Chemical Engineering Fundamentals

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CONTENTS
Page
PREFACEv
Study unit 1: An Overview of Chemical Engineering1
1.1 Introduction1
1.2 Definition 1
1.3 History and Impact 3
1.4 Future Challenges 5
1.5 Fundamentals of Chemical Engineering 5
1.6 References5
Study unit 2: Introduction to engineering calculations7
2.1 Introduction7
2.2 Units and Dimensions 8
2.2.1 Fundamental or Basic Dimensions and Units 9
2.2.2 Derived Dimensions and Units 12
2.2.3 Conversion of units 15
2.3 Representation and Analysis of Process Data 24
2.4 Propagation of uncertainty 26
2.4.1 Multiplication of values 26
2.4.2 Addition or subtraction 27
2.4.3 Division28
2.5 Two-point linear interpolation 29
2.6 Fitting a straight line and fitting non-linear data 33
2.7 Additional problems 49
Study unit 3: PROCESSES AND PROCESS VARIABLES51
3.1 Introduction51
3.2 Chemical processes and process units 52
3.2.1 Mode of operation 52
3.2.2 Components of a chemical process 53
3.2.3 Unit operations 57
3.3 Process variables 61
3.3.1 Mass, volume and density 61
3.3.2 Flow rate of a process stream 65
3.3.3 Concentration72
3.3.4 Atmospheric, absolute and gauge pressures 75
3.3.5 Temperature80
3.4 Examples82
3.5 Answers84
3.6 References92
Study unit 4: FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL BALANCES93
4.1 Introduction93
4.2 Basic Terminology 94
4.2.1 Open and closed systems 94
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4.2.2 Process classification 95

4.2.3 Steady state and unsteady state 95
4.2.4 Batch processes 96
4.2.5 Semi-batch process 97
4.2.6 Continuous process 97
4.2.7 General material balance equation 98
4.3 Strategy for applying the general material balance equation 102
4.4 Material balances for single-unit non-reactive systems 111
4.5 Material balances on multi-unit non-reactive systems 116
4.5.1 Flow diagrams 116
4.5.2 Sequential multi-unit systems 117
4.5.3 Recycle and bypass systems 125
4.6 Examples130
4.7 Answers132
4.8 References141
Study unit 5: MATERIAL BALANCES INVOLVING REACTIONS142
5.1 Introduction142
5.2 Reaction terminology 143
5.2.1 Stoichiometry143
5.2.2 Extent of reaction (ξ)144
5.2.3 Limiting reactant 146
5.2.4 Reactants in excess 147
5.2.5 Conversion148
5.2.6 Multiple reactions 150
5.2.7 Extent of reaction for multiple independent reactions 151
5.2.8 Selectivity and yield 151
5.3 Mass balance on simple reactive systems 154
5.3.1 Molecular species balances 154
5.3.2 Atomic (elemental) species balances 160
5.4 Combustion systems 164
5.4.1 Combustion terminology 165
5.4.2 Recycle and purge 171
5.5 Examples177
5.6 Answers179
5.7 Concluding remarks 198
5.8 References198
Eiplogue199
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iv
PREFACE
1. GETTING STARTED
Welcome to Chemical Engineering Fundamentals I (CHF1501), a module that
is offered in Unisa’s Department of Chemical Engineering. I would like to take
this opportunity to wish you success with your academic year. This is the first
module in which chemical engineering principles are introduced. Therefore,
based on this module, you will get a good impression about what chemical
engineering is all about.
Your study material for this module includes:
•• This study guide

•• Your prescribed textbook
•• Tutorial Letter 101
•• Any other tutorial letters you may receive during the year
Details of your prescribed book are given later in this Introduction, and also
in Tutorial Letter 101.
Tutorial Letter 101 will be part of your study pack or it will be posted to you,
but you can also access it on myUnisa. You can do this by clicking on ‘Official
Study Material’ in the menu on the left.
Tutorial Letter 101 is just one of the tutorial letters you will receive during the
year. It is extremely important that you should read this tutorial letter carefully.
In this Introduction, I will give you an overview of and some general information
about this module. I will also tell you more about how you can study in this
module and about the assessment in the module.
Your study guide, textbook and tutorial letters contain everything you need
to complete this module. However, you may benefit from also using the module
website on myUnisa. By using the site, you can:
•• submit assignments
•• access your official study material
•• have access to the Unisa Library functions
•• “chat” to your lecturer/e-tutor or to fellow students in online discussion
forums
•• obtain access to a variety of learning resources
Check the site regularly for updates, posted announcements and additional
resources uploaded throughout the semester.
Please note that there are two sites you should use in studying CHF1501. The
first site is the module site, where you will find the learning units and where
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you can communicate with your lecturer. In your list of modules, this usually
has a name in the following format:
Module code-year-semester, for example CHF1501-18-SI.
The second site is your e-tutor site, where you can communicate with your
e-tutor and fellow students. This site has the same name, but with ‘-1E’ or ‘-2E’
added at the end, depending on the semester, for example CHF1501-18-SI-1E.
Your e-tutor is there to support your learning, and you can post any questions
to him or her in the site’s discussion forum, in the appropriate forum or topic
for general questions. In another forum, you will also be able to communicate
with your fellow students.
On the e-tutor site, you should also respond to discussion questions that are
given in the learning units. Your e-tutor may provide you with the opportunity
to engage in additional discussions or to do specific online tasks or activities.
Please participate fully, as this will go a long way to assist you with your
learning. Both the lecturer and e-tutor may also send you announcements
from time to time.
2. CONTACT DETAILS AND STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES

My contact details, as well as those of the academic department, are provided
in Tutorial Letter 101. Should you need to contact the university about matters
not related to the content of this module, consult the publication my Studies
@ Unisa, which you received with your study material. This brochure contains
information on how to contact the university (e.g. to whom you can write for
different queries, important telephone and fax numbers, addresses and details
of the opening and closing times of particular facilities).
You can also make use of the following contact routes:
Unisa website http://www.unisa.ac.za or http://mobi.unisa.ac.za

E-mail (general enquiries) info@unisa.ac.za
Queries related to application and registration study-info@unisa.ac.za
Assignment enquiries assign@unisa.ac.za
Examination enquiries exams@unisa.ac.za
Study material enquiries despatch@unisa.ac.za
Student account enquiries finan@unisa.ac.za
Assistance with myUnisa myUnisaHelp@unisa.ac.za
Assistance with myLife e-mail accounts myLifeHelp@unisa.ac.za
SMS (South Africa only) 32695 (you will receive an auto response SMS
with the various SMS options)
General fax number 012 429 4150
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For information about the various student support systems and services
available at Unisa (e.g. student counselling, tutorial classes, language support),
you may also consult my Studies @ Unisa. Note the following support systems
that you could use:
•• Fellow students
It is always a good idea to have contact with fellow students. You can do
this using the Discussions menu option on myUnisa. You can also use the
Discussions option to find out whether there are students in your area who
would like to form study groups.
•• Library
My studies @ Unisa lists all the services offered by the Unisa library.
To log in to the Library website, you will be required to provide your login
details, in other words your student number and your myUnisa password, in
order to access the library’s online resources and services. This will enable
you to:
•• request library material

•• view and renew your library material
•• use the library’s e-resources
•• Unisa Directorate for Counselling and Career Development (DCCD)
DCCD supports prospective and registered students before, during and after
their Unisa studies. There are resources on their website (http://www.unisa.
ac.za/sites/corporate/default/About/Service-departments/Counselling-and-
Career-Development), and also printed booklets available to assist you with
•• career advice and how to develop your employability skills

•• study skills
•• academic literacy (reading, writing and quantitative skills)
•• assignment submission
•• preparation for the examinations
Note that the DCCD can also assist you with improving your personal
wellness: see their website at http://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/corporate/
default/About/Service-departments/Counselling-and-Career-Development/
Personal-development.
•• Student Health and Wellness
Your physical health is an important factor in your learning success. Obtaining

an educational qualification is challenging and may at times involve stress. It
is therefore vital that you should try to maintain a healthy lifestyle to ensure
that you will cope physically with the demands of your studies.
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If you suspect that you may suffer from a chronic condition, or if you know
that you suffer from such a condition but are unsure about medical options
and treatment, you could approach Unisa for further information and support.
See Unisa’s Student Health and Wellness website, which you can access from
Unisa’s main website: click on ‘About’, ‘Service Departments’, ‘Student Affairs’
and then on ‘Student Health and Wellness’. Here you will find details of Unisa’s
health and wellness clinics and some health and wellness resources.
Note that if you do have a health-related condition such as HIV/AIDS, or if you

have a close family member with this or another health condition, you need to
take cognisance of this in planning your studies. It will be unwise to cram tasks
as this creates enormous stress that negatively impacts on your performance
as a student, as well as your health. Planning your studies is essential so that
you can work consistently and make progress.
It would be wise to know your health status (HIV/AIDS, blood pressure, diabetes,
cholesterol, etc.). If you are informed by medical tests, with the necessary
medical and supportive interventions you can prolong and improve the quality
of your life and your success in your studies.
If you would like to obtain basic information about the prevention of, testing
for and treatment of HIV/Aids, you could also consult the following web links:
•• http://www.aids.org/topics/aids-factsheets/
•• https://www.westerncape.gov.za/documents/public_info/L (click on ‘Living
with HIV/Aids’)
You could also approach the DCCD about counselling in this regard.
•• The Advocacy and Resource Centre for Students with Disabilities

(ARCSWiD)
You will find more information about this centre on their web page at
http://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/corporate/default/About/Service-departments/
Student-Affairs/ARCSWiD.
You can also contact the centre at 012 441 5470/1.
3. PURPOSE AND OUTCOMES OF THIS MODULE

The purpose of this module is to introduce you to the professional field of
chemical engineering, and to fundamental concepts and skills in the field.
For example, you will be introduced to chemical engineering calculations,
chemical reactions equations and stoichiometry, and the basic concepts
required in material balances. A material balance is based on the principle
of conservation of mass (i.e. the total mass in a system remains constant) and
forms the basis for various chemical engineering calculations. By completing
this module, you will gain the skills required in the application of these basic
chemical engineering concepts to formulate and solve problems relating to
material balances in different chemical engineering systems.
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This module is part of the National Diploma in Engineering in Chemical

Engineering. The module lays the foundation for subsequent chemical
engineering modules and introduces you to basic engineering problem-solving
skills.
More specifically, the outcomes of this module are that you, after completing
the module, should be able to:
•• define the basic and fundamental units and dimensions in engineering

analysis and calculate their values
•• measure and/or calculate the conditions of process streams and process units
•• apply material balances in simple batch and continuous systems
•• formulate and solve material balances to reactive systems and multiple-
stage systems
Note that this module will require the application of mathematical and chemistry
skills. If necessary, as you work through the learning units, you should revise the
relevant concepts and skills that you learnt in your mathematics and chemistry
modules. If you have access to the internet, you should also be able to find
explanations and revision exercises to help you master any mathematics skills
that you may need to improve.
The next section will give you a better idea about how the content of the
module is structured and how the various ideas expressed in the learning
outcomes are related.
4. HOW THE CONTENT OF THIS MODULE IS ORGANIZED

This study guide consists of five learning units. We start by giving an overview
of chemical engineering in Learning Unit 1. We then explore the fundamentals
of engineering calculations in Learning Unit 2. In Learning Unit 3, we define
various process units and process variables. In Learning Units 4 and 5, we
introduce and apply material balances.
The concepts you learn in this module will form the basis of your knowledge
of chemical engineering and will be used in many subsequent modules. For
example, the concept of material balances is an important tool that you will
utilise throughout your studies and in your career as a chemical engineer. You
will also be introduced to ways of collecting and analysing data, establishing
relationships between variables, and strategies for engineering problem-solving.
You can consult the table of contents to see the names and subsections of
each of the learning units.
Now that you have a better idea of how the module is structured, let’s look
at what your studies will involve.
5. LEARNING RESOURCES
Your main learning resources for this module will be your prescribed textbook
and this study guide. These resources will be supported by tutorial letters.
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The prescribed textbook to be used in conjunction with the study guide is:
D.M Himmelblau & J.B. Riggs, Basic principles and calculations in chemical
engineering, 8th edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2012.
The textbook is a comprehensive guide to the subject matter. You will not be
required to study the whole textbook, as I will guide you to what is needed while
working through these learning units. You will need to study the chapters that
are mentioned at the beginning of each learning unit and any recommended
reading sections. If you find a topic particularly interesting, then feel free to
do further reading on that topic. You will also use this particular textbook for
another module, CHF2601.
In the text of the study guide, the textbook will be referred to as Himmelblau
and Riggs.
The learning units may contain links to websites and online video clips. If you
would like to find further information or explanations about a certain topic,
you can also do your own internet search to find additional sites or videos. To
do this, go to www.google.com or a similar search site and type in keywords
related to the topic. To search for video clips, you can go to www.youtube.com.
6. THE TEACHING APPROACH USED IN THIS MODULE

We have essentially used an outcomes-based approach in developing this
module. This means that, instead of using a set of topics as a starting point,
we used certain outcomes or results of learning. We considered the kind of
knowledge and skills that you, as a qualified chemical engineer technician,
will need in the work environment, and we planned the module in a way that
will help you to acquire this knowledge and skills.
The teaching in this module is also based on the principle of “active learning”.
It has been shown that the more actively you are involved in reading and
learning, the more clearly you understand what you are learning, and the more
effectively you can apply your knowledge and skills in real-life situations. To
help you work through this study guide actively – rather than just reading it
passively – we have included several activities in the text, both during the
course of every unit and at the end of units. Additionally, a separate tutorial
sheet will be made available for you on myUnisa. By completing these activities,
you will ensure that your learning is meaningful to you, and you will start to
develop the practical skills that will be required in your career as a qualified
engineering technician.
7. MODULE-SPECIFIC STUDY PLAN

Distance learning is not easy and you should not underestimate the time and
effort involved. Once you have received your study material, please plan how
you will approach and complete this module. Consult my Studies @ Unisa for
suggestions about general time management and planning skills.
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This is a year module offered over 30 weeks, and requires at least 120 hours
of study time. This means that you will have to study at least 4 hours per week
for this module.
Here is a suggested schedule that you may use as a guideline for studying
this module.
ACTIVITY HOURS
Reading and re-reading Tutorial Letter 101 and the intro- 3

duction to the study guide
Skimming learning units and textbook, forming a thorough 6

general impression of the whole
In-depth study of Learning Units 1–3, making summaries 24

and doing learning activities, and participating in the on-
line e-tutor site (4 hours on Learning Unit 1 and 10 hours
on Learning Unit 2–3)
Completing Assignment 01 12
In-depth study of Learning Units 4–5, making summaries 24

and doing learning activities, and participating in the on-
line e-tutor site (12 hours each on Learning Units 4–5)
Examination revision 24
Final examination 3
Total 120
Below is an example of how you could structure your study plan. Note that
this study plan starts in February to allow you to complete 120 hours for the
module at a rate of four hours per week. If you have started studying later, you
would need to adapt the schedule and would probably need to fit in more
hours per week. Also note that the dates are approximate and the specific
dates may vary from year to year.
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Time Activities
Middle of •• Read and re-read Tutorial Letter 101 and the

February to introduction to the study guide. Amend this study
the end of programme to suit your own circumstances.
February (2 •• Skim all the learning units and the textbook,
weeks, 8 study forming a thorough general impression of the
hours) whole. Start your first reading of the learning units.
March (4 •• In-depth study of Learning Units 1 and 2, making

weeks, 16 summaries and completing learning activities, and
study hours) participating in discussions/activities on the e-tutor
site, if applicable.
•• Start an in-depth study of Learning Unit 3.
April (4 weeks, •• Complete Assignment 1 (depending on how you

16 hours) will submit the completed assignment, allow
sufficient time for the assignment to reach Unisa on
or before the due date).
•• Continue your in-depth study of Learning Unit
3, making summaries and completing learning
activities, and participating in discussions/activities
on the e-tutor site, if applicable.
May (4 weeks, •• Complete your in-depth study of Learning Unit 3.

16 hours) •• Begin working on Assignment 2.
June (4 weeks, •• Complete Assignment 2 (depending on how you

16 hours) will submit the completed assignment, allow
sufficient time for the assignment to reach Unisa on
•• In-depth study of Learning Unit 4, making
summaries and completing learning activities, and
participating in discussions/activities on the e-tutor
site, if applicable.
•• Start an in-depth study of Learning Unit 5.
July (4 weeks, •• Complete your in-depth study of Learning Unit

16 hours) 5, making summaries and completing learning
activities, and participating in discussions/activities
on the e-tutor site, if applicable.
•• Begin working on Assignment 3.
August (4 •• Complete Assignment 3 (depending on how you

weeks, 16 will submit the completed assignment, allow
hours) sufficient time for the assignment to reach Unisa on
•• Re-work the assignments, based on the feedback
from your lecturer.
•• Begin revising for the examination.
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Time Activities
September •• Revision and preparation for the examination.

(4 weeks, 16
hours)
October •• Examinations.
8. HOW SHOULD YOU GO ABOUT STUDYING THIS MODULE?

You can use the study plan in the previous section as a guideline to draw up
a reasonable study schedule that can guide you through the whole module.
Remember to take into consideration the due dates of the assignments as given
in Tutorial Letter 101 for this module.
The assignments in this module will take the form of written work, and they
should give you an idea of how well you are making progress in achieving
the learning outcomes.
Your work on each learning unit should involve the following:
•• Skim through the unit and make your own summary of the concepts and
principles in every unit.
•• Do all the activities in every unit, as well as any additional activities that
you may be given on myUnisa. Should you have any queries, you may
raise these with your lecturer, fellow students or (if applicable) your e-tutor.
•• Do a reflection exercise at the end of every unit. The learning units contain
some reflective questions that you should answer.
As you work, build up your own study and examination preparation file. This
study file will not be assessed, but it will be an extremely valuable tool for you
in completing your assignments and revising for the examination.
What is a study file? A study file is a folder/file in which you gather and compile
additional and/or summarised information during the year as you work through
the learning material.
Your study file should comprise:
•• answers to each activity in each learning unit

•• a summary of each learning unit
•• your marked assignments (or a copy you made prior to submitting your
assignment)
•• your reflections on each learning unit
•• where relevant, any extra reading material taken from the internet, additional
books, medical and/or scientific journals
•• a new vocabulary or a glossary of new terms in your own words
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Compile and revise the contents of your portfolio to ensure that you achieve
the learning outcomes of this module.
You may also want to view the following video clips that discuss various aspects
and strategies for learning:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=saqgvcK78bY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CPxSzxylRCI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qfp3x_qx5IM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-MTRxRO5SRA
9. ASSESSMENT IN THIS MODULE

Your work in this module will be assessed by the following:
•• three written assignments, which will be used to calculate a year mark that
will count 30% towards your final mark
•• one written examination of 3 hours, which will count 70% towards your
final mark
Please consult Tutorial Letter 101 for details about the assessment in this
module. Make sure to read the following information in the tutorial letter:
•• How your assignment and examination marks will be calculated

•• The due dates and unique numbers of your assignments
•• How you should submit your assignments
•• Examination periods, admission and marks
Tutorial Letter 101 also contains the actual assignment questions.
Remember that while Tutorial Letter 101 will be sent to you, you can also
access an electronic version on myUnisa by clicking on the option ‘Official
Study Material’.
Good luck and enjoy the course!
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Learning Unit
1 1
1 An Overview of Chemical Engineering
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A chemical engineering magazine, “The Chemical Engineer” (November
2016), reports the fascinating developments in the field. Here are some of the
headlines of interesting articles:
“Norway invests US$162 m in CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage) project”
“New ‘one-pot’ route to alcohols and aldehydes”
“Plans to produce formaldehyde from CO2”
“Waste plastic turned into hydrogen and nanotubes”
From these few headlines, you should get an impression of the types of problems
that the chemical engineering profession deals with: finding better ways of
producing chemicals or other products, trying to reduce the environmental
impact of processes, or turning waste into useful products. These are just a
few examples of what chemical engineering is all about. In reality, chemical
engineering is relevant to diverse applications, as you will realise in this
learning unit.
We shall start by defining what chemical engineering is.
1.2 DEFINITION
Although there are many different variations to the definition of chemical
engineering, the following definition is quite comprehensive:
“Chemical engineering is a branch of engineering that applies physical sciences

(physics and chemistry), life sciences (microbiology and biochemistry), together
with applied mathematics and economics to produce, transform, transport and
properly use chemicals, materials and energy. A chemical engineer designs
[and operates] large-scale processes that convert chemicals, raw materials,
living cells, micro-organisms and energy into useful forms and products.”
(Chemical Engineering, 2017)
In short, chemical engineering is about developing processes that physically

or chemically transform materials into valuable products. The products could
be chemicals, energy, diesel, antibiotics, paper, plastics, paints, detergents,
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cement, nylon and the list goes on! In addition to this, chemical engineers
ensure that these processes have a minimum impact on the environment
and that they have high standards of safety. Figure 1.1 lists a few of the fields
chemical engineers play a significant role in.
FIGURE 1.1:
Different sectors that chemical engineers are involved in
The chemical engineering profession comprises of three main role-players/

practitioners, namely the chemical engineer, the chemical engineering
technologist and the chemical engineering technician. Each of these play an
important role in turning raw materials into valuable products. The differences
between an engineer, a technologist and a technician are well explained on
the following webpage:
http://www.engenius.org.za/The-Team/the-engineering-team.html
The chemical engineering team (engineer, technologist and technician) are

involved in the different stages of the process. These include:
(1) Research and development
The team is responsible for the conception and development of a new

process, from the laboratory experimental stage to the piloting stage. This
includes the economic evaluation of the proposed project before proceed-
ing from the development stage to the commercial project.
(2) Design and manufacturing of process equipment and plants
As a member of a multidisciplinary team, which may include mechanical,

electrical and civil engineering practitioners, the chemical engineering team
will design the process plant to convert the raw materials into the desired
products. The chemical engineering team will decide on all the equipment
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L E AR N I N G U N I T 1: A n ove r v i e w o f c h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g
required and the operating conditions (such as temperature, pressure, flow

rates) of the equipment. The team will provide a specification (dimensions,
material of construction) for each piece of equipment. The capital cost
and operating cost of the plant will be estimated. Computers are used to
perform many of the calculations. A large number of commercial computer-
aided design packages may be used.
(3) Plant construction, commissioning and operation of a process plant
Once the process plant has been design, the chemical engineering team
is also involved in the construction and commissioning of the plant.
The commissioning stage ensures that the plant operates according to the
design specifications. The chemical engineering team applies problem-
solving skills to ensure that the plant operates effectively. As the experts
on the process, the members of the chemical engineering team are also
involved in the training of staff to operate the new plant. However, the
technical involvement of the team does not stop there. The chemical
engineering team continuously tries to ensure that the plant is operating
as it should and the team is constantly looking for ways to improve the
efficiency of the plant.
(4) Product sales
A chemical engineering team with a sound technical background may

also get involved with the sales of products and in assisting clients with
any technical queries.
A natural progression in the career of a chemical engineering practitioner is

to move into the management of any of the above stages (for example, a shift
supervisor or plant manager). This would require the chemical engineering
practitioner to obtain the relevant experience and skills to make insightful
decisions about the process.
Effective communication (both written and oral) is an important skill for a

chemical engineering practitioner since most of the work is carried out in teams.
1.3 HISTORY AND IMPACT

