposits of titanium,
gold, bauxite and other metals. The
country was rocked by civil wars (1991-
2002) where the Revolutionary United
Front (RUF) rebels tried to undermine
the government by conquering mainly
the eastern and southern parts of the
country with rich alluvial diamond
reserves. They used these diamonds
to finance their dissident activities,
henceforth the name “Blood diamonds’.
Water: In the past and the recent times,
water has continued to be a source of
conflict in Africa as countries continue to
169
compete to exploit the resource thereby
triggering trans-border related fights.
There are 60 trans-boundary rivers in
Africa which serve over 200 million
people, and water is only the source of
renewable resource in the region. The
Nile River serves 11 countries namely
Burundi, the DRC, Egypt, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan,
South Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda.
These countries greatly depend on this
water mainly for agriculture and have a
worrying trend of armed conflicts along
their borders. Conflicts erupt at Lakes
Albert, Edward, Tanganyika and Kivu
revolving around water accessibility,
supply and sanitation. There are also
Great Lakes region in Africa
170
conflicts surrounding Lake Victoria that
supplies Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.
Egypt and Sudan in the past tried to
maintain control of the Nile River,
but it only worsened the conflict in
the region resulting in the signing of
the Entebbe Agreement which then
removed monopoly.
The n Secretary General of United
Nations Ban Ki-moon, on 6 November
2012 passed the following message on
the International Day for Preventing
and Exploitation of the Environment
in War and Armed conflict states;
“Since 1990, at least 18 violent
conflicts have been fuelled
by the exploitation of
natural resources such as
timber, minerals, oil and gas.
Sometimes, this is caused by
environmental damage and
the marginalisation of local
populations who fail to benefit
economically from natural
resource exploitation; more
often it is caused by greed.”
Oil and Gas - These two
resources have often attracted
military intervention because
it a lucrative business which the
economically powerful states also
target. There is also authoritarianism,
corruption and eruption of tribal
conflicts regarding the ownership of
natural resources. They are susceptible
to to many-sided rebellions like in the
case of the Nigerian oil fields where
the Niger Delta Avengers seek to
harness the resource for the betterment
of the local people. On the one hand,
international petroleum companies
often push for control of the oil fields
through secret operations or military
conquest to benefit Total, BP, Shell,
Exxon, among others.
Insert pictures of Muammar Gadhafi
and Saddam Hussein
• The vicious wars that saw the
dethroning of Muammar Gaddaffi
in Libya by France, USA and Britain
(under NATO backed by the UN
Resolution 1973) and Saddam Hussein
in Iraq by the USA is understood by
some specialists in the background
of foreign policy to improve access
to international markets by their oil
companies. They viewed Saddam and
Gaddafi as obstacles to the realisation
of this foreign policy objective in the
Middle East.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Activity
In the SADC region, the Zambezi
River has the potential to cause conflict
if it is not well managed. This river
passes through eight countries. Find
out the eight countries through which
the Zambezi passes through. Discuss
how the mismanagement of this trans-
boundary river can cause conflict.
Typical exam questions
Section A: Multiple Choice
1. During the colonial era, national
resources were distributed in a
racial manner in that________.
(a) It was disheartening
(b) people were squeezed in
Tribal Lands
(c) resources were distributed
equally
(d) colonial policies alienated
the natives from owning natural
resources.
2. Which natural resource was
central in the liberation struggle?
(a) Water (b) Wildlife
(c) Minerals (d) Land
3. Which Act legalised the
occupation of land in Rhodesia?
171
 (a) Land Apportionment Act
1930
(b) Native Land Husbandry Act
1951
(c) Lippert Concession 1889
(d) Matabeleland Order in
Council 1894.
4. What was the purpose of “State
forests?”
(a) To acquire all forests for the
Settlers
(b) served a commercial and
conservative agenda
(c) to accelerate depletion of
forests
(d) to push Blacks away from
accessing the forests
5. Which natural resource in Africa
has become a source of conflict?
(a) Water (b) Forests
(c) Gold (d) Diamond
Section B: Structured Questions
6. (a) Identify four key natural
resources found in Zimbabwe.
(b) Describe how land was distributed
during the colonial period.
172
(c) To what extent can natural
resources be taken as a source of
conflict in Africa?
Further Research
Identify areas with natural resources
being exploited by illegal miners
(makorokoza/amakhorokoza) and
has not benefited the country. What
measures can be put in place to stop
these illegal mining activities?
Unit Summary
The National Heritage of Zimbabwe
is found in our National Shrines and
Monuments which tell the story and
history of our culture. In order to
show respect and love for the National
Heritage, the government introduced
the National Pledge which reminds
our generations about the liberation
struggle and the need to preserve our
natural resources. Natural resources
have become a source of conflict in
Africa. However, there is need to
jealously guard these resources for
future generations. When people utilise
these resources, they should be mindful
of other generations to come.
 6 The Constitution of the
Republic of Zimbabwe
Amendment (No. 20)

Unit Objectives 1. Do you have a Constitution at your

By the end of this Unit, you should be school?
able to; 2. What is its relevance?
• Identify the key features of the
Constitution. Topic 1
• Explain the significance of the key Key features of the Constitution
features of the Constitution. of the Republic of Zimbabwe
• Outline the Zimbabwean Electoral Amendment (No.20)
system. Key Words
Human Rights: universally agreed legal
Introduction
guarantees protecting
This Unit covers key features of the individuals or any group
Constitution and their significance, against actions which
especially the levels of the government, interfere with
how Zimbabwe deals with the issue of fundamental freedoms
citizenship, the contents of the Bill of and dignity (1948
Rights, languages used in Zimbabwe and Universal Declaration of
the issues of veterans of the Liberation Human Rights).
Struggle, health and education issues. Repeal: to revoke or make
Learners are also taken through something null and void.
Electoral system used in Zimbabwe. Constitution: the Oxford Dictionary
of English defines a
Warm up Exercise Constitution as; a body of

173
 fundamental principles
or established precedents
according to which a state
or other organisations is
acknowledged to be
governed.
Executive power: lawful execution of
power to bring order and
sanity.
Judiciary: relating to the courts and
law.
Legislature: something to do with
MPs.
Infringement: violating the terms of
the law or rights.
Inalienable: natural rights that one is
born with.
Repeal: To cancel or revise
The Constitution of the Republic
of Zimbabwe Amendment (No.20)
came into being in 2013 after the
repealing the 1979 Lancaster House
Constitution. It is relevant to note that
the Constitution of the Republic of
Zimbabwe is the supreme law of the
land. The Constitution of Zimbabwe
is an important document. It is at the
forefront of the operations of the State
and how it is governed. There are key
elements that we need to be aware of,
but it does not mean that other issues
that are not discussed in this Unit are
174
not relevant.
(a) Tiers of Government
The Constitution of Zimbabwe provides
for three tiers of the government which
ensures economic growth countrywide,
promotes good governance, and creates
competition, efficiency, accountability
and transparency in the way things are
done. The tiers of government are;
(i) National Government- This
refers to the State and its apparatus that
enables it to function well. In our case,
the national government comprises
of the Executive which consist of the
Presidency and Cabinet that is seized
with executive policing of the state, the
Legislature makes laws for peace, order
and good governance and amends the
Constitution. The Judiciary implements
all the laws. Each arm is independent
of the other, hence the concept of
separation of powers.
(ii) Provincial and Metropolitan
governments - The Constitution of
Zimbabwe provides for the creation of
provincial councils for each province
with the exclusion of Metropolitan
provinces of Harare and Bulawayo.
Zimbabwe is divided into 10 provinces,
of which 2 of them are referred to as
Metropolitan provinces
• Bulawayo Metropolitan Province
• Harare Metropolitan Province
• Manicaland Province
• Mashonaland Central Province
• Mashonaland East Province
• Mashonaland West Province
• Masvingo Province
• Matabeleland North Province
• Matabeleland South Province
• Midlands Province
Composition of the Provincial Council
The provincial council is made up of a
Chairperson, the Senators elected from
the province in question, two Senator
Chiefs, the President and Deputy
President of the National Council of
Chiefs where these areas may fall, all the
Members of Parliament (MP) whose
constituencies fall under the province,
proportional representatives of women,
mayors and chairpersons. To qualify
into the provincial council, elections are
conducted in accordance to the electoral
laws where one should be qualified for
election as an MP. A Zimbabwean who
is 21 years and above and is a voter can
qualify to be an MP, while those who
attain 40 years of age can qualify to be
a Senator if he/she is a registered voter.
Composition of the Metropolitan
Councils
The two Metropolitan Councils in
Zimbabwe (Bulawayo and Harare)
consists of the Mayor who is the
Chairperson, Deputy Chairperson, all
members of the National Assembly, the
women MPs elected under a party list
system of proportional representation
and the Senators.
Functions of Provincial and
Metropolitan Councils
• Planning and implementing
social and economic development
activities in its jurisdiction and
is not limited to implementing
economic blue prints like
Zimbabwe Agenda for
Sustainable Socio-Economic
Transformation (ZIMASSET.
• Co-ordinating and implementing
governmental programmes.
• Planning and implementing
measures for conservation,
improvement and management of
natural resources in its province
for example in Manicaland
Province, there is the Save
Conservancy.
• Promoting tourism and
developing facilities for that
purpose. Zimbabwe is a tourism
centre with vast natural wonders
and it has also moved to
175
 embrace Urban Tourism with
some monuments declared
tourism sites. For example,
President Robert Mugabe’s
house in Highfield, the late Vice-
President Simon Muzenda’s
roundavel houses in Masvingo,
the National Heroes Acre and
others.
• Monitoring and evaluating the
use of resources.
• Exercising legislative functions
that may be given or imposed
on it by or under an Act of
Parliament.
(iii) Local Government- the
instruments that govern Local
Government operations are protected
in Chapter 14, Part 3 and it includes
urban local authorities which represent
and manage the affairs of people in
urban areas. It includes also local
authorities for rural areas like Zvimba
Rural District Council, Mutasa Rural
District Council, among others. Both
stated local authorities have a right
to govern on its own initiative. This
is aimed at development of the local
community and to make by-laws and
other necessary measures to assist in
effective administration. Local councils
176
can also collect levy rates and taxes.
Those in leadership positions in both
the rural and urban local authorities are
elected by the people as determined by
the electoral laws. In Metropolitan-run
councils, a mayor is elected from among
Councillors during their sittings.
If the Local Government Bill is
passed into law, the operations of the
local authorities will be governed by a
Tribunal.
Case study- Nigeria’s Tiers of
Government
Nigeria is a federal state, meaning that
all the 36 states are bound together by
a Federal arrangement. The Federal
Republic of Nigeria uses a Presidential
system of government and the
Constitution provides for three (3) tiers
of government,
(i) Federal- headed by an elected
President who is the Head of
State, the Chief Executive of
the Federation as well as the
Commander-in-Chief of the
Armed Forces. The Nigerian
President is ceremonial, but as the
Chief Executive, he/she bears the
ultimate responsibility of running
the federation on a daily basis and
all failures are later blamed on this
office.
 (ii) State- There are thirty-six (36)
states in Nigeria bound by the
federation arrangements for
example Enugu, Abia, Kogi,
Ebonyi, Borno, Kano, Kaduna
and Lagos, among other states.
They are governed by a Governor
who is elected by the people to a
four-year term and is assisted by
Commissioners and Advisors to
run the affairs of a state.
(iii) Local Government- There are
774 local government areas
whose functions include inter
alia, collection of rates, radio
and television licenses, licensing,
registration of births, deaths and
marriage certificates, economic
planning recommendations to the
State, regulation of markets, parks
etc, refuse collection and disposal .
(b) Declaration of Rights or Bill
of Rights
The Bill of Rights assigns
unchallengeable rights given to every
human being as soon as fertilisation
occurs. Scientifically, a “zygot” is equally
accorded the right to life during that
period and after birth up to its death.
Basically, the bill of rights as enshrined
in the Constitution of Zimbabwe
can be equated to those that are
naturally given through the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights which
was adopted by the United Nations on
10 December 1948. The Bill of Rights
obeys the African Charter on Human
and People’s Rights which was adopted
in Nairobi, Kenya on 27 June 1981 and
later came into force on 21 October
1986. The purpose of the Bill of Rights is
to protect these rights against violation
by the State, public officials as well as
other private persons. Accordingly the
State, persons and every institution is
bound to respect, protect, promote and
fulfil the following twenty three (23)
rights and freedoms;
• Right to life.
• Rights of arrested and detained
person.
• Right to personal liberty.
• Right to personal security.
• Right to human dignity.
• Freedom from torture or cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment.
• Freedom from slavery or servitude.
• Freedom from forced or compulsory
labour.
• Equality and non-discrimination.
• Right to privacy.
177
• Freedom of assembly and association.
• Freedom to demonstrate and to
petition.
• Freedom of conscience.
• Freedom of expression and freedom
of the media.
• Access to information.
• Language and Culture.
• Freedom of profession, trade or
occupation.
• Labour rights.
• Freedom of movement and
residence.
• Political rights.
• Right to administrative justice.
• Right to a fair hearing.
• Rights of accused persons.
(c) Education
The State is required by the Constitution
to take all measures to promote;
(a) Free and compulsory basic education
for all children, and
(b) Higher and tertiary education.
It is important to note that, both boys
and girls are afforded equal opportunities
in accessing education country wide
from primary and secondary level up to
tertiary level. This is also a requirement
for national development.
178
Education sector developments:
1980- 2000
The government introduced free
education in 1980 at primary level to
encourage enrolment in schools under
the slogan “Education for all.”The policy
also attempted to create a balanced
gender environment in education as
girls were encouraged to enrol as well.
To cater for the increasing number
of pupils enrolling in schools, the
government hired expatriates to
supplement its professionals. For
example, Mauritius, Germany and Cuba
provided the bulk of the expatriates
in the 1980s. This led to a growth in
the education sector and this is also
witnessed to date where more schools
are being constructed to accommodate
more pupils.
In 1980 around 1.2 million pupils
enrolled in primary schools and by
2000, around 2.4 million were accessing
education. The government position to
adopt “Education for all” was a departure
from colonial education policies which
discouraged Blacks to access education
through a “bottle neck” system. In terms
of those pupils enrolled in Secondary
Schools, in 1980 about 74 000 registered
and the number ballooned in 2000 to
826 000 pupils .
In addition, the government embarked
on rapid infrastructural development
programme in rural areas to replace
damaged or destroyed structures
during the war. In 1980, there were 179
Secondary Schools in Zimbabwe which
had increased to 1 548 by 2000.
In terms of tertiary level developments,
the government moved in to train more
teachers and they were attracted by
huge salaries. Initially, there were; Peterhouse Group of Schools
(i) Four Teachers’ Colleges with an School, Happy Primary School
enrolment of 1 000 which were and Hill Crest School among
later increased to 15, enrolling others.
over 17 000 student teachers by
(v) Private players were also granted
2000.
authority to establish universities
(ii) Two Technical Colleges with in the country for example Africa
the capacity to enrol only an University, Catholic University,
insignificant 2 000. This was Ezekiel Guti University and
increased to 15 colleges enrolling Solusi University.
20 000.
Supporting education policies
(iii) One University (University of since 1980
Zimbabwe) with an enrolment of Examples of Education policies that
2 000 students. The government were implemented in Zimbabwe since
increased them to eight State 1980;
universities by 2000. 1. The compulsory Education of
1979 was then revised in 1980 as
(iv)
Allowing private players in
Education for all policy.
education for example, Peterhouse
2. Education with production policy.
Group of Schools, Watershed
3. Every other economic plan included
College, Lomagundi Schools,
education as one of the priorities
Hartmann House, St Georges
of the government. This led to
College, Bishopslea, Gateway

179
 the increase of both primary and
secondary schools in Zimbabwe with
increased capacity of teacher training
colleges including universities.
4. Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs)
5. Access to education is a right for all
Zimbabweans as indicated in the
Constitution.
Towards reforming the education Hon. Lazarus Dokora
sector: The Nziramasanga Commission objective recommended by the enquiry.
Dr Cephus Nziramasanga carried out Meanwhile, ECD has been fully
a study on how the country’s education incorporated in all government schools
system could benefit learners. The report, in Zimbabwe.
which is now known as the Nziramasanga Education Sector 2000- 2016
Commission Report, was produced
In 2014, the Ministry of Primary and
in 1999 at the initiation of President
Secondary Education, through its
Robert Gabriel Mugabe in 1998. The
Minister Dr Lazarus Dokora embarked
study observed a need for schools to
on a massive Curriculum Review
offer skills training programmes. It also
programme in order to improve the
recommended a vigorous development
quality of education as well as to mould
of Early Childhood Development,
multi-skilled and competent graduates.
(ECD) and E-learning. Although
To this end, the Ministry is embarking
the benefits of the study took time to
on new Curriculum in 2017. Zimbabwe
be realised, progress has been made
has over 90% literacy rate, which is
in the implementation of some of the
among the highest in Africa and the
recommendations. In line with its
world.
directives, the government established
a full Ministry of Psychomotor,
d) Health issues since 1980
responsible for technical and vocational
training. President Mugabe donated The Constitution of Zimbabwe provides
several computers in all schools over that;
the past decade to fulfil the E-learning (i) The State must take all practical

