Typical Causes of Slagging and Fouling Problems

in Boilers
Boiler slagging and fouling, and the resulting frequent operation of sootblowers, are some of the
major operations and maintenance factors that can negatively affect power plant reliability and
efficiency.

Boiler slagging and fouling are among the most common causes of maintenance headaches at coal-
fired power plants. Though you cannot totally eliminate the problem, following proper operation and
maintenance practices can drastically reduce the time and trouble of addressing it.

Demystifying Slagging and Fouling

Let’s review what slagging is before getting into the causes and corrections of slagging and fouling.

Slag is molten ash and incombustible byproducts that remain following coal combustion. When the
material cools to a certain temperature, it can stick to furnace components, such as waterwalls,
which is called slagging.

A pulverized coal–fueled boiler is designed with a large furnace cavity that can tolerate liquid phase
slag on the waterwalls. The furnace exit, however, should be at a low enough temperature that the
slag will be cooled below its softening temperature.

A typical bituminous fuel ash fusion temperature is determined using the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard D1857. To conduct the test, a cone of ash is placed into a
laboratory furnace and the furnace is slowly heated. The furnace temperature is noted at four points
as the ash cone deforms.

The temperature of the first point—when the ash cone point becomes blunted—is called the “initial
deformation temperature.” As the furnace is heated more, the temperature when the ash becomes
soft and the height (H) of the cone equals the width (W), is recorded. This value is referred to as the
“softening temperature.” Heating continues, resulting in the ash cone sagging further until H = 1/2 W.
This temperature is called the “hemispherical temperature.” Finally, when the ash cone becomes a
liquid, the temperature is noted and referred to as the ash “fluid temperature.” Commented [RCGT1]: AFT by ASTM D1857
1.Dry Ash Cone – ash is a dry powder and will be fly ash at this or lower temperatures
2.Initial Deformation – ash in transit through the furnace has a slight tendency to stick
Modern laboratories use more advanced furnaces than when the method was first developed, but
together or slowly build up on tube surfaces
the reporting of the ash fusion temperatures is still completed using the same four levels of ash 3.Softening Temperature – softened ash typically sticks to tubes that are ≤ 1000 °F when
fusion: initial deformation, softening, hemispherical, and fluid. ash is quenched
4.Hemispherical Temperature – ash have the accelerated tendency to mass together

The purpose of the laboratory test is to determine the approximate condition of the ash when it is in and stick I large quantities to tube surfaces
5.Fluid Temperature – Melted to liquid that will flow in streams or drip, when quenched,
various parts of a boiler furnace. For slagging and fouling, the most important issue is to have the
furnace gases or “products of combustion” leaving the furnace at a temperature so that the ash is molten ash turns solid into hard & dense clinker (HEAVY SLAGGING ASSURED AT THIS
TEMPERATURE)
not too sticky. A good approximation is to have the furnace exit gases about 100F to 150F cooler
than the ash softening temperature.
I have seen furnaces where the furnace exit gases are above the fluid temperature, and it is possible
to operate a boiler with liquid-phase ash flowing through the superheater and reheater, but it is not
advisable for reasons of coal ash corrosion and the need for near-continuous long retractable
sootblowing to mitigate the ash deposits.

“Fouling” typically refers to deposits that occur in the convection pass after the gases exit the
furnace. Fouling is generally attributed to ash cinders and accumulations that form on the leading
edges of the superheater and reheater tubes (Figure 1), especially the outlet legs, which are above
1,000F metal surface temperature. The deposits are dislodged by sootblowing.
1. The line of demarcation. The tube spacing of all boilers becomes progressively more restrictive as the heat transfer process

changes from radiant in the furnace to convective in the back pass. Source: Storm Technologies Inc.

When the long retractable sootblowers are used to blow the ash deposits free, the ash particles
entrain into the flue gas stream and create cinders, which can block selective catalytic reduction
(SCR) catalyst flow paths, plug air heater baskets, and bridge across boiler tubing in the convection
pass. Usually, the areas of the boiler that are designated as being susceptible to slagging are from
the burner belt to the furnace exit.