Chemical engineering owes its origin to the Industrial Revolution in the 18th
century. The demand for industrial chemicals such as soda ash and sulphuric
acid, as well as dyes for the textile industry, resulted in the development of
new, more efficient processes to produce chemicals. In 1887, George Davis
offered lectures on chemical operations at the Manchester Technical School
(to bridge the gap between mechanical engineering and applied chemistry).
These lectures laid the foundation for the “unit operations” concept, which
is still taught in chemical engineering to date (the term “unit operations” was
coined by Arthur D. Little in 1915). In 1888, MIT was the first university to
introduce a chemical engineering curriculum. Many other universities in the
USA and Europe followed suit. Over the years, chemical engineering moved
from being mainly descriptive to scientific.
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You can read more about the origin and history of chemical engineering on
the following websites:
http://www.pafko.com/history/h_whatis.html
www.clarkson.edu/~wilcox/Design/evolvche.pdf
As we mentioned earlier, chemical engineering touches almost every aspect

of our lives. We shall now look at some of the major historical achievements of
chemical engineering. The American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
published a list of the top 10 achievements in 2008:
•• Fuelling the world’s economies: Chemical engineers have developed a process

to crack (break down into smaller molecules) long-chain hydrocarbons in
crude oil into gasoline and jet fuel. This has increased the supply of these
fuels. Furthermore, smaller molecules that result from the cracking process,
like methane and ethylene, can be used to produce a wide range of other
chemicals.
•• Creating cleaner energy: Chemical engineers are developing new technologies
to generate energy with lower emissions. Some of these technologies include
nuclear power plants and NiMH batteries (used in the Toyota Prius).
•• Products for a growing population: Chemical engineers have contributed to
the large-scale production of fertilizers, to purifying water and producing
various consumer products, while minimising the impact on the environment
by greening production processes and treating the waste produced from
processes.
•• Removing harmful sulphur from fuels: The development of catalytic
converters and unleaded fuels by chemical engineers has made the reduction
of automotive exhaust emissions possible.
•• Plastics: Chemical engineers have helped to develop various polymers,
such as PVC, nylon, polystyrene, polyethylene and Teflon, which make
our everyday lives convenient.
•• Synthetic materials like rubber: Chemical engineers are at the forefront of
developing new and improved materials, such as synthetic rubber and fibres
(for example Kevlar, used to make bulletproof vests).
•• Large-scale production: Chemical engineers have made the mass production
of a wide variety of consumer products possible.
•• Food production: Chemical engineers have helped to develop fertilizer and
pesticides to enhance and protect crops. They have also developed food-
processing technologies that allow for convenient and accessible foods.
•• Medicine and prosthetics: Chemical engineers make the large-scale
production of antibiotics and other medicine possible. Chemical engineering
principles are used to model the human body and to help develop artificial
organs and treatment systems.
•• Electronics and computers: Chemical engineers have played an important
role in the development of semi-conductors, which have led to the
development of powerful personal computers, cell phones and portable
electronic devices. Chemical engineers have also developed software that
can be used to simulate complex industrial processes.
...........
4
L E AR N I N G U N I T 1: A n ove r v i e w o f c h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g
You may want to watch this video clip that highlights the contributions of
chemical engineering practitioners:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rmGLrEaH0U4
1.4 FUTURE CHALLENGES

Chemical engineering is poised to play an important role in solving the world’s
challenges today and in the future. Some of these challenges include providing
clean energy and water to society, protecting the environment, improving the
quality of life of all, developing new and improved materials and products.
1.5 FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Chemical engineering is based on a number of key principles (Figure 1.2) that
can be used to design and analyse processes. A sound understanding of these
topics ensures that a chemical engineer can address any technical challenge
that he/she may come across:
FIGURE 1.2
Important phenomena studied in chemical engineering
In this module, you will be introduced to material balances. You will cover
the rest of the topics in other modules.
1.6 REFERENCES
The Chemical Engineer, Issue 905, November 2016, page 13–21, IChemE.
A Century of Triumph: Ten lasting chemical engineering achievements, Chemi-
cal Engineering Progress, November 2008, page 5–25.
Chemical Engineering, 2017, in Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, Wikimedia
Foundation Inc., viewed 16 May 2017.
...........
5 CH F1501/1

1 Ac tivities:
(1) Watch the following video clips or visit these websites that provide you
with a background on chemical engineering:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5f5D194LHjw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k-7B_YfHWXQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iAWLMMZlkq4
http://www.whynotchemeng.com/
https://www.aiche.org/community/students/career-resources-k-12-
students-parents/what-do-chemical-engineers-do
(2) The chemical industry in South Africa: Draw up a table that lists some of
the major companies that employ chemical engineering practitioners
(technicians, technologist and engineers). List the main products that they
produce and the end use of these products. Share your findings with fel-
low students using the discussion tool on your module site.
(3) Why did you decide to study chemical engineering? Did you have a good
idea about what chemical engineering was all about before this learn-
ing unit? Did you know the difference between chemistry and chemical
engineering? Use the discussion tool on your module site to share your
thoughts.
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6
2 Learning unit 2
2 Introduction to engineering calculations
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Reading: Himmelblau and Riggs (2012), chapter 2, section 2.1 to 2.5. You may
also want to read Felder and Rousseau (2000), chapter 2.
You probably “weighed” yourself on a scale, or used a measuring tape to

determine the length of a room, or used a stopwatch to time a race.
Length, time and mass are what we call dimensions.

One of the key knowledge areas for a chemical engineer
is the understanding of units and dimensions. Various
variables or quantities are measured, noted and
utilised for designing and operating a chemical process.
You will utilise these concepts throughout your studies and your
career as a chemical engineer.
In this learning unit, we shall investigate the importance of units and dimensions.
In addition, we shall look at the difference between fundamental and derived
dimensions. The link between different systems of units will be established
using conversion factors. We shall also investigate the importance of the
accuracy of measurements.
We shall look at methods to obtain data through interpolation from a set of

data. Lastly, we shall look at linear regression of data.
Learning outcomes
On the successful completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:
•• define dimensions (value and unit)

•• distinguish between different systems of units such as the American
Engineering System of Units and SI System of Units
•• convert from one system to the other
•• explain what is meant by dimensional consistency and dimensionless
quantities
•• differentiate between base and derived units
•• represent and analyse process data in terms of significant figures
•• apply two-point linear interpolation to estimate data
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7 CH F1501/1

•• solve problems that involve fitting a straight line to data (linear regression)
and nonlinear data, and to
•• solve problems that involve fitting logarithmic coordinates
2.2 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

Some of the units of dimensions are probably already familiar to you, for
example metres for length, seconds for time and kg for mass. (Note the
difference between weight and mass). It is very important that you always take
note of the units whenever you do any calculation, and that you make sure
that the units are consistent.
Let us formally define dimensions and units:
Dimensions are defined as physical variables that can be measured or quantified.

Examples of such variables include length, time, mass, temperature, etc.
Units, on the other hand, are used to express the magnitude of the dimensions
relative to a certain standard. For example, the dimension of length can be
expressed in a number of ways such as millimetres (mm), meters (m) and
kilometres (km).
A dimension generally has to be followed by a unit (there is a class of variables

that are dimensionless, as you will see later). If one mentions that the temperature
outside is 25, it is meaningless unless units are attached to it. We rather say
25 °C or 25 °F.
Consider the following example to clarify the significance of dimensions and

units. A distance of 5 m versus 10 m provides us with information about the
dimensions of a distance. As the units are the same, we can directly compare
the two values. A distance of 5 m versus 5 km also provides us with information
about the dimensions of the distance, but we cannot directly compare the two
values, as the units (m vs km) are different. In this case, in order to compare
the two, we need to convert the units of the distance of 5 km to meters, which
is 5000 m.
Note that you can only add or subtract variables with the same units (e.g. 2
kg – 1 m cannot be defined). However, variables with different units can be
multiplied or divided.
A combination of dimensions and units provide us with a tool to present

measurements.
A number of systems are available to represent dimensions and units. These

include:
(i) the Le Systeme Internationale d’Unites (SI System of Units or SI)

(ii) American Engineering System of Units (AE)
(iii) US Conventional System (USCS)
(iv) English System of Units
...........
8
L E AR N I N G U N I T 2: I nt r o du c t i o n to e n g i n e e r i n g c a l c u l at i o ns
Most countries around the world have adopted the SI System of Units, but you
may encounter the other systems during your studies and your career. If, for
example, a South African company manufactures a product for export to the
USA, the company would be expected to specify the data in the American
Engineering System of Units. Similarly, if equipment (e.g. measuring devices)
is imported from countries that do not use the SI system, we would need to
convert the measurements to SI units.
The different unit systems are linked by conversion factors. This allows an
engineer to apply both the SI and AE unit system. Conversion factors will be
discussed later in this learning unit.
Here is an interesting bit of history:
Historically, length was measured in terms of parts of the body, such as palms,
fingers, etc. One of the earliest known units for length was the “cubit”, used
by the ancient Egyptians. It was defined as the distance between the elbow
and the tip of the middle finger. It was used to build the pyramids. Time was
normally measured using the movement of the sun (e.g. a sundial), moon or
other celestial bodies. Weight was measured using seeds (such as grain) and
stones. For example, the “carat” used to measure the mass of gemstones was
derived from carob seeds.
Even today, Americans still use units such as inch (derived from the thumb),
feet and yards.
However, there was a need for a unified system of units. The first metric system
was introduced in France and then adopted by various other countries. The
modern form of the metric system, the International System of Units (abbreviated
as SI), was introduced in 1960. In South Africa, the use of a metric system was
adopted in the 1970s.
Dimensions and the respective units can be classified into two categories,
namely fundamental or basic units and derived units.
2.2.1 Fundamental or Basic Dimensions and Units

This category includes those that can be measured independently. All other
units are derived from this category. In science, there are seven fundamental
(or base) dimensions as given in Table 2.1. For example, the fundamental SI
unit for length is metre, mass is kilogram, time is seconds, and temperature is
Kelvin. It should be noted that degree Celsius (°C) is used in some applications
even though it is not technically an SI unit.
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9 CH F1501/1

TABLE 2.1
Fundamental units for both SI and AE
Physical SI UNITS AE UNITS

Quantity
Units Symbol Units Symbol
Time Second s Second s
Tempera- Kelvin K Degree °F

ture Fahrenheit
Mass Kilogram kg Pound Lb
Length Metre m Foot Ft
Amount of Mole mol Pound lb mol

substance mole
Electrical Ampere A
current
Luminous Candela cd
(light)
intensity
It is interesting to note how these units were defined relative to a somewhat

arbitrary standard. Look up the definitions of these on the internet (e.g. you
probably remember from chemistry that the mole was defined as “the amount
of substance of a system that contains as many elemental entities as there are
atoms in 0.012 kilograms of carbon 12”).
Units can be represented in multiples (or fractions) of the base unit by adding
prefixes to the units as in the case of the SI unit system. In the case of mass, 1
kg is equal to 1000 g. The “k” in kg indicates the mass unit, gram (g), has to be
divided by 1000 to obtain kg. Table 2.2 presents the prefixes used for all units,
except for time. Time is measured in seconds, minutes, hours and days and
has its own conversion methods (e.g. 60 s in a minute, 3600 s in an hour, etc).
...........
10
TABLE 2.2
SI prefixes
Prefix Symbol Factor
n nano 10 -9
μ micro 10 -6
m milli 10 -3
c centi 10 -2
d deci 10 -1
da deka 101
h hekto 102
k kilo 103
M mega 106
G giga 109
A few things to remember about the prefixes:
•• Only one prefix per basic unit is allowed, for example kilogram (kg) or
hectolitre (hL).
•• The prefix is added to a basic unit without the centre dot. For example, ms
(milliseconds) has a complete different meaning from m.s (metres multiplied
by second).
•• Care should be taken in using uppercase and lower case prefixes such as
“m” and “M”.
2 Ac tivit y 2.1
(1) Explain the difference between ‘dimensions’ and ‘units’.
(2) Give both the SI units and the AE units for temperature, mass and length.
(3) Write the correct abbreviations for the following units:
•• decimeter
•• nanosecond
•• mega ampere
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11 CH F1501/1

(4) Write the following abbreviations out in full:
•• μg
•• hm
•• mcd
(5) How many cm are there in 1 m?
(6) How many mm are there in 1 cm?
2.2.2 Derived Dimensions and Units

This category is derived from the combination of the fundamental units
to obtain units of measurement. These units are usually obtained by the
multiplication or division of the fundamental units or their multiples. For
example, the speed at which a car travels is measured in kilometres per hour
(km.hr-1), which is a combination of fundamental dimensions and units of length
and time. In certain cases, these derived units may be given special names,
for example pressure is given units of Pascal, which is equivalent to kg.m-1.s-2.
Can you think of any other examples that you may have come across?
Dimensionless derived units are another type of derived units. The quantity is
presented as a ratio of identical dimensions. For example, the concentration of
gold in an ore body is presented as gram per ton. Another way is to represent
it as parts per million (ppm). It is a dimensionless unit because if you convert,
the ratio of gram to ton is 1 000 000 and therefore ppm. In the case of parts
per billion (ppb), the ratio between the two should be 1 x 109. The same
applies for parts per trillion (ppt).
Table 2.3 provides a list of fundamental and derived units for both the SI and AE
systems. It is of great help to remember these as it will help you to distinguish
between different types of data in literature.
TABLE 2.3
Derived units for both SI and AE
Physical Definition of SI units Equivalent units Definition of AE units

quantity units (SI) units (AE)
Units Symbol Units Units Symbol
Velocity Metre per m.s-1 m.s-1 Feet per second ft.s-1

second
Acceleration Metre per sec- m.s-2 m.s-2 Feet per second ft.s-2
ond squared squared
Force Newton N kg.m.s-2 Pound (force) lb(f)
Pressure Pascal Pa N.m-2or kg.m-1.s-2 Pound per lb(f).in-2 or psi

square inch
...........
12
Physical Definition of SI units Equivalent units Definition of AE units

quantity units (SI) units (AE)
Units Symbol Units Units Symbol
Energy Joule J kg.m2.s-2 British thermal Btu or ft / lb(f)

unit (Btu), Foot
pound (force)
Power Watt W N.m-2 or J.s-1 or Horsepower Hp

kg∙m2∙s-3
Density Kilogram per kg.m-3 kg.m-3 Pound (mass) lbm.in-2

square metre per square inch
Heat capacity Joule per kilo- J.kg -1. K-1 J.kg-1.K-1 or Btu per pound Btu / (lbm)(°F)
(specific) gram per Kelvin m2∙s-2∙K-1 per degree
Fahrenheit
Entropy Joule per kilo- J.kg -1. K-1 J.kg-1.K-1 or Btu per pound Btu / (lbm)(°F)
(specific) gram per Kelvin m2∙s-2∙K-1 per degree
Fahrenheit
Volume Cubic metre m3 m3 Cubic feet ft3
Volumetric Cubic metre m3.s-1 m3.s-1 Cubic feet per ft3 s-1
flow rate per second second
Mass flow rate Kilogram per kg.s-1 kg.s-1 Pound (mass) lb .s-1
second per second
Mass flux Kilogram per kg.m-2 .s-1 kg.m-2.s-1 Pound (mass) lbm.ft-2 .s-1
square metre per square feet
per second per second
Surface tension Newton per N∙m-1 kg·s-2 Pound(force) lb(f)∙in-1

metre per inch
Thermal Watt per metre W∙m-1·K-1 kg·m·s-3·K-1 Btu per hour BTU∙h-1·ft-1∙°F-1
conductivity per Kelvin per feet per de-
gree Fahrenheit
Heat flux Watt per square W∙m-2 kg·s-3 Btu per hour Btu∙h-1∙ft-2
density metre per square feet
Molar volume Cubic metre m3∙mol-1 m3∙mol-1 Cubic feet per ft3∙lb-mol-1
per mole pound mol
Specific volume Cubic metre m3/kg m3∙kg-1 Cubic feet per ft³∙lb -1
per kilogram pound
As mentioned previously, the derived units can be obtained by either the

multiplication or division of fundamental units. For example, velocity is
a combination of length and time. The length is divided by time. This is
reflected in the units, namely metre per second. This can be represented by
two methods.
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13 CH F1501/1

The first method is to use either parentheses “( )” in the case of the multiplication
of basic units or the vertical rules “/” for the division of basic units. The unit
of velocity is thus indicated as “m/s”. The unit of acceleration is represented
as “m/s2”.
The second method is to use the centre dot “.” when basic units are combined.
Exponents are used to present the number of times the basic units are applied.
If the basic unit is divided, it is represented with a negative exponent. In the
case of multiplication, the basic unit is represented by a positive integer. If
the basic unit is multiplied only once, the integer is omitted. As shown in the
example below, basic units are combined to present the simplified set of units.
EXAMPLE
Mass flux is defined as the mass flow rate per unit area. The basic units involved
are mass (kg), time (s) and length (m). The word “per” indicates that the unit before
the word per is divided by the unit after the word per. Therefore, according to
the two methods, the units should be as follows:
In the case of multiple basic units applied, a centre dot is applied for each
basic unit.
For both methods, the following rules need to be taken note of:
•• Numerical values can only be added or subtracted if the associated units

of the quantities are the same
–– 5 m + 5 kg cannot be added as their dimensions (length and mass
respectively) are different
–– 8 J + 20 Btu can be added as both are energy units; you should first
convert one of the units to the other
•• Symbols for units are written in lower case, except for symbols derived
from the name of a person. An exception is volume in terms of litre, which
has a symbol “L”
•• Units are not pluralised, for example 5 m and not 5 ms
•• A space is used between the number and the symbol
Note: Units can be very useful to check whether equations are dimensionally
consistent. Let us use the following example:
Pressure is defined as the force (F) applied to an object per unit area (A).
F
Pressure =
A with units N.m-2 (1)
Force is defined as any factor that causes an object with a mass (m) to change
its velocity, in other words to accelerate (a). (Remember Newton’s Second Law.)
Force = m.a with units N or kg.m.s-2 (2)
...........
14
Substituting Equation (2) into (1), we obtain the following:
m.a kg∙m.s-2
Pressure = Pressure =
A with units m2 or simplified
Pressure = kg.s-2 = kg.m-1.s-2

m
This corresponds to the units for pressure presented in Table 2.2 indicating
that the equation for pressure is correct.
By the way, the next time you stop at the filling station, note that the gauge
for compressed air to pump your tyres is calibrated in “bar”, whereas the SI
unit for pressure is “Pa”.
3 Ac tivit y 2. 2
(1) Is the unit for volume a basic unit or a derived unit? Explain your answer
by referring to the meaning of a derived unit.
(2) ‘Density is a dimensionless quantity.’ Explain whether this statement is

correct or not.
(3) Compile your own table to test your knowledge of the derived units in
Table 2.2. Copy the quantities from this table, and then see how many of
the SI units, symbols and equivalent units you can supply.
(4) Viscosity is an important variable that you will come across in your stud-
ies. Find out what the SI unit for viscosity is and how it has been derived
from the fundamental units.
(5) Acceleration can be defined as the rate of change of velocity per unit of
time. Write down two expressions (equations) for acceleration that are
dimensionally consistent.
2.2.3 Conversion of units

Units can be converted from one system to another (e.g. in to m) or within
the same system (e.g. mm to m) with relative ease using conversion factors.
A conversion factor is a ratio that expresses a quantity in specific units to its
equivalent in another unit. To convert a quantity in certain units to its equivalent
in another unit, we multiply the original quantity by the conversion factor such
that the original units cancel out, leaving only the desired units.
It is very important to establish which units are referred to, especially when
using the American Engineering System. For instance, there are different ways to
represent distance, such as nautical mile (1 853.184 m) and mile (1 609.344 m).
Another example is mass, where literature may refer to long ton (1016.046 908 8
kg), ton (1000 kg) or short ton (907.184 74 kg). Therefore, make sure which
unit is applied and obtain the correct conversion factor.
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15 CH F1501/1

The table further below (Table 2.4) provides a list of conversion factors for the
fundamental units. A more comprehensive table of conversion factors can be
found in Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook.
EXAMPLE
Convert the following to SI units:
(i) 120 lb/min

(ii) 30 lb/ft3
(iii) 50 BTU/h
Solution
(i) The variable has dimensions of length and time. The SI units for length is
kg and time is s, therefore
(ii) The SI unit is kg/m3
(iii) The SI unit is J/s or W
Ac tivit y 2. 3
(1) Convert:
1 lb/in3 to kg/m3
10 ft3/h to m3/s
(2) The tallest building in South Africa is the Carlton Centre that stands at 223
m. What is the height in ft?
(3) The speed of the cheetah, the fastest land animal, is 30 m/s. What is the
speed in km/h and mph?
(4) The surface gravity on the moon is 1.62 m/s2. What is the gravity in Ameri-
can Engineering Units?
(5) The viscosity of tomato sauce is 50 000 cp. What is the viscosity in Pa∙s?
...........
16
(6) The capacity of a GTL (gas-to-liquids) plant in Mossel Bay, operated by

PetroSA, is 45 000 bbl/day. What is the capacity in SI units?
TABLE 2.4
Conversion factors
Unit SI unit
Length 1 ft 0.3048 m
1inch 0.0254 m
1 light year 9.641×1015 m
Energy 1 Btu 1054 J

1 calorie 4.184 J
Mass 1 pound (lb) 0.4536 kg
Pressure 1 atmosphere (atm) 1.013 x 105 Pa

1 bar 1 x 105 Pa
760 mm Hg 1.013 x 105 Pa
1 lb /in2 (psi) 6895 Pa
Volume 1 gallon 3.785 x 10 -5 m3

1 litre 1 x 10 -3 m3
Mole 1 lbmol 0.4536 kmol
Power 1 Hp 746 W
1W 1 J/s
Concentration 1 ppm 1 mg/kg or 1 µL/ L
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17 CH F1501/1

Although the SI unit for temperature is Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit are
also commonly used. You need to be familiar with these various temperature
scales and you need to know how to convert from one temperature scale to
another.
In order to convert a specific temperature, the following conversion equations

should be used:
FIGURE 2.1:
Comparison of temperature scales
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thermometer_CF.svg)
...........
18
From Figure 2.1, we notice that the Celsius scale has its basis (zero point) as
the freezing point of water. The boiling point of water occurs at 100 °C. The
difference between the freezing point and boiling point is 100 °C. If we study
the Fahrenheit scale, the difference between the freezing point and the boiling
point of water is 180 °F. Thus, we infer that the difference in the temperature
interval between the Fahrenheit scale and the Celsius scale is 1.8. Note that
the temperature intervals for the Kelvin and the Celsius temperature scales, as
well as the Rankine and Fahrenheit temperature scales, are equal.
In order to convert a temperature interval, rather than a specific temperature,

the following equations should be used:
1 °F = 1 °R = 5⁄9 °C = 5⁄9 K
Or 1.8 F = 1.8 R = 1 C = 1 K
EXAMPLE
Convert the following temperatures:
(i) 25 °C to degree Fahrenheit

(ii) 110 °F to Kelvin
(iii) 120 °F to degree Celsius
Answer
(i) TCelcius = 25 °C convert to degree Fahrenheit
From
Substitute values
Rewrite and solve
(ii) TFahrenheit = 110 °F convert to Kelvin
Conversion equation is
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19 CH F1501/1