180
 measures to ensure the provision
of basic, accessible and adequate
health services throughout
Zimbabwe
(ii) The State must take appropriate,
fair and reasonable measures to
ensure that no person is refused
emergency medical treatment at
any health institution
(iii) The State must take all preventive
measures within the limits of the
resources available to it, including
education at public awareness
programmes, against the spread of
diseases.
From 1980, the government
implemented various policies aimed
at improving the quality of health in
the country. Urgency was given to the
Mpilo Hospital
expansion of health delivery system
country wide with about 85% of people
accessing health at an 8km radius at
health clinics.
The government also worked on primary
health care, child immunisation,
construction of clinics and hospitals,
training health professionals including
doctors. The government improved the
following;
(i) There were 318 clinics in
Zimbabwe at independence
in 1980, but the government
increased them to 1 105 by the
year 2000.
(ii) There were 28 district hospitals in
Zimbabwe which were increased
to 54 by 2000.
(iii) Provincial hospitals were increased
from 3 to 7 in 2000. They have
since increased to 10 at each
province.
(iv) Allowing private practitioners to
operate surgeries, theatres, clinics
and hospitals for example Baines
Avenues Clinic, Avenues Clinic,
Premier Clinics and hospitals,
Mbuya Dorcas Hospital (owned
by Ezekiel Guti), Surbuban Clinic
in Warren Park 1, among others.
The HIV and AIDS menace affected
both adults and the children in the
181
country. Many people died especially in
the late 1980s and 1990s. Deaths were
attributed to lack of information on the
prevention of infections. However, the
government since 2000 has intensified
its campaign and public awareness to
diseases. Immunisation programmes
are still conducted freely and antenatal
facilities are carried out all over the
country.
The government has also partnered
Global Fund, World Health
Organisation (WHO) and other
international health partners in
health assistance which include new
technologies, drugs and further research.
Information about new diseases have
been timeously circulated countrywide
through radio, television, newspaers and
the internet.
Campaigns against AIDS caused
psychological and mental problems.
Between 1987 and 2003, ‘the AIDS
kills’ campaign was dominant on
national television, radio and the press.
Pregnant and nursing mothers were
more vulnerable. The government
intensified research on the prevention
of parent to child transmission. Self-
restraint and the use of condoms were
encouraged. However, due to power
dynamics, poverty and poor negotiation
skills between men and women, HIV
182
and AIDS infections continued to rise.
The government instructed schools
to teach learners the dangers of HIV
and AIDS through Guidance and
Counselling lessons. Some parents
resisted the idea of teaching young
people about AIDS and how it is
acquired considering it as taboo
and culturally immoral. However,
development partners such as UNICEF,
Global Fund, and National Aids
Council, among other players, worked
with communities, including schools
educating the people.
Zimbabwe, like other tropical countries,
experiences seasonal and perennial
diseases. While past killer diseases like
polio and leprosy are curable, some
diseases are emerging.The World Health
Organisation, (WHO) noted new
trends in malaria in which the disease
is resisting cure. Studies conducted in
some parts of Tanzania indicate signs of
resistance in the cure of malaria.
Zimbabwe’s health policies
A healthy nation is every government’s
priority. Economic development
depends on a well-established heath
delivery system and a healthy nation.
Zimbabwe is among a few Sub-Saharan
countries with established health
policies. The government transformed a
racially based colonial health system for
every Zimbabwean to access.
A few years ago, government established
hospitals in every province in addition to
district hospitals and clinics. Provincial
and General hospitals were given a
directive to train nurses and other
medical personnel. Mission hospitals
which operated during the colonial
era were given government support to
continue operating.
To increase its health personnel, the
government entered into an agreement
with Cuba, South Korea and Egypt
for the secondment of their doctors
and specialists to Zimbabwe. In recent
years, Chinese doctors have also been
recruited to work in the country.
As a policy, Zimbabwe provides
opportunities to individuals intending
to invest in the health and medical
field. In that respect, there are private
hospitals offering medical services in the
country. However, these outlets target
financially established patients. The
general population receive their medical
assistance in State-administered
hospitals.
As a responsibility to its citizens,
people above sixty years age and those
below five years are exempted from
paying medical fees. This also extends
to pregnant women and people with
disabilities.
(d) Languages of Zimbabwe
Languages are part of culture as they
provide a medium for communication.
Language is important in the following
ways;
Medium of communication- it
reflects one’s identity as an integral
part of culture. As people socialise,
they use language to identify who
we are. A community without
a language is like a human body
without a heart and a soul.
Means of expression- it allows people
to participate in community
activities, cultural and traditional
ceremonies. The African Charter
for People’s Rights states that,
“….language is an integral part of
the structure of culture, it in fact
constitutes its pillar and means of
expression par excellence.”
Valuable collective human
accomplishments- it gives
human creativity and originality.
Through language, people express
their successes and failures, either
in battles and their conquests/
suceess.
Source of power- Language can be
referred to as a source of power,
social mobility and a way to
183
 campaign for opportunities. Masvingo province.
Countries like China, Japan and
The Constitution of Zimbabwe
Russia use their language as a
recognises the following 16 languages
way to gain economic power by
as official;
writing instructions on machinery
• Chewa
in their own languages. This
• Chibarwe
gives the recipients who do not
• English
use such languages ‘headaches’
• Kalanga
of translation or employing
• Koisan
personnel like engineers and fitter
• Nambya
and turners thereby depriving
• Ndau
locals with such skills. This is a
• Ndebele
form of neo-colonialism and ‘big
• Shangani
brother’ bullying. Britain used their
• Shona
English to colonise major parts of
• Sign Language
Africa, including Zimbabwe as it
• Sotho
led to communication breakdown
• Tonga
between the conquerors and
• Tswana
the indigenous people like King
Lobengula.

Language represents diversity- this is

so because indigenous languages
can be lost, but the many languages
a country has, the more diverse is
there culture and language.

Language brings people together- if

used correctly without regional
biases, language creates identity
for example ‘Wasu’is a reminder
used to describe people from
Manicaland, and ‘Wezhira’ is used
to describe those people from A map with language and where it is mainly spoken

184
• Venda
• Xhosa
(e) Citizenship
The Constitution of Zimbabwe defines
persons as Zimbabwean citizens by birth,
descent or registration. It also states
that Zimbabwean citizens have equal
entitlements to the rights, privileges
and benefits of citizenship and are
equally subject to duties and obligations
of citizenship. All Zimbabwean citizens
are entitled to additional rights and
benefits to those granted by law.
Citizenship defined
Citizenship by birth defines those
persons who were born in Zimbabwe
with
(a) either their mother or father was a
Zimbabwean citizen; or
(b) any of their grandparents was a
Zimbabwean citizen by birth or
descent. Persons born outside
Zimbabwe are Zimbabwean
citizens by birth if, when they
were born, either of their parents
was a Zimbabwean citizen and
(c) ordinarily resident in Zimbabwe;
or working outside Zimbabwe
for the State or international
organizations.
Meanwhile, a child found in Zimbabwe
who is, or appears to be less than fifteen
years of age, and whose nationality and
parents are not known, is presumed to
be a Zimbabwean citizen by birth.
Persons born outside Zimbabwe are
Zimbabwean citizens by descent if
either of their parents or any of their
grandparents was a Zimbabwean by
birth or descent; or by registration
and that the registration was done in
accordance with the Zimbabwean law.
Similarly, a person married to a
Zimbabwean citizen for at least five years
can apply to be a citizen of Zimbabwe.
Moreover, persons who have been legally
residing in Zimbabwe for more than ten
years, including children legally adopted
by Zimbabwean citizens are entitled
to register to become Zimbabwean
citizens. However, human rights issues
are being abused by some foreigners
who take advantage of its flexible terms
enshrined in the citizenship laws of
Zimbabwe.
Constitutional rights and duties of
Zimbabwean citizens
Insert picture/cover of passport
All Zimbabweans are entitled to
the protection of the State, to have
passports and other travel documents,
birth certificates and other important
185
identification documents issued by
the State in affordable conditions. In
addition, the constitution encourages
Zimbabwean citizens to be loyal to
their country. In respect of this, the
Ministry of Primary and Secondary
Education introduced an expanded idea
of loyalty among its citizens in the form
of the National Pledge in the school
curriculum. This is also complemented
by the singing of the National Anthem
in all schools and at national events such
as independence. The National Pledge
is better explained in Chapter Five.
Zimbabwean citizens are required to
observe the Constitution and respect its
principles and institutions in the same
way they should respect the National
Flag and the National Anthem.
To achieve the above, Zimbabwe’s
sovereignty must be defended.
Mutumwa Mawere
186
Categories of citizenship
Issues of citizenship are national
requirements with global legal penalties
if mishandled. As such, these issues must
be well understood by all citizens. For
many years, Zimbabwe’s legal fraternity
presided over several cases of citizenship.
The majority of cases dominating the
courts were challenging the absence
of dual citizenship in Zimbabwe.
Mutumwa Mawere became one of the
first Zimbabweans to challenge and win
a dual citizenship case in Zimbabwean
courts.
Abuse and cancellation of citizenships
Nigerian nationals, the Chinese
and Pakistanis enter into marriages
of convenience in order to acquire
Zimbabwean citizenship. Blame has
been put on government officers who
scheme with such people to influence
national policies. However, citizenship
can be cancelled upon the discovery
of false representation by any person
who would have been given citizenship
in accordance to the constitution.
Citizenship given to the enemies of the
State by default can also be cancelled.
The Southern Africa Development
Community (SADC) citizenship
protocol
Zimbabwe does not function in
 and children. This is so
because of marriages and
the fact that children
are sometimes adopted.
However, constitutions are
subject to amendment if
the nation feels a need to
add, remove or improve
certain sections of its
national law to suit the
ever changing society. For
that reason, even the new
constitution has had some
of the sections revised, with
more to be revised.

SADC (e) Veterans of the

isolation. Although its laws are Liberation Struggle
independent of other member countries,
Insert (both dead and alive) Chitepo,
a lot of consultation with sister countries
Tongogara, Solomon Mujuru, Robert
is done, largely due to similarities of
Mugabe, Emmerson Mnangagwa,
cultures, religion and the geopolitical
Cde Nherera- (Insert 1980 first Press
land issues. There is a connection
Conference picture), Chinotimba,
between citizenship and the movement
Nkomo, Muzenda, Oppah Muchinguri
of the people, particularly those from the
and Constantino Chiwenga, Perrence
same region. In that respect, Zimbabwe
Shiri, Phillip Valerio Sibanda, Sally
is a member of the SADC and the Pan
Mugabe, Sydney Sekeramayi, Joyce
African parliaments whose instructions
Mujuru, Victoria Chitepo, Vivian
are not just political, but social and
Mwashita, Edson Zvobgo, Joshua
humanitarian in their operations.
Nkomo, Nikita Mangena, Dick
Citizenship law and gender perspectives
Joboringo, Cde Mushore, Didymus Noel
There is a strong relationship between
Mutasa (Brief profiles on Captions).
policies governing citizenship, women
The inclusion of the Veterans of the
187
Liberation struggle in the Constitution
is central in that it reminds every
Zimbabwean of the immense
contribution that the brave men and
women made towards the founding of
Zimbabwe. Basically, everyone agrees
that their contribution is unquestionable
as they brought this country from
colonial chains.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic questions
Activity
Know your veterans
Using names of veterans of the
Liberation Struggle, copy the following
table in your exercise book and fill in
the missing details.
Name of a War Veteran Died before
1980 Died after 1980 Still alive
2017
Typical Exam Questions
Section B: Structured Questions
1. (a) List any three national shrines
of your choice and two national
monuments found in Zimbabwe.
(5)
(b) Describe the features any one
shrine in Zimbabwe. (10)
(c) Evaluate the assertion that
188
national shrines and monuments
have no historical relevance to
Zimbabwe. (10)
Practical
Arrange a trip to any national shrine
close to your area or district, province or
at national level. As you embark on this
visit understand the essence of these
shrines, their establishments, those
buried there and its significance.
After the tour, individually write a poem
about the national shrine you visited.
Further Research
Design your own classroom Constitution
which is agreed to by your class teacher.
Thereafter, make copies for everyone to
use.
Topic 2
The Electoral system in
Zimbabwe
Warm Up Exercise
1. Have you ever about the Zimbabwe
Electoral Commission (ZEC)?
2. What is its role in Zimbabwe?
Key Words
Electoral system: set of rules and
processes to be followed
in order for an election
 to be valid.
Transparent: open everything to
scrutiny.
Harmonised elections: consolidation
of all national and local
elections. They are held
simultaneously.
By-election: an election conducted
for an MP to fill in a
vacancy after the expiry
of a term, death or
dismissal of the former.
Manifesto: an assortment of
a political party’s
ideology and key policy
interventions they
intend to sell to the
electorate.
Election run-off: second election
conducted after the first
round fails to produce a
winner.
Proclamation: public announcement
of important matters.
The electoral system in Zimbabwe
ensures that elections are conducted
freely, fairly, efficiently and transparently
in accordance with the Constitution
of Zimbabwe. It involves all processes
required to conduct an election from
national, provincial and council elections
People in Zimbabwe voting
including by-elections.
Zimbabwe has been conducting
harmonised elections since 2008
whereby there is simultaneous
holding of elections of the Presidency;
National Assembly (Senators and
MPs), provincial and local authorities.
Elections are conducted after every five
(5) years and in the event of the death
or resignation of any MP, a by-election
in that constituency is held. In 2013, a
general election was conducted in which
the Zanu PF Presidential candidate,
Robert Mugabe garnered 2,110,434
votes (61%), MDC-T candidate
Morgan Tsvangirai got 1,172,349
votes (34%), Welshman Ncube got 92
637 votes (2.68%), Dumiso Dabengwa
got 25 416 votes (0.74%) and Kisinoti
Mukwazhi got 9 931 votes (0.29%). In
this election Zanu PF got the majority
of votes.
Following this defeat, the MDC-T
189
formation was involved in a bitter
struggle pitting Tendai Biti (then
MDC-T Secretary General) and
Morgan Tsvangirai (MDC-T
President). This led to a breakaway party
led by Tendai. Biti was then expelled
from the MDC-T including other
15 members. They were later recalled
from Parliament by the MDC-T party,
thereby creating 16 vacant seats. After
this recall, ZEC announced by-election
dates in the vacant constituencies but
MDC-T boycotted these elections.
Zanu PF party decided to contest with
other political parties winning all the
16 constituencies. The ZEC is required
by law to take care of all elections in
Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwe Electoral Commission
(ZEC)
ZEC was established by an Act of
Parliament in 2004 and has eight
Commissioners. The structure is as
follows;
Chairperson
Deputy Chairperson
Chief Elections Officers
Five other Commissioners.
Functions of ZEC
ZEC has basically four main functions
which are;
i. Voter Education
190
ii. Delimitation/Demarcation of
boundaries
iii. Conflict management
iv. Voter’s roll/registration of voters
Election process in Zimbabwe
It starts from the political party
whose leadership must know that
it is constitutional that Zimbabwe
holds general elections after every
five years. The political parties willing
to participate in the elections hold
their internal primary elections to
assess and elect candidates who will
represent the party in the elections
in line with achieving the objectives
of their party manifesto/programme.
During the 2013 elections, Zanu PF
through President R.G Mugabe on 05
July 2013 launched manifesto which
was anchored on Indigenisation
and Economic Empowerment, while
Morgan Tsvangirai on 7 July 2013 at
Rudhaka Stadium launched the JUICE
manifesto. ZAPU through its President
Dumiso Dabengwa on 06 July 2013
launched its manifesto at Stanley
Square. The elected candidates who
will represent the party in the elections
will use this manifesto to inform the
electorate about their competences.
Insert pictures of Robert Mugabe,
Morgan Tsvangirai, Simba Makoni, and
Dumiso Dabengwa
ZEC concentrates on a voter education
campaigns, telling voters what an
election is, who should vote and how
voting is done. In Zimbabwe, the voting
age is set at 18 years. This is followed
by voter registration countrywide.
It is important to note that ZEC is
responsible for these two processes.
Those registered to vote are then allowed
to inspect the voter’s roll by checking
whether their names and ID number
as they appear on their documents are
correct. If there are some differences,
they are then adjusted. The inspection of
the voter’s roll is done on a continuous
basis and only those whose names are Chief Justice Godfrey Chidyausiku
at least 14 days after the proclamation
appearing will be allowed to vote.
date. Political parties will then provide
As elections draw closer, political
ZEC with nomination papers for its
parties start to campaign, explaining
representatives. Nominations for the
their manifestos and exercising their
seats of Chiefs and representatives of
democratic rights. The Parliament is
the disabled in Parliament are done
dissolved (disbanded) thereby marking
by Electoral Colleges for separate
a new beginning. The President has the
constituencies as may be set by the
obligation to dissolve the parliament,
President.
indicating that from that period
The list of the accepted candidates is then
onwards, there will be no more sitting
published in the government gazette .
of parliamentarians.
This paves way for ZEC to design and
print ballot papers and allocate numbers
Proclamation gives a green light to
of polling stations. This is followed by
the start of an election period and also
notification of interested observers.
makes provision for an election run-off .
(In Zimbabwe elections are observed
This is followed by nomination of
by the SADC, AU, Africa-Caribbean
candidates by the Nomination Court

191
countries and the Pacific (ACP), UN
and other friendly countries).
There is also early voting which is a
privilege to all those who will be outside
the country or those on government duty
during the day in question, including
electoral officers and members of
security personnel who will be on duty.
They have to apply 14 days after the
sitting of the nomination court and if
successful, the voting material will be
provided to them.
The next stage is the accreditation
of observers by the Accreditation
Committee four days before the actual
voting day. This is followed by Voting
Day at designated polling stations where
there will be ZEC officials, election
agents of each candidate, the Chief
Election Agent and ZRP officers who
will be maintaining order. After casting
of votes, they are counted, sealed and
transported to the Command Centre.
ZEC is empowered by the law to
announce results of the elections. After
the results are announced, a contender
can challenge through a petition
(application) the validity of the results,
but this is only done within 14 days after
the announcement of election results. If
there is no ultimate winner with 50+1
percentage of votes, there will be an
election re-run.
192
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Section A: Multiple Choice
Questions
1. Harmonised elections in
Zimbabwe are conducted after
every ---- years. (a) 2 years (b) 4
years (c) once there is a vacancy
(d) 5 years.
2. What necessitated the June 2008
Presidential run-off ? (a) it was
a contested election (b) other
candidates wanted a re-run (c)
no one garnered 50+1 vote (d) it
was a result of the Government of
National Unity (GNU).
3. The following are the main
functions of the Zimbabwe
Electoral Commission
except……………….. (a)
Conflict management (b) voter
education (c) announcing election
results (d) delimitation exercise.
4. Who is allowed by the law to
proclaim an election date? (a)
Chief Justice (b) any Senior Judge
(c) Judge President (d) President.
5. Registration of political parties is
done by (a) Zimbabwe Electoral
Commission (b) Ministry of
 Justice (c) High Court
Supreme Court
Section B: Structured Questions
1. (a) List any four functions of the
Zimbabwe Electoral Commission.
(b) Describe the electoral processes in
Zimbabwe.
(c) Evaluate the role of observers
during election times.
Drama
Perform a drama depicting the
whole voting process as conducted in
Zimbabwe until election results are
announced.
(d)
NB: If you are 18 years and above, you
have a democratic right to participate in
any election.
Unit Summary
Zimbabwe has a Constitution to
ensure the proper functioning of the
state. There are special features of the
Constitution like Bill of Rights, Tiers of
the government, Language, Citizenship
and the Veterans of the Liberation
Struggle. The Electoral System of
Zimbabwe is controlled by the ZEC.
193
 End Of Second Term O’level (b) Cecil John Rhodes
Examinations (c) Henry Hawkins Pollard
End Term One Test (Chapters 4-6) (d) Fredrick Courtney Selous

Paper 1 6. Which of the following is not one of

the spirit mediums who participate
1. The First Chimurenga was
in the First Chimurenga?
fought in _______________.,
(a) Nehanda (b) Mukwati
(a) 1896 (b) 1897
(c) Bonda (c) Makoni
(c) 1896/97 (d) 1966
7. Mao Tse Tung philosophy
2. Which of the following was not
says that the soldiers are the
a cause of the First Chimurenga/
Umvukela of 1896/97 (a) Fish (b) Sea
(c) Masses (d) Sellouts
(a) Poor Education
(b) Loss of Land 8. Which party won the majority
(c) Hut tax (d) Forced labour of the 80 seats in February 1980
03. The word ‘Chimurenga’ means (a) UANC
(b) ZANU PF
(a) Freedom (b) To fight
(c) PF ZAPU
(c) To struggle
(d)Smith’s Rhodesian
(d) War of Liberation
9. Which organisational value
4. The Second Chimurenga ended
requires an individual to accomplish
in_________.
given tasks in a given time frame?
(a) 1980 (b) 1966
(a) Responsibility
(c) 1979 (d) 1975
(b) Integrity
5. The Mazoe Native Commissioner (c) Transparency
who was captured and (d) Accountability.
executed by Mbuya Nehanda
10. Why were Zimbabwean Freedom
in 1896 was ____________.
Fighters buried in mass graves?
(a) Leander Starr Jameson

194
 (a) they were victims of brutal implemented in all schools
massacre (b) it gives a sense of dedication
(b) they were killed in numbers to duty towards safeguarding
and there was no time for Zimbabwe
proper burial (c) assists individuals to owe
(c) it is our culture to bury people allegiance to God
that way (d) it give prepares youths to
(d) it was a directive from become patriotic and love their
commanders. country.