Heat flows from hottest to coolest and, therefore, to produce 1,000F to 1,100F superheated steam
and reheated steam outlets, the furnace exit gas temperature (FEGT) must be above about 1,500F
at the reheater gas inlet to drive the heat flow into the reheater and superheater to create the desired
steam temperatures. Consequently, the sweet spot for the FEGT of a pulverized coal–fueled boiler
should be about 2,150F to 2,250F to achieve desired steam temperatures without slagging. Lower
than 2,150F it becomes difficult to achieve design steam temperatures. Above 2,250F on a bulk gas
basis, it becomes close to the melting temperature of the ash in some fuels. Commented [RCGT2]: 1000 °F = 534 °C
1100 °F = 593 °C
Fuels with extremely high ash fusion temperatures are thought of as being “boiler friendly” and 1500 °F = 816 °C
forgiving. Fuels with lower ash fusion temperatures require more precise combustion tuning and 2150 °F = 1177 °C
2250 °F = 1232 °C
increased sootblowing to mitigate slag deposits.
Design Flue Gas Temperatures at BMCR
Let’s take a look at the coal ash fusion D1857 analysis shown in Table 1 as an example. Given the Furnace Outlet = 1040 °C
ASTM D1857 temperatures of the ash fusion analysis, the ash condition can be estimated in the Air Heater Inlet = 360 °C
furnace and at the furnace exit, if the temperatures are known. AH Outlet (Uncorrected) = 144 °C
AH Outlet (Corrected) = 139 °C

If our unit operates at ± 100 °C FEGT, we are still below the

Initial Deformation of KJB (Thestelia K) with Fe2O3 at
10.49%. It’s either we’re way above our design furnace
temperature or we are experiencing secondary combustion
at SH and RH that is a sign of reducing atmosphere at the
burner belt – reducing atmosphere decreases the AFT of ash

Table 1. Ash fusion analysis example. Source: Storm Technologies Inc.

In this example, the coal ash analysis shows a fluid temperature in a “reducing atmosphere” of
2,410F. So, if there are lanes of products of combustion that are fuel rich and still actively burning,
then this is in fact a “reducing atmosphere” for the particular lane of fuel-rich products of combustion.
In practice, this could result from one burner that is fuel heavy and air lean. The products of
combustion from that one burner can, in fact, slag up the furnace exit.

Some fuels are more unforgiving than others. The coal ash iron content is a huge factor. Ash that
has as much as 15% to 20% iron content will have an ash fluid temperature in a reducing
atmosphere as much as 500F lower than the same ash in an oxidizing atmosphere. Current plant Commented [RCGT3]: We are controlling our NOx
operations with a strong regulatory limit on NOx tend to drive operators to operate at low excess emissions through Over-Fire Air, but currently we are
oxygen levels. This practice, combined with fuel and air imbalances, can result in conditions in which operating at lower Excess Air at 0.97% ~ combined with air-
fuel imbalances, we can be operating at reducing
atmosphere
flue gas lanes can have zero free oxygen and, therefore, are technically operating in a reducing
atmosphere.

So, how can a reducing atmosphere or secondary combustion be created at the furnace exit? Here
are six of the most common causes of boiler slagging and fouling in our experience:

■ Low furnace excess oxygen

■ Extreme stratifications of the FEGT flue gas lanes

■ High primary airflows

■ Burner damage and deficient mechanical condition/tolerances

■ Poor coal pulverizer performance

■ Inconsistent fuel properties and chemistry

Low Furnace Excess Oxygen

The No. 1 cause of furnace slagging is low furnace oxygen content. Most boilers are designed for
115% to 120% theoretical combustion air. This is generally expressed as 15% to 20% excess air.
For coal furnaces, the oxygen levels would be 3% to 3.8%. Note the location of the oxygen
analyzers at the economizer exit in Figure 2. This location is often subject to reading higher oxygen
levels than the actual furnace oxygen content, due to air in-leakage between the furnace and the air
heater flue gas inlet.
2. Location, location, location. Furnace oxygen content instrument readings can be inaccurate due to the

location of the analyzers. Source: Storm Technologies Inc.

