Yash Bansal - Training Report PDF

WINTER TRAINING REPORT
STUDY OF EOR
PROCESS IN SANTHAL
AND BALOL FIELD
YASH BANSAL
BTech. Applied Petroleum Engineering-Upstream (3rd YEAR)
UPES, Dehradun
20th December 2018-18th January 2019
Mentor: Shri Ankit Gupta

Surface Team Section
Executive Engineer (Production)
ONGC Mehsana Asset, Gujarat
Study of EOR Process in Santhal and Balol Field
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled, “Study of EOR in Santhal

and Balol Field” under the Surface Team Section is an approved
record of work done by Yash Bansal from University of Petroleum
and Energy Studies, Dehradun at ONGC Mehsana Asset, Gujarat
from 20th December 2018 to 18th January 2019.
Shri Ankit Gupta

Executive Engineer (Production)
ONGC Mehsana Asset, Gujarat
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ONGC Mehsana Asset, Gujarat Page 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The training opportunity I had with ONGC was a great chance for learning and
professional development. Therefore, I consider myself as a very lucky
individual as I was provided with an opportunity to be a part of it. I am also
grateful for having a chance to meet so many wonderful people and
professionals who led me though this internship period.
Bearing in mind previous I am using this opportunity to express my deepest

gratitude to the HR Department of ONGC, Mehsana Asset, Gujarat and
special thanks to Smt. R.S. Narayani and Shri Rathin Patel who in spite of
being extraordinarily busy with their duties, took time out to hear, guide and
keep me on the correct path and allowing me to carry out my project at their
esteemed organization and extending during the training.
I express my deepest thanks to my mentor, Shri Ankit Gupta (Executive

Engineer, Production) for taking part in useful decision & giving necessary
advices and guidance and arranged all facilities to make life easier. I choose this
moment to acknowledge his contribution gratefully.
It is my radiant sentiment to place on record my best regards, deepest sense of

gratitude to Shri Brijraj Singh (Executive Engineer, Production) and Shri
Suman Bhattacharya for their careful and precious guidance which were
extremely valuable for my study both theoretically and practically.
I perceive as this opportunity as a big milestone in my career development. I

will strive to use gained skills and knowledge in the best possible way, and I
will continue to work on their improvement, in order to attain desired career
objectives. Hope to continue cooperation with all of you in the future.
Sincerely,
Yash Bansal
B.Tech (Applied Petroleum Engineering-
Upstream)
UPES, Dehradun
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INDEX
S No. Content Page no.

1. Certificate 1
2. Acknowledgement 2
3. Index 3
4. ONGC 4-5
5. ONGC, Mehsana Asset 6-8
6. Recovery of Oil 9-10
7. Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) 11-16
8. In-Situ Combustion 17-25
9. Facilities at Balol and Santhal Fields 26-33
10. Kinetics of In-Situ Combustion 34-40
11. Instrumentation System 41-42
12. Conclusion 43
13. References 44
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1. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited
Oil and natural gas corporation limited (ONGC) is the one of the biggest
Asia based oil and gas investigation and creation organization and delivers
around 72% of India's raw petroleum and 48% of its gaseous petrol. ONGC
has been positioned 357th in the fortune worldwide 500 rundown of the
world's greatest organizations for the year 2012. It is additionally among the
250 worldwide vitality organizations by Plats. ONGC was established on
14th August 1956. It is associated with investigating for and misusing
hydrocarbons in 26 sedimentary basins and India and possesses and works
more than 11000 km of the pipelines in the India.
ONGC Represents India's Energy Security through its Pioneering Efforts
ONGC is the main fully– coordinated oil organization in India, working
along the whole hydrocarbon esteem chain. It has without any assistance
scripted India's hydrocarbon adventure.
Some key pointers:
• ONGC has discovered 6 out of the 7 producing basins in India
• It has 7.59 billion tons of In-place hydrocarbon reserves. It has to its credit
more than 320 discoveries of oil and gas with Ultimate Reserves of 2.69
Billion Metric tons (BMT) of Oil plus Oil Equivalent Gas (O+OEG) from
domestic acreages.
• It has cumulatively produced 851 Million Metric Tons (MMT) of crude
and 532 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM) of Natural Gas, from 111 fields.
• ONGC has won 121 out of a total 235 Blocks (more than 50%) in the 8
rounds of bidding, under the New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP)
of the Indian Government.
• ONGC's wholly-owned subsidiary ONGC Videsh Ltd. (OVL) is the
biggest Indian multinational, with 30 Oil & Gas projects (9 of them
producing) in 15 countries.
• Produces over 1.24 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, contributing
over 64% of India's domestic production. Of this, over 75% of crude oil
produced is Light & Sweet.
• The Company holds the largest share of hydrocarbon acreages in India
(51% in PEL Areas & 67% in ML Areas).
• ONGC possesses about one tenth of the total Indian refining capacity.
• ONGC has a well-integrated Hydrocarbon Value Chain structure with
interests in LNG and product transportation business as well.
Some of the areas where ONGC has set up exploration practices are:
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✓ Cambay Basin
✓ Mehsana Asset
✓ Ahmedabad Asset
✓ Krishna- Godavari Basin
✓ Nazira Asset, Assam
✓ Bombay High
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2. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited,

Mehsana Asset
The oil and natural gas corporation ltd. (ONGC) is India’s biggest integrated oil
company having major interest in E&P activities. Mehsana Asset, about 60km.
from Ahmedabad is in northern part of Gujarat state. Presently it is operating
20 rigs out of which 05 departmental rigs are operated by departmental
crew, 09 departmental rigs are operated by O&M Contractual manpower
and 06 rigs are chartered & hired. It is the highest oil producing onshore asset
of ONGC. The asset has oil fields producing both heavy and light crude with
API gravity ranging from 130-420 API. The heavy oil fields viz. Santhal, Balol,
Lanwa and Bechraji having API gravity between 130 -170 falls in the northern
part of Cambay basin. Lanwa, Balol and Santhal fields have contiguous
structure with only geographical demarcation stretching in North-South
direction with LANWA field in the North, SANTHAL field in the South and
BALOL field in between. BECHRAJI field is in the west of Mehsana Horst.
The pay sands are channel sands and the major pay sand kalol is distributed in
the entire length of the heavy oil belt. The structure is a homocline diping
NNW- SSE with dip ranging from 20 to 60. Towards the eastern side all along
the length of the heavy oil belt is an infinite aquifer which provide pressure
support. In the western side, the heavy oil belt abuts against the uplifted block
called the Mehsana Horst where the Kalol sands thin out. Kalol sands occur at a
depth of 950 to 1000 m with average reservoir pressure of about100kg/cm2. Oil
viscosity increases from south to north. In southern part of santhal field. The oil
viscosity is about 50cp and in the northern part of Lanwa field it is about 1500
cp at reservoir temperature of 70`C. because of the viscous nature of oil, the
primary recovery of the heavy oil field is very low ranging from 6%-17%. The
STOIIP of four heavy oil fields about 140 MMT.
Total number of flowing wells 1826
Oil Wells 1565
Gas Wells 12
EOR Injection 391
Water Injection 670
ED Wells 143
Pipelines 3700 Km
Total liquid production 5590 m3/day
2.1 Production Scenario in Mehsana Asset as on 15th January 2019
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Areas Asset Production Area Production Area Production Today

(TPD) Previous day (MT) (MT)
N. Kadi 1621 1544 1546
Sobhasan 765 717 754
Santhal 1079 1002 1044
Balol 545 412 465
Jotana 230 215 222
Nandasan 429 417 459
Lanwa 206 189 174
Becharaji 310 297 295
Linch 503 498 499
Langhnaj 86 83 106
Mansa 22 8 26
Total 5796 5383 5590
2.2 SPECIAL FEATURES OF MEHSANA ASSET

(a) Largest onshore production with least manpower (Data is approximated)
PLACE MANPOWER PRODUCTION(TPD)

Mehsana 3200 5796
Ankleswar 3700 6000
Ahmedabad 3400 4000
(b) Highly viscous oil

Only Asset to have IN-SITU combustion project employed in ONGC at
such a large scale
Project Operator Date Combus Oil No. of No. of