11. Great Zimbabwe is divided 14.The Second Chimurenga was

into three partitions namely; prosecuted by the following
military wings
(a) Hill Ruins, Cynical Tower
and Valley Ruins (a) ZANLA
(b) Great Enclosure, Valley Ruins (b) ZIPRA
and venerated houses (c) Rhodesian Forces
(c) Valley Ruins, Great Enclosure (d) ZANLA and ZIPRA.
and Hill Ruins
15.
Which Act legalised the
(d) venerated houses, ritual site
occupation of land in Rhodesia?
and masonry walls.
(a) Land Apportionment Act
13. The National Pledge was derived
1930
from ________.
(b) Native Land Husbandry Act
(a) the Ministry of Primary and 1951
Secondary Education Policy (c) Lippert Concession 1889
(b) Preamble of the Zimbabwe (d) Matabeleland Order in
Constitution Council 1894.
(c) Traditions and Culture
16. What necessitated the June
(d) Harare High School anthem.
2008 Presidential run-off ?
13. The National Pledge is
(a) it was a contested election
significant except that;
(b) the bhora musango mantra
(a) it is a government policy to be (c) no one garnered 50+1 vote
195
 (d) it was a result of the (b) no freedom of speech
Government of National Unity (c) single person in power
(GNU). (d) elections every five years.

17. The following are the main functions

of the Zimbabwe Electoral
Commission (ZEC) except
(a) conflict management
(b) voter education
(c) announcing election results
(d) delimitation exercise.
18. What was the purpose of “state
forest?”
PAPER 2
Section B: Structured Questions
1. Identify any six causes of the
First Chimurenga\Umvukela
2. Describe the main events of the war
between the Shona and the British
settlers during the 1896-97 war

(a) to acquire all forests for the 3. Why were the Shona eventually
Settlers defeated by the British settlers
(b) it served a commercial and during the 1896-97 war?
conservative agenda
4. List six spirit mediums that
(c) to accelerate depletion of
fought in the First Chimurenga
forests
/U Umvukela of 1896-97.
(d) to push Blacks away from
accessing the forests. 5. Describe the role played by
the spirit mediums in the
19. The Tomb of the Unknown
First Chimurenga of 1896-97.
Soldier is found at ______.
6. To what extent the execution
(a) provincial heroes acre
of the spirit mediums
(b) Chimoio shrines
signalled the end of the war?
(c) National Heroes Acre
(d) Nyadzonya shrine.

20. The following are characteristics 1. Identify any six heroes of

of an autocracy except _______. the Second Chimurenga.

(a) Stronger army 2. Describe the role played by the

196
 masses in the liberation struggle

3. How important was external 1. List any three national

support in this struggle? shrines of your choice and
two national monuments
4. Identify any five human rights.
found in Zimbabwe (5).
5.
Outline the basic
2. (b) Describe any one
principles of democracy.
shrine in Zimbabwe (10).
6. To what extent have these
3. (c) Evaluate the assertion
principles been implemented
that national shrines and
by the Zimbabwean
monuments have no historical
government since 1980?
relevance to Zimbabwe? (10).
1. State the three organs of the
4. List any five reasons of the
Zimbabwe government and the
thrust of the National Pledge.
titles of their respective leaders
5. Using comparative studies,describe
2. Describe the functions of each
the National Pledge of Zimbabwe.
of the organs of the government
6. Validate the view that there
3. How successful has the
is an intricate relationship
judiciary in Zimbabwe been
between the National Anthem
performing its functions?
and the National Pledge.
4. List any six inequalities
in the provision of social
services in Rhodesia. 1. Identify four key natural
resources found in Zimbabwe.
5. Describe the measures adopted
by the government during the 2. Describe how land was distributed
first decade of independence during the colonial period.
to redress these inequalities.
3. Why are natural resources taken
6. How successful was the government as a source of conflict in Africa?
in addressing the inequalities?
4. List any three national shrines

197
 of your choice and two national 3. Evaluate the assertion that national
monuments found in Zimbabwe. shrines and monuments have no
historical relevance to Zimbabwe?
5.
Describe any one
shrine in Zimbabwe. 4. Discuss the importance of the
National Pledge and demonstrate
6. Outline the origins of
the link with the National Flag
the National Pledge.
and the National Anthem.

5. Explain the Tiers of the

1. Describe the mandate of the Government of Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwe Electoral Commission. How effective is the system?

2.
Describe the electoral
processes in Zimbabwe.

3. Identify the role of Observers

during election times.

4. State any six official

languages of Zimbabwe.

5. Name three key features of the

Constitution of Zimbabwe.

6.
State the Constitution
making process in Zimbabwe.

Section B
1. Outline the causes of the First
Chimurenga and identify the role of
the spirit mediums during the war.

2.
To what extent is
Zimbabwe described as a
Constitutional democracy.

198
 7 Rights and Responsibilities

Unit Objectives as health, security, education and shelter.

By the end of this Unit, you should be
able to;
• Identify rights and responsibilities
of:
• the elderly;
• persons with disability
• women
• war veterans
• Identify civic responsibilities at
community and national level.
• Explain the civic responsibilities.
The first picture shows elderly
Sharai Chikanda in Gutu and in the
second picture she is joined by her
grandchildren.
(a) Rights and Responsibilities of
the elderly
Elderly people in our communities have
equal rights like any other human being.