Substitute values:
(iii) TFahrenheit = 120 °F convert to degree Celsius
Conversion equation is
Substitute values
EXAMPLE
Convert the following heat capacity to SI units:
15.3 BTU/lbmol °F
Answer:
The SI units would be J/mol K
Ac tivit y 2.4
What happens when we make errors with unit conversions?
Read about or watch an online video clip regarding the following:
•• Gimli Glider (a Boeing 767 that ran out of fuel due to the incorrect
conversion of units)
•• Mars climate orbiter (a space probe that disintegrated because of an
error in unit conversions)
Use the “Discussion” tool on myUnisa to describe what went wrong in

these two case studies and what could have been done to prevent such
disasters. Remember to use your own words. Copying directly from a
website or book without citation is not acceptable!
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20
Important points to remember:
Remember, a number without units is like a cell phone without a battery! It

is critical that you report a quantity with the applicable units. Make it a habit
to always write down the units for any number (not only in this module, but
in all your modules and for the rest of your career). By implementing this
practise, you can avoid careless mistakes in calculations. Always ensure that
you explicitly show all unit conversions so that you actually end up with the
expected units.
Another important point is to check that your answers are reasonable. We

often make errors by reading numbers incorrectly, or by not being careful
with units. However, as an engineer, you should develop a “sixth sense” for
checking your solutions and immediately realising that something went amiss.
For example, if you calculated the velocity in a tube (diameter of 20 mm) to
be 0.00045 m/s, you should realise that this does not seem reasonable!
For a review of some of the key concepts relating to units and conversion, you
could view the following online video clips:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hQpQ0hxVNTg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mgR6egNSoJc&list=PL4xAk5aclnUjOSz
C4OZccrXGX-pIn71Qc&index=1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eIPE6kcqb0&list=PL4xAk5aclnUjOSzC4
OZccrXGX-pIn71Qc&index=2
Dimensional Consistency or Homogeneity
When an engineer applies an equation, a number of techniques can be used

to check whether the equation is dimensionally consistent. This means that all
terms on both sides of the equation must have the same dimensions.
Consider the concentration profile for a first order reaction (don’t worry if you
are unfamiliar with the equation – you will come across it in a later module):

2.1
CA represents the concentration at time t,
CAo represents the concentration at time t = 0
k is the rate constant
t is the reaction time
Concentration is usually represented in units of mol per litre (mol.L-1). According

to the principle of dimensional consistency, the term on the right-hand side
of the equal sign must have net units of (mol.L-1). The term on the right-hand
side consists of two parts, CAo and e-kt. As CAo is the initial concentration and
has units of (mol.L-1), the second part of the term should therefore be unit-less.
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21 CH F1501/1

Consider kt. As t is the reaction time with units time, one therefore concludes
that k should have units of (time -1) since the exponential term is dimensionless
(this also applies to trigonometric and logarithmic functions), kt is equivalent
to (Time -1) (Time) = unit-less.
Also remember that if terms are to be added or subtracted, they should have
the same dimensions.
When an equation is obtained in which there is no dimensional consistency, it

should be seen as a clear sign that there is something wrong with the equation.
The following example shows how you can use dimension analysis to check
whether an equation is dimensionally consistent.
EXAMPLE
In an equation booklet, the equation for force is presented as follows:
F = m ×v where F is Force, m is mass and v is velocity.
Is this equation correct?
Answer
From the equation:
The units for force is Newton (N) or kg × (m/s2)
From the equation F = m × v
[kg × (m/s2)] [kg] × [m/s]
[kg × (m/s2)] ≠ [kg × (m/s)]
The units of the left-hand side of the equation are not the same as on the right-
hand side. This indicates that the equation is incorrect.
4 Ac tivit y 2. 5
(1) Consider the following equation of motion:
where s represents the distance, u represents the velocity, a the accelera-

tion and t the time.
Determine whether the equation is dimensionally consistent.
(2) You may also come across “dimensionless quantities”, quantities that have
no physical dimensions. Usually, these are ratios of quantities that have
dimensions, but when divided the dimensions cancel out.
...........
22
An example of a dimensionless quantity is the Reynolds number, Re. The

Reynolds number is an important parameter in fluid flow and is given by
where d is the diameter
u is the velocity
ρ is the density of the fluid
µ is the viscosity of the fluid
Prove for yourself that the Reynolds number is indeed dimensionless.
(3) We could also use the concept of dimensional consistency to rewrite an

equation with variables having different units. Consider the following
example from Felder and Rousseau (2000):
Note that the units of the constant 3 have to be ft/s and that the units of
4 have to be in ft.
If we would like to rewrite the equation in terms of m and min, we would

define new variables and use the conversion factors to relate them to the
old variables:
Substituting these into the original equation
Simplifying the equation by making D’ the subject of the formula
You can watch video clips explaining basic dimensional analysis online at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oedTM09HSPU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9IiigcVXrjQ
...........
23 CH F1501/1

2.3 REPRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROCESS DATA

As mentioned earlier, it is important to represent data in such a manner as to
transfer as much information as possible to the reader, and to make sure that
the reader understands exactly what message you intend to convey.
When presenting data, the writer should provide three sets of information,
namely:
(i) the magnitude of the data supplied

(ii) the units of the data
(iii) an estimate of the accuracy and precision (uncertainty) of the data
We have covered points (i) and (ii) earlier in section 2.2.
All measurements or data have an associated degree of uncertainty or error.

The uncertainty of data supplied is determined by the use or need.
The degree of uncertainty of data required is determined by the specific

application. For example, if someone told you that the speedometer of his
car indicated that the speed the car was traveling at was 90 km/h, it would
be quite reasonable whereas if he mentioned that the speed measured was
90.2534 km/h would seem silly!
Thus, the confidence of a numerical value is typically reflected by the number

of significant figures (number of digits from the first non-zero digit on the left
of a decimal point to the last digit on the right (zero or non-zero)) presented.
5 Ac tivit y 2.6
How many significant figures are there in the following numerical values?
•• 200
•• 200.0
•• 0.002
•• 2.00 ×103
Let us consider a litre of soft drink such as Fanta or Pepsi. Due to the large
quantities being produced, the companies utilise a mechanised system to
fill the bottles. When comparing different bottles, it is noticed that they are
filled nearly to the same level. However, there does exist some deviation.
This deviation is attributed to the accuracy of the bottling machine. The more
accurate the machine, usually the more expensive it becomes.
...........
24
Value Boundaries Number of signifi-

cant figures
1.0 L ±0.05 Two
1.00 L ±0.005 Three
1.0001 L ±0.00005 Five
In this example, when presenting the volume of the soft drink as 1.0 L (two
significant figures), it implies that there is a degree of associated uncertainty
in the actual value, which is represented by the intervals (±0.05). In this
example, the volume can be between 0.95 L and 1.05 L. In this case, the level
of accuracy is 50 ml.
In the second value, the certainty is enhanced to 5 ml with the value having
three significant figures. The boundaries have now been changed to 0.995 L
and 1.005 L. In the last case, the uncertainty is 0.05 ml.
We can now discuss how one decides on the degree of accuracy/certainty

required. The following three criteria can be used:
(i) absolute error

(ii) relative error
(iii) statistical analysis
(i) Absolute error
Absolute error is defined as the difference between the actual value, u, and
the approximated value, uapprox.. This is defined by the following equation:

2.2
(The straight bars indicate the absolute value. Absolute error is always positive.)
In the previous example, the actual value will be 1.0 L, whereas the approximate
value will be 0.995. Therefore, the absolute error is 1–0.995 =0.05. .
(ii) Relative error
Relative error is defined as the ratio of the absolute error (ε) and the actual
value (u). The equation is represented as follows:
2.3
...........
25 CH F1501/1

This can also be represented as a percentage by multiplying the relative error

with 100.
(iii) Statistical analysis
This method requires statistical methods to be applied to represent the data.

We shall discuss this method of representation in more advanced modules.
2.4 PROPAGATION OF UNCERTAINTY

The key concept to remember when determining the uncertainty required, is
to represent the data with the same uncertainty as the most uncertain data.
The criteria for deciding the number of significant figures can be based on
absolute error or relative error.
2.4.1 Multiplication of values

When multiplying values, the answer should be truncated or rounded to the
least accurate/precise value.
Example: What answer should be provided when multiplying 3.14 with 5.0568?
Using a calculator, the answer obtained is 15.878352. The question is whether

this is a reasonable answer taking uncertainty into account.
When applying the absolute error method, the answer should have a similar
level of uncertainty as the variable with the highest absolute error. The absolute
error for the two values is determined as follows:
Actual value 3.14
Approximate value 3.135
Absolute error = |3.14–3.135|=0.005
Actual value 5.0568
Approximate value 5.05675
Absolute error = |5.0568-5.05675|=0.00005
The highest absolute error is for the value 3.14. Therefore, the result should be
represented as 15.9 as the least number of significant figures are 3.
The relative error method gives a better indication of the number of significant
figures to use. The number of significant figures to be used, will be determined
by the relative error for the different values. The answer should have a similar
magnitude in relative error as the largest for the individual components. Using 4
significant figures in the answer provides an answer significantly more accurate
than what the initial values provide as measured by the relative error. This
should indicate that the number of significant figures used is too high. Using
...........
26
three significant figures provides similar levels of uncertainty as the initial values.
Therefore it is concluded that the number of significant figures should be 3.
Actual value Boundaries Number of Approxi- Absolute Relative error

significant mate value error
figures
3.14 ± 0.005 3 3.135 0.005 0005

= 0.00159
3.14
5.0568 ± 0.00005 5 5.05675 0.00005 000005

= 9.8877E-06
5.0568
(3.14) x (5.0568) ±0.005 4 15.88 0.005 0.005

= 0.000315
= 15.878352 15.88
(3.14) x (5.0568) ±0.05 3 15.9 0.05 0.05

= 0.00314
= 15.878352 15.9
2.4.2 Addition or subtraction

When applying the relative error method, the number of significant figures
used should be determined by the value with the highest relative error.
Example: Add 9.81 and 12.1. Should the answer be 21.91 or 21.9?
Actual value Boundaries Number of Approximate Absolute Relative error

significant value error
figures
9.81 ± 0.005 3 9.805 0.005 0.005

= 0.000.51
9.81
12.1 ± 0.05 3 12.05 0.05 0.05

= 0.0041
21.91
21.91 ± 0.005 4 21.905 0.005 0.05

= 0.00023
12.1
21.9 ± 0.05 3 21.85 0.05 0.05

= 0.0023
12.9
Using both the absolute error and the relative error approaches, three significant
figures should be used. Therefore, the answer should be 21.9. Using four
significant figures will provide an answer with a relative error significantly
smaller than the individual initial values.
...........
27 CH F1501/1

2.4.3 Division
When dividing values, the same level of accuracy should be applied to represent
the answers. Consider the division of 0.045 by 4.50.
Using the relative error criteria, it is observed that for the answer with four
significant figures, it will provide similar relative error value (0.05) for the
answer to that of the value 0.045 (0.01). Therefore, it can be concluded that
the minimum number of significant figures of the initial values should be used
to represent the answer (i.e. 0.010) when dividing.
Actual value Boundaries Number of Approxi- Absolute Relative error

significant mate value error
figures
0.045 ± 0.0005 .2 0.0445 0.0005 0.0005

= 0.01
0.045
4.50 ± 0.005 3 4.495 0.005 0.005

= 0.00111
4.5
0.045 ± 0.0005 2 0.00095 0.00005 0.0005

= 0.0010 = 0.5
4.5 0.010
0.045 ± 0.005 1 0.0095 0.00005 0.005

= 0.01 = 0.5
4.5 0.01
0.045 ± 0.00005 3 0.00095 0.00005

= 0.0100 = 0.005
4.5 0.010
SUMMARY:
To decide quickly on the appropriate number of significant figures, one may
use the following rules:
For multiplication or division, the result should be rounded to the number of

significant figures of the initial value with the least amount of significant figures.
For addition and subtraction, results should be rounded off to the position of
least significant digit of the initial values.
6 Ac tivit y 2.7
(1) Give the correct answer to the correct significant figures:
•• Multiply 3.56 by 0.42. Estimate the relative error of each number as

well as the product.
•• 3.568 – 2.10 + 0.045
•• (0.0785 × 2.34)/3.992
...........
28
(2) An ice cube with sides of 2.50 cm has a mass of 14.3 g. Determine the den-
sity in g/cm3 and kg/m3. Give the answer to the correct significant figures.
(Remember that density is defined as mass divided by volume.)
2.5 TWO-POINT LINEAR INTERPOLATION

The physical properties of materials are determined by its temperature, amongst
other variables. So, for example, is the viscosity of syrup reduced when its
temperature is increased? A number of sources such as Perry’s Chemical
Engineers’ Handbook and the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics provide
tables listing the relationship between physical properties and temperature.
The disadvantage of such a table is that sometimes a value is required that is
not listed in the table. You might sometimes require a value in-between the
given data or outside the range of the given data. This is where interpolation (or
extrapolation) is a useful tool to apply. We define interpolation and extrapolation
as follows:
Interpolation: estimating the value of a quantity within two known values
Extrapolation: estimating the value of a quantity beyond the range of known

values
Consider a set of data with the following being consecutive data points (xo,
yo) and (x1, y1).
Linear interpolation assumes that the relationship between the data points is
linear.
Therefore, the slope of the straight line between the two points can be
represented by the following equation:

2.4
The slope for any point on this line should be the same, therefore the following
relationship can be derived for a point (x, y) on this line:
Rearranging and making y the subject of the formula:
2.5
Equation 2.5 provides the value of the independent variable for any value for
the dependent variable with boundaries xo and x1.
...........
29 CH F1501/1

The accuracy of this data is determined by the extent of linearity between the
dependent and independent variables as well as the size of the interval (xo
and x1). Note that equation 2.5 can also be used for extrapolation, but the
accuracy may not be very good.
Consider the following graphical example
FIGURE 2.2
Example of interpolation
The data can be represented by the Eq. 1 y = 0.3x2 + 11x +2

following equations: Eq. 2 y = 2x2 + x +2
It is qualitatively observed that equation 2 is far more non-linear than equation

1. Let us investigate the effect of linearity. Let the x interval be between 2 and
4. For x = 3.5 the actual value is 44.18 for Equation 1 and the interpolated
value is 44.4. This provides a relative error of 0.005. For x = 3.5 the actual
value is 30 for Equation 2 and the interpolated value is 31.5. This provides a
relative error of 0.05. It can therefore be concluded that the error made using
interpolation increases as the degree of non-linearity increases.
...........
30
The size of the interval also has an effect on the error made when interpolating.
Let us consider Equation 2 for two intervals, namely 2  4 and 3  4. Let x
= 3.5. For the interval 2  4 the absolute error is 0.05, whereas for interval
3  4 the error is reduced to 0.017. See the table below and Figure 2.3.
It can therefore be concluded that the smaller the interval, the closer the
interpolated value will be to the actual value.
FIGURE 2.3
Interpolation example
...........
31 CH F1501/1

Linear interpolation assumes that the relationship between consecutive

dependent (x) and independent variables (y) is linear. Using this method, any
value for y2 can be determined for a specific value of x2. This can be represented
by the following equation:
xo, x1, yo, y1 known values

x2 value for which y2 should be determined
Linear interpolation is a very useful tool to determine a data point not explicitly
given in a table of data, such as steam tables (you will use steam tables
extensively in other modules, and thus linear interpolation is an important
concept to remember).
7 Ac tivit y 2. 8
The following data was extracted from the saturated steam tables. The
data shows the relationship between temperature and specific volume
for saturated steam:
Temperature (°C) Specific volume (m3/kg)
128.7 0.693
131.2 0.646
Find the specific volume of saturated steam at 130°C.
8 Fe e dback :
Applying Equation 5:
You can watch video clips with a basic explanation of linear interpolation (or
extrapolation) at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S2AgF4hiS9I
...........
32
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cvc-XalN_kk
2.6 FITTING A STRAIGHT LINE AND FITTING NON-LINEAR DATA

Experimental data can be represented by mathematical models that provide
the relationship between the different parameters. These mathematical models
are known as regression. A number of regression equations (or models) can
be used to represent this and best fit the data (say for example a data set of (xi,
yi)). The simplest is a linear relationship. The relationship between a linear set
of data can be represented mathematically by performing a linear regression.
The following equation represents this relationship:
2.6
The objective of a linear regression would be to determine the coefficients m

and c. In the case for a two point data set, the slope can be determined using
the following relationship:
2.7
When the number of data points in the set increase, the coefficients can be
determined by minimizing the sum of the squares of the residuals, that is
the vertical distances of the data points from the line. This is known as least
squares criterion.
The following relationship can be used to determine the slope (based on the
least squares criterion):
2.8
where n the number of data points
x x values from data set
y y values from data set
The intercept of the regression line is determined using the following equation:
2.9
where c is the intercept of the regressed line
Y average of the y values
X average of the x values
...........
33 CH F1501/1

The degree of linearity can be quantitatively expressed by a number of methods.

One such a method is the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient, r.
It provides a single value to represent the linearity between the y and x values.
The values can vary from +1 to -1. A value of +1 indicates that the y and x
values lie perfectly on a straight line. In addition, as x increases y increases.
A value of -1 indicates that the x and y values lie perfectly on a straight line
with the difference that y decreases with an increase in x. As the values of r
change from +1 or -1, the x and y values scatter from the straight line. A value
of zero indicates that there is no linear relationship between x and y.
The mathematical equation to determine the Pearson product moment

correlation coefficient1:
2.10
Consider the following data set of x and y data. The total number of data point
sets is 6.
x y
0 3
2 13
4 23
6 33
8 41
10 54
n x y x2 xy y2
1 0 3 0 0 9
2 2 13 (2)2 = 4 (2)×( 13) = 26 169
3 4 23 16 92 529
4 6 33 36 198 1089
5 8 41 64 328 1681
6 10 54 100 540 2916
∑ 30 167 220 1184 6393
...........
34
Average 5 27.833
The slope for this data is determined by using Equation 2.8:
The intercept is determined by using Equation 2.9:
Therefore, the intercept is equal to:
c = 27.833 – (4.986)(5) = 2.903
The next step is to determine how well the equation fits the data. This is done
by determining the Pearson correlation coefficient, r, in other words Equation
2.10:
r = 0.999
This means that a strong linear relationship exists between the variables.
Example 2
Consider the following set of data:
x y
1 1
3 23
5 61
7 115
9 185
...........
35 CH F1501/1

Determine the equation for a straight line as well as the square root of the
Pearson product moment correlation coefficient for the supplied data. Comment
on the degree of linearity.
Number x y x2 y2 xy
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 3 23 9 529 69
3 5 61 25 3721 305
4 7 115 49 13225 805
5 9 185 81 34225 1665
∑ 25 385 165 51701 2845
Average 5 77
The slope of a straight line through the data is determined as follows:
The Pearson product moment correlation coefficient:
r = 0.979
...........
36
Therefore, the equation of the line is: y = 23 x -38
x ydata ymodel
1 1 -15
3 23 31
5 61 77
7 115 123
9 185 169
A plot of the y values determined from the equation and the y data is presented
below:
FIGURE 2.4
Example 2 diagram
Line (1) presents the linear regression line and line (2) the actual data. Qualitatively
it is observed that the linear regression at some values for x underestimates
the value for y, whereas at other points it overestimates it.
From Figure 2.3 it is observed that the data is predicted very accurately using a
non-linear relationship. In this case, a second order polynomial (i.e. a quadratic,
ax2 + bx + c) predicts the data perfectly.
...........
37 CH F1501/1

Non-linear data can be treated in a number of ways to obtain the relationship

between the x and y values. As mentioned, other types of regression lines can
be used such as polynomial regressions. Another method is to linearise the
data by using semi-logarithmic or logarithmic coordinates.
Let us reconsider the data given above. Plotting the data using logarithmic
scales will provide the following diagram:
FIGURE 2.5
Logarithmic diagram for Example 2
The linearization obtained using logarithmic scales can be determined using

the equations derived earlier.
Consider the previous example. Taking the natural logarithm of both the x and
y values will increase the linearity of the data set.
x y X =Log x Y = Log y
1 1 0.000 0.000
3 23 0.477 1.362
5 61 0.699 1.785
7 115 0.845 2.061
9 185 0.954 2.267
Let X = log x and Y =log y.
...........
38
As before, the slope and intercept can be determined:
x y X =Log x Y = Log X2 Y2 XY
y
1 1 0 0 0.000 0.000 0.000
3 23 0.477 1.362 0.228 1.855 0.650
5 61 0.699 1.785 0.489 3.186 1.248
7 115 0.845 2.061 0.714 4.248 1.742
9 185 0.954 2.267 0.910 5.139 2.163
∑ 2.975 7.475 2.340 14.428 5.802
Average 0.595 1.495
Slope:
Mean X value
Mean Y value
r = 0.994
Therefore, the equation of the line is: Y = 2.373X + 0.083
or log y = 2.373 log x + 0.083
Comparing the r values for the two examples, it is observed that the r value
increased from 0.979 to 0.994. By using the logarithmic operation, the accuracy
of the model was improved.
You can watch the following video clips for basic explanations of linear
regression and Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient:
...........
39 CH F1501/1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=owI7zxCqNY0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=372iaWfH-Dg
Other models are available to determine the relationship between the x and
y values. These will be investigated in later modules.
9 Ac tivit y 2.9
Answer the following questions to revise some of the important concepts
in this unit.
•• What is the difference between a dimension and a unit?

•• What is a conversion factor?
•• How many kg in 1 ton?
•• What does it mean when we say an equation is dimensionally consistent?
•• How do we determine the number of significant figures?
•• Define absolute and relative error.
•• Why would we need to perform a linear interpolation of data?
•• What is meant by regression and the least squares method?
You can check your answers to the questions above against the relevant
discussion in this learning unit.
10 Ac tivit y 2.10
The questions below will give you the opportunity to practice the various
calculations that were presented in this learning unit.
Significant figures
Use absolute error to determine the amount of significant figures for the
following answers:
(a) 9.81 m/s2 × 200. kg (note the decimal point at the end of the 200)
(b) 1.80 kg / 0.0034 m3
(c) 2.5 kg + 0.005 kg
Conversion
Convert the values in the left column to the units in the right column.
...........
40
Initial Convert to
1 Velocity 10 m.s-1 ft.s-1
2 Acceleration 150 ft.s-2 m.s-2
3 Force 120 lb(f) N
4 Pressure 6500 Pa lb(f).in-2 or psi
5 Energy 460 J Btu or ft / lb(f)
6 Power 1000 W Hp
7 Density 1200 kg.m-3 lbm.in-2
8 Heat capacity 4200 J.kg -1. K-1 Btu / (lbm)(°F)
9 Volume 3 m3 ft3
10 Mass flow rate 25 kg .s-1 lb .s-1
11 Mass flux 3.5 kg.m-2 .s-1 lbm.ft-2 .s-1
Dimensional consistency
(a) Show that the following equation is dimensionally consistent: PV = nRT.

(b) The heat capacity of coal can be estimated as follows:
where
cp is the heat capacity in BTU/lb∙F
T is the temperature in Fahrenheit
Vm is the weight percentage of volatile matter in the coal
A sample of coal with an initial mass of 188 g was heated in an oven at 110 °C
to drive off moisture and was then found to weigh 180 g. It was then further
heated at 950 °C (to remove the volatile components), after which the weight
of the remaining material was 153 g.
(1) Use the formula to estimate the heat capacity of the sample at 30 °C.
Express you answer in American Engineering Units and SI units.
(2) Obtain a formula that will give the cp directly in SI units for a temperature
in °C.
...........
41 CH F1501/1

Interpolation
(a) C
alculate the value for pressure using linear interpolation from the following
set of data:
Temperature Pressure
[K] [kPa]
342.26 30
346 P=?
349.02 40
(b) Determine the temperature at 195 kPa.
Pressure Temperature
[kPa] [K]
180 390.09
200 393.38
Regression
(a) D
etermine the slope, intercept and the Pearson product moment correlation
coefficient for the following set of data:
X Y
5 2000
20 1600
40 1500
80 700
100 70
...........
42
(b) T
he viscosity of a liquid can be estimated over short temperature ranges
by the following relationship:
where µ is the viscosity, T is the absolute temperature (in K) and A and C are
empirical constants.
•• If the equation is dimensionally consistent, determine the units of A and C.