Name initiated tion type gravity,oAPI injecto-rs producers
Balol ONGC 1990 Wet/Dry 15.6 1 4
Lanwa ONGC 1992 Wet/Dry 13.5 1 4
Balol ONGC 1996 Dry 15.6 - -
Santhal ONGC 1996 Dry 17 - -
Bechraji ONGC 1996 Dry 15.6 - -
2.3 Brief about Santhal and Balol Heavy Oil field
The Santhal field is southern segment of the heavy oil belt comprising Lanwa,
Balol and Santhal fields located in North Cambay Basin (Fig.1). The heavy oil
belt is a narrow, NW-SE striking, elongated strip, 30 km long and 1-1.5 km
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wide. Crude oil viscosity ranges from 60-200 cps at 17-degree API gravity. The
average reservoir pressure and temperature are 100kg/cm2 and 70-degree C
respectively at a depth of 990 m below msl. The density of crude oil is 0.95
gm/cc. Primary recovery from this field under active edge water drive is
estimated to be 18 %. Balol oil field is the centermost part of Mehsana heavy oil
belt with Santhal field on the southern part and Lanwa field on the northern
side. There are basically two different pay sections in this field namely Balol
pay and Kalol pay. The Kalol pay is the main oil-bearing horizon extended
throughout the field. Main features of fields are as follow:
(a) Main pay sand is medium to coarse grained, clean well settled and
unconsolidated to semi consolidated in nature. It has an average porosity
of 28% and permeability of 5000 to 15000 md and has an edge water
drive.
(b) Initial oil is place is about 29.67 MMT, the Balol phase-I covers IOIP of
2.27 MMT and Balol main covers area having 15.12 MMT of the affected
sand.
(c) Reservoir temperature is about 70oC and has an oil saturated ranging from
75-90oC.
(d) The crude oil produced from the field has asphaltene base has an average
viscosity of 150 cp at reservoir condition in southern part. The viscosity
increases gradually as one move from southern par. It has specific gravity
of 0.96 (API-16) and pour point 9oC.
2.4 A brief about ongoing schemes in

Mehsana Asset
• Four heavy oil fields: Santhal, Balol,
Lanwa and Becharaji
• Total Area: About 70 Sq. Km
• OOIP :150 MMT approx.
• API Gravity :130 – 180
• Viscosity:50-1700 cps at reservoir
condition
2.5 Processes in Different Fields
▪ E.O.R: Balol, Santhal, Bechraji, Lanwa Extended Pilot, CSS Lanwa,

Northern Kadi
▪ I.O.R: Northern Kdi, Sobhasan, Santhal, Jotana
▪ Water Injection: Jotana, Sobhasan
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3. Recovery of Oil
There are mainly three methods of recovery of oil from the reservoir:
a. Primary Oil Recovery
Primary oil recovery refers to the process of extracting oil either via the natural
rise of hydrocarbons to the surface of the earth or via pump jacks and other
artificial lift devices. Since this technique only targets the oil, which is either
susceptible to its release or accessible to the pump jack, this is very limited in its
extraction potential. In fact, only around 5% - 15% of the well’s potential are
recovered from the primary method.
b. Secondary Oil Recovery
This method involves the injection of gas or water, which will displace the oil,
force it to move from its resting place and bring it to the surface. This is
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typically successful in targeting an additional 30% of the oil’s reserves, though

the figure could be depending on the oil and of the rock surrounding it.
c. Tertiary Oil Recovery or Enhanced Oil Recovery
Rather than simply trying to force the oil out of the ground, as did the previous
two methods, enhanced oil recovery seeks to alter its properties to make it more
conducive to extraction. There are three main types of enhanced oil recovery:
• Thermal Recovery: This is the most prevalent type of EOR that works
by heating the oil to reduce its viscosity and allowing easier flow to the
surface. This is most commonly achieved by introducing steam into the
reservoir, which will work to heat the oil. Less commonplace is the
practice of burning part of the oil in order to heat the rest (fire flooding or
in-situ burning).
• Gas Injection: Either natural gas, nitrogen or carbon dioxide

(increasingly the most popular option) are injected into the reservoir to
mix with the oil, making it more viscous, whilst simultaneously pushing
the oil to the surface (like secondary oil recovery).
• Chemical Injection: The least common method of EOR, chemical

injection works by freeing trapped oil in the well. This is done by
lowering surface tension and increasing the efficiency of water-flooding.
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4. Tertiary/Enhanced oil recovery (EOR)

4.1 Introduction
EOR refers to the recovery of oil through the injection of fluids and energy
not normally present in the reservoir. The injection of fluid must accomplish
several objectives as follows:
• Boost the natural energy in the reservoir
• Interact with the reservoir rock/oil system to create conditions
favorable for residual oil recovery that include among others:
• Reduction of the interfacial tension between the displacing gluid and
oil
• Increase the capillary number
• Reduce capillary forces
• Increase the drive-water viscosity
• Provide mobile control
• Oil swelling
• Oil viscosity reduction
• Alteration of the reservoir
rock wettability
The final goal of the EOR
processes is to increase the overall
oil displacement efficiency, which
is a function of microscopic and
macroscopic displacement
efficiency.
Today when unpredictable oil
costs keep the country's import bill
regularly rising. ONGC has
responded to the call to create each
drop of the delivered oil. ONGC
has utilized the condition of
specialty of EOR methods through IN-SITU ignition in the western province
of Gujarat (Mehsana). These endeavors have shot India to the select band of
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nations spearheading the craft of substantial oil extraction that incorporate

USA, Canada, Russia, Romania and Venezuela.
4.2 EOR-The Future of India
The future situation of India won't just rely upon disclosure of new fields, yet
additionally an upgrade of financial matters recuperation and enhancement in
recuperations rank comparable to revelations.
The vast capability of EOR forms in Mehsana offers colossal degree for
expanding financial aspects oil recuperation, it is foreseen that oil fields in
different parts of nation will in future hotel to EOR. The EOR procedures could
significantly increments could considerably builds household generation amid
the following decade.
EOR will be a pushed territory and assume a key job in India's walk to its
objective of accomplishing self-reliance.
4.3 What is EOR (ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY)
The assortment of strategies and systems, which allows the recuperation of

higher level of unique oil set up than, would have been conceivable utilizing
just essential recuperation strategy. The EOR terms replaces the old and
confusing terminology of secondary and tertiary recovery.
4.4 Selection of EOR techniques
Given below are the factors influencing the selection of an EOR method:
• Reservoir size, geometry & homogeneity.
• Types of reservoir drive.
• Residual oil saturation after primary recovery.
• Viscosity and gravity of oil at reservoir condition.
• Reservoir pay thickness.
• Depth of oil reservoir.
4.5 Major constraints to EOR development

Some of the limitations for full scale development of EOR projects are given
below:
(a) Unproved and risky nature of certain techniques like surfactant and
miscible flooding.
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(b) Large initial capital requirement.

(c) Lack of a reliable long-term price of oil to workout economics.
(d) Limited available supply of certain injection material e.g. CO2, sulphonates
& polymers.
(e) Long lead time is required to carry out the essential laboratory tests to
design and conduct pilotless test before expanding successful pilots into
field scale implementation.
A complete pilot tests scheme should be prepared with:
(a) Well location and completions.

(b) Injection rate (year wise) from surrounding production wells.
(c) Parameters to be monitored in producing wells/observation wells with
value of these parameters as per scheme and on specified time after of the
pilot.
(d) For economics, year wise incremental production (base value is without
EOR) should be brought out.
(e) The scheme should be fully engineered before being implemented.
4.6 EOR Techniques
EOR processes are subdivided into following major categories:
(a) CHEMICAL PROCESSES:

• Surfactant injection
• Polymer flooding
• Caustic flooding
(b) THERMAL PROCESSES:
• Steam Stimulated
• Steam flooding (including hot water injection)
• IN-SITU Combustion
(c) MISCIBLE DISPLACEMENT PROCESSES:
• Miscible hydrocarbon displacement
• CO2 injection
• Inert gas injection
(d) MICROBIAL-ENHANCED RECOVERY
Following Table is showing different EOR methods with their respective

Efficiencies:
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Process Process Areal Sweep Vertical Compound

Displacement Efficiency, % Sweep Recovery
Efficiency, % Efficiency, % Efficiency, %
In-Situ Combustion 95 70 85 56
Steam Flood 65 70 85 39
Cyclic Steam - - - -
Micro-emulsion 90 70 80 50
flood
CO2 Water flood 80 50 80 32
Caustic Water 35 70 80 20
Flood
4.6.1 STEAM STIMULATION:
It is also known as cycle steam injection, steam soak or huff and puff. This is
basically a stimulation process rather than an EOR techniques. In this procedure
steam is infused at pre-decided rate into delivering great for a predefined
creating admirably for a predetermined period (ordinarily 2-3 weeks).
Following this the well is closed in for a couple of days (to permit enough
warmth dissemination). From that point the well is put on generation.
Heat from the injection steam increases the reservoir temperature resulting in
the decreases in viscosity of oil hence an increase in mobility of oil. This result
in corresponding improvement in producing rates.
Other positive benefits of this processes that may contribute to production
increase include.
• Thermal expansion of fluid
• Compression of solution gas
• Reduced residual oil saturation
• Well bore clean up effect
This technique had gained wide acceptance of quick payouts.
4.6.2 STEAM FLOODING:
Steam flooding is process resembles water flooding. An appropriate well

example is picked. Steam is infused as warmth conveys into a few infusion
wells, while oil is delivered from the creation wells
The primary advantages of steam flooding are:
• Steam has relatively high heat carrying capacity.
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• Large amount of heat is transferred into formation as heat of

condensation.
• Steam condensation volume is small.
Ideally, steam forms a saturation zone

around the injection well. The
temperature of this zone is
approximately equal to that of injection
steam. As the steams moves away from
the bore wells its temperature starts
declining as it continuous to expand in
response to pressure drop. At some
distance from the well steam condense
and from a hot water bank.
In the hot water zone physical changes

in the characteristics of oil and
reservoir rock took place, thus resulting
in the higher oil recovery. These
changes are:
• Thermal expansion of the oil.