Introduction
This Unit will explain in depth the
rights and responsibilities of the elderly,
the disabled persons, women, and war
veterans and relate them to available
international legal instruments.
Case studies of how these rights
are implemented internationally
are also given. The Unit will also
attempt to identify civic (community)
An elderly woman
responsibilities at community level such
199
The Constitution of Zimbabwe, Section
82 recognises anyone who is above 70
years as an elderly person. On the other
hand, the United Nations (UN) in 2007
recognised anyone
60 years and above
as elderly. However, Age 1982
the retiring age in 70-74 60 427
Zimbabwe is at 65 75+ 86 337
years, while those
who wish to retire
early will do so at 60 Source: Population Projects Thematic Report August 2015
years. They are afforded the following
rights in addition to those enshrined in
the Bill of Rights;
(a) To receive reasonable care and the world projections that the number
assistance from their families and of elderly persons is expected to increase
the State;
(b) To receive health care and medical
assistance from the State and;
(c) To receive financial support by
way of social security and welfare.
In fulfilling the realisation of these
rights and enjoyment by the recipients,
the State is mandated to take
reasonable legislative actions including
other measures and instruments
given available resources (financial or
otherwise).
The National Census Profiles of 1982,
200
1992, 2002 and 2012 shows an increase
of those people aged between 70 - 75+.
The following table shows this trend;
Age Group
1992 2002 2012
121 153 123 246 137 989
120 825 146 898 227 376
Table 1 shows
The above trend reveals that the number
of elderly persons is increasing by the
count of each census. This agrees with
from about 600 million in 2000 to over
2 billion by 2050. The majority of this
increase is expected to be found in the
developing world.
The government considers the elderly
as senior citizens who enjoy certain
privileges at health institutions, local
authorities, food programmes and even
at banking institutions. There are old
people’s homes created specifically for
this age group where they are looked
after. The elderly receive free medical
treatment in government hospitals
except for drugs and at times they
receive free cancer screening and eye
cataract surgeries.
Some banks also recognise anyone who
attains 65 years as elderly. For example,
ZB Bank Management created the
Elderly Express Service where they
get in the bank and get served without
waiting in a queue. They are also excused
from bank withdrawal charges, among
others.
Banks in Harare
The elderly
The First Banking Corporation (FBC)
recognises anyone who attains 60 years
as elderly. Following the attainment of
60 years, the customer applies to the
Branch Manager to be excused from all
bank charges. Other privileges include
express services in queues.
The Harare City Council exempts the
elderly from paying bills once they show
proof that the property is theirs.
Zimbabwe also celebrates
the International Day
of the Elderly persons
every year through the
Ministry of Public Service
Labour and Social Welfare
(MPSLSW).
Responsibilities of the
Elderly
The elderly have the
following responsibilities;
• To share their life
experiences, victories,
failures and hopes with the
younger generation. This will
be beneficial as the younger
generation will strengthen
the existing institutions for
a better country.
• To transfer societal
norms and values to the next
generation.
• To fulfil their
social roles according to their
201
 abilities including paying for basic
services to those renting and paying
for dipping services, among others.
• To look after themselves in a
healthy manner according to their
capabilities.
(b) Rights and Responsibilities of
Persons with Disabilities (PWDs)
Definition
Wheel chair
According to the Disabled Persons Act,
(Chapter 17:01) Section 2, a disabled
person means a person with a physical,
mental or sensory disability, including
a visual, hearing or speaking functional
disability which gives rise to physical,
cultural or social barriers inhibiting
him/her from participating at an equal
level with other members of society
in activities, undertakings or field of
employment that are open to other
202
members of society.
The running of Welfare and
Rehabilitation programmes for persons
with disabilities is guided by the Disabled
Persons Act (Chapter 17:01). The Act
was publicised in 1992 and it gives the
Ministry of Public Service, Labour and
Social Welfare the obligation to cater for
the needs of persons with disabilities. It
also provides for the establishment of
the National Disability Board.
The National Disability Board
The Board is formed in accordance with
Section 4, Sub Section 1 of the Act.
The Board consist of 20 members, 10
who are drawn from Disabled Persons
Organisations (DPOs), six from line
Ministries namely; the Ministry of
Health and Child Care, Ministry of
Primary and Secondary Education,
Ministry of Local Government, Public
Works and National Housing, Ministry
of Public Service, Labour and Social
Welfare and Ministry of Transport and
Infrastructural Development.
Functions of the Board
• Issues adjustment orders in terms
of the Act.
• Formulates and develops measures
and policies designed to ensure
 that persons with disabilities live another being. To achieve this balance,
independent lives and that they the Constitution of Zimbabwe cushions
have access to all social services. PWDs from inequalities by giving them
rights specifically enjoyed by them.
• Estimate and report to the
Section 22 and 83 of the Constitution
Minister on the likely cost of
of Zimbabwe affords them rights in
proposed measures for the welfare
order to;
and rehabilitation of persons
(a) Enable them to become self-
with disabilities and to advise
reliant;
on relative priorities to be given
to the implementation of these (b) Enable them to live with their
measures. families and participate in social,
creative or recreational activities;
• Keep measures for the welfare
and rehabilitation of persons with (c) Protect them from all forms of
disabilities under constant review exploitation and abuse;
and to reassess and evaluate these
(d) Give them access to medical,
measures in the light of experience.
psychological and functional
• To perform such other functions treatment;
in relation to the welfare
(e) To provide specific facilities for
and rehabilitation of persons
their education, and
with disabilities as may be
recommended. (f ) Provide State funded education
and training where they need it.
PWDs and Inability
PWDs can never be equated to incapable The Disabled Persons Fund
people. It is just a condition of mental,
This fund is managed by the Department
intellectual and sensory disabilities.
of Social Services with the assistance
About 1.3 million people in Zimbabwe
of the National Disability Board. The
are officially recognised as having some
fund was designed to cater for the
form of disability and they are protected
welfare of persons with disabilities in
by the Disabled Act of 1992 Chapter
the form of school fees and vocational
17:01. A person living with some form
training fees for those at tertiary level,
of disability can perform equally as
203
vocational training centres, per capita
grants, medical fees and the purchase of
assistive technologies.
Vocational training fees
• This is a facility which is meant
to benefit PWD who are past
primary and secondary level.
PWD are assisted with the
payment of school fees at Colleges
and Universities.
Vocational training centers
• The government has three
National Rehabilitation Centres
that offer vocational training to
PWD namely Ruwa, Beatrice and
Lowden Lodge.
• The rehabilitation centres
offer courses like carpentry,
motor mechanics, IT, clothing
technology, leatherwork, domestic
appliances electrical, welding,
storekeeping and bookkeeping,
ornamental horticulture and
information technology.
Per capita grants
• Institutions of PWD receive
monthly grants meant for
the upkeep of inmates in the
institutions.
204
Administration grants
• These are grants meant to cushion
administrative costs of institutions
run by NGOs and they are a yearly
once-off payment.
Medical fees
• PWD are assisted with Assisted
Medical Treatment Orders
(AMTOs) which can only be used
in government hospitals in order
for them to access free medical
treatment
Assistive technologies
• PWD are also assisted with the
purchase of assisted devices such
as wheelchairs, spectacles, crutches
and artificial limps.
Disability loans
• This facility assists PWD who
want to embark on income
generating projects.
• PWD can easily access social
services through the District
offices
Responsibilities of PWDs
• The PWDs have the following
responsibilities:
• To observe and obey the Constitution
 of Zimbabwe just like any other
citizen. If they commit any crime,
they are sent to the courts as well,
but an explanatory, factor is applied
whereby at times sentence is reduced
given the disability levels.
• To be responsible as they claim
their rights provided for in the
Constitution and the Act. This
means that they should not abuse
their accorded rights.
• To work and look after their families.
The government’s intervention on
people living with disability
1. Government created three
national centres to cater for
vocational needs of people living
with disabilities;
(i) Beatrice National Rehabilitation
Centre.
(ii)
Ruwa Rehabilitation Centre
which caters for vocational needs
like welding, garment making,
carpentry and motor mechanics,
among others. The Department
of Social Services fully funds their
examination and trade tests.
(iii) Lowdon Lodge in Mutare which
caters for female students at
primary school level.
2. Registers all private organisations
including Disabled Person’s
Organisations (DPOs) under the
Private Voluntary Organisation
(PVO) Act Chapter 17:05.
There are 30 registered DPOs
in Zimbabwe and these include
Danhiko Project, Jairos Jiri and
Zimcare Trust, among others.
3. Assisting special needs schools
which cater for special needs for
example, Emerald Hill School
of the Deaf and Dumb, Copota
School and Danhiko, among
others.
4. Recognising Sign Language
as one of the official languages
in Zimbabwe (Constitution of
Zimbabwe Section 6 (4).
5. Provision of per capita grants to
institutions which looks after the
PWDs whose figures vary from
time to time.;
6. Provision of Administration grant
to registered PVOs which assist
the PWDs monthly depending on
the outreach.
7. Creation of a fully-fledged
Disability Department under the
Ministry of Public Service Labour
205
 and Social Welfare that caters
for the welfare of the disabled in
conjunction with the National
Disability Board (NDB) and
assistance from related NGOs.
The NDB also includes giving
Adjustment Orders to private
properties owners to cater for
physically challenged by adjusting
their building plan.
Zimbabwe approved the United
Nations Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) on
23 September 2016. This is victorious
as this creates a solid legal foundation
on the enjoyment of PWDs’ rights
according to the international best
practises. Because of approval, a
complementary conference dubbed the
‘2014 Roundtable on Disability’ was
hosted for the first time in Zimbabwe
and a certificate was received.
The 2014 Roundtable Conference on
Disability
• The 2014 Second Continental
Roundtable Conference on the
Disabled was held in Harare,
Zimbabwe in November 2016. It
was supported by Communities
of Practise in Disability Advocacy
for Mainstreaming (COPDAM).
COPDAM is a disability
206
continental policy implementation
strategy that aims at building
capacity of national, regional and
continental disability federations
and advocates for disability
mainstreaming in all sectors of
government.
The Conference, which was attended
by over 15 member countries,
parliamentarians, experts and various
NGOs advocated for disability
inclusivity of those staying with
disability into strategic development
plans. In his address, the board member
of Africa Disability Alliance placed
emphasis on the need for governments
across Africa to include those physically
challenged in policy decisions of the
country.
8. Some DPOs have livelihood
programmes being implemented
in communities for sustainability
so as to remove the dependency
pattern. For example Leonard
Cheshire, is embarking on
community programmes and
the Zimbabwe Parents of
Handicapped Children assists
the challenged to saw and weave,
thus allowing them to self for
sustenance.
9. Preference at hospitals, clinics
 and bank queues, among others.
While distributing food hand
outs, the leadership gives priority
to PWDs.
10. Extended tax concessions- this
includes the suspension of
customs duty on specified motor
vehicles imported by physically
handicapped people. They are
given a Disability Rebate which is
limited to cars. One applies to the
Zimbabwe Revenue Authority
(ZIMRA) prior to buying the
car, putting his/her personal
details and engine number. AN
assessment will be made whether
the applicant is qualified to receive
the rebate.
11. They receive food and hand-outs
countrywide for free.
Disability awareness activities
• International Day for Persons with
Disabilities- Since 1992, the 3rd of
December of each year was declared
by the United Nations as a day to
celebrate the abilities of persons
with disabilities all over the world.
The celebration of this day is an
important tool in promoting the
rights of persons with disabilities.
It also increases awareness,
understanding of disability issues
and the gains to be derived from
the integration of persons with
disabilities in every aspect of life.
• A Disability Expo is held every year
to give awareness to PWDs in order
for them to be fully aware about
their rights and opportunities in life.
The expo is a brain child of the office
of the advisory in the Office of the
President and Cabinet (OPC). The
late Brigadier Felix Muchemwa
used to head this portfolio and
was succeeded by Doctor Timothy
Stamps.
Advocacy
Despite the existence of the Constitution
and its succeeding efforts to address
issues surrounding the PWDs, there are
groups, organisations and individuals
who still believe that the Constitution
has not fully addressed their concerns:
(i) The Zimbabwe government
is coming up with a National
Disability policy which marks a
change from viewing people with
disabilities as a medical burden to
a social model whereby their rights
are represented in all sectors of
our economy. The push is towards
inclusivity.
207
(ii) Despite officially recognising Sign
Language, calls are still being
made to make Sign Language and
Braille compulsory in all learning
institutions. Some are calling
for universal sign language. This
also extends to police, nurses and
legal graduates who need to be
taught Sign Language in order to
comprehend cases well when they
are brought before them.
(iii) Pushing for a focal person in every
government department to cater
for disability concerns.
(iv) Some are calling for the creation of
a Ministry specifically for PWDs.
(v) Some appointments at government
level must also include PWDs.
Women demonstrating
208
Interesting Development: Tourism Day
The Ministry of Tourism and
stakeholders including the MPSLSW
in September 2016 visited most hotels
in Zimbabwe to check on how they
have tried to cater for PWDs in their
hotels and tourism facilities. This
follows calls from tourism practitioners
to include facilities which cater for
those physically challenged. The sad
thing was that hotels are still far from
inclusivity in terms of catering for the
needs of PWDs. For example, they
do not have speakers to notify visually
impaired people on the floors they
are in while using lifts, bathrooms do
not accommodate soaps and oils for
those with albinism, among others.
However, the push by the MPSLW and
stakeholders is a commitment to hotel
practitioners of the need to be inclusive
in their facilities.
Criticism on of the Constitution
In as much as the 2013 Zimbabwe
Constitution gave the green light to
campaign and raise awareness of the
PWDS, Section 22 (2) remains with
a discriminatory clause where it reads,
“The State and all institutions and
agencies of government in every level
must, within the limits of resources
available to them, assist...” To the
PWDs, it implies that the government
has not done enough to address their
financial challenges.
Section 83 (f ) compels government
departments “to provide State funded
education when they need it.” This is
a point of contention as it seems like
the PWDs are not prioritised by the
Constitution. The section deliberately
ignores to afford them certain financial
benefits that will sustain them. Should
they be accorded such financial benefits,
does it not create dependency? Perhaps
these critics are a striking balance.
The Constitution also uses Disability
language instead of PWDs which is
more inclusive.
(c) Rights and responsibilities of
women
In the past, women were under
suppression and direct control of men
who dominated society. Women, mostly
in Africa, were not allowed to seek
employment, go to school, health care
and let alone become politicians. In
about 29 countries in Africa and the
Middle East, girls still face shocking
genital disfigurement exposing them
to bleeding, child birth complications
and infertility. Some are forced into
early marriages by their parents as a
way of survival and religion. Globally,
more than 700 million women alive
today were married before their 18th
birthday . However, of the 1, 1 billion
girls in the world, about 22 million are
already married, but several millions are
always at risk. If efforts to decrease this
cruelty are not mounted, then there is
a probability that about 1.2 billion girls
would have been married by 2050.
In Zimbabwe, the Constitutional Court
(ConCourt) in January 2016 repealed
section 22(1) of the Marriage Act which
allowed children under the age of 18
years to get into marriage. This decision
was arrived at following the sitting of
a full ConCourt bench after Loveness
Mudzuru and Ruvimbo Tsopodzi
argued through their lawyer, Mr Tendai
Biti that the Customary Marriages Act
was infringing the rights of young girls.
The 2014 Multiple Cluster Indicator
Survey indicates that 24.5% of young
people aged between 15 and 19 years
were married before the age of 18.
The backward and unreasonable thinking
is firmly fading as various organisations,
women groups and governments are
pushing hard for the recognition of
women constitutionally. According to
the United Nations, 143 countries have
209
so far guaranteed equality between men
and women in their Constitutions while
52 are yet to come up with legislative
frameworks.
Zimbabwe has since allowed the 50-
50 gender equality in all sectors of
the economy. This also goes into the
Science Technology Engineering and
Mathematics (STEM) programme
where girls have equal opportunities in
enrolling in programmes that transform
our economy.
The Constitution of Zimbabwe,
Section 80 (1), provides that, every;
(1) Woman has full and equal dignity
of the person with men (50/50),and
this includes equal opportunities
in political, economic and social
activities. This also includes in
political seats reserved under the
Proportional representation.
(2) Women have the same rights as
men regarding the custody of
guardianship of children, but an
Act of Parliament may regulate
how those rights are to be
exercised.
(3) All laws, customs and cultural
practises that infringe the rights
of women conferred by this
210
Constitution are void to the extent
of the infringement. For example
such practises like appeasing
avenging spirits, and kugara nhaka
at a tender age is viewed as abuse
and infringing other people’s
rights.
Ministry of Women Affairs Gender
and Community Development
(MWAGCD) in perspective.
The Ministry of Women Affairs
was created after independence and
evolved to the Gender and Community
Development (MWAGCD) in 2005
in order to look into empowerment
policies, strategies and programmes.
The Ministry is assigned to promote
gender equality and equity to enable
equal access, utilisation, ownership and
control of resources as well empower
communities to become self-reliant. The
Ministry achieves this through three
departments; that is Women Affairs
Department, Gender Department and
Community Development.
(a) Women Affairs Department- the
department funds eight women
groups in each district through the
revolving Women’s Development
Fund which is funded by the
Treasury since 2011. It also
facilitates women in exhibiting
 their agricultural projects at the
Zimbabwe Agricultural Show
(ZAS), Food Fair in every province
as well as international exhibitions
for those women whose projects
are value-added, especially in
Japan. This department also works
with women who are into business,
tourism, agriculture, trade and
mining.
(b) Gender Department- this
department assists communities in
the reduction of domestic violence
cases through the 4Ps Campaign
(Prevention, Participation,
Programmes and Protection),
Gender Based Violence (GBV)
campaign, family laws education
that include Will writing, birth
registration, types of marriages
inheritance issues. On other hand
the department spearheads 50/50
participation of women in all
sectors of the economy. This assists
in the economic development
of the country considering that
women form a larger portion
of the population according to
census figures.
(c) Community Development-
assists wards to embark on value
addition and beneficiation, skills
development, incomes savings and
lending schemes and community
gardens among others. These
projects assist sustainable
development at both ward, district,
provincial and national levels.
Role of non-state actors in
advancing the rights of women in
Zimbabwe
Non-state actors are those organisations
that are not owned by the government,
but they wield greater influence in the
communities. In relation to women
issues, the government is assisted
in implementing gender issues and
policies by these non-state actors under
the framework of Zimbabwe United
Nations Development Framework
(ZUNDAF) where resources are
combined and later distributed to
affiliate organisations by the United
Nations Development Programme
(UNDP).
The NGOs play a vital part by providing
technical capacities in the communities
with control by the Ministry of Women
Affairs Gender and Community
Development (MWAGCD) officials.
They assist in interpreting the laws that
relate to the international best practises
and experiences, provide expertise on
agricultural knowledge and modern
211
trends. Legal Resources Foundation
teaches on family laws, Women and
Law in Southern Africa assists in skills
development and family laws, Women
Action Group empowers women and
girls on their rights, including violence
against women.
The PVOs provide financial assistance
to girls to advance their studies.
For example Campaign for Female
Education (CAMFED) procures
textbooks and pays school fees up to
university level to selected girls across
the country.
NB: In order to achieve and realise
sustainable development and ensure
the ordinary people benefits, these
organisations are supposed to be
registered first under the Private
Voluntary Organisations (PVOs) to
operate through the Ministry of Public
Service Labour and Social Welfare
(MPLSW). They are issued with a
Certificate and terms of reference. They
are then cleared by the MWAGCD in
order to operate in selected districts or
wards according to the demands and
needs of the communities.
Negative effects of non-state actors
Despite the good work done by the non-
state actors (NGOs and development
partners), there are also negative effects
212
that may arise due to their presence
as more often than not, they act on
instructions of their funders. This is
because;
• Some countries against or friendly
to Zimbabwe can use such
organisations to collect information
of strategic value for the benefit of
their countries.
• The receiving country can be used as
a ‘testing ground’ for other countries’
products
• Some seemingly good gesture of
food can be a way of dumping
• Some donated food can be used as
‘political baits’ to look for votes for
different political parties.
• Not every organisation controlled
within and abroad loves to see
Zimbabwe prosper, hence they
arrange for change of government
(Case study-Haiti, Malawi,
Namibia)
• They can use advocacy platforms
to control the minds of women to
revolt against the government
Responsibilities of women
Women have the following
responsibilities;
• To obey other provisions of the
Constitution like any other human
 being
• Not to abuse their accorded rights
• To work towards the development
of this country
• To respect other people’s rights
(d) Rights and Responsibilities
of the Veterans of the Liberation
Struggle
Zimbabwe was born out of a bitter
political contestation between the
colonial settlers (Whites) and the
native majority (Blacks) who waged
a war of liberation from fronts (Zanla
and Zipra) leading the 1979 Lancaster
House Agreement which ushered in an
independent and sovereign Zimbabwe.
Men and women selflessly sacrificed
their precious lives for the enjoyment
of peace and tranquillity prevailing in
the country. It is their sweat and blood
that ‘watered’ the camps in Mukushi,
Nyadzonya, Chimoio and Mboroma,
among others so that we enjoy
independence. As part of honouring
these great sacrifices, the Constitution
of Zimbabwe accords them specific
rights and responsibilities in Section
84 (1) a-c. Veterans of the liberation
struggle are;
(a) Those who fought in the war
of liberation (the veterans who
prosecuted the struggle)
(b) Those who assisted the fighters
in the war of liberation (war
collaborators); and
(c) Those who were imprisoned
detained or restricted for political
reasons during the struggle (ex-
detainees and restrictees)
The War Veterans Act Chapter
11:15 (22/2000)
In recognition of their contributions
to the liberation of this country, the
government created the Ministry of
Welfare Services for War Veterans,
War Collaborators, Political Detainees
and Restrictees to provide social and
economic support. This is also provided
for in the Act through a War Veterans
Fund which can be accessed by any
veteran. The fund is meant for five
issues which are;
(i) Grants to war veterans and their
dependants who lack means of
subsistence
(ii)
Grants for physical, mental
or social rehabilitation of war
veterans
213
 (iii) Grants for manpower development
with a view to providing war
veterans with academic, technical,
vocational or other skills or any
other training necessary to equip
them for employment.
(iv) Grants for funeral expenses in
respect of war veterans
(v) The provision of loans to assist in
income generating projects
NB: As of 2016, war veterans were
expected to be at the strength of over
30 000.
Case Study
War Veterans grant in South Africa
The South African laws defines a war
veteran as a former soldier who fought
in the First World War (1904-1918),
Second World War (1939-1945), the
Zulu uprising of 1906 or the Korean War
(1950-1953). They only qualify for the
grant if one is unable to support himself.
The criteria for beneficiaries is as follows;
one has to be above 60 years of age or those
disabled, not cared for by any State insti-
tution, do not earn more than R69 000
per year or own assets worth more than
R990 000 if single and has never received
any other social grant. If a veteran satis-
214
fies the above, then a fund to the amount
of R 1520 per month is given.
A war veteran in South Africa ceases to
benefit from the fund as a result of death,
admission to a State institution, if the
grant is not claimed for three consecutive
months and when one is absent from the
country.
Responsibilities of veterans of the
Liberation Struggle
The Veterans of the Liberation struggle
have the following responsibilities;
• To observe and respect the
Constitution and other related
legislations
• To promote peace and unity in the
country
• To work hard to ensure economic
development of the country
• To respect the rights of other
citizens
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Typical Exam Questions
Section A: Multiple Choice
 Questions
1. Disability is _________.
(a) equated to inability
(b)a temporary condition
(c) never equated to inability
(d) to become self-reliant
2. Zimbabwe is part to which
International Convention?
(a) Second Continental
Roundtable Conference on the
Disabled
(b) National Disability Policy
(c) United Nations Convention Section B: Structured Questions
on Disability
(d) National Convention on (i) The elderly
Disability
3. The Marriage Act
allows……………….. (a) anyone
who attained 16 years to be
married (b) anyone who attained
18 years to be married (c) denied
marriage at 16 years (d) did not
allow marriage until one attains
18 years.
4. Non-Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) can
be referred to as negative
when……………… (a) they
provide technical services to
Zimbabwe (b) they wield greater
influence in our community (c)
they provide financial assistance
to girls to further their education
(d) they use advocacy platforms
to make people revolt against the
government
5. The Veterans of Liberation
struggle made sacrifices in order
for Zimbabwe to (a) enjoy peace
and tranquillity (b) independent
and sovereign (c) be economically
active (d) drive away the
colonisers.
1. (a) List any three rights of;
(ii) The disabled
(iii) Women
(iv) Veterans of the Liberation Struggle
(b) Describe how the government has
assisted the physically challenged in
Zimbabwe.
(c) To what extent does the Zimbabwean
government recognise the rights of
women?
Practical/ Tour
Visit any
(a) Old People’s homes
(b) Physically challenged persons or
(c) any elderly people in your
community. While doing that, source
some donations for them as responsible
citizens.
215
Further Research do not compromise
In groups of five, produce a concept the ability of future
paper detailing how you can improve generation.
the conditions of Straying: aimlessly moving away.
(a) the elderly
(b) the disabled in your community. Civic responsibilities are practices
Make your presentation to your class. associated with actions and attitudes
pursued by productive citizens. The
Topic 2 terms civic and responsibility are
derived from the Latin words civitus,
Civic Responsibilities which means citizen and responsum,
Warm Up Exercise meaning reply.
1. What are security communities? Societies comprise the young, the
2. Name a few examples of these elderly, people with disabilities and the
communities in your community. homeless, among others. Such groups
require assistance for them to make
ends meet. But they should not reduce
Key Words
themselves to beggars, they should
Targeted Command Agriculture: a
government programme
launched in 2016
to ensure food self-
sufficiency.
Operation Maguta: a government
programme targeting
agricultural productivity
in September 2005.
Ban: prohibit Martin Luther King
Traditional medicine: medicine
instead aim to assist others. Dr Martin
extracted from natural Luther King Jr, once remarked; “Life’s
herbs based on beliefs most persistent and urgent question is:
and knowledge of black What are you doing for others?”
people. (a) Civic responsibilities in health
Sustainable development:
Health is a human right. Every citizen
development that
216
is entitled to affordable health care
services. Community leaders work
with the public to reduce diseases. In
malaria zones, communities cut down
grasses and fill up mosquito breeding
places through food for work initiatives.
In urban areas, refuse is collected and
disposed at selected points by the local
authorities. For example, the Harare
City Council through the Waste Away
department collects garbage door-
to-door in various areas. Where such
services are not available, communities
have a way to manage their solid and
waste material. An example of such
communities implementing waste
management systems is in the Gokwe
area of Nemangwe where communities
are embarking on digging two types of
bins, one which accommodates metals,
bottles and difficult to decompose
materials while the other one is filled
with waste which decomposes faster.
Near the toilet there is chigubhugiya
(bucket) for people to wash their hands
after using the toilet. Other programmes
that are being implemented throughout
the country is the rural Water
Sanitation and Rehabilitation (WASH)
programme which was implemented
by the government in conjunction with
UNICEF. This saw the construction of
blair toilets and promotion of hygiene
in households.
(Pictures of an urban setting refuse
collection truck and a rural community
disposal system shall be added).
Since 1980, the government has
partnered with civic society organisations
(CSOs) in the training of community
health workers. These people provide
assistance in the prevention of diseases.
Diseases such as breast, prostate and
cervical cancer are killing thousands of
people in Sub Saharan Africa region.
Community members are encouraged
to be tested for signs of such diseases.
Government is also working with
international organisations to improve
the health delivery system in the
country. Examples of such partners are
the Global Fund and the World Health
Organisation, (WHO). Meanwhile,
the government has agreements with
China, Cuba, Egypt and South Korea
on provision of health personnel in
critical shortage areas. In addition,
government has placed a ban on the use
of some drugs following their abuse by
youths.
The use of traditional medicines
has been formalised by government.
Zimbabwe is one of a handful countries
which disallowed the use of genetically
modified organisms (GMOs) food
stuffs as a measure against associated
health complications.
217
(b) Security in communities
Civic responsibilities are social
responsibilities. In this regard, citizens
engage in groups to protect property
and lives in their communities. Apart
from protecting individual property,
the practice also safeguards community
resources which are important for
sustainable development. In that respect,
government empowered traditional
chiefs to protect natural resources in
their localities.
Stock theft is one of the challenges
affecting communities in recent
years. In addition, declining pasture
and water sources for livestock have
increased weaknesses in communities.
As a response, communities in affected
areas resorted to rotational livestock
management schemes. A community
where the system is currently being
practiced in Zimbabwe is Chikukwa
communal (Chipinge) area where
villagers take their animals for safe
keeping at an established place for a fee.
In some communities, perimeter fences
to restrict animals from straying out are
established. Other programmes include
clean-up campaigns in urban areas by
community members and organisations,
outreach exercises and neighbourhood
security watchdogs, among others.
218
(c) Education in communities
Communities work with NGOs to
improve the standard of education in
the country. Traditional and political
leaders are involved in the construction
of schools in communities. Environment
protection and preservation, food
and nutrition, market gardening and
proper land use methods are taught to
communities.
At national level, civic responsibilities are
implemented through policy initiatives.
Campaigns to stop bush fires, stream
bank cultivation and tree planting are
some examples of civic responsibilities
in operation. The first Saturday of the
month of December was set aside by
government as a national tree planting
day in Zimbabwe.
(A picture of the President planting a
tree on the dedicated day)
In some cases,the government intervenes
nationally to ensure food security and
self-sufficiency by giving inputs and
farming equipment to people. Under
the same schemes, the Presidential
Input Scheme pours millions of dollars
in acquiring seeds and fertilisers which
are given to most households across the
country to ease hunger and starvation.
Previously, the government launched
Operation Maguta in September 2005
to assist farmers to achieve food security
from the community to the national
level. In 2016, the government launched
the Targeted Command Agriculture in
order to achieve self-sufficiency. The
programme targeted over 2 000 farmers
with each one expected to produce at
least 1000 tonnes of maize. Farmers with
irrigable land and others participated
in the programme. At the same time, a
National Livestock Strategy programme
was launched in order to restart beef
exports to the European Union (EU),
the Middle East and other markets.
This programme targets farmers in
Matabeleland region.
(d) Community housing initiatives
The population of Zimbabwe has grown
over the past years due to the huge rural
to urban migration. Factors leading to
rural-urban migration include lack of
decentralisation of important services
Over populated urban areas (Harare)
to rural areas. In that respect, urban
shelter became more expensive and
overcrowded.
Since the mid-1980s, citizens have been
forming housing cooperatives in major
towns and cities. Housing cooperatives
are clubs formed by individual people
with the aim of building affordable
houses for their members. Under the
scheme, land is either provided for
by the State, council or is bought by
registered cooperatives for example
through Shelter Zimbabwe, among
others. There are many registered
housing cooperatives under the ministry
of Small and Medium Enterprises
and Community Development in
Zimbabwe with many people having
benefited from this model.
However, due to an increase in cases
of misuse of funds and corruption
by cooperative executives coupled
by failure to deliver the promises
made, the government through the
Ministry of Local Government and
National Housing suspended the
cooperatives replacing their role with
the Urban Development Cooperation
(UDCORP). On the other hand, the
government has partnered private
players through Public Private
Partnership arrangements resulting in
the following;
(i) CABS embarking on multi-
million dollar housing scheme in
219
Budiriro high density suburb in Harare. (iii) CBZ giving mortgage facilities to
(ii) FBC Bank completed the both individuals and companies
following projects: Mainway Meadows
(iv) NSSA pushing for a low income
Cluster homes, Chaplin Project,
housing scheme
Muonde Garden project, Philadelphia
(v) H o m e l i n k
helping both local and
those in foreign countries
in the provision of descent
housing

(vi) G o v e r n m e n t
secured a multi-billion
dollar project to construct
over 32 000 housing units
in Harare by a Chinese
construction firm