It is extremely important to apply the attention necessary to optimize the furnace burner belt “inputs,”
because combustion must be completed within the furnace cavity. Of absolute importance is
providing sufficient combustion airflow to the fuel before the products of combustion exit the furnace.
One of the most common causes of slagging and fouling is secondary co/mbustion at the upper
furnace. The most common cause of secondary combustion is insufficient excess oxygen within the
burner belt.
Why is this so common? There are two reasons. First, most U.S. boilers have some age on them,
and the boiler settings have allowed air in-leakage to increase over the years. Because the oxygen
analyzers are usually located at the economizer outlet, the excess oxygen that is measured at the
economizer exit includes any ambient air that has leaked into the boiler setting after combustion
should have been completed. This lack of excess free oxygen at the furnace causes the active
combustion to stretch out and actively continue into the superheater section. The flue gas
temperature, due to such secondary combustion, can and has been measured to be well over
1,000F above optimum.

The second factor is that when the coal ash has an iron content of over about 10%, the melting
temperature of the ash is lower in a reducing atmosphere. In other words, not only does the Commented [RCGT4]: Why does ash have lower AFT at
secondary combustion elevate the FEGT, but also, if the coal ash contains significant amounts of Reducing Atmosphere
iron, the fusion temperature can be drastically lower as a result of the ash chemistry. That is, the ash
will melt at a much lower temperature in a reducing atmosphere from what the fusion temperature
would be in an oxidizing atmosphere. As noted previously, the ash fusion temperature can be
reduced by as much as 500F.

These two factors combined are particularly serious for eastern U.S. plants that burn bituminous
fuels. The iron content in the ash has not been a large factor with Powder River Basin fuels, but
secondary combustion affects all boilers and all fuels.

Extreme Stratifications of the FEGT Flue Gas Lanes

The limited residence time of large utility boilers demands that the furnace inputs of fuel and air be
optimized (Figure 3). If not properly controlled, fuel/air inconsistencies can contribute to slagging and
fouling issues due to secondary combustion and elevated FEGTs. Optimizing the fuel and air inputs
to the furnace and making certain that the furnace exit is an oxidizing atmosphere are the first steps
in reducing furnace slagging.
3. Time is not on your side. With residence times as short as a couple of seconds, there is not a lot of time for

heat to be absorbed in the furnace. When secondary combustion is present, the furnace exit gas temperature can

exceed the ash fusion temperature, which is the primary reason that furnace slagging occurs. Source: Storm

Technologies Inc.

Fuel input optimization includes ensuring that:

■ Coal fineness meets the following guidelines: At least 75% passes a 200-mesh screen and less
than 0.2% remains on a 50-mesh screen with representative and isokinetically removed coal
fineness samples.

■ Coal distribution to each burner must be balanced plus or minus 10%.

Combustion air optimization includes ensuring that:

■ Primary airflow quantities are optimized and air/fuel ratios are repeatable.

■ Measured and controlled secondary airflow is uniformly distributed to the individual burners.

■ Measured and controlled overfire airflow is optimized.

FEGT and excess oxygen can be measured with a water-cooled high-velocity thermocouple (HVT)
probe. The measurements by HVT probe should be a minimum of 3% excess oxygen with maximum
temperatures about 100F to 150F below the ash fusion temperature. It is when the FEGT
approaches the ash fusion temperature that slagging occurs.

Often, the most useful data obtained by using a water-cooled HVT probe is the furnace exit, excess
oxygen levels, and profiles. All points at the upper furnace should be oxidizing and preferably above
3% excess oxygen.

The word “slagging” is usually used to describe slagging in the furnace, whereas fouling is generally
used to describe cinders or ash that have carried over into the convection pass and created flow
obstructions due to the deposition. As discussed previously, fouling of the convection pass, SCR,
and air heater are the result of ash accumulations on the leading edges of superheater and reheater
tubing that is removed by long retractable sootblower operation.

Minimizing slagging and fouling begins by optimizing the burner belt combustion performance. This
is necessary because there is only about 1 or 2 seconds of residence time between the top of the
burner belt and the superheater flue gas inlet. At the furnace exit, the superheater and reheater tube
spacing becomes closer and closer, resulting in narrowing gas flow lanes.