• Deduction in the viscosity.
• Deduction in residual oil saturation.
• Change in relative permeability.
An advantage of steam injection over other enhanced oil recovery methods is

that it can be applied to wide variety of reservoirs. However, the limiting factors
are:
• Depth (should less than 1500 mts.)

• Reservoir thickness (should be greater than 4 mts.)
The depth limitation is imposed by the critical pressure and corresponding

temperature of the steam. The reservoir thickness determines the rate of the heat
loss to base and cap rock.
Higher grade of casing or pre-stressing, use of thermal cement (API class G

cement +30% to 40% silica flour) for cementation, use of vacuum insulated
tubing’s and thermal packers are required for wells selected for steam injection.
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4.6.3 Foam Flooding
Foam is a metastable dispersion of a relatively large volume of gas in a

continuous liquid phase that constitutes a relatively small volume of the foam.
The gas content in classical foam is quite high (often 60 to 97 vol%). Bulk
foams are formed when gas contacts a liquid containing a surfactant in the
presence of mechanical agitation. In oilfield applications, the use of CO2 foams
has been considered a promising technique for CO2 mobility control and steam
flooding mobility control. The use of foams for mobility control in surfactant
flooding, specifically at high temperatures (due to polymer degradation), in
alkaline-surfactant flooding, surfactant/polymer projects, and in
alkaline/surfactant/polymer flooding have been reported.
4.7 Infill Drilling and completion of wells:
Infill wells which are being drilled are mostly in EOR affected areas and
therefore needs additional precautions. When the pay sand is likely to be
encountered, air injection in very closed air injectors should be stopped to avoid
activity in the well during drilling. The return mud temperature is to be checked
for ascertaining if any high temperature zone is encountered. If high
temperature zone is encountered than well logging operation is to be planned to
avoid damage to the logging tools. Cementation is to be done up to meters from
the surface with light weight cement slurry.
Following are the workover operations and completion of wells:
• Production Wells on SRP
• Production wells on SRP affected by EOR
• Production wells with pump inside on Self Flow
• Production Wells on Self Flow(S/F) without rod/pump inside
• Air injectors
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5. In-Situ Combustion (ISC)
5.1 Introduction:
In-situ combustion is a thermal method of enhanced oil recovery. The thermal
methods are based on the principal of improving oil mobility by reduction of the
viscosity of the oil by its heating with in the reservoir. The heating of the oil,
associated with the continuous injection of air and water, provides greater
sweep efficiency, improved displacement efficiency by way of crude expansion,
steam distillation and solvent extraction. In-situ combustion (ISC) is basically a
gas injection oil recovery process. Unlike a conventional gas injection process,
in an ISC process, heat is used as an adjuvant to improve the recovery. The heat
is generated within the reservoir (in-situ) by burning a portion of the oil. Hence,
the name in-situ combustion. The burning is sustained by injecting air or an
oxygen rich gas into the formation. Often this process is also called a fireflood
to connote the movement of a burning front within the reservoir. The oil is
driven toward the producer by a vigorous gas drive (combustion gases) and
water drive (water of combustion and re-condensed formation water). The
original incentive for the development of the ISC process was the tremendous
volume of difficult to recover viscous oil left in the reservoir after primary
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production. The process, however, is not restricted to heavy oil reservoir and at
the present time in the U.S. more light than heavy oil is being produced using
this process. In other countries, however, this process is not utilized to recover
light oil. Its use is generally restricted to heavy oil reservoirs not amenable to
steam.
It is the process of generation of heat inside the reservoir by burning a part of
the reservoir oil. For generation of heat we apply two types of ignition process.
Figure: Ignition truck at

Santhal Main
• Spontaneous ignition, where the air is basically infused in a centrally

located well. This is called invert five spot patterns where the wells are
drilled in a geometric fashion having an equal distance of 320 mts. Such
thermal recovery is only suitable where, the API gravity of the oil is less
than 15o and viscosity is very high. As we injected air in reservoir, an
exothermic oxidation process starts. This heating effect changes the oil flow
characteristics. Its mobility and sweep efficiency are increases and it tries to
move towards the production wells.
• Artificial ignition, the ignition accessories are lowered along with a burner
and thermocouple wire into the sand face or the perforation face. Through
wire line some pyrophoric chemicals near the wall bore is lowered. As soon
as fire is initiated the thermocouple detects the temperature and convey to
the ignition trailer where monitoring is being done. Initially air is injected
through annulus and nature gas through the tubing. A combustible mixture is
generated near the sand face by charging the air/gas ratio through the
ignition trailer. The pyrophoric compound catches fire in presence of air
inside the burner, which is the lowest part of the burner. After the trailer is
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disconnected air injection through compressor plant is continued to

propagate thee heat away from the ignition well and close the production
well. Initially the rate of injection is minimum, this rate increases at regular
intervals and injection rate approaches the peak rate in about 3-4 months.
Monitoring parameters during ignition operation:
a. Air injection healer pressure

b. Air flow rate
c. Chasing Head Pressure (CHP)
d. Heat Load achieved
e. Gas burned per hour
f. Air and gas ratio
g. Burner temperature
h. Tubing Head Pressure (THP)
i. Gas flow Rate
j. Gas metering pressure
5.2 IN-SITU COMBUSTION PROCESSES
Based on the direction of the combustion front propagation in relation to the air
flow, the process can be classified as forward combustion and reverse
combustion. In the forward process, the combustion front advances in the
general direction of air flow; whereas in reverse combustion, the combustion
front moves in a direction opposite to that of the air flow. Only forward
combustion is currently being practices in the field.
5.2.1 Forward Combustion

The forward combustion is further categorized into 'dry forward combustion'
and 'wet forward combustion.' In the dry process, only air or oxygen enriched
air is injected into the reservoir to sustain combustion. In the wet process, air
and water are co-injected into the formation through the injection well.
• DRY COMBUSTION
In this process, air (or enriched air) is first injected into an injection well, for a
short time (few days) and then, the oil in the formation is ignited. Ignition is
usually induced using down-hole gas burners, electric heaters or through
injection of a pyrophoric agent (such as linseed oil) or a hot fluid such as the
steam. In some cases, auto ignition of the in-situ crude occurs. For auto ignition
to occur, the reservoir temperature must be greater than 180°F and the oil
sufficiently reactive.
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Once ignited, the combustion front is sustained by a continuous flow of air. The
combustion or fire front can be thought of as a smoldering glow passing through
the reservoir rather than a raging underground fire. As the burning front moves
away from the injection well, several well characterized zones are developed in
the reservoir between the injector and producer. These zones are the result of
heat and mass transport and the chemical reactions that occur in a forward in-
situ combustion process. The locations of the various zones in relation to each
other and the injector are shown in Figure 3.1. The upper portion of this figure
shows the temperature distribution and the fluid saturation from injection well
to producer. The locations of the various zones are depicted in the lower portion
of the figure.
FIGURE- In-Situ Combustion Schematic Temperature Profile
Figure is an admired portrayal of a forward combustion process and developed