(vii) In 2015, the

Magamba Housing scheme
was launched in Harare
South

(viii) The launch of

Kadoma housing scheme
Glaudina Housing Project Financed by FBC were 3 000 home seekers
are set to benefit. The area was
Project, Glaudina Project, Masotsha being serviced by Destiny for
Ndhlovu Cluster homes, among others. Africa Network.
(Google FBC Bank). Other civic responsibilities at national
level
Glaudina Housing Project financed by Civic responsibilities are expectations
FBC-picture by Besearch Matseketsa that citizens should always exercise.
Accountability, justification and
220
transparency on the use of national
resources by those chosen to supervise
over them is one such expectation.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Problem solving
Housing cooperatives have been blamed
for selling State land to deceive home
seekers at the expense of proper town
planning. With reference to any two
cooperatives that you know in your
area, write a letter to the Minister of
Local Government, Public Works and
National Housing on the problems
associated with such settlements. Give
recommendations to be tabled in
Parliament.
Typical Exam Questions
Structured Questions
1. (a) Define and explain the
importance of civic responsibilities
(d) Describe how civic responsibilities
promote security in communities.
(e) To what extent has the government
promoted food security and self-
sufficiency in Zimbabwe since
2000?
2. (a) List any four reasons why
housing cooperatives emerged.
(b) Describe how housing cooperatives
are formed in Zimbabwe.
(c) To what extent has the housing
cooperative issue resolved
accommodation challenges in
Zimbabwe?
Practical
In groups of 5, find out how housing
cooperatives are misusing member’s
funds. How can the government stop
such activities?
Unit Summary
The following groups are accorded
rights and responsibilities in our
constitution - the elderly, the disabled
and the veterans of the liberation
struggle. Efforts are being made by
the government to ensure that their
rights are respected. The government
through the MPSLSW, overseas the
implementation of the rights of the
elderly and the disabled through the
Department of Social Welfare Services.
The veterans of the liberation struggle’s
welfare issues are catered for by the
Ministry of War Veterans.
221
 8 Production, Distribution of
Goods and Services
Unit Objectives
By the end of this Unit, learners are
expected to;
• Identify ways of distributing
resources
• Differentiate between
communalism and
commercialisation
• Outline reasons for land reform
• Define economy
• State various industries
• Describe the contribution of
industries to the economy
• Identify constraints to the in
formal sector
• Suggests solutions to these threats
• Identify national strategic reserves
• Describe the functions of national
reserves
222
• Explain the significance of
national reserves
Introduction
In this chapter, you should be able to
identify ways of distributing resources,
distinguish between communalism
and commercialisation and be able to
outline reasons for land reform.
Warm Up Exercise
1. What are resources?
2. Why should the government worry
about distributing them?
3. What happens if resources are not
fairly distributed?
4. If your answer is no, suggest ways of
improving the situation.
Topic 1
Distribution of resources
Introduction
In this chapter, you should be able to
identify ways of distributing resources,
distinguish between communalism give land previously
and commercialization and be able to controlled by a minority
outline reasons for land reform. group to the majority.
The phrase also refers
Warm up Exercise to political decisions
1. What is an informal sector? to increase agricultural
2. List any informal businesses in your productivity.
community?
Resources such as water, fuel, land and
food are not always found closer to the
Distribution: refers to the process of people. In most cases, people live far
delivery of goods and from these important resources. As a
services. It is also used result, their distribution is a Government
by weather expects to cause for concern in Zimbabwe. In most
explain rainfall patterns traditional societies, the most important
in different geographical resources were water, land on which
areas. to grow crops and build shelter, trees
Resources: resources can mean for construction, fruits and medicinal
anything that human purposes and livestock as a basis for
lives use to be alive. economic power and respect in society.
Some common resources
include land, water, Land is an important resource where
fuel, food, material and many farming activities are undertaken
gadgets. The expansion of capitalism which
The informal sector: this is a business came as result of colonialism changed
operation conducted the way people lived, including
by individuals who are methods previously used to distribute
usually not registered resources in society. In that respect,
but contributing to modern societies are developing new
the country’s economy regulations to meet current trends and
indirectly. expectations of the global village, and
Land reform: a government policy these include the distribution of such
implemented to all forms of resources. Among the
various resources required by a person
223
to live a normal life, land remains by far
the most critical resource any country
would not surrender or substitute for
anything. However, land distribution
and ownership law is complex and
governmentally determined in most
cases. This is deliberate and important
for its value. Jomo Kenyatta once
remarked that “There is no society that
can develop without land.” It is also
the major reason why the Veterans of
the Liberation struggle and the masses
of Zimbabwe took up arms to reclaim
the land which was taken away by
white settlers. In Zimbabwe, the land
question has strong historical emotions.
Zimbabweans are therefore reminded
to guard, use and cherish their land,
among other resources bearing in mind
the sacrifices made by the living and
fallen heroes of the country.
Ways of distributing resources
The distribution of resources methods
vary from the nature and type as well as
the location of that particular resource.
Resources such as fuel for vehicle use,
seed for agricultural purposes and food
are sold to the people. Land is also sold,
although in some rural communities
it is allocated to beneficiaries without
payment. Land is also allocated to
those members of society intending
to start their homesteads. Commonly
used distribution of resources methods
224
include, and are not limited to;
• Allocation through a
government policy
• Decentralisation
• Donations
• Inheritance
• Buying
• Claiming
(a) Communalism
The term communalism refers to
collectivism. It is a word used to refer
to a collective ownership of resources.
In this situation, no person claims
ownership of land or a community
infrastructure as these are said to belong
to the community. The word is derived
from the Leninist ideology which
encouraged communal distribution and
ownership of resources in society.
(b) Commercialisation
Commercialisation is a distribution of
resources for profit making basis. When
commercialising, resources reach to the
people at a price set by the distributor.
This is common in urban areas where
land for residential purposes is sold
to people by companies, individuals,
the government; city or town councils.
Therefore, commercialisation is the
opposite of communalism.
(c) Reasons for land reform in
Zimbabwe
The Land Reform came about as a result
of unequal and racial policies on land
distribution. Following the colonisation
of Zimbabwe in 1890 by the British
settlers, the native Blacks were removed
from prime and fertile land into rocky
and dry communal lands. Efforts
to reclaim land were fruitless in the
1890s as the settlers had sophisticated
weaponry and a clear strategy which
our forefathers did not have. However,
as time progressed, the natives began
to feel the heat on racial laws that
were enacted clearly to take control of
land from Blacks. This encouraged the
Second Chimurenga where sons and
daughters selflessly dedicated their lives
by crossing into neighbouring countries
to train and fight the oppressive regime.
This was so because land is a birth rite
and heritage.
The fighting intensified leading to
surrendering of the Smith regime
through the Lancaster House
Agreement that saw the Liberation
wings and Britain coming together for
a negotiation. From these negotiations,
Britain included a “sunset clause” which
prevented the majority government
from repossessing land from Whites
until 10 years had lapsed. Land was
to be distributed on ‘Willing Buyer
Willing Seller’ model. Britain was
obliged to fund such a redistribution of
land. However, the clause kept putting
pressure on the new government as
millions of Africans were hungry for
land.
In 1992, the government passed the
Land Acquisition Act which allowed
it to acquire land for resettlement
purposes from all the unproductive land.
Those affected were to be compensated.
However, the ‘Willing Buyer Willing
Seller’ cause was later subdued as
Whites increased the prices of land.
Britain on the other hand refused to
provide funding, but only extended
100 million dollars out of the needed
1.1billion dollars required to complete
the exercise. The IMF and World Bank
blamed corruption on the disorganised
redistribution exercise. The negotiations
over land kept on until 1998 when a
Land Reform Conference was convened
in Harare with participation from
over 40 countries including Britain,
USA, African, Asian and Middle East
country representatives, including AU
and UN members. It was agreed that
land reform could reduce poverty and
improve economic growth. Due to the
slow pace, the government in 2000
formally embarked on a Land Reform
225
Programme through amendment to the
Land Acquisition Act. From then on,
the majority of landless and squashed
Blacks acquired land under A1 and A2
schemes.
Resettled farmers ploughing their land
The land reform project was meant
to address the inequalities in land
possession and ownership between
the indigenous black population
and the minority white community
of Zimbabwe. The exercise was also
designed for the people of Zimbabwe
to become self-sufficient in terms of
food production with the intention
of eradicating poverty. Many people
benefited from the programme. It is
important to note that the land reform
programme created hostility between
Zimbabwe and the international
community, in particular Britain and
some European Union members.
The Land and Blood Scenario :President
Mugabe once retorted that, “we have
fought for our land; we have fought
for our sovereignty, small as we are, we
have won our independence and we are
prepared to shed our blood... So, Blair
keep your England and let me keep
my Zimbabwe.” This was in apparent
reference to neo colonial attempts by
Britain which wanted to scuttle the
successful land reform programme.
226
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Problem Solving
(a) Suppose your family has been
allocated land under the Land
Reform Programme by the
government. It is now more
than 10 years after receiving the
farm, but there is no meaningful
production. You are about to
complete your studies and have a
desire to venture into a small scale
business. Make a write up that you
can share with your colleagues on
how you can increase production
on your piece of land.
(b) If you never benefited from such
a policy, make a write up on how
you can increase the production of
crops in your field or local garden.
Suggest practical ways.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. When was the land Acquisition
Act enacted in Zimbabwe?
(a) 1992
(c) 2000
(c) 1998
(d) 1890
2. The process of allocating land
to the blacks which was
embarked on by the
Zimbabwean government is
 called _________.
(a) Jambanja
(b) Land Reform Programme
(c) Resettlement Scheme
(d) Indigenisation and economic
empowerment
3. Which is the most important
critical natural resources in the
rural community
(a) Land
(b) Shelter
(c) Trees
(d) Traditional medicines
4. The sunset clause meant that
(a) Independence of
Rhodesia was guaranteed
(b) Land was distributed on a
willing buyer willing seller
initiative
(c) The newly independent
government was not allowed
to repossess the land 10 years
after independence
(d) Land was given grudgingly
to the Natives.
Section B: Structured Questions
1. Identify four important resources
2. Describe the Land Reform
Programme address the inequality
in the land possession and
ownership between the indigenous
black population and the minority
white community of Zimbabwe?
Topic 2
Contribution of various
industries to the economy
Warm Up Exercise
1. Think of the contribution made by
industries to the economy. What will
happen if all industries are closed?
Key Words
Sovereignty: the freedom to define a
country’s destiny.
Fundamental: something basic or
essential.
Vague: not clearly expressed.
Consider a country with an operational
industry,unlimited access to employment
opportunities, affordable education, and
good health delivery system, affordable
and available basic necessities. This type
of a situation is described as a healthy
economy. Economy refers to the state
of a country’s ability to provide for
its citizens’ basic needs. It also means
a successful industry and commerce.
Michael Todaro describes the economy
as including an industry that produces
enough goods and services for the
nation.
227
 • Workers do not have benefits such
as medical aid and death insurance

• Congested work environment

• No fixed wages and working hours

(i) Industries

People sometimes refer to companies

Manufacturing Industry
Zimbabwe’s industry has grown with
both formal and informal sectors
contributing towards economic growth.
Formal sector
• Employees work for fixed hours
• A formal contract is signed between
the employer and employee with
clear job description, termination
conditions, benefits, annual leave
and salary, among others.
• Organised employment with clear
rules
• Companies register and pay tax
Informal sector
• Usually there are no written rules
or regulations
• Mainly verbal contracts are agreed
upon
• No tax payments or even bank
accounts
228
as industries. Indeed, companies
are industries. However, there
is a small difference between a
company and an industry. An
industry is a group of companies or
organisations engaged in a similar
a line of business. Examples
of are; the manufacturing,
clothing, meat industry, leather,
mining, fishing, agricultural
and fertiliser industries. Others
are the insurance, bakers and
confectionaries, creative and arts as
well as advertising. Industries exist
in many different forms. Some are
processing, while some deal with
raw materials. In Zimbabwe, we
have small, medium and large
scale industries. The government
created fully-fledged ministries
responsible for both small to
medium scale enterprises, (SMEs)
and bigger industries. These
industries have huge benefits to
the people and the economy of a
given country.
(ii) The role of industries in
economic development
Industries play a fundamental
role in life. Without them, the
country is poorer. Industries
signify sovereignty, development
and a sense of recognition. The
most significant contribution
of industries to the economy
includes;
• The employment of people in
arts, manufacturing and services
• Payment of tax to government
• Production of goods and services
for national consumption and
export
• Industries also help improve
people’s living conditions in
some societies
Educational Tour
As a class, organise yourselves into
two groups and find at least two
manufacturing industries in your
community or close by. Appoint a
Logistics Manager who will through
your subject teacher arrange the trip. As
you carry out the visit, pay attention to
how they manufacture their products,
tax compliance issues and the challenges
they are facing to operate profitably.
What skills are required to be employed
in these industries?
Problem solving techniques
There is high unemployment in your
community. Those who completed
secondary and tertiary education are
just roaming around the streets without
anything to do. Using an industry that
you have visited as a starting point,
develop a write up on how you can
become an entrepreneur and employ
these jobless graduates.
Topic 3
Constraints to the informal
sector
Warm Up Exercise
Key Words
Informal sector: encompasses all
jobs which are not
recognised as normal
income sources and on
which taxes are not paid.
Sanctions: an official order such as
stopping of trade that is
taken against a country
in order to make it obey
international law.
Credit lines: a pool of money available
for borrowing.
Loans: an amount of money
that is borrowed often
from the bank and has
to be paid back usually
229
 with an interest.
Capital: wealth in the form of
capital or assets.
Skills: the ability to do
something well.
Ziscosteel
Think of industries you used to see in
the country that are no longer producing
anything. For instance, Zimbabwe
used to manufacture steel at Ziscosteel
in Kwekwe and large quantities of
fertiliser at Zimphos at Masasa in
Harare. Willowvale Mazda Motor
Industries, Trinity and More Ware were
large companies employing thousands
of people at any given time. What could
have happened to these industries?
These constrains also extend to the
informal industries. There are several
constrains affecting the effectiveness of
industries and these include,
• poor policy frameworks,
• capital constraints
• bad corporate governance,
• corruption,
• viability challenges
• sanctions imposed on Zimbabwe
• nepotism, and
• Changes in national and global
technologies
• Poor adaptation to current trends
of economic affairs and
230
• Political developments also stand
as constrains to the growth of
industries
• Poor skills
Although these circumstances affect all
forms of industries, the informal sector
experiences additional constraints
such as lack of or poor funding due
to the absence of security or collateral
demanded by financial institutions such
as banks and discount houses, while
sanctions, poor skills and markets are
also contribute in this situation. The
infrastructure from where these people
conduct their business at times fail to
meet the requirements of a company
producing goods for sale and human
consumption purposes.
For the informal sector to develop,
companies must be considered for
affordable financial loans for capital,
or equipment to be used. Some
need training in skills, management
of projects and marketing of their
resources. Informal industries should
also adapt to technological trends to
compete in their business. They must
exercise patriotism, transparency and
diligence in their line of work to gain
confidence from banks, government
and other development partners. The
informal sector should register their
enterprises and operate from known (c) Trinity
sites with traceable addresses to boost (d) Zimbabwe Leaf Tobacco
confidence among their stakeholders, Structured Questions
1. Identify 5 constraints that affect
the effectiveness of industries
2. State 3 industries that no longer
exist in Zimbabwe and explain
why?
3. What must be considered for the
informal sector to develop?
4. In order to gain confidence
Steelmate Investments in Mbare,
from the banks, what must
Magaba area
informal industries do?

including government departments.

Practical
Revision Exercise In groups, discuss how practical subjects
at your school can be transformed
Pracademic Questions
to meaningful businesses. Write a
Multiple Choice Questions financial proposal to the school head so
1. The following are constraints that capable students can run a business
facing industries in Zimbabwe based on the practical subjects.
except;
(a) Poor policy framework Educational tour
(b) Corruption Visit nearby home industries and
(c) nepotism appreciate how the people are surviving
(d) Abundant loans and generating income.
2. All of the following industries
no longer exist in Zimbabwe Topic 4
except
National strategic reserves
(a) Ziscosteel
(b) Willowvale Motor Warm Up Exercise
Industries 1. List any three national reserves you

231
 know. Is it important for a country
to have reserves?
2. Explain your answer.
Key Words
Reserves: resources that are kept
or for future use
Strategic: important or essential
in relation to a plan of
action
Critical: of great importance.
Crisis: a time of intense
difficulty or danger.
National strategic reserves are resources
kept or preserved for use in times of
need. They are called strategic because
they save a special purpose of closing
the gap created by the exhaustion
or shortage of subsistence resources.
Such resources include food reserves,
fuel and other basics. A country saves
certain quantities of critical resources
for use when resources such as food or
important commodities like fuel are in
short supply.
Why do we need national reserves?
The importance of national strategic
reserves helps to protect the nation
from a total collapse. Their objectives
vary from their nature and some of
them save;
(i) economic development
232
(ii) social and cultural needs
(iii) political defence between leaders
and their people
Categories of national strategic reserves
National strategic reserves exist in many
different forms though their aim is to
provide security to the nation. Common
strategic reserves include grain, water,
fuel, medical drugs and natural resources
such as minerals, animals, energy and
other food stuffs. Defence materials
are weapons and personnel that make
up a list of strategic reserves that a
country should have to be protected
properly. These resources are controlled
at national level and they are in most
cases State owned. They are released for
national use when the country faces a
severe shortage of the resource. Since
they are kept at a central point, they
required to be distributed to the needy
through official channels designed and
authorised by the government or an
equivalent authority.
Distribution of resources follows strict
guided rules to promote equity, equality,
transparency and accountability while
discouraging corruption, nepotism and
tribalism. Depending on prevailing
circumstances, strategic reserves may
be sold at regulated prices or they are
distributed for free.
National reserves
We have already discussed national
reserves and how they are of importance
to us. Reserves exist at different levels.
They can be individual, family level,
community, national or regional
level. Our focus is on reserves at the
national level, paying attention to
the Zimbabwean situation. We also
identified certain commodities or goods
which require strategic attention. We
listed them as grain, oil, land, water
sources, wild life and even forests.
Their importance vary from providing
a shield to the victims of food or any
other shortage of a particular resource,
to inheritance and heritage.
Importance of reserves
• Reserves help to serve money
required to import resources that
are in short supply
• In addition, reserves help to
reduce starvation if it is food and
grain
• They also guard against conflict
arising from competing for
limited resources such as water
• In countries where water is in
short supply, communities fight
and kill one another for control
of such reserves
The Zimbabwean Government has a
clear policy on strategic protection of
its citizens. As land locked Sub Saharan
African country, Zimbabwe prioritised
preservation of grain and oil which
we do not have but import. In that
respect, we have the Grain Marketing
Board, (GMB) and the National Oil
Infrastructure Company (NOIC)
formerly known as NOCZIM.
Oil
Insert picture of NOIC
Oil is a very critical reserve that every
country needs to have. In time of crisis
caused by enemies, a country needs to
survive and carry out its businesses. If
the oil reserves are used up without
proper replacement, then traffic and
related industries will come to halt.
This triggers price increases and later
mass demonstrations or protests by
the public against the State and at
times can lead to the overthrowing of
a legitimate government. NOIC falls
under the Ministry of Energy and
Power Development. It is important to
note that Zimbabwe as a land locked
country does not have oil resources, but
233
imports from the Middle East, among
other countries and it is transported
through the seas by oil tankers. The
ministry is mandated to constantly
analyse and check the availability of this
resource in order to avoid plunging the
country into a crisis.
Case Study
The United States of America possesses
one of the largest oil reserves in the world
which can sustain the running of the
country during any crisis. The emergency
fuel is over 700 million barrels and is
located in Louisiana and Texas. The US
Department of Energy oversees this. The
idea to have a reserve came up as a result of
the 1973-1974 oil bans which resulted in
an unheard of economic slump.
On the other hand, the Indian Strategic
Petroleum Reserve (ISPR) stores up to five
million metric tonnes of crude oil that can
sustain the country for 10 days. (https://
en.wikipedia.org)
Water
Water is an important resource which
need to be stored or harvested so that it
can be used in future. The government
of Zimbabwe did this by constructing
several dams and lakes across the
country to ensure water availability. For
example, Lakes Chivero, Kyle, Kariba,
234
Kariba Dam
Mutirikwi and Manyame store millions
of mega litres of water while dams like
Insiza Mayfair, Mhende, Mtshabezi,
Nyawamba, Osborne, Mushandike and
Umzingwane, among others store water
for use in agriculture and city usage.
Water is Life and every drop is precious.
Electricity
Electricity is another strategic resource
that a country needs to have and own.
Unfortunately, electricity is not stored,
but it is used as it is generated. This
is because it is extremely dangerous
to store electricity. In Zimbabwe,
electricity is mainly generated through
thermal (coal) and hydro (water) means.
Although efforts are being made to
harness solar energy and biogas, they
have not been taken as reserves. The
Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority,
(ZESA) is tasked with overseeing this
resource at technical level, while the
MEPD is the policy overseer.