•• Determine the values of A and C by plotting a suitable graph from the data
for honey below.
•• Also determine the Pearson correlation coefficient for the chosen graph.
T (°) µ (mPa∙s)
20 14095
22 10680
24 8156.4
26 6303.6
28 4917.2
30 3872.6
32 3075.2
34 2455.2
36 1983.6
38 1620
40 1346.7
Answers
Check your own answers to the activity questions against those given below.
Significant figures
(a) 9.81 m/s2 x 200. kg = 1.96× 103 kg m/s2

(b) 1.80 kg / 0.0034 m3 = 529.41 kg/ m3
(c) 2.5 kg + 0.005 kg = 2.505 kg (strictly speaking, it should be 2.5 kg)
...........
43 CH F1501/1

Conversion
Dimensional consistency
(a) P in units of Pa or kg.m-1.s-2

V in units of m3
Thus, the left-hand side of the equation has units
n is the number of mols in mol
R is the gas constant with units of J∙mol-1∙K-1
T is temperature in K
...........
44
Thus, the right-hand side of the equation has units
Therefore, the units on both sides of the equation are equal, and thus the
equation is dimensionally consistent.
(b) (1) Determine the weight % of volatile matter
Convert 30 °C to F: 86 F
Substitute into cp equation
(2)
θ is the temperature in °C
Interpolation
(a)
(b)
...........
45 CH F1501/1

Regression
(a)
n X Y XY X2 Y2
1 5 2000 10000 25 4000000
2 20 1600 32000 400 2560000
3 40 1500 60000 1600 2250000
4 80 700 56000 6400 490000
5 100 70 7000 10000 4900
∑ 245 5870 165000 18425 9304900
The slope is determined from the equation:
Slope:
Mean X value
Mean Y value
r = 0.971
...........
46
Therefore, the equation of the line is: Y = -19.1 X + 2110
(b)
•• A in Pa∙s and C in K
In order to find A and C, we need to take logs (in this case, we shall use natural
logarithms) of both sides of the equation, in order to linearize the data
Therefore, a plot of 1/T vs ln (µ) should be a straight line with slope A and
intercept ln (C).
Temperature µ
°C K Pa.s 1/T (K) ln µ
20 293.15 14.095 0.003411 2.6458
22 295.15 10.68 0.003388 2.3684
24 297.15 8.1564 0.003365 2.0988
26 299.15 6.3036 0.003343 1.8411
28 301.15 4.9172 0.003321 1.5927
30 303.15 3.8726 0.003299 1.3539
32 305.15 3.0752 0.003277 1.1234
34 307.15 2.4552 0.003256 0.8982
36 309.15 1.9836 0.003235 0.6849
38 311.15 1.62 0.003214 0.4824
40 313.15 1.3467 0.003193 0.2977
...........
47 CH F1501/1

Plotting the data gives the following graph:
To determine the slope and intercept:
N X Y XY X2 Y2
1 0.003411 2.6458 0.009025 1.164E-05 7.0004
2 0.003388 2.3684 0.008024 1.148E-05 5.6092
3 0.003365 2.0988 0.007063 1.133E-05 4.4050
4 0.003343 1.8411 0.006155 1.117E-05 3.3897
5 0.003321 1.5927 0.005289 1.103E-05 2.5368
6 0.003299 1.3539 0.004466 1.088E-05 1.8331
7 0.003277 1.1234 0.003681 1.074E-05 1.2620
8 0.003256 0.8982 0.002924 1.060E-05 0.8068
9 0.003235 0.6849 0.002215 1.046E-05 0.4691
10 0.003214 0.4824 0.00155 1.033E-05 0.2327
11 0.003193 0.2977 0.000951 1.020E-05 0.0886
S 0.036301 15.38736 0.051345 0.000119852 27.63336719
Slope:
...........
48
This is the value of the constant A (in K).
Mean X value
Mean Y value
This is the value of ln C, thus C = 1.30∙10 -15 (in Pa∙s).
r = 0.9993
2.7 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS

If you really want to excel in problem-solving, the only way is to practice!
Try these problems from Himmelblau and Riggs (2012), pages 82–87:
System of units: 2.1.1 a –g
Conversion of units: 2.2.1–2.2.4, 2.2.7
Dimensional consistency: 2.3.1–2.3.3
Significant figures: 2.4.1–2.4.3
11 Ac tivit y 2.11
As you may have gathered from this learning unit, chemical engineering
will involve applying a good deal of mathematical problem-solving. Con-
sider how you did in solving the problems in this unit. Which mathematical
skills and problem-solving techniques are you good at, and which might
you still need to improve? Make a list of these, if applicable. If you need
to improve, where can you get help?
Apart from consulting your e-tutor and fellow students, another possible
way of getting help is to search the internet for sites and videos where the
types of concepts and problems you are struggling with are explained. You
can also get useful general tips on studying mathematics and preparing
for a maths exam, for example on the following sites:
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49 CH F1501/1

•• https://www.examtime.com/blog/how-to-study-maths/
•• http://academictips.org/acad/mathematics/index.html
Note that Unisa’s Directorate for Counselling and Career Development also
has general information on studying, at http://www.unisa.ac.za/default.
asp?Cmd=ViewContent&ContentID=96773
REFERENCES
R.M Felder & R.W. Rousseau, Elementary principles of chemical processes,
3rd edition, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2000
D.W. Green and R.H. Perry, eds., Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook,
8th edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007
W.M. Haynes, ed., Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 97th edition, Cleve-
land, OH: CRC Press, 2015
engineering, 8th edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2012
...........
50
LEARNING UNIT
3 3
3 PROCESSES AND PROCESS VARIABLES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Reading: Please refer to chapter 2 in the prescribed textbook (Himmelbau and
Riggs) in conjunction with this learning unit.
Consider an everyday activity like making a cup of coffee. The making of the
cup of coffee can be defined as a process. It usually consists of sugar, coffee
and milk, the raw materials. In addition, a kettle, cup and spoon are required
to make the cup of coffee (in chemical engineering terms these are your process
units). The process starts when water is
added to the kettle. The next step is to
boil the water. While the water is boiling,
sugar and coffee are added to the cup.
Some people like to add the milk before
adding the boiling water, while others
prefer to add the milk later. This introduces
different methods for achieving the same
result. There is also a difference in the
taste of the coffee, which is caused by
aspects such as the number of spoons of sugar and coffee. This provides slightly
different tasting cups of coffee.
In this case, the process consists of different steps, such as boiling the water,
adding the ingredients, adding boiling water and stirring the mixture. In chemical
engineering terms, these individual steps are defined as unit operations.
Different operations can be used to obtain the same product. In the case of
coffee, a cup of coffee can also be prepared using a coffee maker. The raw
materials may also differ. Some people like to use coffee beans, which should
be ground, instead of instant coffee.
Similarly, the main role of a chemical engineer is to convert raw materials into
useful products in an efficient, economical and safe way. The raw materials
undergo a physical and/or chemical change. Usually, the process to convert
the raw materials involves multiple steps, each step playing an important role
in achieving the required product. The chemical engineer would be involved
in developing, designing and operating such processes.
In order to design or operate a chemical process, the chemical engineer requires

appropriate knowledge of the process streams (raw materials, intermediate and
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51 CH F1501/1

product streams) and process units. These process streams include variables
such as flow rates, compositions, temperatures and pressures.
In this learning unit, we define and present the methods for calculating these
variables.
Learning outcomes
On the successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:
•• describe various unit operations

•• select the necessary unit operations to perform a specific task
•• explain the relationship between mass and volume
•• calculate the volumetric flow of a process stream
•• determine the molar and mass flow in a process
•• determine the molar and mass concentration of a solute in a solution
•• calculate fluid pressure at different locations
•• distinguish between atmospheric pressure, absolute pressure and gauge
pressure
•• read and interpret measurement on a manometer
•• derive a formula that relates various temperature scales (K, °C, °F and °R) and
apply the formula to determine absolute temperatures as well as temperature
differences
3.2 CHEMICAL PROCESSES AND PROCESS UNITS
3.2.1 Mode of operation

A chemical process may operate either in batch, semi-batch or continuous
mode.
Continuous processes operate uninterrupted (i.e. 24 hours a day, 7 days a

week and all year, except for a short shutdown period for maintenance). The
process streams flow continuously through process units and exits the process
continuously. Most processes producing bulk/commodity chemicals (chemicals
that are produced in large quantities) are continuous.
In a batch process, the feed stream is introduced into the process at the
beginning, is processed within a certain period of time and then the processed
material is removed. Thus, no material is added or removed while it is being
processed. Fine chemicals (chemicals produced in small quantities) and specialty
chemicals (products that have very specific functions) are usually produced
in batches.
A semi-batch process is a process that has the features of both a batch and
continuous process. For example, one input stream could be fed continuously
into the process whereas another stream would be fed only initially before
the actual process begins.
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52
L E AR N I N G U N I T 3: Pr o ce ss e s a n d p r o ce ss v a r ia b l e s
12 Ac tivit y 3.1
(1) Find examples of commodity chemicals, fine chemicals and specialty
chemicals.
(2) Consider the following domestic appliances or activities and classify them
as either batch, continuous or semi-batch:
(a) making a cup of coffee

(b) baking a cake
(c) kettle
(d) washing machine
(e) geyser
(f) pool filter
Which examples did you find? Here are three that you might have come
across:
•• One example of a commodity chemical is ethanol, which has many

different uses, for instance as an engine fuel, an antiseptic and
a component of alcoholic drinks. As an ingredient in alcoholic drinks,
it is produced in a continuous process that involves fermentation.
•• Pyridine, which is used in pesticides and as a solvent, is an example of
a fine chemical. It is produced in a batch process.
•• Companies producing speciality chemicals often tailor-make them for
specific uses for specific customers. One example is ethylene diamine
dihydroiodide, which is used as a supplement in animal feeds to provide
a good source of iodine for farm animals.
You could of course have mentioned many other examples.
In answering question 2, you should have considered whether the process

is something that is used continuously, such as a pool filter, or intermit-
tently, such as a washing machine.
If you are unsure about your answers, discuss them with your fellow stu-
dents in the discussions space for the module on the myUnisa site.
3.2.2 Components of a chemical process

In the manufacturing of chemical products, various steps are undertaken to
convert the raw materials to the required product.
Raw materials are basic, unprocessed materials that are found in nature. Air,
water, fossil fuels (such as coal, crude oil, natural gas), minerals and biomass
are examples of raw materials.
Products are materials that have been processed from raw materials. Products
satisfy some market need. Examples of products in the chemical industry
include petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, food products, etc.
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53 CH F1501/1

Figure 3.1 provides a generic representation of the various steps required to

convert raw materials to products. A chemical process may contain some or
all of these elements. A chemical engineer is required to select, arrange and
design the equipment to perform the functions of each stage.
FIGURE 3.1
Schematic representation of a chemical process. Adapted from Towler and
Sinnott (2012)
Let us take a further look at each of these components.
(i) Raw material storage
Raw materials (feedstock) can be supplied either from another chemical facility
or delivered to the plant. If the raw materials are not sourced from a nearby
chemical plant, the raw materials have to be stored on the premises. The
requirements for the storage facility are determined by, amongst others, the
quantity needed daily, the properties of the raw materials, corrosiveness, etc.
Liquids and gases are usually stored in tanks, whereas solids (such as coal) are
stored as open stockpiles, or in warehouses, bunkers, silos, bins and hoppers.
If the feed is delivered in batches (e.g. tanker, rail car, road truck), several
days’ or weeks’ storage of the raw material is required. If the feed is delivered
continuously (e.g. pipelines or conveyors), a few hours’ or days’ worth of raw
material should be stored due to possible interruptions in supply. A tank farm
for gas, as shown in Figure 3.2, is an example of storage facilities.
...........
54
FIGURE 3.2
Spherical gas tank farm
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=191898)
(ii) Feed preparation
Raw materials may require a certain level of preparation and purification

before they undergo a chemical/physical change. This may include correcting
the temperature, pressure, concentration and phase of the raw materials to
match the conditions required for the next processing step. The feed material
might also not be in the suitable form (or size) and therefore may necessitate
processing. For example, solid materials might require crushing, grinding or
screening. Another requirement may be the purification of the raw materials.
Feed materials are rarely pure. For example, certain impurities in the feed
material might poison the catalyst used in the reaction stage, and therefore
these contaminants should be removed prior to the reaction stage (reactor).
For example, sulphur content in diesel contributes significantly to particulate

matter (PM) emissions from vehicles. Low-sulphur diesel with a concentration
of less than 50 ppm (if you do not remember what ppm stands for, go back
to Learning Unit 2 to refresh your memory) helps to reduce these exhaust
emissions. SASOL is able to produce diesel with a sulphur content of 10
ppm. Remember, SASOL produces diesel from coal or natural gas. During
the process, sulphur has to be removed as it is a poison for the catalyst that is
used to convert ‘syngas’ (produced from coal or natural gas) into hydrocarbons
(diesel contains a certain fraction of hydrocarbons).
Another example is coal that is used to produce electricity or gasified to produce

syngas. Coal that comes from the mine (run-of-mine coal) should be prepared
before the combustion/gasification step in order to improve the quality of the
coal and therefore to improve the efficiency of the process and to reduce the
emissions from the process. Coal is prepared by crushing and screening the
coal to reduce the size and mineral content/impurities of the coal in order
to have a more homogenous feed material. The coal is then cleaned using
different methods and “dewatered” to remove moisture.
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55 CH F1501/1

(iii) Reaction
In the reaction stage, the raw materials are converted into a product (or
products). The conditions applied (i.e. temperature, pressure, composition
of materials) in the reactor ensure the most efficient conversion of the raw
materials. In most cases, the formation of the desired product is accompanied
by the formation of unwanted or by-products. The optimal conditions applied
sometimes require that some raw materials have to be added in excess. This
results in some of the raw material being present at the end of the reaction. The
excess raw material and by-products require the separation and purification
of the process stream.
For example, the Sasol Advanced Synthol (SAS) reactor converts syngas (mainly
carbon monoxide and hydrogen) into hydrocarbons. The reactor weighs about
700 tons, is 8 m in diameter and about 12 storeys (38 m) tall.
You can view photos of the reactor at the following webpage:
http://www.sasol.co.za/media-centre/media-releases/abnormal-load-
two-lanes-wide-and-three-stories-high-transported-richards
(iv) Product separation
The separation of the excess raw material and/or by-products from the desired
product ensures that the overall efficiency of the process is improved. The
recovered raw material is then recycled to either the feed preparation stage or
the entrance of the reactor. In this stage, the byproducts can also be removed
from the products.
Examples of equipment used for product separation include distillation columns,

membranes, absorption columns, etc.
Some of the by-products removed in this stage could be classified as waste.

In order to reduce the severity of the environmental impact of this waste, the
waste streams require treatment before disposal. There are various processes
that could be used to treat waste streams, such as incineration, absorption,
neutralization or biological treatment.
(v) Purification
This stage is required to ensure that the product sold to consumers meet
the required specifications. Examples include the same units as for product
separation, such as distillation columns. Driers are used to remove liquids from
products in order to produce a dry product, similar to drying your clothes in
a dryer at home.
(vi) Product storage
Storage facilities are required to accommodate the product before it is shipped

to the consumer. The design of the facility is determined by the properties of
the product.
...........
56
In addition to these stages, chemical processes require utilities such as process

water, cooling water, electricity, compressed air and steam. Offsites (such
as environmental control facilities, fire protection systems) and auxiliary
buildings (administration offices, laboratories, control rooms, etc.) should
also be considered.
Depending on the desired product, several process blocks might be required,

for example, a process may include more than one reaction and separation
block in series.
In designing a process, one should not design units in isolation, as it should

be quite clear that each stage would have an effect on the next stage, for
example, the reactor would affect the separation design and vice versa. Rather,
the design should take the entire system into consideration.
3.2.3 Unit operations

In most processes, the unit operations discussed below are required to convert
the raw material into the products.
•• Transportation of solids and fluids
Solid materials may have to be transferred from the storage facility to the next
stage of the process. Solids are usually transported by conveyors, including
pneumatic conveyors or mechanical conveyors. Solids are sometimes transported
as slurries (a mixture of solids and liquids) using pipelines.
In order to transfer fluids, a pipe system is usually utilised. In the case of liquids,
it is often necessary to pump the fluid. There are different types of pumps that
can be utilised. In the case of gases, compressors are normally used.
•• Heat transfer
In many chemical processes, process streams need to be either heated or

cooled. Furthermore, process equipment may require energy (in the form
of heat) or may release energy. Heat exchangers are employed to control
the energy in the system by either adding or removing energy (and thus for
heating and cooling streams). Different types of heat exchangers are available,
such as shell and tube heat exchangers, double pipe heat exchangers, plate
and frame heat exchangers, etc. The units bring the process streams in close
contact without mixing them. Cooling towers are usually used in conjunction
with heat exchangers to control the temperature of process streams. Different
types are available, including natural draft, forced draft, induced draft, etc.
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57 CH F1501/1

FIGURE 3.3
Cooling tower
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CoolingTower.png
FIGURE 3.4
Heat exchanger
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Double-Pipe_Heat_
Exchanger.png
...........
58
•• Separation
In many instances, a process stream consisting of a mixture of components

has to be separated. Various types of separation unit operations are utilised
in the chemical industry. The choice of separation method usually depends
on the properties of the components being separated.
a. Distillation and gas absorption
Distillation columns are applied to separate liquids with different volatilities

(boiling points). Distillation is the most common separation technique
utilised in the chemical industry. Gas absorption towers are used to recover
gas components from gas streams.
FIGURE 3.5
Distillation columns
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Colonne_distillazione.jpg
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59 CH F1501/1

b. Extraction and leaching
In the leaching process, a component is recovered by using a solvent (usually

a liquid). In gold recovery, potassium cyanide is used to leach gold from the
ore. This is achieved in large stirred vessels.
c. Adsorption
Adsorption can be used to recover a component from a fluid onto the surface
of a solid (adsorbent).
d. Drying and evaporation
Dryers are applied to reduce the liquid content of process streams. Different
types are available, for example spray dryers, fluidised bed dryers and rotary
drum dryers.
e. Reactors
These unit operations are applied to convert reactants into products. These
include crystallisers, fluidised bed reactors and packed bed reactors.
f. Mixing and agitation
Mixing and agitation are important as these processes ensure the uniform
distribution of components in reactors and other processes. The type of mixer
blade used is important. When making coffee, you use a spoon to mix the
ingredients to ensure the coffee is homogeneously sweet. If you used a fork,
mixing would have been more difficult. When beating an egg, a fork is much
more effective than a spoon.
g. Mechanical processing
There are many unit operations for handling solids and particles. For example,
solid particles can be reduced in size by crushing and milling.
You can read more about various unit operations at the following webpage:
http://encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/Pages/menu.html
13 Ac tivit y 3. 2
(1) Compile a table with the following headings:
Unit operation Brief explanation Example
(2) Match the items in the first column with those in the second column.
...........
60
Aim Unit operation that

should be used
1 Removing ammonia from a gas stream A Heat transfer by means

using water of a heat exchanger
2 Desalinating sea water by heating the B Leaching

water
3 Getting water from a water storage tank C Absorption

to a distillation tower
4 Extracting gold from ore using a cyanide D Adsorption

solution
5 Treating a sugar solution with charcoal E Distillation

powder to give the sugar a pure white
colour
6 Taking heat from an aircraft engine’s oil F Transportation by

system to heat cold fuel means of a pump
system
How did you do with question 2? The answers are 1C, 2E, 3F, 4B, 5D and 6A.
3.3 PROCESS VARIABLES
3.3.1 Mass, volume and density

Mass refers to the amount of matter in an object. This can be quantified using
different methods. One method is to use the relationship between force, mass
and acceleration. When a force is applied to a body, the body with more mass
accelerates slower than a body with less mass (F = m a). Another method is
to use a balance to measure the mass of the object directly.
The volume of an object can be determined using different methods. One

method is to make direct measurements using the geometry of the object. This
can be done relatively easy for objects with a uniform shape. A second method
is to use a displacement technique (based on the Archimedes principle). The
object is placed in a known volume of fluid. The volume of the displaced fluid
is the same as the volume of the object.
The mass and volume of an object is linked by the density of the object.
Density is defined as the ratio of mass and volume:
m

ρ=
V
3.1
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61 CH F1501/1

where ρ (rho) density of object [kg.m-3]
m mass of object [kg]
V volume of object [m3]
Table 3.1. gives a list of the density of some common materials. The densities
of other substances are listed in standard reference
books such as Perry’s Chemical Engineering
Handbook. The inverse of density is known as the
specific volume.
The density of a substance varies with temperature

and pressure. For liquids and solids, the variation
with pressure is normally not significant, whereas the
variation with temperature can be quite significant.
Watch the following video clip regarding mass, volume and density:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GnBQ6vIutDM
Density can be represented as dimensionless quantities (remember this term

from Learning Unit 1), namely relative density (RD) and specific gravity (SG).
Relative density is defined as the ratio of the density of the object to that of a
reference substance.

3.2
relative density [dimensionless]

ρ subs tan ce density of object [kg.m-3]
ρ reference density of reference material [kg.m-3]
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of the object and the
density of water at 4 °C as reference material. The density of water at 4 °C is
1000 kg.m-3.