dependent on liner combustion tube tests. In the field there are transitions
between all the zones. The concept depicted is easier to visualize and provide
much insight on combustion process. Starting from the injection well, the zones
represented are:
1. The burned zone.
2. The combustion zone
3. The cracking and vaporization zone.
4. The condensation (steam plateau) zone.
5. The water bank
6. The oil zone.
7. The native zone.
These zones move in the direction of air flow and are characterized as follows:
The zone adjacent to the injection well is the burned zone. As the name
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suggests, it is the area where the combustion had already taken place. Unless the
combustion is complete, which is usually not the case in the field, the burned
zone may contain some residual unburned organic solid, generally referred to as
coke. Analysis of cores taken from the burned portion in the field indicate as
much as 2% coke and saturated with air. The color of the burned zone is
typically off-white with streaks of grays, browns and reds. Since this zone is
subjected to the highest temperature for a prolonged period, they usually exhibit
mineral alteration. Because of the continuous influx of ambient air, the
temperature in the burned zone increases from formation temperature near the
injector to near combustion temperature in the vicinity of combustion zone.
FIGURE - Schematic of Temperature Profile for Dry Combustion
Immediately ahead of the burned zone is the combustion zone. The combustion
zone is where reaction between oxygen and fuel takes place generating heat.
The combustion zone is a very narrow region (usually no more than a few
inches thick) (see Figure 3.2) where high temperature oxidation (burning) takes
place to produce primarily water and combustion gases (carbon dioxide CO2,
and carbon monoxide CO). The fuel is predominantly coke, which is formed in
the thermal cracking zone just ahead of the combustion zone. Coke is not pure
carbon, but a hydrogen deficient organic material with an atomic hydrogen to
carbon (H/C) ratio between 0.6 and 1.6, depending upon the thermal
decomposition (coking) conditions. The temperature reached in this zone
depends essentially on the nature and quantity of fuel consumed per unit volume
of the rock.
Just downstream of the combustion zone lies the cracking/vaporization zone. In

this zone the high temperature generated by the combustion process causes the
lighter components of the crude to vaporize and the heavier components to
pyrolyze (thermal cracking). The vaporized light ends are transported
downstream by combustion gases and are condensed and mixed with native
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crude. The pyrolysis of the heavier end results in the production of Co2,
hydrocarbon and organic gases and solid organic residues. This residue,
nominally defined as coke, is deposited on the rock and is the main fuel source
for the combustion process.
Adjacent to the cracking zone is the condensation zone. Since the pressure
gradient within this zone is usually low, the temperature within the zone is
essentially flat (30&550°F) and depends upon the partial pressure of the water
in the vapor phase. Hence, the condensation zone is often referred to as the
steam plateau. Some of the hydrocarbon vapor entering this zone condenses and
dissolves in the crude. Depending on the temperature, the oil may also undergo
'vis-breaking' in this zone, thus reducing its viscosity. Vis-breaking is a mild
form of thermal cracking. This region contains steam, oil, water, and flue gases,
as these fluids move toward the producing well. Field tests indicate that the
steam plateau extends from 10-30 ft. ahead of the burning front.
At the leading edge of the steam plateau where the temperature is lower than the
condensation temperature of steam, a hot water bank is formed. This bank is
characterized by a water saturation higher than original saturation. An oil bank
proceeds the water bank. This zone contains all the oil that has been displaced
from upstream zones. Beyond the oil bank lies the undisturbed zone which is
yet to be affected by the combustion process, except for a possible increase in
gas saturation due to flow of combustion gases (CO2, CO, and N2).
The overall fluid transport mechanism in a combustion process is a highly
complex sequence of gas drive (combustion gases), water drive (re-condensed
formation water and water of combustion), steam drive, miscible gas and
solvent drive. Although the bank concept approach described above provides
much insight on the combustion process, it is not a true representation of the
field behavior. In the field, various zones are not readily identified and there are
considerable overlaps between zones. Further, the relative locations of the
various zones and the sequence in which they occur may also be different from
that described previously. This difference arises mainly because of the
heterogeneous nature of the reservoir.
• Wet Combustion
In the dry forward combustion process, much of the heat generated during
burning is stored in the burned sand behind the burning front and is not used for
oil displacement. The heat capacity of dry air is low and, consequently, the
injected air cannot transfer heat from the sand matrix as fast as it is generated.
Water, on the other hand, can absorb and transport heat many times more
efficiently than can air. If water is injected together with air, much of heat
stored in the burned sand can be recovered and transported forward. Injection of
water simultaneously or intermittently with air is commonly known as wet,
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partially quenched combustion. The ratio of the injected water rate to the air rate
influences the rate of burning front advance and the oil displacement behavior.
The injected water absorbs heat from the burned zone, vaporizes into steam,
passes through the combustion front, and releases the heat as it condenses in the
cooler sections of the reservoir. Thus, the growth of the steam and water banks
ahead of the burning front are accelerated, resulting in faster heat movement
and oil displacement. The size of these banks and the rate of oil recovery are
dependent upon the amount of water injected.
5.2.2 Reverse Combustion
This process has been studied extensively laboratories and tried in the field. The
idea is that it could be a useful way to produce very heavy oils with high
viscosity. In brief, it has not been successful economically for two major
reasons.
1. Combustion started at the producer results in hot produced fluids that

often contain unreacted oxygen. These conditions require special, high-
cost tubulars to protect against high temperatures and corrosion. More
oxygen is required to propagate the front compared to forward
combustion, thus increasing the major cost of operating an in-situ
combustion project.
2. Unreacted, coke-like heavy ends will remain in the burned portion of the
reservoir. At some time in the process, the coke will start to burn, and the
process will revert to forward combustion with considerable heat
generation but little oil production. This has occurred even in carefully
controlled laboratory experiments.
In summary, reverse combustion has been found difficult to apply and

economically unattractive.
The operating principles of reverse combustion are not as well understood as
those for the forward mode. Although the combustion process is essentially the
same, its movement is not controlled by the rate of fuel burn-off but by the flow
of heat. As explained in the section on dry in-situ combustion, the three things
required for burning are oxygen, fuel, and elevated temperature. During reverse
burning, oxygen is present from the injection well to the combustion zone. The
fuel is present throughout the formation. The factor which determines where the
burning occurs is the high temperature which occurs at the producing well
during ignition. As the heat generated during the burning elevates the reservoir
temperature in the direction of the injector, the fire moves in that direction. The
combustion front cannot move toward the producer if all the oxygen is being
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consumed at the fire front. Thus, the combustion process is seeking the oxygen
sources but can move only as fast as the heat can generate the elevated
temperatures.
The portion of the oil burned by forward and reverse combustion is different.
Forward combustion burns only the coke like residue, whereas the fuel burned
in reverse combustion is more of an intermediate molecular weight
hydrocarbon. This is because all the mobile oil must move through the
combustion zone. Therefore, reverse combustion consumes a greater percent of
the oil in place than forward combustion. However, the movement of oil
through the high temperature zone results in considerably more cracking of the
oil, improving its gravity. The upgrading process of reverse combustion is very
desirable for tar-like hydrocarbon deposits.
Although reverse combustion has been demonstrated in the laboratory, it has not
proven itself in the field. The primary cause of failure has been the tendency of
spontaneous ignition near the injection well. However, projects in the tar sands
are being considered which attempt to use reverse combustion along fractures to
preheat the formation, As the bum zone nears the injection well, the air rate is
increased, and a normal forward fireflood is commenced.
5.3 Basic Purpose of In-Situ Combustion:
• High mobility contrast between oil and water has resulted into low primary
recovery
• More water production on application of Artificial Lift
• Some wells had to be closed due to very high W/C
• Sharp decline in oil production from Balol and Santhal fields.
5.4 LIMITATIONS Of In-Situ Combustion:
Following are the limitations of In-Situ Combustion:
1. Main factor responsible for success of In-situ combustion is

amount of coke formed after burning of oil. If enough Coke is not
available, the combustion front cannot be sustained.
2. If excessive coke is deposited, the rate of advance of combustion zone will
be slow, and the quantity of air required for sustaining combustion would
be high.
3. Oil saturation and porosity must be high to minimize heat loss
4. Process tends to sweep through upper part of reservoir so that sweep
efficiency is poor in thick formation.
5.5 PRECAUTIONS:
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• Injection well casing and completion should be checked for its suitability,
any leakage, presence of sand, perforation, restriction etc.
• Pressure gauges and thermometers and all the valves must be checked.
• Production rates and gas composition from production wells must be
checked before starting of In-situ combustion.
• All other surface facilities and units must be engineered, designed and
checked in accordance with normal laid down procedures.
5.6 PRODUCERS-
• BURNING FRONT: The oil ahead of burning front is carbonised to

produce petroleum coke like deposit on the sand grain. This deposit
constitutes the principal fuel for the process. The burning front leaves behind
hot, clean sand that is used effectively to heat the injected air before the gas
reaches the burning zone. The maximum temperatures of 600 to 1500 degree
Celsius have been observed at the burning front in normal INSITU
combustion process.
• THERMAL CRACKING: Ahead the burning front the temperature is high

enough to vaporise lighter hydrocarbon and interstitial water which moves
away and condense in cooler part of the reservoir. At such a high
temperature cracking of heavy hydrocarbon left on the sand leads to the
formation of petroleum coke and hydrocarbon gases.
• CONDENSING STEAM DRIVE: Steam is one of the products of

combustion reaction. Steam is also formed by the vaporization of interstitial
water ahead of burning front at high temperature. The large amount of latent
heat of steam reduces the viscosity of oil greatly and mobility increases
which in turn enhances oil displacement.
• MISCIBLE DRIVE: The hydrocarbons gases formed during normal

distillation or thermal cracking, condense ahead and mix with the oil, make
the oil more mobile and improve oil displacement.
• GAS DRIVE: The combustion gases transfer heat to the oil. CO2 partially
dissolve in the oil and reduces the viscosity of the oil further. The oil bank
ahead of steam zone is displayed physically by combustion gases.
• THERMAL DRIVE: Thermal energy transfers to the formation above and

below and hence improvement in oil recovery of another layer is possible.
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6. Facilities at Santhal and Balol Field