ZESA electricity pylons
Grains
Grain reserves is the responsibility of
the Grain Marketing Board (GMB)
through the Ministry of Agriculture,
Mechanisation and Irrigation
Development.The GMB was established
under the Maize Control Act of 1931.
Its responsibility is to give growers a fair
share of the local and export markets, to
provide them with a guaranteed outlet
for their excess controlled products and
GMB silos
to ensure the availability of
adequate supplies for the
local demand, either from
internal production or from
exports. In achieving this,
GMB prides itself of 80
depots across the country,
all equipped with silos for
grain storage.
Money
Governments all over the
world have money reserves
or other assets that will be used to meet
the future costs of running the country.
In some instances, gold reserves are
created as a store of value. The Chinese
Foreign Exchange Reserves as at 1
October 2016 were believed to be at
3.12 billion United States dollars, while
Hong Kong was estimated at 380.2
billion United States dollars and the
Republic of Korea stood at 372.6 billion
United States dollars.
In our case, the Reserve Bank of
Zimbabwe oversees such reserves and
these are reported on of from time to
time.
The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe
Challenges faced by these functionaries
The bodies identified above are known
as parastatals or state owned enterprises.
235

The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe
Since they are under the administration
of particular ministries, problems of
officialdom are sure to emerge. The
ministries responsible may not give
priority to the challenges affecting
the parastatals. Zimbabwe imports
electricity from neighbouring countries
such as South Africa and Mozambique.
In that regard, ZESA spends a lot
of money importing electricity. This
money would have been be used to
develop ZESA infrastructure and to
improve the welfare of its workers and
those of its consumers. In the same way,
NOCZIM imports every drop of oil we
find in its depots. As such, global factors
in the fuel and oil production affect
236
NOCZIM and these problems are not
foreseeable. Due to changes in climatic
conditions, rainfall patterns are also
changing and these are greatly affecting
food production not only in Zimbabwe,
but the world over. The condition is
causing low grain and other crop yields
in the country. Under the condition,
GMB is failing to fulfil its mandate of
being a national grain strategic reservoir.
The country is often criticised for
failing to develop infrastructure that
would capacitate food production in the
wake of climate change. Meanwhile,
the government is blamed for allowing
corrupt managers to supervise the
parastatals. Such managers are blamed
for failing to implement policies which
define the significance of national
reserves.
Unit Summary
The chapter discussed;
Four factors of production namely,
capital, entrepreneurship, land and
labour. Land is a vital factor for
development in Zimbabwe following
the land reform policy. Informed and
formal sectors contribute meaningfully
to the growth of the economy. In
Zimbabwe the informal sector has
an estimated US$7 billion. There are
natural strategic reserves in Zimbabwe Revision Exercise
which play a pivotal role in ensuring
Pracademics Questions
continuous supply during the time of
need. We have GMB, NOIC, ZESA Structured Questions
and dams, among others. 1. What are the national strategic
reserves and why are they called
Educational trip strategic?

Elect a Logistics Manager from your 2. Identify 3 common strategic

class who will, through the assistance reserves
of the subject teacher, organise a tour
3. Give 4 reasons why reserves are
to any of the national strategic reserves
important
in Zimbabwe. Logistics and financial
contributions should be reasonable to 4. Describe the challenges faced by
allow everyone to participate. Parastatals

237
 9 Global Issues
Unit Objectives
By the end of this Unit, you should be
able to:
• Identify the causes of land
degradation
• Describe the effects of land
degradation
• Describe the effects of drought
and floods
• State the effects of pollution
• Describe the mitigating
measures
• Define tectonic and geological
disaster
• Suggest ways of managing
tectonic and geological disasters
• State the challenges faced in
managing disasters
238
Introduction
In this unit you will identify the causes
of land degradation and be able to
describe the effect of land degradation.
You should learn the effects of drought
and floods on the economy and
environment. You will cover the effects
of pollution and describe the mitigating
measures. You will also familiarise
yourself with tectonic and geological
disasters and suggest ways of managing
tectonic and geological disasters and
also state challenges faced in managing
disasters.
Warm up exercise
1. What comes into your mind when
you hear the word Land degradation?
2. What do you think are the causes of
Land degradation?
3. How bad is Land degradation in
your area?
4. What do you do every day that helps
to reduce Land degradation?
Topic 1
Land Degradation
The picture combo shows approximately
20 hectares of degraded land in Mt
Hampden where over 200 families
survive on moulding bricks. The pit is
about 20m deep.
Degraded Land
Key Words
Land degradation: is the process in
which the value of the
biophysical environment
is affected by
combination of human-
induced processes acting
upon the land.
Deforestation: is the cutting down of
trees in a large area, or
the destruction of forests
by people.
Overgrazing – refers to excessive eating
of grasses and other
green plants by cattle
Crop rotation: a system of growing a
sequence of different
crops on the same
ground so as to maintain
or increase its fertility.
Contour farming:
the practice of tilling
sloped land lines of
consistent elevation
in order to conserve
rainwater and to reduce
soil losses from surface
erosion.
Land degradation
is any change in the
condition of the land
which reduces its
productive potential.
This includes the loss of the top soil,
the loss of vegetation and increasing
soil salinity, pollution of water resources
from the contamination of soil through
which water seeps into the ground or
a runoff to water bodies. The Zimbabwe
Environment Outlook Report (2010:iii)
defines land degradation as the reduction
in the quality and potential of the land
resources shown in habitat destruction,
loss of vegetation cover, soil erosion and
loss of soil fertility.
239
Causes of land degradation
Direct Causes
Deforestation
Deforestation is taking place at a faster
rate due to increasing demands of
timber, fuel on forest which results in
the degradation of land resources. Most
rural areas are experiencing deforestation
at a faster rate than ever, for example in
most parts of Manicaland, Masvingo,
Midlands, Mashonaland West and
Central provinces. The resettled farmers
use firewood to cure their tobacco
because it is a cheap source of energy
than making use of coal or charcoal
which is expensive.
Random cutting of trees
Overgrazing
Overgrazing refers to excessive eating of
grasses and other green plants by cattle
and wild animals that are grazers. It
results in reduced growth of vegetation,
reduced diversity of plant species,
excessive growth of unwanted plant
240
species, soil erosion and degradation of
land due to cattle movement.
Agricultural practices
The modern agricultural practices,
excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides
has adversely degraded the natural
quality and fertility of the cultivated
land.
Uncontrolled gold panning- In most
cases groups of people in search of
minerals like gold, diamond, copper,
nickel and silver, among others end
up degrading land. They dig tunnels in
the vast forests resulting in degraded
land. For example along the Mazowe
catchment area, Shurugwi in Boterekwa
area, Mvuma and Kwekwe there is a lot
of panning taking place.
Industrialisation
Development of industries for the
economic growth of the country leads
to excessive deforestation and utilisation
of land in such a way that it has lost its
natural quality. In areas where mining
is the major source of livelihood, the
commercial excavation and extraction
of minerals leaves the land with gullies.
Urbanisation
Increasing population growth and
demand for more stands for residential
and commercial purposes amounts is
also of the reasons for land degradation.
In developing countries, there is
rapid expansion and growth of cities
including shanty towns or squatter
settlements. There is pressure for
accommodation in the urban areas as
rural to urban migration has increased
since the turn of the millennium. As
illegal settlements emerge, there is a
tendency of overcrowding, encouraging
people to cut trees for firewood and for
building material. This is now common
in most countries in Southern Africa
like Zimbabwe, Mozambique, South
Africa and Angola, among others.
Indirect Causes
Poor land tenure policies: If a
government fails to enact
comprehensive environment
policies, then land degradation is
witnessed. Unrestrained people
can cultivate along water channels,
wetlands and undesignated areas.
Thus, there is need to implement
environmental practises.
Over reliance on agriculture as a
source of living: T h e
cultivation of fields each year
and other places for agricultural
purposes results in degradation in
the long run.
Lack of proper legislation to enforce
environmental legislation: This
include legislation with stiffer
penalties for pit sand poachers,
brick moulders and gold panners,
among others.
Effects of land degradation
Land degradation from human activities
has the following effects;
• Causes deterioration in the
chemical and physical properties
of soils
• Accelerates soil loss
• Reduces primary productivity of
plant communities
• Results in a decline in biodiversity
• Leads to increased hazards for
human occupancy
• Reduces the soil capacity to sustain
plant growth for crops or pasture,
resulting in reduced yields.
Prevention and control measures
for land degradation
The following are some practices for
controlling land degradation:
241
Strip farming
It is a practice in which cultivated
crops are sown in alternative strips
to prevent water movement.
Crop rotation
It is one of the agricultural
practices in which different
crops are grown in the same area
following a rotation system which
helps in nutrient replenishment of
the soil.
Ridge and furrow formation
Soil erosion is one of the factors
responsible for land degradation.
It can be prevented by ridges and
furrows which decreases run off.
Construction of dams
This usually reduces the velocity
of run off so that soil supports
vegetation.
Contour farming
This type of farming is usually
done across the hill side and is
useful in collecting run off to
avoid erosion.
• Proper land planning and surveying
especially in urban areas to avoid
the increase of illegal settlements
whereby people end up degrading
land for pit sand, moulding bricks
242
and cutting trees for firewood.
• Pass vibrant, sound and
implementable public policies on
the environment.
• Control illegal and legal miners,
brick moulders and pit sand
poachers in terms of gully filling and
controlled activity.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Typical Examinantion Questions
Structured Questions
(a) Identify five causes of land
degradation.
(b) Describe the effects of land
degradation by human activities.
(c) To what extent is soil erosion
responsible for land degradation?
Further Research
From the gullies you identified
close to your school, write a project
proposal outlining the causes, the
impact and challenges faced by your
local community? Propose ways to
rehabilitate the gully.
Tour
The whole class takes a tour to a nearby
gully. Pupils try to identify the causes of
the gully and explain its impact to the
community.
Topic 2: Effects of droughts
and floods
Flooded area
Dry land
Warm up exercise
1. What is a drought?
2. What causes drought?
3. Does shortage of rain mean that a
drought will occur?
4. How does drought affect our lives?
5. How does drought affect the
economy?
Key Words
Drought: a prolonged period of
abnormally low rainfall,
leading to a shortage of
water
Wildfire: a large destructive fire
that spreads quickly over
woodland or bush.
Floods: an overflow of water that
submerges land which is
usually dry.
Erosion : a type of weathering in
which the surface soil
and rocks are worn out
through the action of
glaciers, water and wind.
Sedimentation: a process of separating
specifically heavier,
suspended matter and
depositing it.
Unpacking drought
The definition of drought is often
confused and distorted. It is broad. The
general definition relates to a situation
whereby there is no rain. However, there
are basically four types of drought:
(i) Meteorological drought- this is
the type of drought caused by dry
weather patterns. This develops in
a shorter period. Meteorological
departments the world over
watch this issue. In Zimbabwe,
the Ministry of Environment,
243
 Water and Climate Change
through the Meteorological
Services Department is
authorised to notify the public
about droughts through weather
reports.
(ii) Hydrological drought- occurs
when low water supply becomes
evident in dams, streams, rivers,
ground water and reservoirs.
This usually occurs after months
of meteorological drought. The
Ministry of Environment, Water
and Climate Change through
ZINWA has the directive to assess
and give a position.
(iii) Agricultural drought- occurs
when crops become affected.
They wilt and die off. This usually
results in hunger, poverty and
starvation. This falls under the
Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation
and Livestock Development.
(iv) Socio-economic drought- occurs
when the supply outstrips demand
of commodities due to drought.
Economic effects of drought
Zimbabwe faced enormous economic
losses as a result of the 1982/1983
drought, including US$360 million in
244
direct agricultural losses and US$120
million in drought relief costs. However,
the 2015/2016 El Nino induced drought
has been described by the United Nation
Development Programme (UNDP)
and environmental experts as the worst
in the past 30 years where 5.2 million
people are affected. Only 1.7 million
people were receiving aid. Given this
magnitude, the UNDP is trying to
reach over 3 million people.
Economic impact often involve losing
money either by individuals or families,
businesses and governments. Here are
some examples of the economic impact
resulting from droughts:
• Farmers will have to spend more
money to irrigate the crops and
provide water for livestock on
animal farms and reduces yields.
They have to spend money on
wells or to buy water from faraway
places.
• Low crop yield means farmers
lose a lot of money, farm workers
have to take pay cuts and some
may even be laid off.
• Businesses and industries that
manufacture farm equipment
and resources lose money because
 farmers do not have the money to
buy from them.
• Less or no rains mean drier
conditions and there will be
increased fire hazards. Farms
are destroyed, properties are run
down, forests and trees are burned
and people lose money this way.
Government also need to spend
more resources to fight fires and
send emergency supplies to be the
most affected places.
• Businesses spend more on
electricity generators or close
production if hydro-energy
companies operate below capacity.
Energy industries also lose money
because they cannot meet the
energy demand of the region.
The government again gets
less tax revenue because people
spend less. Businesses connected
to water recreation may close
down because of low water levels
or dried up water bodies. The
livelihoods of people connected
to such businesses are all affected
negatively.
• Movement of people from place
to place in search of better living
conditions is increased, thereby
causing resource constraints to
the recipient places.
• Increased rates of unemployment
due to closure of productive
industry, mainly those that
depend on agricultural products,
mainly in farming and other agri-
businesses.
• Increased prices of food and
timber.
• Livestock die.
Effects of drought on the
environment
During a drought, the combined effect of
reduced rainfall and increased sunlight
creates a number of environmental
effects including:
Soil moisture depletion
Decreased levels of precipitation, less
cloud cover, increased sunlight and
warmer temperatures cause moisture
to evaporate from the ground. The
combination of increased soil aridity
and associated plant mortality makes
soil more affected by wind erosion.
Wind erosion can cause dust storms
245
and increased sand deposition which
often kills even more vegetation.

Vegetation stress
As the soil becomes dry, so does the
trees, more intense heat and sunlight
causes faster transportation rates ( when
plants lose moisture to the atmosphere) A dying cow
without water, the trees will be unable Plants and animals depend on water,
to defend themselves against predators- just like people. When a drought occurs,
in this case, bark beetles. Normally, their food supply can shrink and their
the trees use sap to push beetles and habitat can be destroyed. Once their
other pests out of their bark. But under source of livelihood is disturbed, they
these dry conditions, the trees have to
starve and later die.
conserve water and cannot produce sap.

Wild fires Drought prone areas in Zimbabwe

Drought impacts on the occurrence In Zimbabwe, where topography plays a

and harshness of forest fires by creating
fire conditions. Warmer average
temperatures during spring and
summer lead to a higher frequency of
wildfires and intensifies the effects of
drought and large scale forests die as
a result. For example, each year, large
tracts of land are subjected to wild fire
by poachers and farmers. Wild fires are
also experienced in Africa as well as in
the United States and Australia where
the fire damages a lot of property.
Degraded wildfire habitat
246
significant role in the spatial distribution
of rainfall, low lying areas are the ones
that suffer the effects of drought the
most (Mamombe et al., 2016). These
areas include;
• Matabeleland South
• Masvingo
• South of Manicaland Province
(Save Valley)
• Matabeleland North
The 10 driest seasons in Zimbabwe:
1901-2016
Season Total seasonal rainfall Percentage of normal
1915/16 394.3 60.7
1921/22 385 59.2
1923/24 399 61.4
1946/47 365.2 56.2
1967/68 404.8 62.3
1972/73 371.1 57.1
1982/83 403.1 62.0
1986/87 422.4 65.0