3.3
You should also take note of the difference in absolute density and bulk density.
This is quite important when the collective density of a number of objects is
determined. Take, for example, a glass with small rocks. See Figure 3.6.
...........
62
FIGURE 3.6
Different volumes for solids in a container
Due to the shape of the rocks, voids are left between individual particles.
The volume of the empty glass is known and the mass of the rocks can be
determined using a balance.
The density determined by dividing the total mass of the rocks by the total
volume of the glass is known as the bulk density. When the voidage volume,
the volume occupied by air between particles (see Figure 3.6) is subtracted
from the total volume, the actual volume of the particles is obtained.
The ratio of the total mass and the actual volume of the rocks is known as the
absolute density. If all the rocks are made of the same material, the individual
density of each particle should be the same as the absolute density.
In the case of bulk density, the voidage volume is in effect filled with air.
This will result in a drastic reduction in the density compared to that of the
absolute density.
EXAMPLE
The total volume of a container is 350 ml. Silica particles are added to the
container to fill it completely. The container is filled with 520 g silica. The
density of silica is 2700 kg.m-3. Determine:
(i) the bulk density of the material

(ii) the voidage volume and voidage fraction
(iii) the specific gravity of the bulk sample
Answer
(i) The bulk density is defined as the total mass divided by the total volume
occupied by the material. The unit for mass is kilogram, while the unit of
volume is cubic meter. The volume and mass should therefore be converted
to the correct units.
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63 CH F1501/1

Mass:
Volume:
Bulk density:
The total volume occupied by the silica includes the actual volume of the
particles as well as the voidage volume. The voidage volume can be determined
from the bulk density and the actual density of silica. The total volume is the
sum of the voidage volume and the actual volume of the silica particles. The
actual density of the silica is supplied, therefore the actual volume can be
determined. In both these densities the mass is the same and only the volume
used differs.
Consider the actual density of the silica:

m therefore, the actual volume is equal to:
ρ actual =
Vactual
VTotal = Vactual + Vvoidage = 0.00019 m 3 + Vvoidage = 0.00035 m 3
Vvoidage = 0.00016 m 3
The voidage fraction, ε, is the fraction of the voidage volume and total volume:
Vvoidage 0.00016 m 3
ε= = = 0.457
Vtotal 0.00035 m 3
The specific gravity of the bulk sample is the ratio of the bulk density and the
density of water at 4 oC:
...........
64
TABLE 3.1
List of densities at 0 °C and 100 kPa
ρ [kg/m3] ρ [kg/m3] ρ [kg/m3]
air 1.29 ethanol 0.79 ×103 mercury 13.6 ×103
aluminium 2.7 × 103 glass 2.6 × 103 petrol 0.68 × 103
benzene 0.90 × 103 glycerol 1.26 × 103 platinum 21.4 ×103
blood 1.05 × 103 gold 19.3 ×103 silver 10.5 × 103
bone 1.9 × 103 granite 2.7 ×103 uranium 18.95 × 103
brass 8.6 × 103 helium 0.179 water (ice) 0.917 × 103
carbon dioxide 1.98 iron/steel 7.8×103 water (4°C) 1.00 × 103
concrete 2.3 ×103 lead 11.3 × 103 water (sea) 1.025 × 103
copper 8.9 ×103 magnesium 1.75 × 103 water (steam) 0.598
14 Ac tivit y 3. 3
(1) The specific gravity (SG) of methanol is 0.79125/4 (specific gravity of methanol
at 25 °C relative to liquid water at 4°C). Calculate the density of methanol
in lb/ft3.
(2) What is meant by API gravity?
(3) Using Table 3.1, discuss why you should never freeze a full, sealed glass
bottle of water.
(4) Explain what a hydrometer is used for and how it operates.
dents using the discussion tool of module on the myUnisa site.
3.3.2 Flow rate of a process stream

The amount of material flowing through a system per unit time is known as
a flow rate. In chemical engineering, it is of utmost importance to determine
the flow rate of streams in a process. This information is used to perform mass
and energy balances on the system (you will study these important concepts
later). The performance of a process is analysed using these concepts.
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65 CH F1501/1

Flow rate can be represented either as a mass, molar or volumetric flow rate.
As the material (liquids or gases) is normally flowing in a pipe, the shape and
size of the pipe will have an effect on the flow rate.
The flow rate of a stream can be measured using a flow meter, which is usually
installed in the process line to give a continuous measurement of the flow
rate. There are various types of flow meters. Rotameters and orifice plates are
examples of flow meters.
The following website explains the principles of the operation of flow meters:
http://encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/Pages/Flowmeters/
DifferentialPressure/DifferentialPressure.html
Mass flow rate is defined as the mass of material flowing through a conduit
(pipe) per unit time. This is represented mathematically as follows:
• m
m= 3.4
t
•
where m mass flow rate [kg.s-1] (note that the dot indicates that it is a flow rate)
m mass of material [kg]
t time to flow [s]
Note that sometimes the symbol F may be used to denote the mass flow rate.
Process streams often consist of more than one component. The mass flow rate
of a composite process stream (a stream that contains more than one compound)
is equal to the mass flow rate of the individual compounds of the stream. This
is represented as follows:
• • • • n •
m total = m A + m B + m C + ... = ∑ m i

3.5
i =1
The individual compound mass flow rates can be determined using the
mass fraction, xi, of each compound. The mass fraction of a compound is
defined as the ratio of the mass of the compound divided by the total mass of
all compounds in the process stream. This is defined as follows:
•

mA mA
xA = = •
mTotal m Total
3.6
The same units for mass should be used in the numerator and denominator so
that the fraction can be without units. In addition, the sum of the individual
mass fractions of the compounds in the stream must be equal to 1. (Sometimes,
a mass percent is utilised, i.e. mass fraction of a compound × 100%.)
...........
66
n
x A + x B + xC + . = ∑ xi = 1
i =1 3.7
This definition can also be used to determine the individual mass flow rates:
• •

m A = x A m Total 3.8
The unit of mass flow rate is [kg∙s-1].
The definition of volumetric flow rate is defined as the volume of material

flowing through a conduit (pipe) per unit time. This is represented mathematically
as follows:

• V
Q= 3.9
t
•
where Q volumetric flow rate [m3∙s-1]
V volume of material [m3]
t time of flow [s]
The relationship between mass and volume (as discussed in section 3.4.1) is
also applicable to mass flow rate and volumetric flow rate. As defined earlier,
mass and volume are related by the density of the material. Therefore, the
relationship between volumetric and mass flow rate is defined as follows:
• •
m=Q ρ 3.10
where mass flow rate [kg∙s-1]
volumetric flow rate [m3∙s-1]
ρ density of material [kg∙m-3]
{check units [(kg.s-1) = (m3.s-1) (kg.m-3) = (kg.s-1)}
The velocity of a material flowing in a conduit (such as a pipe) is also important

as it is used to determine various design parameters (e.g. work required for a
pump) which you will study in later modules. The velocity of the material is
defined as the distance travelled per unit time. This is represented mathematically
as follows:
s
v= 3.11
t
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67 CH F1501/1
where v velocity of material [m.s-1]
s distance travelled [m]
t time of flow [s]
As the material is flowing in a conduit, the volumetric flow rate and the velocity
are related by the dimensions of the conduit, in other words, a conduit with
a larger cross-sectional area will have a higher flow rate than a conduit with
a smaller cross-sectional area. When determining the relationship between
velocity and volumetric flow rate, it is very important to remember that it
is the cross-sectional area of the conduit that should be used and not the
surface area. The relationship between volumetric flow rate and velocity is
represented as follows:
3.12
•
where Q volumetric flow rate [m3.s-1]
v velocity [m.s-1]
cross-sectional area [m2]
For a pipe, the cross-sectional area is defined as follows:
3.13
where cross-sectional area [m2]

di diameter of pipe [m]
15 Ac tivit y 3.4
Orange juice (SG = 1.05) is piped through a 1.5-inch ID (inside diameter)
pipe at 18 000 l/h. Determine the following:
• the velocity of the orange juice in m/s

• the mass flow rate in kg/s
The flow rate of material can also be expressed in terms of a molar basis. This
is particularly convenient for calculations where reactions are involved. The
molar flow rate is defined as the number of moles of a material flowing per
unit time. This is represented mathematically as follows:
• n
n= 3.14
t
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68
•
where n molarflowrate [mol∙s-1]
n amount of moles [mol]
t time of flow [s]
Molar flow rate and the other flow rates are linked using the following relations:
with units
3.15
where M is the molecular mass (weight) of material [kg.mol-1]. Please refresh

your memory if you have forgotten what the molecular mass represents.
Here are a few video clips to refresh your memory regarding molecular weights:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_WXndBGQnyI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UL1jmJaUkaQ
Please take care with the unit of the molecular mass (weight), as it is usually
supplied as gram per mol. This should be converted to the units required in
the given equation.
In the case of a composite process stream (mixture of more than one com-
pound),thetotalmolarflowrateisthesumoftheindividualcompoundmolar
flowrates.Mathematically,thisisrepresentedasfollows:
• • • • n •
n total = n A + n B + n C + ... = ∑ n i
3.16
i =1
Theindividualcompoundmolarflowratescanbedeterminedusingthemolar
fraction, yi, of each compound.
Themolarfractionofacompoundisdefinedastheratiooftheamountof
moles of a compound divided by the total amount of moles of all compounds
in the process stream.
...........
69 CH F1501/1

This is defined as follows:

•
3.17
nA nA
yA = = •
nTotal n Total
The same units for moles should be used in the numerator and denominator
so that the fraction is without units. In addition, the sum of the individual frac-
tions of the compounds in the stream is equal to 1 (sometimes a molar percent
is utilised, in other words molar fraction of a compound × 100%).
n
y A + y B + yC + . = ∑ yi = 1
i =1 3.18
This definition can also be used to determine the individual molar flow rates:
• •
n A = y A n Total 3.19
The unit of molar flow rate is [mol.s-1].
EXAMPLE
Consider a process stream consisting only of compound A. The total flow rate of
the stream is 20 mol.s-1. The stream data is presented in the table below:
Compound Molecular
mass
[g.mol-1]
A 55
Determine the mass flow rate of A.
Answer
The molar flow rate can be converted to a mass flow rate using the molecular
mass of A. Therefore,
Mass flow rate of A = Mole flow rate of A × Molecular mass of A
= 20 mol.s-1 × 55 g.mol-1 = 1100 g.s-1 = 1.1 kg.s-1
Note: In this case, the process stream consists only of A, therefore the total
process stream flow rate is equal to the flow rate of compound A. In a composite
stream this is not the case.
...........
70
16 Ac tivit y 3. 5
A process stream consists of methanol (CH3OH) and water. The total stream
flow rate is 2 kg/s. The mass % of methanol in the stream is 40%. Determine
the following for the stream:
•• the mass flow rate of methanol

•• the mass flow rate of water
•• the total molar flow rate of the stream
•• the mole fraction of methanol
dents using the discussion tool of the module on the myUnisa site.
For a review of some of the key concepts relating to flow rates, you could
view online video clips.
Mole, mass and volumetric flow rates:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kvG6Th2HF64
Mass flow rate, volumetric flow rate, velocity and cross sectional area:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y1QrCJ4tcDg
In many instances, we are provided with the mole fractions/percentages

of components in a mixture and we would like to know the mass fractions/
percentages (or vice versa). In this case, we would need to convert between
the mole fractions and mass fractions.
We normally assume an amount of material (we call this the basis). Assume some
value that is reasonable and convenient (i.e. that will make your calculation
easier).
Consider the following example:
NaOH is expressed as a 20% (weight/weight) solution. Express this in mol

fraction. MW(NaOH) = 40kg/kmol; MW(water) = 18 kg/kmol.
Basis: 100 kg solution
Mass NaOH = mass fraction of NaOH × total mass

= 0.2 × 100
= 20 kg
Mass water = mass fraction of water × total mass

= (1 – 0.2) ×100
= 80 kg
Moles of NaOH = mass NaOH / molecular mass NaOH

= 20 kg / 40 kg/mol
= 0.5 kmol
...........
71 CH F1501/1

Moles of water = mass water / molecular mass water

= 80 kg / 18 kg/mol
= 4.44 kmol
Total moles = 0.5 kmol + 4.44 kmol = 4.94 kmol
NaOH mol = moles of NaOH / total moles
fraction = 0.5 kmol / 4.94 kmol
= 0.101
Water mol = kmol water / total kmol
fraction = 4.44 kmol / 4.94 kmol = 0.899
Check your answer by ensuring that the mol fractions add up to one.
17 Ac tivit y 3.6
Air has an approximate molar composition of 79% N2 and 21% O2. De-
termine the mass composition and the average molecular weight of air.
dents using the discussion tool of the module on the myUnisa site.
A video clip on converting between mass and mole fractions:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mYtJBM1U2v4
3.3.3 Concentration
The concentration of compounds in a process stream is very important to a
chemical engineer. This is particularly true if the stream consists of a number
of compounds.
Concentration is defined as the amount of a component (or solute) present

per unit volume of solution.
This can be represented in molar or mass format.
Molar concentration is defined as the ratio of mole amount of a component

(or solute) per unit volume of solution. This can also be expressed as the ratio
of the molar flow rate to the volumetric flow rate.
...........
72
 mol 
•  
n n  mol = mol = s 
cn = =  m3 m3 m3 
V Q•   3.20
 s 
where cn molar concentration [mol∙m-3]
n mole amount of compound [mol]
V solution volume [m3]
molar flow rate [mol∙s-1]
Mass concentration is defined as the ratio of mass amount of a component

per unit volume of solution. Similarly, it can be expressed as the ratio of the
mass flow rate to the volumetric flow rate.
•
m m
cm = = •
V Q
3.21
where cm mass concentration [kg∙m-3]
m mole amount of compound [kg]
V solution volume [m3]
mass flow rate [mol∙s-1]
The two concentrations are linked through the molecular mass (weight) of
the compound. This is represented by the following equation:
cm = cn M 3.22
The concentration of trace species (for example, pollutants in air) can also be
expressed as parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb). These usually
describe mole fractions for gases and mass fractions for solids and liquids
(dimensionless quantities).
For example, scientists claim that the upper limit or target level of carbon dioxide
(CO2) in the atmosphere is 350 ppm – this means that a million moles of air
should contain a maximum of 350 moles of carbon dioxide, or equivalently
the mole fraction of CO2 in air is 350 × 10 -6.
...........
73 CH F1501/1

Note that you might come across non-dimensionless concentrations (such as

g of solute/L of solution) being described in terms of ppm or ppb. In reality,
this is incorrect. For example, the concentration of barium in water is stated
as 2 ppm, which is equivalent to 2 mg/L – the assumption being that 1 kg
of water = 1L (based on the density of water and that the solution is dilute).
A video clip explaining the concept of ppm:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W_L4O-uqeRE
EXAMPLE
A 6 (mass) % solution of NaCl has a density of 1.041 g/mL.
(i) Determine the molarity (molar concentration in mol/L) of the solution.

(ii) Calculate the mass flow rate of NaCl if the volumetric flow rate of the
solution is 0.5 m3/min.
Answer
(i) In order to determine the molarity, we need to calculate the number

of moles of NaCl. Let us start by assuming 100 g of solution (this is our
basis). 6.0 g of the solution will be NaCl. Therefore, the number of moles
of NaCl is given as:
The volume of 100 g solution can be determined from the density of the
solution.
Thus, the molarity of the 6% solution is
(ii) We need to calculate the mass concentration first. We can do this by

converting the molar concentration into a mass concentration.
The mass flow rate of NaCl can be calculated from the volumetric flow rate
and the mass concentration.
...........
74
Is there an easier way to solve the second part of the problem?
18 Ac tivit y 3.7
(1) The flow rate of a 5-molar solution of hydrochloric acid is 5 m3/h. The
specific gravity of the solution is 1.08. Calculate the following:
(a) the mass concentration in kg/m3

(b) the mass flow rate in kg/s
(c) the mass fraction of hydrochloric acid
(2) Battery acid has a density of 1.285 g/cm3 and contains 38 weight % pure
H2SO4. How many moles of H2SO4 are contained in 2.5 litres of battery
acid?
(3) The city of Johannesburg has a population of 4.5 million people. Each
person consumes 130 gallons of water daily. The city is considering fluori-
dating the water using sodium fluoride (NaF) such that the concentration
of fluoride is 1 ppm. How much sodium fluoride is required annually?
3.3.4 Atmospheric, absolute and gauge pressures

Pressure (P) is defined as force per unit area:
F [units N.m-2 = Pa (Pascal)] 3.23

P=
A
where F Force applied to surface (N)
A Surface area to which the force is applied (m2)
Various other units may be used to express pressure. For example, you may come
across pressure units such as “bar”, “atm”, “mmHg” or “psi”. You should be
able to convert between these units.
Consider a fluid contained in a cylinder. Consider an arbitrary layer, ∆h thick, of

which the top layer is at a depth h in a static fluid, as shown. The (downwards)
pressure on the upper surface is p, while the (upwards) pressure on the under
surface (at a depth of h + ∆h) is p + ∆p.
...........
75 CH F1501/1

Now consider all the forces

acting on the layer, as
illustrated in the adjacent
free body diagram. The
weight of the layer, W, is
given by
W = mg = ρVg = ρA∆hg.
Since the layer is stationary

(i.e. not accelerating), there
are no net forces acting on it either horizontally or vertically (i.e. ∑Fx = 0
and ∑Fy = 0).
A force balance on the layer gives the following:
Fup = Fdown + W
∴ (p + ∆p) A = pA + ρA∆hg = 0 and hence,
simplifying gives: ∆p = ρg∆h or p2 – p1 = ρg.(h2 – h1)
Thus, if h1 (= 0) is the surface (where p1 is the pressure of the atmosphere,

or patm) then at a depth h the absolute pressure pabs (i.e. the total pressure) is
given by:
Pabs = Patm + ρ g h
3.24
where
Patm atmospheric pressure (Pa)
ρ density of the fluid (kg.m-3)
g gravitational acceleration (m.s-2)
h height of the fluid (m)
At this depth, the pressure due only to the fluid (known as gauge pressure)
is given by:
Pgauge = ρ g h
3.25
...........
76
Notes •• Pressure is a scalar quantity (it acts in all directions).
•• Pressure is actually independent of cross-sectional area

and shape.
•• patm = 1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 760 mmHg
•• 1 bar = 105 Pa (≈ 1 atm)
•• Actually, pabs = pgauge + pext where pext is the external

pressure on the surface of the fluid.
According to Pascal’s principle: “Pressure applied to a
confined fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion
of the fluid and the walls of the container”.
∆p
•• The quantity ∆h (= ρ.g and which is therefore a constant
for incompressible fluids) is known as the pressure
gradient.
•• pgauge is negative in vacuums (and pabs is thus less than patm).
There are various ways of measuring pressure,

varying from simple gauges to electronic pressure
sensors. We shall study a few of these methods
in the sections to follow.
You can do further on the measurement of pres-
sure on the following website:
http://encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/Pages/ProcessParameters/
PressureMeasurement/PressureMeasurement.html
The Bourdon pressure gauge is probably the most commonly used device
to measure pressure. These gauges consist of an elliptical or oval tube that
is sealed at one end. When the open end experiences pressure, the tube
straightens itself in proportion to the pressure exerted. The tube is connected
to a pointer that moves over a calibrated scale indicating the gauge pressure.
When presenting the pressure in a vessel, at pressures below atmospheric
pressure, care should be taken. Most pressure gauges have a positive scale
and a negative scale. Atmospheric pressure is indicated as a value of zero. For
absolute pressures higher than atmospheric pressure, the gauge will indicate
a positive value. For a system with a partial vacuum, the gauge pressure will
be indicated by a negative value. This negative value indicates the difference
between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure. The vessel does
not have a negative pressure as this will mean there is less than nothing present
in the container.
...........
77 CH F1501/1

Measuring pressure in static fluids:
The open-tube manometer (a manometer is a U-shaped tube filled with a fluid

of known density (such as water or mercury)) is used to measure pressure in
static fluids.
Consider the figure above. The absolute pressures at the bottom due to each
tube are the same:
ρgh1 + punknown = ρgh2 + patm
∴ punknown – patm = ρgh2 – ρgh1
∴ pgauge = ρg∆h
(∆h is sometimes referred to as manometric height and ρ is the density of the

manometric fluid.)
In a manometer, pressures below atmospheric pressure are presented as

vacuum. For absolute pressures equal to atmospheric pressure, h1 is equal to
h2. When the absolute pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure, the force
of the atmosphere on the fluid (point 2) in the manometer is higher than the
force of the pressure of the process fluid on the other side of the manometer
fluid (point 1). This will provide a fluid distribution presented in the diagram
below. h1 will be larger than h2, resulting in an absolute pressure lower than
the atmospheric pressure.
ρ.g.h1 + pAbsolute = ρ.g.h2 + patm with h1 > h2
pAbsolute = patm +ρ.g.h2–ρ.g.h1 = patm +ρ.g.(h2–h1)
...........
78
Measuring pressure in a moving fluid: A differential manometer can be used

to measure the pressure difference between two points in a process line.
Consider the above figure. We would like to determine the pressure difference
P2- P1. We use the principle that the fluid pressure at any two points at the same
height must be equal. For example, point A and C are at the same pressure.
Using this fact, we can derive an equation relating P2 and P1.
So PA = P1 +ρ1gd1
and PC=PB+ρ2gh and PB=P2+ρ1gd2, thus PC=P2+ρ1gd2+ρ2gh
Since PA=PC, we have
P1 +ρ1gd1= P2+ρ1gd2+ρ2gh
Rearranging, P2-P1=ρ1gd1-ρ1gd2-ρ2gh
P2-P1=ρ1g (d1-d2) -ρ2gh and note that d1-d2 = h
P2-P1= g h (ρ1-ρ2)
Here are a few useful video clips on manometers:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5QEAHhXAu3M
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q1opScBlMkA&feature=youtu.
be&list=PL324604EAA66EA2F2
19 Ac tivit y 3. 8
(1) Explain the difference between absolute pressure, atmospheric pressure
and gauge pressure. How are these various terms related?
(2) Is atmospheric pressure always equal to 1 atm? What is the atmospheric

pressure in Johannesburg and Cape Town?
(3) What do you understand by the term “vacuum”?
...........
79 CH F1501/1

(4) A container of volume 0.4 m3 is filled in Cape Town with nitrogen (consid-
ered to be an ideal gas, recall the ideal gas law) to a pressure of 30 psig
at 20 °C. It is then transported to Johannesburg, where the pressure is
measured at 15 °C on a gauge calibrated in kPa.
(a) What pressure reading would you expect to obtain?
(5) A mercury manometer is connected to a tank as shown below and reads
64.5 cm Hg. If atmospheric pressure in 100 kPa, what is the absolute
pressure?
(6) Water flows in a pipe and the pressure is measured using a mercury
(density = 13.6 g/cm3) manometer. What is the pressure difference (in kPa)
between the two points? At which point is the pressure higher?
3.3.5 Temperature
A number of temperature scales have been developed to measure temperature.
These include Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (F), Rankine (R) and Kelvin (K). The former
two scales are based on a relative scale, that is a reference temperature is used
from which the temperature is measured. This reference point is selected as
the freezing point of water (32 °F or 0 °C).
Rankine (R) and Kelvin (K) apply an absolute scale. This means that the zero
value for each scale starts at the minimum possible temperature obtainable
according to the ideal gas law and laws of thermodynamics.
0 oC and the equivalent values on the other scales (32 °F, 492 R, 273 K) are
known as the values of the standard conditions of temperature.
...........
80
The relationship between the different temperature scales can be determined

mathematically using a number of equations. It should be noted that the unit
temperature difference between the temperature scales is as follows:
Δ R = Δ F and Δ °C = Δ K
As well as:
Δ °C = 1.8 Δ R = 1.8 Δ F = Δ K
In addition, the following table provides the relationship between the different
scales at fixed conditions:
Condition C
°
F R K
Boiling point of 100 212 672 373

water
Melting point of 0 32 492 273

ice
Absolute zero -273 -460 0 0
The relationship between the different temperature scales is linear. This can be
used to determine the mathematical relationship between the different scales.
The general linear relationship between the different temperature scales can
be represented by the following equation:
Tx = m Ty + d
Where Tx represents any temperature scale
Ty represents any of the other temperature scales
Let us determine the relationship between Rankine and degrees Celsius. The
standard equation is:
T R = m ToC + d
From the table, substitute values into the equation above.
(i) 0 = -273 m + d at absolute zero

(ii) 492 = 0 m + d at freezing point of water/melting point of ice
Determine the values for m and d (try this for yourself).
Therefore, TR = (492/ 273) ToC + 492 = 1.8 ToC + 492

...........
81 CH F1501/1

The relationships between the other scales can be determined in a similar way.
The relationships between the different temperature scales can be summarised
as follows:
TR = 1.8 ToC + 492 R 3.29
ToK = ToC + 273 K 3.30
ToF = 1.8 ToC + 32 oF 3.31
ToC = (1 / 1.8) (ToF – 32 oF) 3.32
Various methods are used to measure temperature. You are probably familiar
with a thermometer, which is a glass tube filled with a liquid (such as mercury).
As the temperature increases, the liquid expands and the temperature can be
determined by the volume of the fluid.
Other devices used include thermocouples, resistive temperature detectors

(RTD and thermistors) and pyrometers. A thermocouple consists of two different
metals connected at one end. When the temperature is increased, a voltage
is recorded at the juncture of the two metals. Resistive temperature detectors
work on the principle that a conductor’s electrical resistance changes with
temperature changes. Pyrometers measure the thermal radiation emitted by a
material to infer the temperature.
See the following webpage for more information on temperature measurement:
http://encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/Pages/ProcessParameters/
TemperatureMeasurement/TemperatureMeasurement.html
20 Ac tivit y 3.9
You would like to construct a new temperature scale based on ethanol
called the °E scale. Ethanol freezes at 0 °E and boils at 193 °E. Develop a
formula that converts between °C and °E. What is the boiling point of
water in °E?
(Data for ethanol: melting point -115 °C; boiling point 78°C.)
3.4 EXAMPLES
The questions below will give you the opportunity to practice the various
calculations that were presented in this learning unit.
Density calculations
The density of a substance in a 200 ml container was determined. The actual

density of the substance was determined to be 3500 kg/m3. The voidage in
the container was 0.42. Calculate the bulk density of the material.
...........
82
A sample consists of two compounds. The actual density of compound A is

4000 kg/m3 and of compound B 2600 kg/m3. The sample contains 350 g of
A and 650 g B. Calculate the following:
(i) volume fraction for different components

(ii) mass fraction for different components
(iii) density of the mixture (use two methods)
Flow rate calculations
(1) A process stream consists of three components, namely methanol, ethanol

and butanol. The total mass flow rate was set at 6.5 kg/s. The composition
of the stream is presented below:
Compound Mass fraction Molecular mass

[kg/kmol]
Methanol 0.25 32
Ethanol 0.45 46
Butanol 0.30 60
(i) Determine the total mole flow rate.