6.1 Santhal and Balol In-situ at a glance:
Santhal Balol
Air Comp Trains 6 5
Compressor Capacity 7 Lm3/d per Train 1.92 Lm3/d per Train
Compressor Availability 1 Train + 1 (S/B) 1 Train + 1 (S/B)
Water Injection Pumps Available 6 3
W/I Pump Capacity 38 m3/hr. per pump 26 m3/hr. per pump
No. Of EOR injectors in operation 19 11
No. of ED wells 1 3
Surface facilities for the IN-SITU combustion can be seen in the diagram
given below:
✓ Raw Water System

✓ Air Compressor system
✓ Air injection system
✓ Instrument air system
✓ Cooling water system
✓ Water injection system
6.2 RAW WATER SYSTEM
Treated effluent water from Lanwa oil fields is used as make up water for
cooling tower.
Two numbers of tanks 20-T-001 A and 20-T-001 B (one in service and other
standby for receiving effluent) of 2520 m3 capacity, each are installed for
holding treated effluent. Other than inlet for treated effluent tank also has
provision for bore well water. Float type level indicators are provided for
reading the levels in the tanks. Three number of effluent water pumps (2
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working and 1 standby) are provided for transferring the effluent water from the
holding tanks to cooling tower basin.
The pumps are of Kirloskar make, horizontal, centrifugal type with discharge
line connected to a common header. A minimum flow recirculation line is
provided from each pump discharge through reduction orifice and connected to
holding tanks through common header. All these motors having running lamp
indication at control room panel in CWTP building.
6.3 AIR COMPRESSION SYSTEM:
Compressed air is required for air injection to wells at a pressure of 90-115

kg/cm2. 5 compressor train 20-k-002 a/b/c/d/e (3 trains operating and 2 trains on
standby). Each train consisting of one packaged integrally LP air compressor of
8100 m3/hr with discharge pressure of 8.701 kg/cm2, an intermediate buffer
vessel and one reciprocating air compressor of 8050 m3/hr with discharge
pressure of 122 kg/cm2 are provided.
A closed-circuit water-cooling system is provided for the cooling requirements.
The LP air compressor aftercoolers and HP air compressor intercoolers and
aftercoolers are of air cooled and hence do not require any cooling water.
The closed circuit (secondary cooling water) cooling water system utilises
potable water for makeup supplied by 2-inch line. This secondary cooling water
system comprises of the following.
▪ Potable water make-up tank for makeup requirement.
▪ Secondary cooling water circulation pumps.
▪ Chemical dosing requirement to maintain the following level of
chemicals.
✓ Sodium nitrate - 0.2 to 0.5 ppm
✓ Borax - 0.2 to 0.5 ppm
- Two numbers of plate type heat exchanger containing titanium
plates for heat transfer with primary cooling water system.
Primary cooling water to plate exchangers is supplied at 34deg c and returned

with 12 degrees Celsius temperature rise. The total requirement of cooling water
is around 1260 m3/hr.
All instrumentation, control scheme and trip logic are provided for safe and
efficient operation of both LP and HP compressors together as a train. However,
an interconnection between the intermediate buffer vessel to suction line of HP
compressor is provided by common interconnecting header line so that in case
one LP compressor is down its HP compressor will be able to take suction from
any one of the LP compressors and vice versa.
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All compressors are provided with running lamp indication in control room. All
instrumentation and control logics of compressors are incorporated in local
panel.
The discharge lines of all the HP compressor are connected to HP surge vessel
through 8-inch line. The surge vessel is of 30 m3 capacity and serves important
function in dampening pulsation from discharge line resulting in essentially
steady pressure in the system. It is also serving as a reservoir stock to take care
of sudden or unusually heavy demands in excess of the compressor capacity and
prevents too frequent loading and unloading of the compressors.
The surge vessel is provided with local level gauge glass for reading the water
level build up in the vessel. Also, a level switch and level alarm high in the
control panel is provided. An air trap with automatic drain arrangement is
provided for periodic removal of moisture in the vessel.
In case of emergency during power failures one additional diesel engine driven
emergency air compressor is provided. The emergency air compressor is rated
for 833.33 m3/ hr at 122 kg/cm2 discharge pressure. This compressor will supply
air during power failure to the well at a time at 10000 nm3/day.
6.4 Air Injection System:
Air is to be injected at the rate of 10000 to 85000 nm3/day per well at a pressure
of 90 to 120 kg/cm2. BALOL MAIN has earmarked 70 wells for injection of air.
However, injection will take place presently in a maximum of 25 wells at any
given time.
Air injection is done in locations namely:

▪ Main distribution centre
▪ Distribution centre - 1
▪ Distribution centre - 2
6.4.1 Main distribution centre air injection system:
Twenty-four wells are located within the range of main distribution centre.
Compressed air from HP surge vessel is routed through an 8-inch header. From
this header compressed air to individual wells (24 in numbers) is supplied
through injection air manifold of 3-inch line size. The main header is provided
with local pressure and temperature gauges.
Pressure switches high and low with pressure alarm high and low are also
provided in the panel for compressed air high pressure and low-pressure alarm.
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Compressed airs to individual wells are supplied through injection air manifold
of 3-inch line size. Each manifold is provided with a flow transmitter with flow
indicator and controller. Air flows to individual wells are controlled by means
of control valves. Pressure gauges are provided on the downstream of flow
control valves to monitor the downstream pressure.
Six in numbers of 4 pen recorders are provided for recording of air flow to each
well.
6.4.2 Distribution centre -1:
There are 23 wells altogether situated close to the distribution centre 1. This
appropriation revolve is around 5 kms from the principle focus. An 8-inch
pipeline from the distribution centre focus is directed to this dissemination
focus. This fills in as the header from which compacted air to singular wells is
provided through 3-inch injection air manifold. Weight measure is given to
peruse the header weight.
Each manifold is provided with flow control valve flow transmitter (pneumatic
type) with flow recorders and flow indicators and controllers for indication in
local panel and control of valves. Pressure gauges are provided for local
pressure indicator at downstream of each manifold.
All instruments are pneumatically actuated.
Six numbers of 4 pen recorders are provided for recording of air flow to each
well.
6.4.3 Distribution centre -2:
There are 23 wells in total located near distribution centre 2. This distribution
centre is around 5 km from the main centre. An 8-inch line from the main
injection centre is routed to this distribution centre. This serves as the header
from which compressed air to individual wells is supplied through 3-inch
injection air manifold. Pressure gauge is provided to read the header pressure.
Each manifold is provided with flow control valve flow transmitter (pneumatic
type) with flow recorders and flow indicators and controllers for indication in
local panel and control of valves.
Pressure gauges are provided for local pressure indicator at downstream of each
manifold. All instruments are pneumatically actuated.
Six numbers of 4 pen recorders are provided for recording of air flow to each
well.
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L- BALOL – SANTHAL AIR INJECTION NETWORK