• Reduction in water demand and

Source (Vimbai Mamombe, 2016) improved water conservation
measures and herd management
Prevention measures against
drought Occurrence of floods
• Reliable forecasts for effective Floods refer to stream flow that rises
early warning and preparedness above the river bank or when natural
water courses do not have the capacity
• Monitoring using surface to take excess water. There are basically
observations and satellite four types of floods namely;
observations (1) Flash floods -are a result of heavy
• Impact assessment of droughts rains and sudden flooding and
usually occur for six hours or less.
• Better water and crop management, The Meteorological Department
inland water harvesting (Tokwe of Zimbabwe use the Southern
Mukorsi dam) for irrigation Africa flash flood guidance system
purposes to forecast areas which might
experience flash flooding in a
• Increased public awareness and
given wet spell.
education
247
 (2) Alluvial floods- are a result of river
overflow resulting in riverbanks
failing to sustain rainfall. This is
caused by prolonged heavy rain
mainly in the upper catchment
areas, resulting in a rise in the water
levels. Such floods are usually
experienced in the Zambezi River,
but the notable seasons are in
2008 and 2009.
(3) Urban floods-are a result of
blocked sewage system or drainage
canals resulting in poor drainage
of falling rain. This is common
in urban areas where water
storage facilities are scarce, hence
precipitation received is normally
transported by the drains and
sewage system.
(4) Coastal floods- are caused by
rising sea levels as a result of low
atmospheric pressure.
Factors leading to flooding
• Widespread deforestation of
forests which store water resulting
in increased run-off, leading to
erosion.
• Siltation of rivers leading to loss
of channel capacity as the river
bed is made shallow.
248
• Intense and prolonged rainfall
• River network relating to
confluences
• Climate change has also increased
cyclone occurrences
Effects of floods
The effects of floods are divided into
three that is primary effects, secondary
effects and tertiary effects.
(a) Primary effects involves direct
contact with the flood water
caused mainly by high velocity
resulting in damage to property,
houses and people often drown. In
South Africa, the November 2016
floods destroyed properties and
six people drowned. These floods
have a tendency of drowning
livestock and other animals. Also
when water retreats, sediments are
deposited.
(b) Secondary effects includes
disruption of services. This
normally has health implications
resulting in diseases like
cholera, malaria and diarrhoea.
This is because the supplies of
water are polluted and power
lines are disrupted, leading to
communication breakdown. In
some cases bridges are washed
 away disrupting the transportation
system.
(c) Tertiary effects include changes
of river channels as a result of
the velocity of water leading to
the formation of new channels.
The deposited sediment has a
tendency to destroy farm land
proximity to the river channel and
the destruction of wildlife habitat.
Riverbank erosion is caused by
high and fast moving water that
exceeds riverbanks. The impact
of riverbank erosion is most felt
in developed areas. Sediment
may act as a form of non-point
source water pollution that can
clog riverbeds and streams as
well as reduce storage capacity
for reservoirs and wetland flood
waters can carry large amounts of
sediment and leave deposits behind
once the flood waters recede. If
extreme enough, sedimentation
can degrade the water quality
and temporarily affect municipal,
industrial and recreational water-
supply.
Sedimentation can result in the growth
of algae and phytoplankton blooms that
jeopardise the water quality. Important
nutrients and mineral deposits can also
be deposited by the flood water, resulting
in improved plant growth and overall
ecosystem improvement over time. The
nutrients, organic material and sediment
deposited on the landscape can provide
fertility benefits.
Case study:
November 2016 Johannesburg Floods
On 09 November 2016, most parts of
Johannesburg (South Africa) were hit by
heavy flush floods especially in Ekurhuleni
and Tswane. About 200 people became
homeless and they lost everything, six people
were confirmed dead while several went
missing. One family in Alexandra sought
refuge by climbing a tree but unfortunately
a branch fell resulting in one child falling
in the fast flowing water.
Traffic was brought to a standstill on N3
highway in Linksfield when a truck drove
into nine vehicles. Flights at OR Tambo
International Airport were also delayed
due to the severe storm. Several hundreds
of vehicles submerged in water. A portion
of Johannesburg zoo collapsed thereby
affecting over 100 cars.
There was no immediate announcement
of the quantum of loss by the authorities.
However if early warning systems were
activated, several thousand would have
been saved from such catastrophe.
Effects of floods on the environment
Flooding can have a variety of direct
249
impact on the environment and
ecosystems contained within a flooded
region. Some of these impact are positive.
Flooding is a natural ecological process
that plays an integral role ensuring
biological productivity and diversity
in the flood plain. Flooding can result
in environmental degradation. The
most extensive and difficult to repair
environmental damage usually occurs
in developed areas located in the flood
plain. Flooding can directly impact the
health and well-being of wildlife and
livestock, cause riverbank erosion and
sedimentation, the dispersal of nutrients
and pollutants, surface and ground
water supplies and local landscapes and
habitats.
Flood prone areas in Zimbabwe
• Muzarabani-Chidodo
• Middle Sabi
• Malapati
• Chikwalakwala
• Gokwe North
• Tsholotsho
Case Study:
Tokwe-Murkosi Floods
Tokwe-Murkosi is the largest inland dam
in Zimbabwe. It is a rock field dam built
on an 87m wall. During its construction,
it yielded to high flows (when constructors
250
were midway) resulting in water
threatening to overpower constructors. The
high flows occurred before an impervious
concrete structure was erected and this
resulted in water passing through open
spaces.
The high flows were not expected, hence
the constructor opened flood gates to allow
the water to pass. This affected families
downstream. Unfortunately, those who
were supposed to be moved in phases and
were living in the plain were then affected,
resulting in an outcry and destruction
of property, including some who vowed
that they were not going to leave until the
government compensated them. In all, over
3 000 families were affected as a result of
this disaster.
The recovery process was led by the
government through Masvingo provincial
leadership who assisted these families by
settling them in Chingwizi. NGOs also
intervened by providing basic needs and
funds to support the affected families.
After its completion, Tokwe-Murkosi will
become the largest man-made dam and the
first rock fill dam.
Flood response in Zimbabwe
(i) Channelisation- involves
enlarging the cross-section area
resulting in a higher discharge which is
held within the channel. This is meant
to increase water speed, thus reducing
drainage time.
 (ii)
Construction of dams and
ponds- involves construction of
a dam which holds water, thereby
regulating downstream discharge.
While ponds serve the same
purpose, they can also trap water
then release it in a controlled
manner downstream.
(iii) Flood ways- relates to constructing
a flood way to provide outlet to a
stream and allow it to flood an
agricultural area.
(iv) Use flood plain for agricultural
purposes so that run- off is
delayed, thereby serving lives and
property.
Flood preparedness in Zimbabwe
The Zimbabwe National Water
Authority (ZINWA) which was
formed in 2000 under the ZINWA Act
(Chapter 20:25) is mandated to, “take
appropriate measures to minimise the
impact of droughts, floods and other
hazards.”
ZINWA uses the following methods to
achieve its objectives;
• River flow Monitoring Network
where hydrological data collection
is done at 342 operational stations
dotted across the country
• Collect river level measurements
through auto recording system
and this helps to gauge water
levels
• Hydrological Gauging Stations
• Real Time Stations (RTS) for
flood monitoring and as of 2016,
ZINWA has seven RTS and
efforts are underway to add four
other stations
The River Flow Monitoring
Network Map
Brief Notes
• The hydrological network for
runoff data collection consists of
342 stations .
• Most of the stations collect river
levels through automatic recorders
• The network used to have over
700 stations
• Most of the stations were closed
due to vandalism, washed away /
damaged by floods, submerged by
dams and siltation, among others.
251
Good Citizen 2. What different forms of pollution
• Do not vandalise anything do you know of ?
• Respect any flood warning 3. How bad is pollution in your local
• Do not live close to the rivers area?
4. What do you do every day that helps
Revision Exercise to reduce pollution?
5. Is there a lot of pollution in our
Pracademic Questions country?
Section B: Structured Questions
(a) Identify five effects of drought on Key Words
the environment. Pollution : the contamination
of air, water or soil
(b) Describe the effects of floods on
by substances that
the economy.
are harmful to living
(c)
Does flood water provide organisms.
nourishment to the landscape? Environmental degradation: the
deterioration of the
Problem solving environment through
Embark on a research on the Tokwe- depletion of resources
Mukosi flood that happened in such as air, water and
Masvingo in 2014. How did the flood soil.
happen and what did people do about Global warming: is the increase of
it? What would you do if you were in a Earth’s average surface
position of responsibility? Discuss with temperature due to
your class. effect of greenhouse
gases, such as carbon
Topic 3 dioxide emissions from
Effects and prevention burning fossils fuels
measures to pollution or from deforestation
which trap heat that
Warm up Exercise
would otherwise escape
1. What comes to mind when you hear from the earth
the word ‘pollution’? Ozone layer: the layer of air around
252
 the earth that helps to in newspapers. So what is it? Pollution
regulate the temperature. occurs when pollutants contaminate the
natural surroundings which bring about
changes that affect our normal lifestyles
unfavourably. Pollutants are the key
elements or components of pollution
which are generally waste materials
of different forms. Pollution disturbs
our ecosystem and the balance in the
environment. With modernisation and
development in our societies, pollution
Air pollution has reached its peak, giving rise to global
warming and human illnesses.
Pollution occurs in different forms, air,
water, soil, noise, heat/thermal and light.
Every form of pollution has two sources
which are easy to identify, monitor
and control, whereas the other sources
are hard to control. Let us discuss the
different types of pollutions, their causes
Water pollution and effects on mankind as a whole.

Causes of Pollution
Air Pollution

Land pollution

We hear the word ‘Pollution’ every

other day at school and read about it An industry polluting the air

253
Air pollution is the most prominent and
dangerous form of pollution. It occurs
due to many reasons. Excessive burning
of fuel which is a necessity of our daily
lives for cooking, driving and other
industrial activities; releases a huge
amount of chemical substances in the
air everyday these pollute the air.
Smoke from chimneys, factories dump
sites, vehicles or burning of wood
basically occurs due to coal burning.
This releases sulphur dioxide into the
air making it toxic. The effects of air
pollution are evident. Release of sulphur
dioxide and hazardous gasses into the
air causes global warming and acid rain;
which in turn have caused increased
temperatures, erratic rains and droughts
worldwide, making it difficult for the
animals to survive. We breathe in
polluted particles from the air resulting
in an increase in asthma and cancer of
the lungs.
Case Study 1:
Pomona Dump Site Disaster
Pomona Dumpsite Inferno-Picture by
Besearch Matseketsa
At around 2am on 06 November 2016,
the Pomona dumpsite was on fire. The
dumpsite is situated north of Mount
Pleasant and Vainona suburbs in Harare.
The City fathers failed to comply with
254
Environmental Management Agency
(EMA) directives of July and September
2016 which compelled them to trap all
gases for energy, reminding them that they
had ignored to decommission the site since
2012. EMA encouraged City of Harare to
implement engineered land fields.
The cause of the inferno was suspected to
be excessive heat which can easily have
ignited the fire according to the Harare
City Council Acting Corporate Manager,
Michael Chideme.
The effects of the fire was felt in
Marlborough, Malbereign, Mount
Pleasant Heights, Mazowe, Pomona
and Vainona which reduced visibility of
motorists. The area close to the dumpsite
was cordoned off to prevent potential
accidents. The fog-like mist produced
suffocating smell, causing health and
ecological implications. On 08 November
2016, the Zimbabwe media carried a story
on the fire that was raging on for the third
successive day. It emerged that on Day 3,
the military, EMA, Civil Protection Unit
(CPU), Ministry of Environment, Water
and Climate Change and City Council,
among others coordinated to try and put off
the fire. According to Dr Viveki Solanki,
the heavy smoke affects those with allergies,
those with compromised immune system
and the general community at large.
As a way to mitigate the effects of pollution,
the City of Harare has been trying to scout
for partners to invest in a power plant
at Pomona dumpsite through extracting
biogas. However, EMA fined the City
Council US$5 000 according to Mrs
Mutsa Chasi, EMA Director General on
ZBC TV News@2000hrs. As part of the
containment process, EMA advised the
city authority to construct an impermeable
containment layer at the bottom of the.
According to an article published in The
Herald of 26 November 2016 titled Effects
of Garbage burning at Pomona, researchers
pointed that the smoke has the propensity
to travel all the way to Mbare, Glen View,
Dzivarasekwa up to Beatrice, Chegutu
and Kadoma according to satellite images.
Case Study 2: the Fukushima Nuclear
disaster
The Fukushima Nuclear plant in Japan
experienced a meltdown and release of
radioactive material on 12 March 2011.
The disaster was triggered by a heavy
earthquake whose magnitude was at
9.0. This led to the release of hydrogen-
air through explosions. The discharge of
the hydrogen air has a long term effect
on people who inhaled the smoke over the
next decade. Over 100 000 people were
evacuated. This resulted in loss on the part
of the government. The disaster became the
second since the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in
Russia.
How is air pollution prevented?
Water pollution
Insert picture of water pollution
Water pollution has taken toll of all
the surviving species of the earth.
Almost 60% of the species live in
water bodies. It occurs due to several
factors; the industrial waste dumped
into the rivers and other water bodies
can cause an imbalance in the water,
leading to its severe contamination
and death of aquatic species. Spraying
insecticides and pesticides like DDT
on plants pollutes the ground water
system. Oil spills in the oceans have
caused irreparable damage to the water
bodies and the animals that live there.
Eutrophication is another big source.
It occurs due to the daily activities like
washing clothes and cooking utensils
near lakes, ponds or rivers. Detergents to
go into the water which blocks sunlight
from penetrating, thus reducing oxygen
and making it inhabitable.
Water pollution does not only harm the
aquatic beings, but it also contaminates
the entire food chain by severely
affecting humans dependent on these
water bodies. Water-borne diseases like
cholera, diarrhoea have also increased in
255
all places.
Case study: Deep water Horizon Oil Spill
From 20 April to 15 July 2010, about 4.9
million barrels of oil spilled in the Gulf of
Mexico near the Mississippi River Delta
in the United States of America. The spill
left 9 people dead and disturbed the aquatic
life and wild life habitat that depended on
this environment. The government failed
to limit the effects caused by the spill.
How do we prevent water pollution?
Soil/land pollution
Soil pollution occurs due to unwanted
chemicals in the soil due to human
activities. Use of insecticides and
pesticides absorbs the nitrogen
compounds from the soil making it
unfit for plants to derive nutrition.
Release of industrial waste, mining
and deforestation also pollutes the soil.
Since plants cannot grow property, they
cannot hold the soil and this leads to
soil erosion.
How can this be prevented?
Noise pollution
Noise pollution is caused when noise
affects our ears and leads to psychological
problems like stress, hypertension and
hearing impairment. It is caused by
machines in industries and loud music
256
played at times and places which are not
appropriate.
Thermal/ Heat pollution
This occurs due to excess heat in
the environment, creating unwanted
changes over long time periods due
to huge numbers of industrial plants,
deforestation and air pollution. It
increases the earth’s temperature,
causing drastic climatic changes and
extinction of wildlife.
Light pollution
This occurs when there is excess
illumination of an area. It is largely visible
in on advertising boards and billboards
along roads in urban areas and along
highways, in sports or entertainment
areas at night. In residential areas, the
life of the habitants is greatly affected
by this. It also affects the astronomical
observations and activities by making
the stars almost invisible.
Effects of Pollution
Environmental degradation
The environment is the first causality
of any kind of pollution. The increase
in the amount carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere leads to smog which can
restrict sunlight from reaching the
earth thus, hindering plants completing
the process of photosynthesis. Gases
like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
can cause acid rain. Water pollution in
terms of oil spills may lead to death of
several wildlife species.
Human health
The decrease in quality of air leads to
several respiratory problems including
asthma or lung cancer. Chest pains,
congestion, throat inflammation,
cardiovascular diseases and respiratory
diseases are some of the diseases that
are caused by air pollution. Water
pollution occurs due to contamination
of water and may cause skin related
problems including skin irritations
and rashes. Similarly, noise pollution
leads to hearing loss, stress and sleep
disturbance.
A survey by the Environmental Sciences
(ESI) and the Geo Information and
Remote Sensing Institute of the
Scientific and Industrial Research and
Development Centre revealed that
burning of plastics affects health because
of the vinyl chloride and plasticises end
up affecting the endocrine system. The
harmful toxins lead to premature birth,
growth retardation and still birth. In
2012, about 3.7 million premature births
were attributed to pollution, according
to the World Health Organisation.
Global warming
The emission of greenhouse gases
particularly carbon dioxide is leading to
global warming. Every other day new
industries are being set up, new vehicles
come on roads and trees are cut to
make way for new homes. All of them,
in directly or indirectly, may lead to an
increase in CO2 in the environment.
The increase of carbon dioxide leads
to melting of the polar ice caps which
increases the sea levels and pose a danger
for people living near coastal areas.
Ozone layer depletion
The ozone layer is the twin shield which
is in the sky that stops ultra violet rays
from reaching the earth. As a result
of human activities, chemicals such
as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), are
released into the atmosphere which
contributes to the depletion of the
ozone layer.
Infertile land
Due to the constant use of insecticides
and pesticides, the soil may eventually
become infertile. Plants may not be
able to grow properly. Various forms
257
of chemicals produced from industrial
waste are released into the flowing water
which also affects the quality of sol.
Conclusion
Pollution not only affects humans by
destroying their respiratory systems,
cardiovascular and neurological systems,
but also affects the nature, plants, fruits,
vegetables, rivers, ponds, forests, animals
on which they are highly dependent for
survival. It is crucial to control pollution
as the nature, wildlife and human life
are precious gifts to mankind.
Much more could have been said on
how to prevent droughts, floods etc.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Typical Examination Questions
Problem solving
Discuss ways to prevent and reduce air,
water and land pollution in your local
areas.
Section B: Structured Questions
(a) Identify six causes of pollution.
(b) Outline the effects of pollution.
(c) To what extent does pollution
affect our health?
258
Debate
The former US President Ronald Regan
once said; ‘Cars don’t cause pollution,
trees do.’ Do you think USA presidents
understand a little more about pollution
now?
Research Project
Using one urban settlement of your
choice in Zimbabwe, identify the major
source of pollution and type. Make
recommendations on how to mitigate
the effects of pollution to the local
community.
NB: You can design models and present
them using Power Point if resources
permit.
Topic 4
Disaster Risk Management
Warm up Exercise
1. What do you think is a disaster?
2. What makes a disaster different
from other ocuurences?
3. Why should we be concerned about
disasters?
4. In what ways might people prepare
for a natural disaster?
Key Words
Tectonic hazards: an event occurring
 due to the earth’s crust
with the potential
to cause damage to
property and loss of life
such as earthquakes,
volcanic hazards and
tsunami.
Natural disasters: a natural event such
as flood, earthquake, or
hurricane that causes
great damage or loss of
life.
Disaster risk management: is to reduce
the damage caused
by natural hazards
like earthquakes,
floods, droughts and
cyclones through ethic
prevention.
Definition of tectonic and
geological hazards
Tectonic hazards are events caused by
tectonic plates colliding into each other,
moving against each other, moving
apart or movement between a less dense
plate and a more dense plate.
Examples of tectonic hazards include;
• Volcanoes – these occur when
hot magma is forced to the earth’s
surface through fissures and cracks
in the earth’s crust.
• Earthquakes: these most
commonly occur when two
tectonic plates move against each
other. Rocks break underground
at the centre of the earthquake
and then the earth’s crust shakes
when energy is released.
• Tsunamis: caused by a rapid
displacement of water.
• Tropical cyclone: rapidly rotating
storm with a low pressure, spiral
arrangement of thunderstorms
and strong winds.
How do natural hazards turn into
natural disasters?
A natural hazard is a threat of a
naturally occurring event which will
have a negative effect on humans.
This negative effect is what we call a
natural disaster. In other words, when
the hazardous threat actually happens
and harms humans, we call this event a
natural disaster.
Natural disasters are catastrophic events
that are extreme and usually sudden.
They not only can cause millions of
dollars in damage, but they can cause
a lot of death and devastation. The
number of reports has significantly
increased over the last several years. It
appears the world has recently come
259
under attack from several different
types of natural hazards. For example,
the tsunami in Indonesia (date?) caused
a great amount of loss of property and
more importantly loss of lives. The
earthquake and tsunami (dates?) in
Japan also caused loss of property and
lives, as well as nuclear fallout. The 2012,
floods in Pakistan caused 500 deaths
and affected several million people. The
most vulnerable groups are the poor
and the landless, who are often forced
to live in flood prone areas. According
to 2014 report by the United Nations,
since 1994, 4.4 billion people have been
affected by disasters, which claimed 1.3
million lives and cost US $ 2 trillion in
economic losses.
Managing tectonic and geological
disasters
Natural disasters are becoming more
frequent, growing more severe and
affecting more people than ever before.
The reasons vary but include climate
change, population growth and shifting
habitation patterns. According a
statement released from the Centre
of Research on the Epidemiology of
Disasters and the United Nations in
January 2009, the average number of
natural disasters reported each year
increased by more than 60% from 2003-
260
05 compared to 1996-98. The World
Watch Institute reported that in 2007
alone there were 874 weather related
disasters worldwide, a 13% increase
over 2006 and the highest number since
systematic record keeping in 1974.
As a result, developing the tools,
processes and best practices to manage
natural disasters more effectively is
becoming an increasingly urgent global
priority. Effective disaster management
or disaster response can be defined
as finding the technology, tools and
practices that enable disaster response
organisations to systematically manage
information from multiple sources and
collaborate effectively to assist survivors,
mitigate damage and help communities
to rebuild.
It is almost impossible to fully control
the damage caused by the disasters, but
it is possible to minimise them to some
extent by the following ways:
• Early warning given to MET
departments through radio and
TV
• Spread awareness about disasters
and tips to handle them
• Space technology plays a very
important role in efficient
mitigation of disasters
• Major loss of life can be avoided
with careful planning and
effective warning and evacuation
procedures
• Buildings should not be built on
steep slopes and every construction
should follow the architectural
parameters
• Inviting development partners
and private sector to assist
• Declare state of emergencies
before the disaster escalates to
harm more people.
• Deforestation should be checked
Challenges in Disaster Risk
Management
• The need to normalise data so that
critical information can be quickly
communicated understood and
acted upon.
• Sharing information across
organisations may be impossible.
In disaster management
situations, information is widely
distributed and owned by different
organisations, critical data is
maintained in desperate systems
that often do not interpret it
well and there are no common
standards to enable organisations
to effectively organise and share
their resources during response
operations. To complicate the
matter, disaster management
teams may be dealing with badly
damaged infrastructure, making
information sharing nearly
impossible.
• Some disasters are trans-border,
meaning they can affect more
countries at once hence the need
to coordinate is very difficult.
• Another important challenge
is the need to automate manual
records for disaster response
and humanitarian assistance
organisations.
• Another major challenge is
the willingness and political
commitment of various agencies
including the government and
major donors which is further
worsened by the resources for the
same.
• Lack of coordination between
DRR actors (Disaster Risk
Reduction).
• Lack of political will on the part
of decision makers.
261
 • Financial challenges.
• Some people refuse to permanently
relocate from the disaster prone
areas due to a dependency
syndrome as they are used to rely
on donor hand-outs.
Revision Exercise
Pracademic Questions
Problem solving
Have you discussed with your family
what you might do in the event of a
natural disaster? If so what plans did
your family make? How will these
plans help you in the event of a natural
disaster?
Typical Exam Questions
Section A: Multiple Choice
1. All of the following
are true about disasters
EXCEP________.
a) A disaster maybe
domestic or international
b) A disaster maybe caused
by nature or have human
origins
c) A disaster always receives
widespread coverage
d) A disaster may have a
known and gradual onset
262
2. Disasters result in all of the
following EXCEPT _______.
a) Damage to the ecological
environment
b) Displacement of
populations
c) Destruction of a
population’s homeland
d) Sustained public
attention during the
recovery phase
Section B: Structured Questions
(a) State five examples of tectonic
hazards.
(b) Outline the challenges faced in
disaster risk management.
(c) To what extent does climate
change cause natural disasters?
Further Research
Describe the roles and functions of the
Civil Protection Unit (CPU). Identify
the membership of CPU.
NB: If resources are available at your
school, make a Power Point presentation.
Unit Summary
The chapter discussed;
Land degradation is a common feature
in Zimbabwe where people practice
uncontrolled mining operations, Droughts and floods are a continuous
brick moulding and other issues like problem. These cause a lot of suffering
overgrowing and floods. among the populace including livestock.