(ii) Calculate the mole fraction of each component in the stream.
(2) Consider a process stream consisting of three compounds, namely A, B

and C. The total flow rate of the stream is 20 mol.s-1. The stream data is
presented in the table below:
Compound Molecular mass Molar concentration

[g.mol-1] in process stream
[mol.m-3]
A 55 2
B 65 1.5
C 45 0.8
(i) Determine the molar flow rate of A, B and C individually.

(ii) Determine the mass concentration of A, B and C in the process stream.
(iii) Determine the mass flow rate of A, B and C individually.
(iv) Determine the total mass flow rate of the process stream.
...........
83 CH F1501/1

Pressure calculations
An inflated balloon is attached to a rock and dropped into a pool of water.

The balloon settles at a depth of 8 m below the water surface. Calculate the
following:
(i) the gauge pressure of the balloon

(ii) the absolute pressure of the balloon
Atmospheric pressure can be taken as 101 kPa.
The reading on a manometer is 340 mm Hg. What is the pressure in inches

water and kPa?
The readings on a mercury manometer were determined to be 120 mm for h1

and 105 mm for h2. Calculate the gauge pressure and absolute pressure. The
atmospheric pressure was 100 kPa.
Temperature calculations
Convert 245 K to oC, oF and R.
What is a change in 1 oC in K, oF and R?
3.5 ANSWERS
Check your own answers against those given below.
Density calculations
1. The actual density is determined using the following equation:
Also with
Mass of compound in sample:
Bulk density calculated as follows:
2.
...........
84
Com- Mass Volume [m3] Mass fraction Volume

pound [kg] fraction
A 0.350 0.350 / 4000 = 8.75E-05 m3 8.75 x 10 -5 / 3.38 x 10 -4 = 0.35/1 = 0.35

0.259
B 0.650 0.650 / 2600 = 2.50E-04 m3 2.54 x 10 -5 / 3.38 x 10 -4 0.65/1 = 0.65

= 0.741
Total 1.000 3.380E-04 m3
(i) Volume fraction is determined as follows:
(ii) Mass fraction is determined as follows:
(iii) Therefore, the density of the sample is:
An alternative method of determining the density of the mixture is calculated

using the density of the individual components and the volume fractions.
...........
85 CH F1501/1

Flow rate calculations
1.
(i) Determine the total mole flow rate.
The mass flow rate of the individual components is determined using the
following equation:
The individual mole flow rates are determined using the following equation:
Compound Molecular mass Mole flow rate

[kg/kmol] [kmol/s]
Methanol 32 1.625 / 32 = 0.051
Ethanol 46 2.925 / 46 = 0.064
Butanol 60 1.950 / 60 = 0.033
Total 0.147
(ii) Calculate the mole fraction of each component in the stream.
Compound Mole flow rate Mole fraction

[kmol/s]
Methanol 1.625 / 32 = 0.051 0.051/0.147 = 0.35
Ethanol 2.925 / 46 = 0.064 0.064/0.147 = 0.43
Butanol 1.950 / 60 = 0.033 0.033/0.147 = 0.22
Total 1.00
...........
86
2.
(i) Determine the molar flow rate of A, B and C individually.
The total mole flow rate of the process stream is the sum of the
individual compounds. In order to determine the individual compound molar
flow rates, the molar fraction of each compound in the process should be
determined. The molar fraction is determined by using a basis and then
calculating the total amount of moles present.
Using the following equation, we shall be able to determine the individual

mole flow rates:
ṅ A = xAṅTotal
The selection of the appropriate basis will be discussed in a later chapter. In

this case we shall select a basis of 1 m3 and calculate the amount of A, B and
C in this amount. ṁṅ
BASIS Volume = 1 m3
The amount of moles of A present in 1 m3 is determined as follows:
 mol 
(
n A = c AV =  2 3  1 m 3 = 2 mol)
 m 
 mol 
( )
n B = c B V = 1.5 3  1 m 3 = 1.5 mol
m 

mol 

( )
n C = c C V =  0.8 3  1 m 3 = 0.8 mol
m 

Total amount of moles present in basis = n A + n B + n C = 2 + 1.5 + 0.8 =

4. 3 mol.
The mole fraction of each compound is determined as follows:
nA 2
xA = = = 0.465
nTotal 4.3
nB 1.5
xB = = = 0.349
nTotal 4.3
...........
87 CH F1501/1

nC 0.8
xC = = = 0.186
nTotal 4.3
The molar flow rate of the individual compounds is then determined using
the individual molar fractions and the total molar flow rate:
(ii) Determine the mass concentration of A, B and C in the process stream.
When converting one concentration form to another, a basis should be selected

to perform these calculations. In this case, a basis of 1 m3 is selected. The
following set of calculations should be performed for all the compounds.
For compound A
Basis V = 1 m3
Amount of mole of A: n A = c n V = (2 ) (1) = 2 mol
Mass of A = 55 [g.mol-1] x 2 [mol.m-3] = 110 g
Mass concentration =
...........
88
Compound Molecular Mole con- Mass per basis Mass

mass centration in concentration
[g]
process stream
[g.mol-1] [kg.m-3]
[mol.m-3]
A 55 2 0.110
B 65 1.5 97.5 0.098
C 45 0.8 36 0.036
(iii) Determine the mass flow rate of A, B and C individually.
A number of ways can be applied to determine the mass flow rates of the
individual compounds in the process stream. In this case, the molar flow rate
of each compound is available and can therefore be used to determine the
corresponding mass flow rate.
Mass flow rate of A:
(iv) Determine the total mass flow rate of the process stream.
The total mass flow rate of the process stream is equal to the sum of the
individual compounds:
• • • •
mTotal = m A + m B + mC
...........
89 CH F1501/1

The mass fractions of the individual compounds are determined as follows:
Pressure calculations
1.
Diagram of problem
(i)
The water exerts a pressure on the balloon. This pressure is determined by

the height of the water above the balloon. The gauge pressure of the balloon
can be determined using the following equation:
(ii) The total pressure is the sum of the gauge pressure and the atmospheric
pressure
...........
90
2.
also
The gauge pressure can be determined using two methods.
Method 1
Method 2
Or
A negative value indicates that the system is under vacuum. Therefore, the
gauge pressure is 4 kPa vacuum.
The absolute pressure is Patm + Pgauge = 100 + (-4) = 96 kPa.
Temperature calculations
Convert 245 K to oC, oF and R.
From equation 3.30:
ToC = ToK–273 K 3.30

= 245 – 273
= -28 oC
From equation 3.29
ToR = 1.8 ToC + 492 oR3.29

= 1.8 (-28) + 492
= 441.6 oR
From Equation 3.31
ToF = 1.8 ToC + 32 oF3.31

= 1.8 (-28) + 32
= -18.4 oF
...........
91 CH F1501/1

What is a change in 1 oC in K, oF and R?
Kelvin: 1K
o
F: 1.8 oF
o
R: 1.8 oR
21 Ac tivit y 3.10
Think back about everything you learnt in this unit. What would you say
were the two most important things you learnt that you did not know
before? How might these insights help you in future?
3.6 REFERENCES
D.W. Green and R.H. Perry (eds), Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook,
8th edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007.
G. Towler and R.K. Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Design: Principles, Practice
and Economics of Plant and Process Design, 2nd edition, Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2012.
...........
92
LEARNING UNIT
4 4
4 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL BALANCES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Reading: Please study chapters 3, 4 and 6 of your prescribed textbook
(Himmelblau and Riggs) in conjunction with this learning unit.
A material balance is an application of one of the fundamental laws of physics.

It is a law of conservation and simply means that material cannot be created or
destroyed. Material balances (or mass balances) are widely used in chemical
engineering. It is a very important and useful tool for analysing and designing
process units and chemical processes. A material balance is probably the first
law you will apply to most chemical engineering problems that you encounter.
In this learning unit, you will learn how to develop and apply material balances
to various chemical engineering systems.
We attempt to develop a general strategy to solve material balance problems

so that you can apply this strategy to any possible problem (since there is
an infinite number of possible applications). So, rather than memorising the
solution to a problem, you should have a sound understanding of the basic
principles and techniques used to solve these types of problems.
Learning O utcomes
•• distinguish between batch, continuous and semi-batch chemical processes

•• distinguish between steady state and transient (unsteady state) processes
•• apply the general material balance equation to continuous steady-state
processes that do not involve reactions
•• perform material balance calculations on single unit and multi-unit non-
reactive systems
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93 CH F1501/1

4.2 BASIC TERMINOLOGY
4.2.1 Open and closed systems

It is very important to clearly define the system that you will be performing
a material balance on. This requires the setting of a system boundary. All
calculations are then performed on the selected system. A system might be a
portion of a process (such as a single process unit or multiple process units)
or an entire process.
Consider the following block flow diagram shown in Figure 4.1. A block flow
diagram (BFD) is a simple representation of a chemical process where a block
depicts a process unit.
FIGURE 4.1
A block flow diagram to obtain natural extracts from rocket salad. Adapted from
Solana, et al., Journal of Food Engineering, 168, 35–41.
In order to perform any calculations on this system, we firstly need to define

the system boundary. The system could be just a portion of the process. For
example, in Figure 4.1 above, the system boundary can be defined as the
separator only (represented by the dash line around the separator). Everything
inside the dash line is considered part of the system, whereas everything outside
is not part of the system (this is termed the surroundings). However, we might
want to include several process units into the system (as represented by the
dotted line, which includes all the units).
We can further define three types of systems: open, closed and isolated systems.
The type of system determines how the material balance will be performed.
See Figure 4.2 below, which represents these different systems.
...........
94
L E AR N I N G U N I T 4: Fu n d a m e nt a ls o f m ate r ia l b a l a n ce s
FIGURE 4.2
Schematic representation of various systems: (a) open system,
(b) closed system, (c) isolated system.
•• Figure 4.2 (a) is called an open system (or flow system), since material is
passing the system boundary, in other words material and energy can enter
or leave the system from the surroundings.
•• A closed system (Figure 4.2 (b)) is a system in which no material can enter
or leave the system (but as you will learn later, energy can enter or leave
the system). Changes can occur inside the system, but no mass is exchanged
with the surroundings.
•• An isolated system (Fig. 4.2 (c)) is a system in which no material (and/or
energy) enters or leaves the system.
4.2.2 Process classification
4.2.2.1 Steady state and unsteady state

Systems can also be classified in terms of their dependency on time. We can
classify processes as steady-state or unsteady-state (transient) systems. A steady-
state system is defined as one in which all the variables in the system (flow
rate, temperature, pressure, volume, composition) do not change with time. An
unsteady-state system is defined as one in which variables change with time.
...........
95 CH F1501/1

FIGURE 4.3
Comparison of (a) steady and
(b) unsteady state in terms of the effect of time on a variable.
In addition, steady-state and unsteady-state processes can further be subdivided

into the following classes based on their operation (as was discussed in Learning
Unit 3):
(i) batch
(ii) semi-batch
(iii) continuous
Batch and semi-batch processes operate at unsteady-state. Continuous operations

can be either steady-state or unsteady-state.
We shall discuss each operation in more detail.
4.2.2.2 Batch processes

Batch operations are usually applied for small scale production requirements.
It treats a fixed amount of material per treatment time. Initially, the system
is loaded with the reactants to be converted. At the end of the process, the
products are removed from the system. An example of a batch operation is
cooking rice in a pot with a lid. Water and rice are initially added to the pot.
The water boils and the rice begins to cook. Once the rice is ready, it can be
removed.
Another example is the dissolution of sodium hydroxide in water. In a batch

system, the NaOH is added to the water initially. The water is then mixed
until all the NaOH is dissolved and a homogenous solution is obtained. Figure
4.4 is a representation of the system. No stream enters or leaves the system
boundary during the dissolution.
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96
FIGURE 4.4
Batch process: Dissolution of NaOH without any inflows or outflows.
4.2.2.3 Semi-batch process

A semi-batch process can be considered as a hybrid between batch and
continuous processes. An example from everyday life is running a bath.
FIGURE 4.5
Semi-batch bath tub (block is the system boundary).
Hot and cold water are mixed to fill the bath with water. The plug prevents
water from leaving the bath. Therefore, water is only entering the bath (system)
and nothing is leaving the system. The level of water in the bath increases with
time, which is an indication that this is an unsteady state process.
4.2.2.4 Continuous process

In a continuous operation, material is added and removed from the system
continuously. The process can be either at steady-state or unsteady-state
depending on the rate of material addition and removal. An example is filling
a bath tub with the plug open. Water flows into the bath tub from the tap.
The water leaves through the drain. The process can be either steady state
or unsteady state. If the liquid level in the bath is constant (i.e. the amount
of water flowing into the bath and the amount of water leaving the bath are
equal), the process would be classified as a steady state system. If the flow of
water into and the flow out of the bath are not equal, the process is classified
as unsteady.
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97 CH F1501/1

22 Ac tivit y 4.1
(1) Classify a batch, semi-batch and continuous process as either an open or
closed system.
(2) Think about an industrial chemical plant such for as the production of
ammonia (a commodity chemical). Do you think such a plant operates at
steady state or unsteady state? Explain your selection.
(3) State whether the following processes are open or closed systems:
(a) the earth’s water cycle

(b) human respiratory system
(c) inflating a bicycle tyre
(4) Can a semi-batch process operate at steady state?
Feedback on these questions will be given by your e-tutor or lecturer on

myUnisa.
4.2.3 General material balance equation

The idea of the conservation of mass of material was first described by Antoine
Lavoisier in 1789. The law of conservation of mass states:
“The mass of material in a closed system will remain constant over time – mass
is neither created nor destroyed.”
(The exception to this law is nuclear reactions, where small amounts of mass
are converted to energy.)
The general form of a material balance for a system is defined by the following
relationship:
(Input) + (Generation) = (Output) + (Consumption) + (Accumulation)
(4.1)
where
Input = material entering the system boundary
Output = material leaving the system boundary
Generation = material produced within the system
Consumption = material consumed (used up) within the system
Accumulation = material build-up within the system
Equation 4.1 is normally written for a specific component or the total quantity.
If there is more than one component, material balances can be written for
...........
98
each component. A component can be an element (such as carbon (C) or

oxygen (O)) or a compound (such as water, carbon dioxide (CO2)) or a composite
material (such as air, seawater). The system can be a single process unit, multiple
units or the entire process.
Let us consider an open tank system in which water is flowing into and out
of the tank, Figure 4.6.
FIGURE 4.6
Steady-state open system (water tank).
Water is flowing at a rate of 10 L/min into the tank. At the same time, water
is flowing out of the tank at a rate of 10 L/min. As the flow rate into the tank
is the same as the amount of water flowing out of the tank, the level of the
water in the tank remains constant. Let us apply Equation 4.1 to this example.
(4.1)
As there is no reaction taking place in this example, the Generation and

Consumption terms are set to zero or omitted (this is normally true of all
processes that do not involve reactions). Therefore, the equation reduces to
the following
In = Out + Accumulation (4.2)
Substitute the values into Equation 4.2 (make sure the units are the same for
all variables):
10 L/min = 10 L/min + accumulation of species
Accumulation of species = 0 L/min
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99 CH F1501/1

From the equation, it was determined that the accumulation is 0 L/min. This
is reflected in the observation that the level in the tank remains constant, the
system is at steady-state (i.e. at steady state, the accumulation in the system
is zero).
Consider the same tank system shown in Figure 4.6 where the water inflow
is increased to 12 L/min and the outflow remains at 10 L/min. See Figure 4.7.
FIGURE 4.7
Unsteady-state open system (water tank).
In this example, water is flowing faster into the tank than it is flowing out.
This will result in an increase of water in the tank with the level rising until it
will overflow.
Using the overall mass balance equation, Equation 4.1, with no reaction taking
place in the system, the following is obtained:
In = Out + Accumulation (4.2)
12 L/min = 10 L/min + accumulation of species
Accumulation of species = 2 L/min.
Water is therefore accumulating at a rate of 2 L/min in the tank, in other words

the system is said to be an unsteady-state system.
Once again, consider the bath tub as shown in Figure 4.5. Recall that the system
is a semi-batch process, where there is only an input stream.
If we apply Equation 4.1, the following relationship is obtained:
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100
Lorem ipsum
0 (no reaction taking place) 0 (no reaction taking place)
(Input) + (Generation) = (Output) + (Consumption) + (Accumulation) (4.1)
0 no outflow
or
Input = Accumulation of material
Therefore, a semi-batch process (like the bath tub) is an unsteady state process,
since the accumulation term would be non-zero (positive or negative).
Let us also again consider the bath tub with the plug open. Recall that the
system is a continuous process. From the general material balance equation,
Equation 4.1, the following relationship can be obtained:
0 (no reaction taking place) 0 (no reaction taking place)
(Input) + (Generation) = (Output) + (Consumption) + (Accumulation) (4.1)
In = Out + Accumulation of material (4.2)
The flow rate of water to the drain will determine whether the operation is
under steady-state or unsteady-state conditions. If the water accumulates in
the bath tub, in other words if the water level rises, the operation is not at
steady state conditions. If the level remains constant, the operation is under
steady state conditions.
23 Ac tivit y 4. 2
(1) The input and output streams to a continuous process unit contains hydro-
gen. The flow rate of hydrogen in both streams are measured and found
to be unequal. Give possible reasons why this is the case.
(2) Under what conditions would Vin = Vout, where V refers to the volumetric
flow rate?
(3) In a specific month, your salary of R30 000 is deposited into your bank
account. By the end of the month, you withdraw R22 000 to cover vari-
ous expenses. The bank pays you interest on each deposit at a rate of 2%,
and charges you a monthly service fee of R25. What is the accumulation
in your bank account?
(4) In a year, about 300 rhinos are moved out of South Africa and approximately
100 rhinos enter the country. Per week, 26 rhinos are born in the country.
Unfortunately, 1000 rhinos are poached in a year. About 600 rhinos die
of natural causes. Determine the change in the rhino population in a year
in South Africa.
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101 CH F1501/1

(5) A 6 m3 tank is filled with water at a rate of 8 kg/s. Water leaves the tank at
a rate of 4 kg/s. The tank is initially one third full.
(a) Decide on the type of process this represents (batch, semi-batch,

continuous, steady, unsteady).
(b) Write a material balance for the process. Clearly state the reason if
certain terms in the balance were neglected.
(c) Determine how long it would take for the tank to overflow.
As a guide, start with the general material balance equation (Equation

4.1). Determine which term you are trying to solve for. Adapt the equation
for the specific problem by determining which terms are applicable and
which are not (cancel the terms that are not relevant). Plug the known
values into the equation and solve.
More detailed feedback on these questions will be given by your e-tutor

or lecturer on myUnisa.
You may want to watch the following video clips to enhance your learning
on these topics:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=10qbOTikL1k
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=57msPMfYtyw&list=PLD4476BAFA5A65
111&feature=share&index=131
4.3 STRATEGY FOR APPLYING THE GENERAL MATERIAL BALANCE

EQUATION
Material balances provide a mathematical model to determine how a specific
operation will behave under certain conditions. A general 10-step approach
can be used when performing material balances. This can be summarised as
follows (Himmelblau and Riggs, 2012):
Step 1: Read and understand the problem statement.
Step 2: Make a sketch of the process and specify the boundary.
Step 3: Place labels on the sketch and add all given information. For
unknown variables, use symbols. Include the units of the variables.
Step 4: Obtain any data that you need to solve the problem but which
has not been provided.
Step 5: Choose a basis.
Step 6: Determine the number of variables of which the values are

unknown.
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102
Step 7: Determine the number of independent equations and carry out

a degrees of freedom analysis.
Step 8: Write down the equations to be solved in terms of known and

unknown variables.
Step 9: Solve the equations and calculate the quantities asked for in the
problem.
Step 10: Check your answers.
Let us consider the continuous dissolution of sodium hydroxide in water in

a mixer. The mixer assists with the dissolution process and ensures that the
final product is uniformly distributed. Water and sodium hydroxide are added
continuously to a mixer with the product leaving the mixer. Water is added
at a rate of 100 kg/min. Sodium hydroxide is added at a rate of 5 kg/min. The
water and sodium hydroxide streams can be assumed to be pure. We may
start to calculate the product rate and product composition.
Remember to start with step one as set out above!
Step 1: Read and understand the problem statement.
In this example, two separate streams (one consisting of water only and another
with sodium hydroxide only) are mixed to produce a product containing an
aqueous solution of dissolved sodium hydroxide.
Step 2: Make a sketch of the process and specify the boundary.
The mixing process can be represented by the following diagram:
The system boundary will be around the mixer, represented by the dotted
line. There are two streams entering the system, namely the feed (sodium
hydroxide), F, and the water, W, streams. One stream is leaving the system,
namely the product, P, stream. The direction of the streams is indicated by
arrows to improve the readability of the diagram.
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103 CH F1501/1
Step 3: Place labels on the sketch and add all given information. For unknown
variables, use symbols. Include the units of the variables.
Each stream is labelled (in terms of symbols, numbers and units) for known
and unknown flows, materials and compositions. In this case, we label the flow
rates (F, W and P), the materials/components (sodium hydroxide and water)
and the composition (the mass fractions of all components in the system) for
each stream.
Step 4: Obtain any data that you need to solve the problem, but which has
not been provided.
The known variables are as follows: The flow rates of the feed stream (F) and
water stream (W) are provided. In this system, two components are present,
namely water and sodium hydroxide. As the feed stream (F) consists of pure
sodium hydroxide, the mass fraction of NaOH is equal to 1. The mass fraction
of water in the feed stream is therefore equal to zero. For the water stream
(W), the mass fraction for water is 1 and the mass fraction for NaOH is zero.
The unknown variables in this example are the product flow rate (P), the
mass fraction of the water in the product stream and the mass fraction of the
sodium hydroxide in the product stream. The values for the known variables
are added to the figure.
...........
104
Step 5: Choose a basis.
The purpose of a basis is to perform the calculations using a reference point.