143
Balol 2
DC-II 1 1
7 3 2
9 0
7
1
2 8 Balol
1 2 Main CO
4
6 1 Injection MP. 2
1 4 2 1
Header
4 1 2
5 9 2
1
8”, 8”,
3 3 0
Km Km 1
Balol 9
DC-I 7
20
1z
1
4 9
6”, 7.3 8
Km 4 6
2
2 3 ”
1 3 2 BalolPh-I
1 2 1 Header
2 1 2 7
9 1 2 6
3 ”
2 1 7 4 1
3 1 9 Santhal
1
0 0 DC-II 4
8”, ”
Santhal 2 2
CO Main Km 2
MP. Injection 2 4
1 2 2 2
Header
6 1 2 2
2 6 5 9
2 1 2 2
3 8 1 3
5 8 5
Santhal 2
DC-I 3
8”,
2 2
Km
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6.5 COOLING WATER SYSTEM:
The cooling tower is of mechanical, induced draft, cross flow type with two
cells of 700 m3/hr capacity each. The overall dimension of cooling towers is
14.25 m long x 16.97 m width. Total capacity of cooling tower is 1400 m3/hr.
each cell is equipped with a motor driven induced draft fans of 20 kW rating.
Design supply temperature is 34 degrees Celsius whereas the hot water return is
at 46 degrees Celsius. the cooling tower supplies primary cooling water to plate
heat exchanger using potable water as secondary coolant to cool interstate
coolers of the packaged LP air compressor, the lube oil coolers of both LP &HP
air compressors and for jacket cooling requirements in the reciprocating air
compressors.
This primary cooling water system is an open circuit re-circulating system

having a total design circulating capacity of1400 m3/hr. also there is a provision
of sump drain. The basin is open gravity type.
Flow to cooling water basin is measured by flow transmitter with flow

indicator. Flow is indicated in the local panel at CWTP building. Pressure gauge
indicates the makeup water header line pressure. A level transmitter with local
level indicator is provided in the basin for indicating water level in sump. Make-
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up water flow is controlled by control valve which is activated by level

indicator and controller.
Three cooling water recirculation pumps (two operating, 1 standby) of 700

m3/hr capacity each will be provided to supply cooling water to the consumers.
The discharge line of the pumps is connected to common header of 18-inch size
line. The header line is provided with the local temp. and pressure gauges, flow
transmitter, temperature element, pressure switch low & high etc.
6.6 WATER INJECTION SYSTEM:
Water is required to be injected at a rate of 5.75 to 69 m3/day per well at a

pressure of 50 to 115 kg/cm2. The water injection system shall be designed to
cater to the requirement of 1800 m3 / day injection water.
Though water injection rate per well is around 5.75 to 69 m3/day, 7 days
equivalent of injection water requirement will be injected in one day per well.
Water injection will take place in a total of 4 wells. The plant configuration
consists of a main distribution centre and two other distribution centres through
high pressure water injection pipe lines.
The source of injection water is cooling water system. Injection water filtration
package is provided to produce water of high quality for injection to wells.
The filtration scheme consists of 3 numbers of primary dual media filter

followed by 3 numbers secondary dual media filter and 3 numbers of cartridge
filter.
Coagulation chemical fecl3 solution and flocculation chemical polyelectrolyte is

prepared and dosed on line prior to filtration by 2 numbers of fecl3 dosing tank,
mixer and dosing pump and 2 numbers of polyelectrolyte dosing tank, mixer
and dosing pump.
The filters are designed for a cycle time of 24 hours between two backwashes.
Raw water will be used for backwashing primary dual media filter and filtered
water from primary dual media filter will be used for backwashing secondary
dual media filter.
Following treatments are required to be carried out at the main centre

before injecting the water in to the wells. Oxygen removal, scale and
corrosion inhibitor, biocide injection.
OXYGEN REMOVAL: Ammonium bisulphide / sodium sulphite at 4 - 8 ppm

of dissolved oxygen shall be injected into the injection water as a 20% solution
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for removal of oxygen. Oxygen scavenger dosing pumps are provided for this
purpose. These pumps are plunger type reciprocating pumps. These pumps are
draw suction from an Oxygen scavenger dosing tank and deliver to main
injection water pumps.
SCALE AND CORROSION INHIBITOR: A 10 % formulation of 20 ppm

HEDP shall be injected into the injection water to inhibit scale and corrosion
behaviour of wells. For this a set of inhibitor dosing pumps and inhibitor dosing
tank is provided. The dosing is done before the suction to the main injection
pump.
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7. Kinetics of In-Situ Combustion:

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Kinetics parameters play a major role on the outcome of an in-situ combustion

(ISC) process. This is because, the ISC depends for its existence on the
occurrence of chemical reactions between the crude oil and the injected air
within the reservoir. The extent and nature of these chemical reactions as well
as the heating effects they induce depends on the features of the oil-matrix
system. The reservoir rock minerals and the clay contents of the reservoir are
known to influence the fuel formation reactions and their subsequent
combustion. Hence a qualitative and quantitative understanding of in-situ
combustion chemical reactions and their influence on the process is critical to
the design of the process and interpretation of the field performance.
7.2 Chemical Reactions Associated with In-Situ Combustion
The chemical reactions associated with the in-situ combustion process are
numerous and occur over different temperature ranges. Generally, in order to
simplify the studies, investigators grouped these competing reactions into three
classes:
I. low temperature oxidation (LTO),
II. intermediate temperature, fuel formation reactions, and
III. high temperature oxidation (HTO) or combustion of the solid
hydrocarbon residue (coke).
(a) The LTO reactions are heterogeneous (gas, liquid) and generally
results in production of partially oxygenated compounds and little or
no carbon oxides.
(b) ) Medium temperature, fuel formation reactions involve cracking/
pyrolysis of hydrocarbons which leads to the formation of coke (a
heavy carbon rich, low volatility hydrocarbon fraction).
(c) The high temperature fuel combustion reactions are heterogeneous, in
which the oxygen reacts with un-oxidized oil, fuel and the oxygenated
compounds to give carbon oxides and water.
• Low Temperature Oxidation
During in-situ combustion the hydrocarbons initially present in the oil undergo
two types of
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reaction with the oxygen (injected air) depending upon the prevailing
temperature. Those reactions which occur at temperatures below 400°F are
defined as the low temperature oxidation (LTO) and the other being the high
temperature oxidation (HTO). Unlike the HTO, which produces CO2, CO, and
water (H2O) as its primary reaction products, LTO yields water and partially
oxygenated hydrocarbons such as carboxylic acids, aldehydes, ketones,
alcohols, and hydroperoxides (Burger et al., 1972). Thus, LTO can be thought
of as oxygen addition reactions. LTO occurs even at low reservoir temperature
and is caused by the dissolution of oxygen in the crude oil. The degree of
dissolution depends upon the diffusion rate of oxygen molecules in the crude
(Burger et al., 1972) at reservoir temperature. Light oils are more susceptible to
LTO than heavy oils.
Low air fluxes in the oxidation zone resulting from reservoir heterogeneities
and oxygen channeling promote LTO reactions. Poor combustion characteristics
of the crude also tend to promote LTO due to low oxygen consumption. In
heavy oil reservoirs, LTO tends to be more pronounced when oxygen, rather
than air, is injected into the reservoir. To rectify this situation some
investigators recommend adding steam to the oxidizing gas stream
(Scarborough and Cady, 1982). The rationale behind this suggestion is that the
addition of steam to the oxidizing gas stream will lower the oxygen partial
pressure at the burning front and modify the kinetic reaction that creates the
heat needed to promote and sustain combustion.
LTO are generally believed to occur at temperatures of less than 600°F, but this
temperature range is very oil dependent. It is very difficult to assign a
temperature range to LTO region because the carbon oxide reactions (C-C bond
cleavage) are begin to occur at temperatures between 270°F and 320°F. LTO
reactions are evidenced by a rapid increase in the oxygen uptake rate as well as
the generation of carbon oxides, but their characteristics feature is that there is a
decline in the oxygen reaction rate at temperatures in the range of 45&54OoF.
This gives rise to the negative temperature gradient region, which is a
temperature interval
over which the oxygen
uptake rate decreases
as the temperature
increases.
FIGURE- Schematic
of Dry Combustion
Temperature Profile
Showing the General
Effect of Temperature
on Oxygen Uptake
Rate for Heavy Oils
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and the Negative Temperature Gradient Region
• The Pyrolysis Reactions
As the reservoir temperature raises, the oil undergoes a chemical change called
pyrolysis. Pyrolysis reactions (intermediate temperature oxidation reactions
(ITO)) are often referred to as the fuel deposition reactions in the ISC
literatures, because these reactions are responsible for the deposition of "coke"
(a heavy carbon rich low volatility hydrocarbon fraction) for subsequent
combustion. Oil pyrolysis reactions are mainly homogeneous (gas-gas) and
endothermic, (heat absorbing) and involve three kinds of reactions:
dehydrogenation, cracking and condensation. In the dehydrogenation reactions
the hydrogen atoms are stripped from the hydrocarbon molecules, while leaving
the carbon atoms untouched. In the cracking reactions, the carbon - carbon bond
of the heavier hydrocarbon molecules is broken, resulting in the formation of
lower carbon number (smaller) hydrocarbon molecules. In the case of
condensation reactions, the number of carbon atoms in the molecules increases
leading to the formation of heavier carbon rich hydrocarbons. The oil type and
the chemical structure of its constituent hydrocarbons determine the rate and
extent of the different pyrolysis reactions.
The paraffins (straight chain hydrocarbons) do not undergo condensation
reactions. At 700-1250°F they undergo dehydrogenation and/or thermal
cracking reactions depending upon the length of the hydrocarbon chain. In
general, short chain hydrocarbons (methane through butane) undergo
dehydrogenation and the larger molecules undergo cracking. Cracking reactions
are usually initiated by the cleavage of the carbon-carbon bond, followed by the
hydrogen abstraction (dehydrogenation) reaction. The dehydrogenation
molecules than recombine to form heavier molecules, eventually leading to the
formation of "coke". Thus, the larger straight chain molecules after prolonged
heating or when subjected to sufficiently high temperature often produce "coke"
and considerable amounts of volatile hydrocarbon fractions.
The aromatic compounds (benzene and other ring compounds) undergo
condensation reaction
rather than degradation reactions (cracking) at 1200-3000°F. In the
condensation reaction the weak C-H bonds of the ringed molecules are broken
and replaced by a more stable C-C bonds and leads to the formation of a less
hydrogenated polyaromatic molecule. When subjected to further heating these
condensation products losses more of the hydrogen and recombines to form
heavier carbon rich polymolecules, eventually leading to the formation of large
graphite like macromolecules.
Laboratory pyrolysis studies on heavy (14-16OAPI) California crudes indicate
that the pyrolysis of crude oil in porous media goes through three overlapping
stages: distillation, visbreaking, and coking. During distillation, the oil loses
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most of its light gravity and part of its medium gravity fractions. At higher
temperatures (40&540°F), mild cracking of the oil (visbreaking) occurs in
which the hydrocarbon loses small side groups and hydrogen atoms to form less
branched compounds, that are more stable and less viscous. At still higher
temperatures, (above 550°F) the oil remaining in the porous medium cracks into
a volatile fraction and a nonvolatile carbon rich hydrogen poor residue often
referred to as "coke". Coke is defined as the toluene insoluble fraction of an oil
and generally contains 80-90% carbon and 3-9% hydrogen. Both vis-breaking
and cracking reactions produce hydrogen gas and some light hydrocarbons in
the gas phase. It is further observed that distillation of crude oil at low
temperatures plays an important role in shaping the nature and extent of the
cracking and coke formation reactions. High operating pressures generally lead
to the formation of more fuel that is leaner in hydrogen.
Researchers have for over 20 years studied various aspects of in-situ