The typical FEGT is about 2,150F to 2,250F, assuming that the prerequisites for optimum burner belt
combustion are present for the inputs. In the superheater shown in Figure 4, the peak furnace flue
gas temperatures were well above the melting temperature of Alloy 310 stainless steel (about
2,780F). The active secondary combustion peak temperatures were truly about 1,000F above the
FEGT with optimized burner belt inputs. When optimized, the FEGT was a uniform 1,950F to 2,100F
across the boiler width. Prior to optimization, temperatures of 2,850F to 3,100F were present. These
extremes have been documented in numerous cases.
4. A bridge to nowhere. This superheater was slagged over because the furnace exit gas temperature was about

1,000F above optimum. Courtesy: Storm Technologies Inc.

The cause of the high temperature in this case was threefold. First, primary air velocities were high,
which drove the fuel deep into the furnace, away from the secondary air provided at the burners.
Second, the burner belt suffered from combustion air starvation due to the overfire airflow being too
high and exceeding 20% of total airflow, with only about 115% of total theoretical airflow to the
boiler. In other words, the burner belt was deeply staged at sub-stoichiometric excess oxygen levels.
Third, fuel fineness and distribution was not optimized. The flue gas temperatures were over 3,000F
at the superheater gas side inlet. At this temperature, the ash condition was fluid, and it only took a
couple of shifts to completely slag the furnace exit.

It is common to find between 0.5% and 1% oxygen rise from the furnace to the air heater inlet flue
gas. Why? Well, for one reason, the average 500-MW pulverized coal–fueled boiler is more than 30
years old. Therefore, the potential for air infiltration is increased due to age alone, even when diligent
and thorough maintenance repairs are practiced. The only excess oxygen that matters from a
slagging and fouling viewpoint is the excess oxygen present at the furnace exit. Keep in mind that
the available residence time from the top to the burner belt may be less than 1.5 seconds.

High Primary Airflows

High primary airflow, especially on wall-fired boilers, contributes to poor fuel balance, poor fuel
fineness, and longer flame lengths. Primary air is basically transport air and provides 15% to 25% of
the total air for combustion. Therefore, when the primary airflow is very high, the fuel particles
“outrun” the secondary air and result in longer-than-optimum flames (Figure 5).

5. Don’t out-kick your coverage. When primary airflow is too high, fuel gets driven deep into the furnace. Source:

Storm Technologies Inc.

High primary airflow on nearly any modern low-NOx burner will drive the fuel deep into the furnace,
thus outrunning the secondary airflow. As a consequence, fuel-rich zones can form in the upper
furnace, resulting in secondary combustion, elevated temperatures, and zones of localized reducing
atmosphere—all of which contribute to slagging and fouling.

Burner Damage and Deficient Mechanical Condition/Tolerances

One of the 13 essentials of optimum combustion is burner tolerance at plus or minus one-quarter
inch. The photographs shown in Figure 6 offer some examples of typical as-found burners.
6. Out-of-spec. Damaged burners must be repaired in order to optimize combustion. Courtesy: Storm

Technologies Inc.

Most of the damage to burners results from overheating of idle burners due to radiant furnace heat.
One way to monitor for burner overheating is to attach thermocouples to the burner nozzles and
provide cooling air through the burner nozzles to keep below 800F when out of service. (Burner
cooling is a topic for another day.)

Poor Coal Pulverizer Performance

The most frequent cause of extreme fuel imbalances at the furnace exit is coal pulverizer
performance. Poor fuel fineness nearly always contributes to poor fuel balance. At best, pulverized
fuel balance will be in the range of plus or minus 5% to 15% deviation.

When classifiers are not set for best fineness (usually to substitute more coal pulverizer throughput
for reduced fineness), the fineness may deteriorate to less than 70% passing 200 mesh. Along with
the reduced fineness, there will be less-uniform fuel balance. Poor fuel fineness nearly always
results in poor fuel distribution. It is not unusual to find fuel deviations of plus or minus 25% when the
pulverizers are not optimized.

The coal pulverizers are the heart of a pulverized coal–fueled boiler. About 75% of the opportunities
for improvements in tuning are with the coal mills, primary airflow, and fuel line balancing. Figure 7
shows the important points for achieving optimum combustion with minimum slagging and fouling.
7. Optimization overview. Getting these parameters in sync is a good start to optimizing combustion and

minimizing slagging and fouling. Courtesy: Storm Technologies Inc.