The choice of a basis would depend on the problem being solved. The value
might be specified in the problem (as is the case in our example) or it has to be
assumed. In many cases, it is convenient to use a unit basis of 1 or 100 (could
be kg, hours, moles, cubic metres, etc., depending on the given information
and what you are trying to solve).
Step 6: Determine the number of variables of which the values are unknown.
The total variables in this system can be summarised in Table 4.1. The unknown
variables are underlined.
TABLE 4.1
Summary of variables
Variables Stream
Species Feed Water Product
NaOH 1 xFNaOH xWNaOH xPNaOH
H2O 2 xFH2O x H2O xPH2O
Total 3 F W PTotal
In each stream, there are three variables, namely the NaOH composition/mass
fraction, the water composition/mass fraction and the total flow rate. In this
example, there are three streams and as a result there are 3 × 3 = 9 variables.
...........
105 CH F1501/1

The number of variables is the sum of the known and unknown variables.
Therefore, the unknown variables can be calculated as follows:
For our example the known variables from Table 4.1 are 6. Therefore, the
unknown variables are determined as follows:
Therefore, the number of unknowns is 3.The unknown variables are as follows:
(a) Product flow rate

(b) Mass fraction of water in the product stream
(c) Mass fraction of NaOH in the product stream
Step 7: D
etermine the number of independent equations and carry out a
degree of freedom analysis.
The following equations should be considered when determining the number

of independent equations (for non-reactive systems):
(1) Material balance equation can be applied to the overall system, in other
words the overall material balance for all material entering and leaving the
system boundary can be written. However, it is also possible to perform
material balances for each component (also called component balance)
in the system in cases where there are multiple species/components. In a
system that does not involve reactions, only nsp (number of species/com-
ponents in the system) independent balances can be written. If any ad-
ditional balances are written, they will not be independent.
(2) Process specifications, a relationship between process variables as given
in the problem statement.
(3) Physical constraints: the sum of mass or mole fractions in a stream must
be equal to one OR the sum of the individual component flows must be
equal to the total stream.
Let us return to our example. We start by examining the physical constraints

on each of the streams.
When looking at a specific stream, the sum of the individual component flow
rates should give you the total flow rate for that stream. These equations are
summarised as follows:
Feed stream: Fwater + FNaOH = F (4.3)
Water stream: Wwater + WNaOH = W (4.4)
Product stream:
Pwater + PNaOH = P (4.5)
...........
106
However, in this particular example, we know

that the feed stream is pure NaOH and that the
water stream is pure water, in other words FNaOH
= F and Wwater = W. Therefore, only Equation
4.5 is useful here.
For our example we can now apply the general
material balance equation (Equation 4.1):
(Input) + (Generation) = (Output) +
(Consumption) + (Accumulation)
Overall (or total) material balance:
Input streams are F and W
No generation or consumption (no reaction occurring)
Accumulation = 0 (we assumed steady state)
Output stream is P
Therefore:
F +W = P
(4.6)
Component balance
Water
Fwater + Wwater = Pwater (4.7)
Sodium hydroxide
FNaOH + WNaOH = PNaOH (4.8)
When adding two independent equations, the equation that is obtained is not
independent from the original two equations. In this example, if Equations 4.7
...........
107 CH F1501/1

and 4.8 are specified, Equation 4.6 will not be independent (considering the
physical constraints).
In this example any two of the above mentioned three Equations (4.6–4.8)
can be used as an independent equation, with the third one being dependent.
When defining the system, only Equation 4.5 will be independent when
defined with any two of the Equations 4.4–4.6. To summarise, only three
equations will be independent equations. Any other combination will provide
dependent equations.
Usually, the overall balance and one component balance are used (for a
two component system).
The number of independent equations, NE, are thus only 3.
The degrees of freedom analysis can provide you with information about the
level of specification of the problem. The degrees of freedom for a problem
are the number of variables that you are free to vary so that a unique solution
to the problem can be determined. The degrees of freedom are calculated as
follows:
Degrees of freedom = number of unknowns – number of independent

equations
N D = N U − N E (4.9)
In this example, the number of unknowns was determined to be 3. The number

of independent equations was also determined to be 3. Therefore, the degree
of freedom is determined as follows:
In this example, the problem is exactly specified and a unique solution is

possible as ND = 0.
...........
108
ND = 3 − 3 = 0
Consider viewing the following video clip regarding degrees of freedom analysis:
http://youtu.be/tW1ft4y5fQY?list=PLD4476BAFA5A65111
Step 8: Write down the equations to be solved in terms of known and

unknown variables.
The equations that will be used in this example are as follows:
Overall mass balance
F +W = P (4.10)
Component balance
Water
Physical constraint
Product stream: Pwater + PNaOH = P (4.12)
This can also be written in the form of mass fractions:
x P ,water + x P , NaOH = 1 (4.13)
Step 9: S
olve the equations and calculate the quantities asked for in the
problem.
(4.14)
Component balance
(i) Water
The feed stream consists only of NaOH. This means that the amount of water
in the feed stream is equal to zero.
(4.16)
As the water stream (W) is pure water,
...........
109 CH F1501/1

Therefore
(4.17)
Substitute Equations 4.16 and 4.17 into Equation 4.15
(0) + (100) = Pwater

(4.18)
Using the product steam physical constraint to solve for the amount of NaOH
in the product stream (4.12):
P = Pwater + PNaOH
Rewrite Equation 4.11 with PNaOH as the subject of the equation:
The mass fraction of water in the product stream =
Pwater 100
x P ,water = = = 0.952
P 105
The mass fraction of NaOH in the product stream =
PNaOH 5
x P , NaoH = = = 0.048
P 105
Step 10: Check your answers.
Answers can be checked by substituting the answers into the redundant or

dependent equations. Equation 4.8 was determined to be dependent.
FNaOH + WNaOH = PNaOH
Substitute the value for FNaOH:
Thus, the answer is correct.
...........
110
24 Ac tivit y 4. 3
(1) What is meant by an independent equation?
(2) A 10 wt% (weight %) solution of ethanol (i.e. mixture of water and etha-
nol) flowing at a rate of 20 kg/s is produced by mixing two streams that
contain 2% and 30% ethanol. Determine the flow rate of the two streams.
(a) Draw a diagram to represent the process and label all the streams.
(b) How many independent balances can be written? (State all assump-
tions that you make.)
(c) Determine the number of unknown variables.
(d) Determine the degrees of freedom.
(e) Write down the balances.
(f) Solve for the flow rates of the two streams.
(3) A plant has to produce 500 kg/day of battery acid with a composition of
33.5% H2SO4. The following raw material streams are available: concentrated
sulphuric acid at 78 wt%, dilute sulphuric acid at 10% and pure water. As-
sume the process operates at steady state. Perform a degree of freedom
analysis for the process. Can the problem be solved?

myUnisa.
Also try to solve the following problems from Himmelblau and Riggs:
3.2.1–3.2.9
Here are a few video clips to help you with the material covered in this section:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UGVEtzgR0lw&feature=share&list=PLD
4476BAFA5A65111&index=128
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LFhHnvCXkmE
http://youtu.be/tW1ft4y5fQY?list=PLD4476BAFA5A65111
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Rx2ry1P6ME
4.4 MATERIAL BALANCES FOR SINGLE-UNIT NON-REACTIVE SYSTEMS

Let us concentrate on steady state material balance problems. We will begin
by looking at problems where no reaction takes place. In this section, we will
focus on single-unit systems, in particular, distillation. However, the principles
shown here can be applied to any process unit.
Distillation columns are one of the most common separation techniques used in
chemical processes. For example, in the petroleum industry, different components
of crude oil (such as diesel, petrol, kerosene, etc.) are separated due to their
differences in boiling points. The feed, consisting of a number of components,
...........
111 CH F1501/1

can be separated into two or more streams. The product streams are defined
as the distillate (or top/overhead) product stream and the bottoms product
stream. The distillate contains the more volatile components (components that
have a lower boiling point and tend to vaporise easily) of the feed stream while
the bottoms stream contains the less volatile components. Figure 4.8 provides
a schematic representation of a typical distillation column.
FIGURE 4.8
Schematic diagram of a simple distillation column
This video clip will give you a better understanding of the operation of a
distillation column:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gYnGgre83CI
EXAMPLE
A mixture of acetone and benzene is fed at a rate of 80 kmol/h (note the use of a
molar flow rate here) to a distillation column. The feed has an acetone mole fraction
of 0.55. The distillate acetone mole fraction is 0.9 and the bottoms product 0.15.
Calculate the molar flow rate of the distillate and the bottoms product streams.
Solution
Apply the procedure discussed in section 4.4.
(a) Read and understand the problem statement

(b) In this example, the distillation column consists of one inlet stream and
two output streams. In addition, each stream consists of two components,
namely acetone and benzene. In this example, the material balance is
performed on a molar basis since it is convenient as the feed stream has
been specified as a molar flow rate (it could be performed on a molar or
mass basis since no reactions are occurring).
(c) Make a sketch of the process and specify the boundary.
...........
112
(d) Place labels on the sketch and add all given information. For unknown
variables, use symbols. Include the units of the variables.
(e) Obtain any data you need to solve the problem but which is missing.
Once you have become experienced with the different steps, you
can combine various steps in order to save time.
The system boundary is specified as the column itself, such that the feed
stream enters the system boundary and the distillate and bottoms product
stream leave the system boundary.
As mentioned, distillation calculations are usually done on a molar basis.

Make sure that the flow rates are in the form of molar flow rates and the
fractions are mole fractions. The problem statement mentions that there are
only two components in the feed stream, namely acetone and benzene.
(e) Choose a basis
The basis is chosen to be the feed molar flow rate. This is the most
convenient variable as it was specified in the problem statement.
Basis: 80 kmol/h feed
(f) Determine the number of variables of which the values are unknown.
The variables to consider in distillation calculations are summarised as

follows:
...........
113 CH F1501/1

TABLE 4.2
Summary of variables
Variables Stream
Species Feed Distillate stream Bottoms product
Acetone 1 xFAcetone  xDAcetone  xWAcetone 
Benzene 2 xFbenzene  xDbenzene  xWbenzene 
Total 3 F  D  W 
In total, there are 9 variables in this particular system. There are 4 known
variables and 5 unknown variables.
(g) Determine the number of independent equations and carry out a degree
of freedom analysis.
•• 2 material balances (since there are two species in the system)

•• 3 physical constraint equations (mole fractions of each stream must
sum up to unity)
Thus, there are 5 equations and 5 unknowns, and thus 0 degrees of

freedom. There is a unique solution to the problem.
(h) Write down the equations to be solved in terms of known and unknown
variables.
(i) Solve the equations and calculate the quantities asked for in the problem.
Physical constraints
The mol fraction of acetone in each stream is known and the value for
benzene based on physical constraints can be determined as follows:
For feed stream xF,acetone + xF, benzene = 1
Therefore, xF, benzene = 1 – xF,acetone = 1 – 0.55 = 0.45
The same can be done for the product streams.
xD,benzene = 0.1
xW,benzene = 0.85
Material balances
In this particular example, we shall use the total material balance and the
acetone material balance.
Overall mole balance
...........
114
(4.19)
Component balance: Acetone
Facetone = Dacetone + Wacetone or using the mole fractions:
(x F , acetone ) F = (x D , acetone ) D + (x W , acetone )W

Substitute values:
(4.20)
Solve Equations 4.19 and 4.20 simultaneously (by substituting W in terms

of D):
D = 42.67 kmol/h
Substitute this answer into Equation 4.19:
W= 37.33 kmol/h
(j) Check your answers
The answer is checked by using the redundant equation. In this example,

the redundant equation is the component balance for benzene:
Component balance: benzene
FBenzene = DBenzene + WBenzene

or using the mole fractions:
(x F , Benzene ) F = (x D , Benzene ) D + (x W , Benzene )W

Substitute the values
The answers obtained are therefore correct.
The importance of verifying your solution cannot be emphasised enough.

Carefully check that your answer is reasonable (for example, that you did
not end up with a negative flow rate or mole fractions that are greater
than one). Use redundant/dependent equations to validate your answers.
...........
115 CH F1501/1

25 Ac tivit y 4.4
(1) Fruit juice contains 80 weight (wt.)% water. The juice is sent to an evapora-
tor in which 75% of the water is vaporised. If 1 ton/day of juice is fed to the
evaporator, calculate how much water is vaporised and the concentration
of the juice product.
(2) An inorganic paint pigment is dried in a tunnel dryer. 500 kg/h of the paint
stream contains 10% water. The product stream should contain 0.5% water.
The paint stream is passed counter-current (i.e. in opposite directions) to
the air stream, which has a humidity of 0.010 kg water/kg dry air. The air
stream leaves with a humidity of 0.020 kg water/kg dry air. What flow rate
of air is required?
(3) Acetic acid is to be extracted from a feed stream (F = 200 kg/h), containing
40 wt.% acetic acid and 60% water, using pure ether (S = 100 kg/h). The
extract stream (E) in a solution of acetic acid is ether. The other stream
leaving the process is the raffinate stream (R) that contains only water
and acid. If E contains 90% of the acid from the feed stream, what are the
concentrations of E and R?
(4) Benzene is removed from an air stream (0.5 kg/s, 4 wt% benzene) in an
absorption column using an oil stream (100% pure). The oil absorbs the
benzene and leaves at the bottom of the column (99% oil, 1% benzene).
The gas stream (99.9% air, 0.1% benzene) leaves at the top of the column.
Calculate the amount of oil required.

myUnisa.
Also try to solve the following problems from Himmelblau and Riggs:
4.1.2–4.1.11 and 4.1.15–4.1.17
Check these video clips to assist you with material balances over a single unit:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DsZ4p_mHSPg
http://youtu.be/Hsm6kwINKLc?list=PLD4476BAFA5A65111
4.5 MATERIAL BALANCES ON MULTI-UNIT NON-REACTIVE SYSTEMS
4.5.1 Flow diagrams

Almost all industrial processes consist of more than one unit operation (as
discussed in the previous learning unit). During the design of chemical
processes, chemical engineers usually use flow diagrams to graphically represent
the combination of unit operations.
...........
116
A simplified version of a process is a block flow diagram (BFD) (as previously

explained, see Figure 4.10). Each unit operation is represented by a descriptive
block.
A process flow diagram (PFD) is used to transfer technical information about the
process to the various people associated with the design and operation of the
process. Each unit operation or piece of equipment is represented by a unique
symbol. Process streams connecting the process equipment are represented
by lines with arrows (showing the direction of flow). Process flow diagrams
may also contain quantitative information such as temperatures, pressures,
flow rates and compositions of stream.
Figure 4.9 provides an example of a process flow diagram (PFD) of an amine

gas treatment process (a process that removes CO2 and H2S from a natural gas
stream). The development of these diagrams will be discussed in later modules.
FIGURE 4.9
Process flow diagram of an amine gas treatment process.
Source: https://chemengineering.wikispaces.com/Amine+gas+treating
4.5.2 Sequential multi-unit systems

Consider a process as shown in Figure 4.11
...........
117 CH F1501/1

FIGURE 4.10
Block flow diagram of a multi-unit process
The process shown in Figure 4.10 consists of
•• multiple process units

•• process streams that mix (or combine) together (such as streams 1 and 2
that mix to from stream 3)
–– the composition of the combined stream would be different than that
of the feed streams
•• stream that splits (such as stream 7 which splits into streams 8 and 9)
–– the composition of all the streams entering and leaving the splitter and
the stream would be equal
•• stream that enters a process unit (such as streams 5 and 6 that enter unit 2)
and leave a unit (such as stream 7 that exists unit 2)
–– the composition of the streams entering and leaving the process unit
would be different depending on the type of unit being used
In a multi-unit process, there are various options for defining the system
boundary. For example, boundary A in Figure 4.10 encloses the entire process.
A material balance on this system would represent the overall total material
balance for the process. In this particular case, this would involve streams 1,
2, 4, 6, 8 and 9. All other streams would not feature in the overall balance.
Boundary B comprises of a mixing point (i.e. streams 1 and 2 are mixed to
produce stream 3). Boundaries C and D encloses units 1 (stream 3 enters
and stream 4 and 5 leave) and 2 (streams 5 and 6 enter and stream 7 leaves)
respectively. Boundary E represents a stream splitting point (stream 7 is split
into steams 8 and 9). Material balances can be written for each of these sub-
systems or even combinations of these sub-systems.
The procedure for the solving of a material balance on a multiple unit system
is exactly the same as how it was done in section 4.4. The only difference is
that multiple system boundaries can be selected for a multiple unit system
(as shown in Figure 4.10). It is useful to perform a degree of freedom analysis
for the overall process, as well as for each sub-system. A subsystem with zero
degrees of freedom (which means a solution is possible) is a good starting
point. Then move on to another sub-system with zero degrees of freedom.
...........
118
Let us look at an example to explain the procedure in more detail.
Example 1 (adapted from Himmelblau and Riggs, 2012)
Acetone is used in a large number of manufacturing processes either as a

reactant or as a solvent. Environmental and safety laws restrict the amount
of acetone that may be released to the environment. In order to comply with
these laws, acetone needs to be removed from effluent streams (such as air
or water) released to the environment. The block diagram below presents a
process to recover acetone from an air stream. All available data has been
specified on the diagram.
FIGURE 4.11
Block flow diagram of process
Answer:
This process is an open, steady state operation that does not involve reactions.
The process consists of three unit operations. The system therefore consists of
three subsystems. The procedure for solving material balances is as follows:
Steps 1–4
These steps were performed for you and provided in Figure 4.11.
Step 5
Select a basis.
It is suggested that a basis of 1 hour is used.
...........
119 CH F1501/1

Steps 6 and 7
Determine the number of known and unknown variables as well as the degree
of freedom.
System boundary 1: Around the absorption column.
There are two streams entering and two streams leaving the unit.
The total number of variables for system boundary 1:
The number of variables for the three species present (air, acetone and water)
in the absorber is equal to NS (number of streams) × NSP (number of species)
= 4 x 3 = 12. All the mass fractions are provided directly or indirectly and are
therefore known. The sum of the mass fractions for a specific stream is equal
to 1. This implies that mass fraction for air in stream F is equal to zero and is
therefore known. Similarly, the mass fraction of acetone in stream A is zero.
There are four streams into or out of the absorber. Only stream G is supplied,
the other three are unknown (W, A, F). Thus, NU = 3.
The following equations can be derived for the absorption column:
(i) Overall material balance

(ii) Water component balance
(iii) Air component balance
(iv) Acetone component balance
Only three of the four equations are independent.
Therefore, the degree of freedom is:
N D = NU − N E = 3 − 3 = 0
...........
120
System boundary 2: Around the distillation column and condenser
The total number of variables for system boundary 2:
There is one stream entering the system and there are two streams leaving
the system.
The number of known variables:
The number of variables for the two species present (acetone and water) in
the distillation and condenser is equal to NS × NSP = 2 × 2 = 4. All the mass
fractions are provided directly or indirectly and are therefore known.
There are three streams for the distillation and condenser units. Stream F was
determined by the previous set of material balances and is therefore known for
this set of material balances. Therefore, only streams D and B are unknown.
Thus, NU = 2.
The following equations can be derived for the absorption column:
(i) Overall balance

(ii) Water component balance
(iii) Acetone component balance
Only two of the three equations are independent. Adding equations (ii) and
(iii) will provide equation (i). Subtracting equation (ii) from (i) will provide
equation (iii).
Therefore, the degree of freedom is:
N D = NU − N E = 2 − 2 = 0
...........
121 CH F1501/1

When selecting a system boundary, you should make sure that as many
variables as possible are known. Stream K does not have a component break-
down and selecting the system boundary around the distillation column
would have had too many unknown variables.
Steps 8 and 9
Write down the equations to be solved in terms of known and unknown

variables and calculate the quantities asked for in the problem.
System boundary 1: Around the absorption column.
From the material balance, the total and individual component flow rates into
and out of the absorption column should be equal.
Overall balance: Material in = Material out (convince yourself that this is the
case).
G + W = A + F (a)
Component balance
(i) Air
Air in = Air out
(xG,Air) G + (xG,Air) W = (xG,Air) A + (xG,Air) F
(0.95) (1200) + (0) W = (0.995) A + (0) F (b)
Simplify
A = 1145.7 kg/ h (c)
(ii) Water
Water in = Water out
(xG,Water) G + (xG,water) W = (xG,Water) A + (xG,Water) F
(0.02) (1200) + (1.0) W = (0.005) A + (0.81) F (d)
Substitute (c) into (a) and (d) and solve
1200 + W = 1145.7 + F (e)
(0.02) (1200) + (1.0) W = (0.005) (1145.7) + (0.81) F (f)
...........
122
Substitute (e) into (f)
(0.02) (1200) + (1.0) W = (0.005) (1145.7) + (0.81) (54.3 + W)
W = 135.3 kg/h
F = 189.6 kg/h
(iii) Acetone (dependent equation)
Acetone in = Acetone out
(xG,Acetone) G + (xG, Acetone) W = (xG, Acetone) A + (xG, Acetone) F
(0.03) (1200) + (0) W = (0) A + (0.19) F (g)
Check answers by substituting values for W and F into the dependent equation
(g)
(0.03) (1200) + (0) W = (0) A + (0.19) F (g)
(0.03) (1200) + (0) (135.3) = (0) (1145.7) + (0.19) (189.6)
36 = 36
which proves that the answers are correct.
System boundary 2: Around the distillation column and condenser
From the material balance, the total and individual component flow rates into
and out of the distillation column and condenser should be equal.
Overall balance:
Material in = Material out
F = D + B = 189.6 kg/h (h)
Component balance
(i) Water
Water in = Water out
(xF,Water) F = (xD,Water) D + (xB,Water) B
(0.81) (189.6) = (0.01) D + (0.96) B (j)
...........
123 CH F1501/1

Substitute (h) into (j) and solve
(0.81) (189.6) = (0.01) D + (0.96) (189.6 – D) (k)
D = 29.9 kg/hr
B = F – D = 189.6 – 29.9 = 159.7 kg/h
Check answers by substituting values for D and B into the dependent equation.
(ii) Acetone
Acetone in = Acetone out
(xF,Acetone) F = (xD, Acetone) D + (xB, Acetone) B
(0.19) (189.6) = (0.99) (29.9) + (0.04) (159.7) (g)
36 = 36
This proves that the answers are correct.
Summary of results:
A= 1145.7 kg/ h
W= 135.3 kg/h
F = 189.6 kg/h
D= 29.9 kg/h
B= 159.7 kg/h
26 Ac tivit y 4. 5
(1) A continuous process consists of a separator (S1), a mixer (M) and another
separator (S2) as shown in the labelled figure below. Determine the flow
rates and compositions of all unknown streams.
...........
124
Feedback on this question will be given by your e-tutor or lecturer on

myUnisa.
Also try to do the following problems from Himmelblau and Riggs:
Question 1, page 277
6.1.1. – 6.1.5
6.2.1, 6.2.3
Some video clips on multi-unit systems:
http://youtu.be/my1ZTIDSMbs?list=PLD4476BAFA5A65111
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JfD5iyoKD8w
4.5.3 Recycle and bypass systems

Consider the process shown in the figure below. The process may consist of
multiple process units (as will be described in Figure 4.12 later). Notice that a
portion of the stream of the unit is returned back to the feed of the unit. This
is known as a recycle stream.
In processes not involving

reactions (such as separation,
heating etc.), recycle streams
are used to dilute a process
stream or to circulate a
working fluid (consider the
refrigerant in your fridge).
...........
125 CH F1501/1

27 Ac tivit y 4.6
Refer back to the process flow diagram (PFD) shown in Figure 4.10. Identify
the various recycle streams.
Explain the purpose of each of these streams.
In certain processes, a
fraction of the feed stream
is diverted around a process
unit and is combined with
the outlet stream of the unit.
This is known as a bypass
stream (similar to a bypass
road).
Bypass streams are used to control the output stream composition and/or
flow rate. Bypass streams are sometimes included to prevent the shutdown
of a process.
FIGURE 4.12
Block flow diagram of a multi-unit process with a recycle stream.
As with the multi-unit system, we can draw various system boundaries:
•• Boundary A: Overall process, including the recycle stream. Only stream 1

enters the system and stream 4 leaves the system. Notice that this system
does not include any information regarding the recycle stream.
•• Boundary B: The feed stream (stream 1) is mixed with the recycle stream
(stream 5) to produce stream 2.
•• The composition of all three streams would be different.
•• Boundary C: Encloses unit 1. Stream 2 enters the unit and stream 3 leaves
the unit.
•• Boundary D: Encloses Unit 2. Stream 3 enters the unit whereas streams 4
and 5 (recycle stream) leave the unit.
...........
126
Material balances can be written for each of the systems mentioned above,
as well as for a combination of these systems. Note that Boundary B and
D (or combinations of these) include the recycle stream, and therefore will
be useful in calculating the value of the recycle stream (in terms of flow
rate and composition). The material balances can be formulated in exactly
the same ways as for single units and multi-unit systems (using the 10-step
procedure). The only challenge with recycle systems is selecting the order in
which the various systems are analysed (degrees of freedom analysis is very
helpful here). By choosing the most appropriate system, one can solve the
problem sequentially (as done with the multi-unit systems). In most cases
(which include recycle streams), the overall material balance is a good starting
point. Otherwise, one would have to write all the material balance equations
and solve them simultaneously.
Let us illustrate the procedure by looking at an example:
Crystallisation is a separation technique commonly used in the food and

pharmaceutical industries.
A 20 wt.% solution of KNO3 is fed at 500 kg/h, is combined with a recycle

stream and fed to an evaporator. The solution leaving the evaporator contains
50% KNO3 and is fed to the crystallizer. The crystals formed are separated by
filtration. The filter cake (i.e. crystals plus some solution that goes along with
the crystals) consists of 96% crystals. The filtrate (or solution) contains 0.5 kg
KNO3 per kg of water. The filtrate from the crystallizer is recycled and mixed
with the fresh feed.
Determine all stream flow rates and compositions.
Solution
Assume steady state. Continuous process with no reaction.
Steps 1–4
The figure contains the information provided in the problem statement. We

assume that the water stream leaving the evaporator is pure.
For the recycle stream, we are given a relation between KNO3 and water. We
can use this to determine the mass fractions in the recycle stream:
...........
127 CH F1501/1

The mass fraction of water in the recycle stream:
Step 5
Select a basis
Use the feed rate of 500 kg/h
Steps 6 and 7
Determine the number of known and unknown variables, as well as the degree
of freedom.
Let us consider the three subsystems (mixing point, evaporator and crystallizer)
and the overall system.
Mixing point: There are two streams entering and one stream leaving the mixing
point. The number of variables for the two species present (KNO3 and water)
is equal to NS (number of streams) × NSP (number of species) = 3 x 2 = 6.
The mass fraction of the feed is provided. The sum of the mass fractions for
a specific stream is equal to 1. This implies that the mass fraction for water in
stream F is equal to 0.8 and is therefore known. However, the flow rate of the
recycle stream is unknown and the flow rate and composition of the stream
leaving the mixing point is unknown.
Thus, NU = 3
We can write two component balances.