combustion and they describe the bitumen pyrolysis reaction as:
Bitumen -Maltenes
Maltenes - Asphaltenes
Asphaltenes -. Coke
Asphaltenes + Gas
Maltenes are crude oil fractions which are pentane and toluene soluble and may
be further separated into saturates, aromatics, and resins using liquid
chromatography. The asphaltenes are toluene soluble but pentane insoluble
fraction of the bitumen. Coke is defined as the fraction insoluble in toluene.
Thermal cracking of asphaltene to coke has a long induction period (initiation
time). This induction period decreases as the cracking temperature increases.
• High Temperature Oxidation
The reaction between the oxygen in the injected air and the coke at temperatures
above 650°F are often referred to as the high temperature oxidation (HTO) or
combustion reactions in the ISC literatures. Carbon dioxide (CO2,), carbon
monoxide (CO), and water (H2O) are the principle products of these reactions.
HTO are heterogeneous (gas-solid and gas-liquid) reactions and are
characterized by consumption of all the oxygen in the gas phase. The
stoichiometry of the HTO reaction (chemical equation) is given by:
where n = atomic ratio of hydrogen to carbon

m = molar (mole percent) ratio of produced CO, to CO
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m = zero in the case of complete combustion to C02 and H20

The heat generated from these reactions provides the thermal energy to sustain
and propagate
the combustion fronts.
Studies indicate though, HTO is predominantly a heterogeneous flow reaction

and the burning process involve several transport phenomena. Combustion
(oxidation) is a surface-controlled reaction and can be broken into the following
steps (Scarborough and Cady, 1982):
1. Diffusion of oxygen from the bulk gas stream to the fuel surface.
2. Absorption of the oxygen at the surface.
3. Chemical reaction with the fuel.
4. Desorption of the combustion products.
5. Diffusion of the products away from the surface and into bulk gas stream.
If any of these steps is inherently slower than the remaining steps, the overall
combustion process will be controlled by that step, In general chemical
reactions (step 3) proceed at a much faster rate than the diffusional processes,
Therefore, the overall combustion rate likely to be diffusion controlled.
7.3 Reaction Kinetics
Reaction kinetics can be defined as the study of the rate and extent of chemical
transformation of reactants to product. Though, simplistic this definition is
accurate for this study. The study of reaction kinetics for the in-situ combustion
process is undertaken for the following reasons:
• To characterize the reactivity of the oil.
• To determine the conditions required to achieve ignition and or to
determine if self-ignition will take place in the reservoir upon air injection.
• To gain insight into the nature of fuel formed and its impact on
combustion.
• To establish parameter values for the kinetic (reaction rate) models used in
the numerical simulation of ISC processes.
Combustion of crude oil in porous media is not a simple reaction but follows
several consecutive and competing reactions occurring through different
temperature ranges. Since crude oils are made up of hundreds of compounds, an
explicitly correct kinetic representation of crude oil oxidation reaction would
require an inordinately large number of kinetic expressions. However, this is not
feasible because these compounds undergo reactions that cannot easily be
described. This complexity is linked to chemical structure of the individual
hydrocarbon. Many of them contain several coexisting C-H bonds which can
react successively or simultaneously and often produce intramolecular
reactions. Detailed models for hydrocarbon oxidation reactions are available
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only for the simplest hydrocarbon molecules and are made up of several
reaction steps.
Detailed hydrocarbon oxidation model even if exist, cannot currently be
included in multidimensional in-situ combustion simulators, because the
computer size, speed, and cost requirements of such a treatment would be too
great. Detailed oxidation models have been developed and validated for only the
simplest fuel molecule and are not available for most practical fuels. However,
very simple models that approximate the oxidation reaction kinetics study of
crude oils in porous media have appeared in literature.
The simplest overall reaction representing the oxidation of a typical
hydrocarbon fuel is
where the stoichiometry coefficients (ni)are determined by the choice of fuel.

This global reaction is a convenient way of approximating the effects of many
elementary reactions which occur in the reservoir during the combustion
process. Its rate must therefore represent an appropriate average of all the
individual reaction rates involved.
Most researchers describe the ISC oxidation reaction rates in terms of a simple
reaction rate model that assume functional dependency on carbon (fuel)
concentration, and oxygen partial pressure. This widely accepted model is given
by:
where
R, = combustion rate of crude oil,
C, = instantaneous concentration of fuel,
k = rate constant,
Po, = partial pressure of oxygen,
a = order of reaction with respect to oxygen partial pressure,
b = order of reaction with respect to fuel concentration.
High temperature carbon and crude oil oxidation studies by Bousaid and others
indicates first order reaction dependency on fuel concentration and 0.5-1.0 order
dependency with respect to oxygen partial pressure; i.e., 'a' = 1.0 and 'b' = 0.5 to
1.0.
The reaction rate constant 'k' in Equation (4.3) is often a function of temperature
and expressed by
ONGO
where
A = pre-exponential factor
E = activation energy
R = universal gas constant = 1.987 cal mole-' K-I
T = absolute temperature in oK
7.4 Factors Affecting Oxidation Reactions:
Two of the most important factors in the in-situ combustion process are fuel
formation and combustion. The physical and chemical processes that govern the
ability of a crude to deposit fuel and its subsequent combustion (oxidation)
strongly influences the economics of a combustion project. Too little fuel
deposition may prevent the formation of a sustained, stable combustion front.
Likewise, too large a fuel deposition will result in uneconomically high
oxidizing gas requirement. The rate of propagation of the combustion front and
the air requirement depend on the extent of the exothermic oxidation reactions,
which are controlled by the kinetics of these processes.
A substantial investigative effort has been made over the years in the laboratory
to study the many factors that affect the crude oil oxidation reactions in the
reservoir. These investigations indicate that the nature and composition of the
reservoir rock and the characteristics of the oil influence the thermo-oxidative
characteristics of the reservoir crudes. The clay and metallic content of the rock,
as well its surface area has a profound influence on fuel deposition rate and its
oxidation. Metals and metallic additives also known to affect the nature and the
amount of fuel formed.
Metals are used as catalysts in the petroleum refining and chemical process
industries to accelerate the hydrocarbon oxidation and cracking reactions. In
studies undertaken to investigate the effect of metal contamination on
hydrocarbon cracking reactions, it was found that various metals promote coke
formation and the catalytic effect of these metals was found to be ordered as
follows: Cu < V < Cr = Zn < Ni, with nickel about four to five times as active as
vanadium (De 10s Rios, 1988).
Studies on the effect of reservoir minerals on in-situ combustion indicate metals
promote low temperature oxidation and increase fuel deposition. These
researchers also noted that the catalytic activity of a metal is highly dependent
on the specific composition of the crude. The benefits of metallic additives in
promoting and sustaining combustion in a light oil reservoir is documented by
Racz (1985). The ability to initiate and propagate the combustion front in this
Hungarian reservoir was attributed to the catalytic properties of the metallic
additive which increased fuel concentration.
ONGO
8. Instrumentation System
8.1 PRESSURE GAUGE:
A pressure gauge is a measurement device which