263
END OF TERM 3 EXAM (a) they provide technical
services to Zimbabwe
PAPER 1
(b) they wield greater influence
in our community (c) they
Section A: Multiple Choice provide financial assistance
Questions to girls to further their
6. Disability is ___________. education
(a) equated to inability (d) they use advocacy platforms
(b)a temporary condition to make people revolt against
(c) never equated to inability the government.
(d) to become self-reliant. 10. The Veterans of Liberation
7. Zimbabwe is partY to which struggle made sacrifices in
International Convention? order for Zimbabwe
(a) Second Continental to ________.
Roundtable Conference on (a) enjoy peace and tranquillity
the Disabled (b) be independent and sovereign
(b) National Disability Policy (c) be economically active
(c) United Nations Convention (d) drive away the colonisers.
on Disability
(d) National Convention on Section B: Structured Questions
Disability. 1.(a) List any three rights of;
8. The Marriage Act allowed ____. (i) the elderly
(a) anyone who attained 16 (ii) the disabled
years to be married (iii) the women
(b) anyone who attained 18 (iv) Veterans of the Liberation
years to be married struggle
(c) denied marriage at 16 years
(d) did not allow marriage until (b) Describe how the government has
one attains 18 years. assisted the physically challenged
9. Non-Governmental in Zimbabwe.
Organisations (NGOs) (c) To what extent has the Zimbabwean
can be referred to as negative government recognised the rights
when ________. of women?
264
 (f ) To what extent is soil erosion
Typical Examination Questions responsible for land degradation?
Structured Questions Typical Exam Questions
3.(a) Define and explain the importance Section B: Structured Questions
of civic responsibilities.
(d) Identify five effects of drought on
(f ) Describe how civic responsibilities the environment.
promote security in communities.
(e) Describe the effects of floods on
(g) To what extent has the government the economy.
promoted food security and self-
(f )
Does flood water provide
sufficiency in Zimbabwe since
nourishment to the landscape?
2000?

4.(a) List any four reasons why

Section A: Multiple Choice
housing cooperatives emerged.
Section B: Structured Questions
(b) Describe how housing
(d) Identify six causes of pollution.
cooperatives are formed in
(e) Outline the effects of pollution.
Zimbabwe.
(f ) To what extent does pollution
(c) To what extent has the housing affect our health?
cooperative issue resolved
accommodation challenges in
Zimbabwe? Typical Examination Questions
Section A: Multiple Choice
Typical Examination Questions 3. All of the following are true about
Structured Questions disasters EXCEPT _________.

(d) Identify five causes of land a) A disaster maybe

degradation. domestic or international
b) A disaster maybe caused
(e) Describe the effects of land
by nature or have human
degradation from human activities.
265
 origins
c) A disaster always receives
widespread coverage
d) A disaster may have a known and
gradual onset
4. Disasters result in all of the
following EXCEPT ___________.
a) Damage to the ecological
environment
b) Displacement of populations
c) Destruction of a population’s
homeland
d) Sustained public attention during
the recovery phase
266
Section B: Structured Questions
(a) State five examples of tectonic
hazards.
(b) Outline the challenges faced in
disaster risk management.
(c) To what extent does climate
change cause natural disasters?
d) Suggest any three ways to reduce
water pollution.
e) List four flood prone areas in
Zimbabwe.
 (a) agenda setting
End of Year Final Examination (b) public agenda
General Certificate of Education (c) Fifth Column
Ordinary Level (d) propaganda.

Heritage Studies 3. Socialisation in communities

differ according to ________.
Paper 1 Multiple Choice
Time 1 hour 15 minutes (a) geographic location
(b) type of people
Instruction to Candidates (c) people of influence
(d) communication.
• Write your name
4. Communities do not exist in
• Answer all questions
isolation in the socialisation
• Each question carries equal marks. (a) they need each other to
survive
• Read carefully through the
(b) they are not the only agents
whole paper before choosing the
of socialisation
questions you intend to answer.
(c) they are the ideal
socialisation agents
1. Zimbabwe is a multi-religious (d) Communities evolve over
society. This means that _______. time.

(a) a religion which draws many 5. Rituals are depended on,

supporters
(a) communities
(b) allowing Islam and
(b) indigenous Knowledge
Christianity
Systems
(c) allowing any
(c) elderly
religion to worship freely
(d) prophets and Pastors.
(d) open policy.
6. Which newspaper is controlled by
2. The deliberate misrepresentation
Zimpapers?
of biased information is referred
to __________. (a) Daily News

267
 (b) Newsday
(c) The Herald
(d) The Southern Eye.
7. Reading information on the
cell phone implies that one is
consuming
(a) soft copy information
(b) hard copy information
(c) researched information
(d) academic information.
8. Which terrorist group used Radio
Andalus to communicate to
people?
(a) Boko Haram
(b) Al Shabaab
(c) Al Qaeda
(d) RENAMO bandits.
9. Traditional beer is prepared for
_____ days.
(a) 7 (b)14
(c) 2 days (d) 6 days.
10. The world’s largest religion is
(a) Christianity
(b) Rastafarianism
(c) Islam
(d) Buddhism.
11. Religion is an agent of _______.
(a) Beliefs
268
(b) socialisation
(c) Multi-religion
(d) the people and God.
12. Norms can be defined as ____.
(a) Indigenous acts
(b) a set of informal standards of
behaviour
(c) written code of conduct
(d) statements and standards
which assist in achieving the
organisation’s objectives.
13. Which type of family consults
ancestors for guidance?
(a) Religious families
(b) political families
(c) traditional families
(d) business families.
14. According to Erick Erikson’s
Psychological Identity
Development Theory ______
(a) Infant level
(b) Initiative versus Guilt
(c) School Age
(d) Toddler.
15. _____ is a community gathering
controlled by an indigenous
leader?
(a) Nhimbe
(b) Mukwerera
 (c) Bira (c) Henry Hawkins Pollard
(d) Zunde raMambo/Isiphala (d) Fredrick Courtney Selous
senkosi.
20. Which of the following is
16. The voice of God used to be heard not one of the spirit mediums
at which shrine? who participate in the First
Chimurenga?
(a) Defe
(b) Nyangani mountains (a) Nehanda
(c) Njelele (b) Mukwati
(d) Mabiya. (c) Bonda
(c) Makoni
17. According to the National Heroes
Act [Chapter 10:16] _______ 21. Mao Tse Tung philosophy says
considers designation of heroes. that the soldiers are the

(a) Minister of Local (a) Fish (b) Sea

Government, Public Works (c) Masses (d) Sellouts
and National Housing
22. The masses gave the guerrillas
(b) ZANU PF
(c) Vice Presidents (a) People (b) Food
(d) the President. (c) Guns (d) Radios

18. Where do you find the National 23. It is true that,

Shrine?
(a) the Stone Age people once
(a) Belvedere lived in Victoria Falls but were
(b) Warren Park D chased away by Makololo
(c) Kambuzuma tribe
(d) Warren Park 1. (b) Victoria Falls is the only
largest natural falls in the
19. The Mazoe Native Commissioner
world.
who was captured and executed by
(c) David Livingstone was the
Mbuya Nehanda in 1896 was
first person to discover
(a) Leander Starr Jameson Victoria Falls
(b) Cecil John Rhodes (d) the Bantu people chased away
269
 the Stone Age and Middle
Age people in Victoria Falls.
24. During the colonial era, national
resources were distributed in a
racial manner in that
(a) it was disheartening
(b) people were squeezed in
Tribal Lands
(c) resources were distributed
equally
(d) colonial policies alienated (b)
the natives from owning Husbandry
natural resources.
25. Which natural resource in Africa
has become a source of conflict?
(a) Water (b)Forests
(c) Gold (d) Diamond
26.
Harmonised elections are
conducted after every ---- years.
(a) 2 years
(b) 4 years
(c) once there is a vacancy
(d) 5 years.
28. The Second Chimurenga was
prosecuted by the following
military wings
(a) ZANLA
(b) ZIPRA
(c) Rhodesian Forces
(d) ZANLA and ZIPRA.
29.
Which Act legalised the
occupation of land in Rhodesia?
(a) Land Apportionment Act 1930
Native Land
Act 1951
(c) Lippert Concession 1889
(d) Matabeleland Order in
Council 1894.
30. What necessitated the June 2008
Presidential run-off ? (a) it was a
contested election (b) the bhora
musango mantra (c) no one
garnered 50+1 vote (d) it was
a result of the Government of
National Unity (GNU).
31. Registration of political parties is
done by

27. Who is allowed by the law to (a) Zimbabwe Electoral

proclaim an election date? Commission (ZEC)
(b) Ministry of Justice
(a) Chief Justice (c) High Court
(b) any Senior Judge (d) Supreme Court.
(c) Judge President
(d) President. 32. Which natural resource was
270
 central in the liberation struggle values
(b) to pay basic services
(a) Water (b)Wildlife
(c) to receive food for free
(c) Minerals (d) Land.
(d) to look after themselves in a
33. The Red Star on the National Flag healthy manner.
represents;
37. Which of the following is not a
(a) all minerals cause of the Second Chimurenga?
(b) the blood spilled during the
(a) Loss of land
struggle
(b) Loss of independence
(c) national aspirations
(c) Taxation
(d) our great history.
(d) Natural disasters
34. The National Pledge as an Oath
38.
The Veterans of Liberation
of allegiance was launched on ----
struggle made sacrifices in order
at Harare High School.
for Zimbabwe to
(a) 18 April 1980
(a) enjoy peace and tranquillity
(b) 01 January 2016
(b) independent and sovereign
(c) 03 May 2016
(c) be economically active
(d) 25 May 2016.
(d) drive away the colonisers.
35. Zimbabwe ratified the United
39. Which area was Sekuru Kaguvi
Nations Convention on the Rights
most effective during the First
of People with Disability on......
Chimurenga
(a) 22 December 2015
(a) Mazowe (b)Goromonzi
(b) 23 September 2014
(c) Matabeleland (d) Makoni
(c) 23 September 2013
(d) 23 September 2012. 40. The Marriage Act allowed

36.
The following are the (a) anyone who attained 16 years
responsibilities of the elderly to be married
except.... (b) anyone who attained 18 years
to be married
(a) Passing societal norms and
(c) denied marriage at 16 years
271
 (d) did not allow marriage until whole paper before choosing the
one attains 18 years. questions you intend to answer.

Section A
Paper 2
Section A: (Answer all questions)
1. List any four socialisation agents
found at community level (2)

2. With reference to Zimbabwe,

End Of Year Final Examination
General Certificate of
Ordinary Level
Heritage Studies
Paper 1 Multiple Choice
Time 2 hours
Instruction to Candidates
describe socialisation in (i) low
density suburbs (ii) High density
suburbs (4)
3. How do rituals affect people’s
Education
human rights? (3)
4. List any four types of religions
found in Zimbabwe (4)
5. Outline the role of religion in
the socialisation process in a
community (3)

• Write your name 6. Discuss Karl Marx’s views on

religion (4)
• Answer all questions
7. Identify any three functions of the
• Write your answers on the separate media (3)
answer paper provided.
8. With specific examples, describe
• If you use more than one sheet of the way in which the media
paper, fasten the sheets together. influences socialisation (4)
• Read carefully through the 9. To what extent do the media
272
 influence socialisation?
10. Identify any six churches that
operate in Zimbabwe.
11. Describe Karl Marx’s views on the
role of religion on socialisation.
12. To what extent does religion keeps
the society functioning?
12. State the three organs of the
Zimbabwe government and the
titles of their respective leaders
14. Describe the functions of each of
the organs of the government
15. How successful has the judiciary
in Zimbabwe been performing its
functions?
16. List any six inequalities in the
provision of social services in
Rhodesia.
17. Describe the measures adopted by
the government during the first
decade of independence to redress
these inequalities.
18.
How successful was the
government in addressing the
inequalities?
19. Describe the mandate of the
Zimbabwe Electoral Commission.
20. Describe the electoral processes in
Zimbabwe.
21. Identify the role of Observers
during election times.
22. State any six official languages of
Zimbabwe.
23. Name three key features of the
Constitution of Zimbabwe.
24. State the Constitution making
process in Zimbabwe.
25. Identify any 6 forms of print
media.
26. Describe the advantages and
disadvantages of using media in
socialisation.
27. Evaluate the assertion that media
is a great promoter of unruly
behaviour among youths.
28. Identify any 3 types of families
found in Zimbabwe.
29. Describe political and religious
families.
30. How far does career families
influences career paths of their
children?
31. Identify the six stages proposed
by Erick Erikson on child
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 development.
section
32. Describe in detail any of the three
stages Erick Erikson on child
development.
33. To what extent do these stages
develop a healthy child?
34. Identify and 4 indigenous events
practised in Zimbabwe that are
aimed at promoting unity.
35. Describe any three of the events
mentioned above.
36. To what extent do funerals unify
nations?
37. Identify six norms and values
found at work places.
38. List any three of the norms and
values
39. Identify four threats to norms and
Section A
values in our Zimbabwean society.
40. Describe the four threats to norms
and values.
41. What are the 5 functions of the
executor.
42. Identify the importance of writing
a will.
Section B
274
Answer any two questions from this
1. Describe how the agents of
socialisation at the community
level assist in the socialisation
process of individuals. (20).
2. Evaluate the importance of the
media as a socialising agent (20).
3. Using one indigenous community
gathering, describe how the
event is done, its importance and
relevance in the 21st century. (20)
4. Define the concept of threat and
explain any 3 threats to norms and
values in the community.
5. Describe the importance of (i)
drama and (ii) dance as a form of
entertainment and employment
creation in Zimbabwe.
1. List any three rights of; (i) the
elderly (ii) the disabled (iii)
the women (iv) Veterans of the
Liberation struggle.
2. Describe how the government has
assisted the physically challenged
in Zimbabwe.
3. To what extent has the
Zimbabwean government
 recognises the rights of women?
4. define and explain the importance
of civic responsibilities
5. Describe how civic responsibilities
promote security in communities.
6. To what extent has the government
promoted food security and self
sufficiency in Zimbabwe since
2000?
7. List any four reasons why housing
cooperatives emerged.
8. Describe how housing cooperatives
are formed in Zimbabwe?
9. To what extent has the housing
cooperative issue resolved
accommodation challenges in
Zimbabwe?
10. Identify five causes of land
degradation.
11. Describe the effects of land
degradation from human
activities.
12. To what extent is soil erosion
responsible for land degradation?
13. Identify five effects of drought on
the environment.
14. Describe the effects of floods on
the economy.
15.
Does flood water provide
nourishment to the landscape
16. Identify six causes of pollution.
17. Outline the effects of pollution.
18. To what extent does pollution
affect our health?
19. State five examples of tectonic
hazards.
20. Identify the role of the Civil
Protection Unit (CPU).
21. Outline the challenges faced in
disaster risk management.
22. To what extent does climate
change cause natural disasters?
23. Suggest any three ways to reduce
water pollution.
24. List four flood prone areas in
Zimbabwe.
Section B
1. Describe how the agents of
socialisation at the community
level assist in the socialisation
process of individuals. (20).
2. Evaluate the importance of the
275
 media as a socialising agent (20).
3. Using one indigenous community
gathering, describe how the
event is done, its importance and
relevance in the 21st century. (20)
4. Define the concept of threat and
explain any 3 threats to norms and
values in the community.
5. Describe the importance of (i)
drama and (ii) dance as a form of
entertainment and employment
creation in Zimbabwe.
Section C
1. Outline the causes of the First
Chimurenga and identify the role
of the spirit mediums during the
war.
2. To what extent is Zimbabwe
described as a Constitutional
democracy.
3. Evaluate the assertion that
national shrines and monuments
have no historical relevance to
Zimbabwe?
4. Discuss the importance of the
National Pledge and demonstrate
the link with the National Flag
and the National Anthem.
276
5. Explain the Tiers of the
Government of Zimbabwe. How
effective is the system?
Section D
1. Describe the government’s
intervention on the People With
Disabilities (PWDs) (20).
2. Outline and discuss the four
factors of production (20).
3. What are the constraints affecting
the Informal Sector in Zimbabwe?
(20)
4. Describe the factors associated
flooding and explain the
preparedness level of Zimbabwe
to flooding.
5. Describe any three World
infectious diseases bringing out
causes, symptoms and challenges
associated with fighting the
scourge.