determines the pressure in a compressed gas or liquid.
A very common type of pressure gauge is the Bourdon
tube, which consists of a flexible tube which moves in
response to pressure. Diaphragms which respond to
suitable pressure changes can be used as well.
Purpose: For Industrial & Process Application.
Designed for Valve Positioners, Air Filters &
Regulators, Small Boilers, Fire Extinguishers,
Pharmaceutical & Food Processing Equipment,
Pumps, Compressors, Hydraulic & Pneumatic Systems.
8.2 TEMPERATURE GAUGES:
The temperature gauges are based on the change in the physical properties,
which is simple thermal expansion due to temperature
• BIMETAL TEMPERATURE GAUGES
This type temperature gauge employs the principle of solid expansion and it
consists of a bimetal strip. In response to the temperature change, the bimetal
expands, and helical bimetal rotates at its free ends. The bi-metallic element
consists of two strips of different metals, with different thermal expansion
coefficients, inseparably joined together. This strip is spirally or helically
wound with one end fixed to the body of the thermometer, and the other
attached to the axis of a pointer. Measurement of temperature is made with the
bi-metallic system inside the temperature sensor. Temperature variation
influences the bi-metallic strip such as to rotate the pointer; this rotation is
indicated on a dial.
• 50°C to 400°C
• Accuracy: ± 1% FSD
• Mercury / Gas Filled Temperature Gauges
ONGO
These measures are structured utilizing transmitting slim and looped bourdon
cylinder or level bourdon, which are pressurized with mercury/inactive gas.
Variety in encompassing temperature is repaid by a Bi-metal connection
between bourdon cylinder and development instrument
• Uses the principle of Mercury Expansion

• Temperature range -30°C to 600°C
• Available in Rigid Stem & Capillary Type for remote sensing
8.3 SENSORS:
Sensors (also called detectors) are the converter that measures a physical
quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an
instrument.
• THERMOCOUPLE
A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure

temperature. Thermocouples consist of two wire
legs made from different metals. The wires legs
are welded together at one end, creating a
junction. This junction is where the temperature
is measured. When the junction experiences a
change in temperature, a voltage is created.
• PLATINUM THERMOCOUPLE:
Platinum thermocouple assemblies are most commonly used in high

temperature process heating applications. These assemblies are available with a
variety of process mountings, fittings and assembly options. These are also
available with double protection tubes. Sheath is cemented inside supporting
stainless steel collar for mounting in the terminal head.
• Resistance Thermometers Detectors:
A Resistance Thermometer or Resistance Temperature Detector is a gadget

which used to decide the temperature by estimating the obstruction of
unadulterated electrical wire. This wire is alluded to as a temperature sensor. On
the off chance that we need to gauge temperature with high precision, RTD is
the just a single arrangement in enterprises.
ONGO
9. Conclusion
Industrial training is very much essential for the students specially for the
Engineering students. It is also a great opportunity to acquire practical
knowledge. During my training period, in the industry I acquired a lot of
experience in Enhanced Oil Recovery, mainly in In-Situ Combustion. This
helps me to clarify my theoretical knowledge. I hope and pray that it will help
me in my future profession.
During my training period, I have learned about the industrial processes and
industrial ethics, also I have learned about that how practically In-Situ
combustion done on an oil field, what are the processes indulge in it and why
we perform it. Apart from it I have also learned much about the compressors.
All my doubts have been cleared which was there before coming to this place.
Also, I had seen the various instruments and machinery in the oil and gas
industry. The highly advanced instruments and equipment’s that work precisely
must be operated with proper care as one little mistake can cost for someone’s
life. I had acquired a lot of information regarding the latest working procedures.
This 4-week industrial attachment with ONGC Mehsana Asset has been one of
the most interesting, productive and instructive experience in my life. Through
this training, I have gained new insight and more comprehensive understanding
about the real industrial working condition and practice, it also improved my
soft and functional skills. All these valuable experiences and knowledge that I
have gained were not only acquired through the direct involvement in task but
also through other aspects of training such as: work, observation, interaction
with collogues, supervisors and other people related to the field. I am sure that
industrial training program has achieved its primary objectives. As a result of
this training I am more confident to build my future career.
Apart from all that, the training was very interesting with lots of things to be
learned. It helped me to acquire knowledge on punctuality, regularity and
working environments in industries. The healthy working environment in
ONGC Mehsana Asset will remain in my mind in near future. Hence, I can say
that our goal of attending the winter training is fulfilled.
I acknowledge the help of ONGC Mehsana Asset.
Thank You
ONGO
10. References:
o https://petrowiki.org/PetroWiki
o https://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/
o www.wikipedia.com
o https://www.slideshare.net/amit_gandhi/amit-ongc-project
o http://www.spgindia.org/geohorizon/jan_2006/gk_panchanan_paper.pdf
o https://www.onepetro.org/
o https://petrowiki.org/In-situ_combustion
ONGO

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WINTER TRAINING REPORT

20th December 2018-18th January 2019

Mentor: Shri Ankit Gupta

This is to certify that the project entitled, “Study of EOR in Santhal

Shri Ankit Gupta

Bearing in mind previous I am using this opportunity to express my deepest

I express my deepest thanks to my mentor, Shri Ankit Gupta (Executive

It is my radiant sentiment to place on record my best regards, deepest sense of

I perceive as this opportunity as a big milestone in my career development. I

S No. Content Page no.

1. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited

2. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited,

2.1 Production Scenario in Mehsana Asset as on 15th January 2019

Areas Asset Production Area Production Area Production Today

2.2 SPECIAL FEATURES OF MEHSANA ASSET

PLACE MANPOWER PRODUCTION(TPD)

(b) Highly viscous oil

Project Operator Date Combus Oil No. of No. of

2.3 Brief about Santhal and Balol Heavy Oil field

2.4 A brief about ongoing schemes in

2.5 Processes in Different Fields

▪ E.O.R: Balol, Santhal, Bechraji, Lanwa Extended Pilot, CSS Lanwa,

a. Primary Oil Recovery

b. Secondary Oil Recovery

typically successful in targeting an additional 30% of the oil’s reserves, though

c. Tertiary Oil Recovery or Enhanced Oil Recovery

• Gas Injection: Either natural gas, nitrogen or carbon dioxide

• Chemical Injection: The least common method of EOR, chemical

4. Tertiary/Enhanced oil recovery (EOR)

nations spearheading the craft of substantial oil extraction that incorporate

4.2 EOR-The Future of India

4.3 What is EOR (ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY)

The assortment of strategies and systems, which allows the recuperation of

4.4 Selection of EOR techniques

4.5 Major constraints to EOR development

(b) Large initial capital requirement.

(a) Well location and completions.

4.6 EOR Techniques

EOR processes are subdivided into following major categories:

(a) CHEMICAL PROCESSES:

Following Table is showing different EOR methods with their respective

Process Process Areal Sweep Vertical Compound

4.6.1 STEAM STIMULATION:

Steam flooding is process resembles water flooding. An appropriate well

The primary advantages of steam flooding are:

• Steam has relatively high heat carrying capacity.

• Large amount of heat is transferred into formation as heat of

Ideally, steam forms a saturation zone

In the hot water zone physical changes

• Thermal expansion of the oil.

An advantage of steam injection over other enhanced oil recovery methods is

• Depth (should less than 1500 mts.)

The depth limitation is imposed by the critical pressure and corresponding

Higher grade of casing or pre-stressing, use of thermal cement (API class G

4.6.3 Foam Flooding

Foam is a metastable dispersion of a relatively large volume of gas in a

4.7 Infill Drilling and completion of wells:

5. In-Situ Combustion (ISC)

Figure: Ignition truck at

• Spontaneous ignition, where the air is basically infused in a centrally

disconnected air injection through compressor plant is continued to

Monitoring parameters during ignition operation:

a. Air injection healer pressure