N D = NU − N E = 3 − 2 = 1
Thus, there is 1 degree of freedom, which means we cannot solve for the
unknowns. Consider another system.
Evaporator:
ND = 2 (prove this for yourself)
Crystalliser:
ND = 1
Overall system:
There are 2 unknowns (W and P). We can write two overall component
balances. Therefore, ND = 0.
We will be able to solve for P and W.
...........
128
Overall total balance:
F = 500 kg/h = W+P
Overall KNO3 balance:
Let us consider that P consists of crystals (C) and solution (S).
We are given that C = 0.96P. Thus, S = 0.04 P
0.2(500) = 0.96 P +0.333 (0.04 P)
Solving for P:
P = 102.74 kg/h
Therefore, W = 500 – 103.45 = 397. 26 kg/h
We now focus on the crystalliser in order to find the flow rate of the recycle
stream overall balance around the crystalliser
E = R +P
E = R +102.74 kg/h
KNO3 balance across the crystalliser
0.5E = 0.333R+ 0.96 (102.74) +0.333 (0.04 (102.74))
0.5E = 0.333R +100
Solving by substitution
0.5 (R+102.74) = 0.333R +100
0.1667R = 48.629
R =291. 72 kg/h
E =394.51 kg/h
Overall balance around mixing point
Flow rate into the evaporator:
F + R = 791. 77 kg/h
...........
129 CH F1501/1

KNO3 balance around mixing point
Mass fraction of KNO3 into the evaporator
xK (791.77) = 0.333(291.72) + 0.96 (102.74) +0.333 (0.04 (102.74))
xK = 0.249
Check your answers by doing a balance across the evaporator.
28 Ac tivit y 4.7
Try the following problems from Himmelblau and Riggs:
Questions 1 and 3, page 295
6.3.1–6.3.5

myUnisa.
Here are a few video clips on recycles:
http://youtu.be/W0Mpk8UwcD0?list=PLD4476BAFA5A65111
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dnfgc4_OFhI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tJSof5ZVrRY
4.6 EXAMPLES
As you work through the examples below, think of each of them as an activity.
First study the problem and try to do it on your own before checking your
answer against the solution.
4.1 A flue gas emitted to the environment contains 2 wt% sulphur dioxide
and a few other gases. The plant manager wants to recover 90% of the
sulphur dioxide in the flue gas using an absorption column. An absorption
liquid is added at the top of the column and removes the sulphur dioxide
from the gas stream introduced at the bottom of the column. The flue
gas flow to the absorption column is 3500 kg/h. The ratio between the
entering absorption liquid and entering flue gas flow rates is 20.
Calculate the SO2 composition in the gas and liquid streams leaving the
absorption column. (Assume that only SO2 is removed.)
4.2 An organic compound is concentrated in a single evaporator from a

concentration of 12% to 70%. The total heat transfer area is 360 m2 and
the overall heat transfer coefficient is 1250 W.m-2.K-1. Calculate the amount
...........
130
of water removed and the product flow rate for a feed rate of 21 600
kg/h. The feed is supplied at 295 K to the evaporator.
4.3 A continuous single-effect evaporator is used to concentrate a sodium

sulphate solution from water. The feed enters the evaporator at a rate of
20 000 kg/h. Determine the flow rates for the different streams if the solid
content is increased from 15% to 50%.
4.4 A product is being produced at a rate of 250 kg/h with a solid content of
99%. This is achieved in a process consisting of an evaporator, filter and a
drier. The material to the evaporator contains 15% solids and leaves with
a solid content of 55%. This stream enters a filter that can only remove
120 kg/h pure water. The product from the filter is treated in a drier to
produce the final product. Pure water is removed at the evaporator, filter
and drier.
There are only two components, namely water and solids. All percentages
are weight percentages.
(1) Calculate the total feed rate to the evaporator.

(2) Calculate the flow rates from the evaporator.
(3) Calculate the flow rate and stream composition from the filter.
(4) Determine all stream flow rates.
4.5 Fresh orange juice with a feed rate of 250 kg/h contains 20% solids
and the balance is water. The desired juice concentration is 50%. This
is achieved by letting some of the feed stream bypass the evaporator. In
the evaporator 80% of the water entering is evaporated. Determine the
flow rates of all the streams.
...........
131 CH F1501/1

4.7 ANSWERS
4.1
Basis: Flue gas entering = 3500 kg/h
Information supplied
W / G = 20
W = 20 G = (20) 3500 = 70 000 kg/h
From stream F
= 0.9 (0.02) 3500 =56.2 kg/h
Stream G mass flow rate G = F – amount SO2 removed
= 3500 – 56.2
= 3443.2 kg/h
The SO2 removed is removed with the liquid introduced with stream W. Thus,
L = W + amount SO2 removed = 70 000 + 56.2 = 70 056.2 kg/h.
...........
132
The SO2 mole fraction for the different streams is determined as follows:
(i) Stream L:
(ii) Stream G:
Overall balance:
F+W=G+L
Component balance: SO2
Check answer using the SO2 component material balance.
70 ∼ 69.8
The values are very similar, therefore the answer is correct.
Answer: SO2 composition in liquid leaving the column = 0.08%
SO2 composition in gas leaving the column = 0.4%
4.2
...........
133 CH F1501/1

Choose a basis
Basis is 21 600 / 3600 = 6 kg/s
Total balance
mfeed = mV + mL
6 = mV + mL ……....................................……………………………………(Eq 1)
Organic balance: (no organics leaving with the vapour stream)
0,12 mfeed = 0,7 mL
mfeed = 6 kg/s
∴ mL = 1,029 kg/s
∴ from Equation 1:
6 = mV + mL
6 = mV + 1,029
mV = 4.971 kg/s
...........
134
4.3
Make a sketch.
Choose a basis
Basis is 20 000 / 3600 = 5.556 kg/s
Total balance
mfeed = mV + mL
5.556 = mV + mL ……......................…………………………………………(Equation 1)
...........
135 CH F1501/1

Organic balance:
0,15 mfeed = 0,5 mL
mfeed = 5.556 kg/s
∴ mL = 1,333 kg/s
∴ from Equation 1:
5.556 = mV + mL
5.556 = mV + 1,333
mV = 4.222 kg/s
4.4
The system consists of only two components, namely water and solids. The
solids enter the system as a feed to the evaporator and leave only as a product
stream from the drier. The solids are the key component in this system. The
water balance is more complicated as it is removed at several points in the
system. In order to determine the different stream flow rates, a number of
system boundaries have to be selected.
...........
136
4.4.1 Determine the feed rate.
The feed rate can be determined using the solids flow rate.
Basis: P = 250 kg/hr
FOR SYSTEM BOUNDARY 1
Overall material balance for system 1
F=E+G+H+P
= E + G + H + 250
Component balance: Solids
F = 1650 kg/hr
4.4.2 Determine the mass flow rate of stream B.
...........
137 CH F1501/1

FOR SYSTEM BOUNDARY 2
Overall material balance for system 2
F =E+B
1650 = E + B
Component balance: Solids
B = 450 kg/hr
Component balance: Water
(0.85)(1650) = (1.00) E
+ (0.45)(450)
E = 1200 kg/hr
Check answer: Substitute values into Overall Balance
F=E+B
1650 = 1200 + 450
(answers are correct)
4.4.3 Determine flow rate and composition of stream S.
The flow rate and composition of stream S can be determined by selecting

the system boundary across the filter. An alternative is to select it around the
evaporator and the filter. The latter selection will be used.
...........
138
FOR SYSTEM BOUNDARY 3: Around evaporator and filter
Overall material balance for system 3 (independent equation)
F=E+G+S
1650 = 1200 + 120 + S
S = 330 kg/hr
Component balance: Water (independent equation)
Also
Check answer
...........
139 CH F1501/1

Component balance: Solids (dependent equation)
(answers are correct)
4.4.4
From overall balance for system 1:
F =E+G+H+P
1650 = 1200 + 120 + H + 250
H = 80 kg/hr
4.5
Overall total balance:
F = 250 kg/h = W+P
Overall solids balance:
0.2F = 0.5 P (water stream, W is assumed to be pure water)
0.2(250) = 0.5 P
P =100 kg/h
Therefore, W = 250 – 100 = 150 kg/h
We now focus on the evaporator.

...........
140
We are also told that 80% of the water entering the evaporator is evaporated,
in other words 150 = 0.8 xw,S S.
So, xw,S S =187.5 kg/h.
Since the composition of S is exactly the same as the composition of the feed
stream (splitter), xw,S = 0.8
S = 234.375 kg/h.
Overall balance around evaporator
S = E +W
Therefore, E = S-W = 234.375 – 150 = 84.375 kg/h
Solids balance across evaporator
0.2 (S) = xs,E (E)
xs,E = [0.2(234.475)]/(84.375) = 0.56
To find the bypass flow rate, do an overall balance at the bypass point:
F = S+B
B = 250 – 234.375 = 15.625 kg/h
The composition of the bypass stream is the same as the feed stream.
Check your answers by doing a balance at the mixing point
E+B =84.375 +15.625 = 100 kg/h = P  Correct!
29 Ac tivit y 4. 8
Consider what you have learnt in this unit with regard to the industry
in which you are working, or in which you would like to work. How may
you be able to apply the principles and strategies you have learnt in that
context? Make a brief summary of your answer.
4.8 REFERENCES
M. Solana, S. Mirofci, A. Bertucco. “Production of phenolic and glucosinolate
extracts from rocket salad by supercritical fluid extraction: Process design
and cost benefit analysis”, Journal of Food Engineering, 168, 35–41.
...........
141 CH F1501/1

LEARNING UNIT
5 5
MATERIAL BALANCES INVOLVING

5
REACTIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Reading: Please study chapters 5 and 6 of your prescribed textbook (Himmelblau
and Riggs) in conjunction with this learning unit.
Chemical reactions occur all around us. Think about photosynthesis, lighting
a match, having a braai, using a battery, your car engine, the digestion of your
food – these are all examples of reactions that we experience on a daily basis.
Almost every chemical engineering process will involve reactions. The reactor
(where chemical reactions occur) is usually the core of any process. A multitude
of chemical reactions are used in the chemical industry to transform raw
materials into products. The chemical engineer needs to ensure that the
transformation is as efficient as possible, in other words that as much as possible
of the desired product is produced. The material balance is a very useful tool
to design and evaluate the operation of a reactor.
In this learning unit, we introduce various terms used by chemical engineers

to indicate the performance of a reactor. We shall then apply the general
material balance equation (as described in Learning Unit 4) to systems that
involve reactions. Solving material balance problems with reactions is slightly
more complex than the problems you encountered in the previous learning
unit. However, as you will see, the strategies and approaches used in the
previous unit can still be applied with slight modification.
Learning outcomes
•• identify the limiting and excess reactants and calculate the extent of reaction
and/or conversion
•• calculate the yield and selectivity for a set of reactions
•• perform and solve material balances on reactive systems using species
balances and elemental (atomic species) balances
...........
142
L E AR N I N G U N I T 5: M ate r ia l b a l a n ce s i nvo l v i n g r e a c t i o ns
•• perform material balance calculations on reactive systems that include a

recycle and a purge
•• analyse combustion processes using material balances
5.2 REACTION TERMINOLOGY
5.2.1 Stoichiometry
The relative quantities of the reactants and products involved in a chemical
reaction are referred to as stoichiometry. The starting point of most stoichiometric
calculations is a balanced chemical reaction equation.
You should be familiar with the concept of a chemical reaction equation. The
equation tells us which components are being consumed (reactants) and which
are being generated (products). Remember, a chemical reaction equation is
balanced when the quantity (usually atoms) of each element in the reactants
(left-hand side of the equation) equals that of the products (right-hand side of
the equation). {You have probably realised that this is a consequence of the
law of conservation of mass.}
To refresh your memory, let us consider the following important industrial reaction
(Haber-Bosch process (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uMkzxV_y7tY)):
N2 + 3H2  2NH3
The equation is balanced since there are 2 nitrogen (N) atoms and 6 hydrogen
(H) atoms on both sides of the equation. Recall that the numbers in front
of each species in a balanced chemical reaction equation are called the
stoichiometric coefficients (for example, the stoichiometric coefficient for
NH3 in the equation above is 3).
We can interpret the equation (based on the stoichiometric coefficients) to

mean that 1 mole of nitrogen reacts with 3 moles of hydrogen to produce
2 moles of ammonia. Note that this relationship applies to molar quantities
and NOT mass. We can also deduce the stoichiometric ratios/proportions
of various products and reactants. For example, the stoichiometric ratio of
ammonia produced to hydrogen is
and the stoichiometric proportion of the reactants, in other words H2 to N2, is
Remember that if you are given the quantity of a species in mass (g, kg, tons,
etc.), you would need to convert mass to moles using the molecular weight
of the species.
...........
143 CH F1501/1

30 Ac tivit y 5.1
(1) Antacids (such as sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3) are used to relieve heart-
burn by neutralising stomach acid (HCl). Write down a balanced chemical
equation of the antacid and HCl to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide.
(2) Consider the following chemical reaction:
•• Balance the chemical reaction (and verify that the number of elements
(for C, H and O) on both sides are equal).
•• What is the stoichiometric coefficient of O2?
•• Determine the stoichiometric ratio of CO2 to C8H18.
(3) Petrol, used in the internal combustion engine of a car, is a mixture of

hydrocarbons. However, we can model petrol as a single hydrocarbon
(octane -C8H18). Calculate the amount of CO2 emitted for every litre of
petrol used. The density of C8H18 is 703 kg/m3.
(4) Bioethanol (used as an alternative transportation fuel) is produced by

the fermentation of sugar-based feedstocks (taken as glucose, C6H12O6)
such as sugarcane, beet, cassava, etc. The fermentation reaction can be
represented by
•• Balance the chemical reaction.

•• Determine the mass of ethanol produced from 300 tons/day of glucose.

myUnisa.
For a refresher on stoichiometry, you can view the following video clips:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gle1bPAZsgg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7AYHkMbFNs&list=PLD4476BAFA5A6
5111&index=32
5.2.2 Extent of reaction (ξ)

In the previous section, we implicitly assumed that reactions go to completion.
In reality, reactions rarely go to completion (there are many reasons for this –
you will learn why in other modules). This has significant consequences on a
chemical process. (Can you see how?)
We need to have some way of tracking the progress of a reaction, in other

words how much reaction has occurred. We use the concept of an extent of
reaction, ξ, to denote how far the reaction has proceeded.
...........
144
The extent of a reaction, ξ, for a single reaction involving species/component

i, is defined as:
(5.1)
where ni number of moles of species i present in the system after the reaction
nio number of moles of species i present in the system at the beginning

of the reaction
vi stoichiometric coefficient for species i in the chemical equation
Note that the balanced chemical reaction equation must be specified prior to the
calculation of the extent. This is because we need to know the stoichiometric
coefficients in order to calculate the extent. When determining the extent, the
stoichiometric coefficients are positive for products and negative for reactants.
Remember that even though a reaction might not go to completion, the
stoichiometric ratios of reactants and products, as specified by the balanced
chemical reaction equation, are still applicable.
The extent of a reaction is always a positive value and has units that depend
on the units of n (could be either mol (batch) or mol/time (continuous)).If the
extent of reaction is known, the final number of moles of component i, ni,
can be calculated from the initial number of moles, nio, for a single reaction,
by rearranging Equation 5.1:
(5.2)
Equation 5.2 can be written for each species that occurs in a reaction. It is
important to realise that the value of the extent of reaction is the same for all
species involved in a specific reaction.
Let us illustrate the concept of extent of reaction using an example. Consider

the production of ammonia:
Suppose the feed to the reactor consists of 100 mol/s of nitrogen and 300
mol/s of hydrogen. If the outlet flow rate of hydrogen from the reactor is 200
mol/s, determine the outlet flow rate of ammonia and nitrogen.
The extent of the reactant can be calculated based on the inlet and outlet flow
rates of hydrogen, using Equation 5.1:
...........
145 CH F1501/1

The outlet flow rate of nitrogen and ammonia can be determined from Equation
5.2, based on the extent of reaction calculated for hydrogen (remember ξ is
species-independent):
Watch this video clip, which explains the concept of the extent of reaction:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuTXvA6GslM
5.2.3 Limiting reactant

In many industrial processes, reactants are not fed to a reactor in stoichiometric
proportions (again, you learn why this is the case in another module). This
means that the supply of one of the reactants will run out before the other
reactants. Thus, the reaction cannot continue, as one of the reactants has
been used up. The reactant that is completely depleted first (if in theory the
reaction proceeded to completion) is known as the limiting reactant. All other
reactants are therefore in excess.
Another way to define the limiting reactant is by comparing the ratio (relative to
the other reactant) at which the reactant is fed to a reactor to the stoichiometric
ratio. The reactant with a ratio less than the stoichiometric ratio (relative to all
other reactants) is known as the limiting reactant.
Furthermore, the limiting reactant can be expressed in terms of the extent of

the reaction. The maximum extent of reaction can be calculated for each
reactant by assuming that the reactant reacts completely . The
reactant with the lowest maximum extent of reaction is the limiting reactant.
Let us illustrate these concepts with an example. Consider again the ammonia
synthesis reaction:
Suppose that the feed to the reactor contains 200 mol/s of nitrogen and 400
mol/s of hydrogen. Determine which component is the limiting reactant.
From the stoichiometry 1 mole of N2 is required to react with 3 moles of H2

to produce 2 mol of NH3.
Let us look at three different ways of determining which component is limiting:
(1) If the reaction proceeds to completion and from the stoichiometry, if 100
mol/s of nitrogen reacts, we would need 300 mol/s of hydrogen. Similarly,
if 200 mol/s of nitrogen react, we would need 600 mol/s of hydrogen.
Since the feed only contains 400 mol/s of hydrogen, the hydrogen would
be limiting.
...........
146
(2) We previously mentioned that the stoichiometric proportion of the reac-

tants (H2 to N2) is
If we calculate the stoichiometric proportion of the feed given:
Since the ratio (of H2 relative to N2) in the specified feed is less than the
stoichiometric ratio (of H2 relative to N2), we can say that hydrogen is limiting
and nitrogen is in excess.
(3) Calculate the maximum extent of reaction:
Component N2 H2 NH3
Stoichiometric 1 3 2
coefficient
Initial amount of moles 200 400 0

present (mol/s)
Maximum extent of (0 – 200) /-1 (0 – 400) /-3

reaction, ξmax (mol/s) = 200 = 133.33
The maximum extent of reaction for H2 is the lowest. H2 is therefore the limiting
reactant. Furthermore, the maximum amount of NH3 that could be produced
is υNH3ξ =266.67 mol/s (assumed that all the H2 is consumed).
Watch this video that has interesting analogies to explain the concept of a
limiting reactant:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nZOVR8EMwRU
5.2.4 Reactants in excess

If a reactant (or reactants) is not the limiting reactant, we call these reactants
excess reactants. Excess reactants are fed in a greater than stoichiometric ratio
relative to the limiting reactant.
The fractional excess of a reactant (relative to the stoichiometric requirements)

is defined in terms of the extent of the reaction as follows:
(5.3)
...........
147 CH F1501/1

where nio,excess the initial amount of the excess reactant i present
ξmax,limiting the maximum extent of reaction for the limiting reactant
υi the stoichiometric coefficient of reactant i
The percentage excess is the fractional excess multiplied by 100. Note that
the percentages excess is a dimensionless number.
To illustrate this concept, let us revisit the ammonia example and calculate
the percentage excess.
As shown, the limiting reactant is hydrogen. Therefore, nitrogen is in excess.

The initial feed of nitrogen was 200 mol/s. We determined the maximum
extent for hydrogen to be 133.33 mol/s.
An example using the concepts of limiting and excess reactants:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YNriRslOk9A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qLUJdF_l8LA
5.2.5 Conversion
Conversion (usually denoted as X) is a measure of the fraction of the limiting
reactant that reacts.
(5.4)
The percentage conversion is the fractional conversion multiplied by 100.

The fractional conversion is dimensionless and should be between 0 and 1.
The conversion (X) can be related to the extent of the reaction:

(5.5)
If the conversion is known, the final number of moles of the limiting reactant i,
ni, can be calculated from the initial number of moles, nio, for a single reaction,
by rearranging Equation 5.5
(5.6)
Note that we defined the conversion in terms of the limiting reactant, in other
words conversion is species dependent (unlike extent of reaction). However,
the conversion of the excess reactants will be different from that of the limiting
reactant. If the feed consists of reactant in stoichiometric proportions, then the
conversion can be based on any of the reactants.
Consider the synthesis of ammonia.
...........
148
(a) The feed to the reactor contains 4000 kmol/h of nitrogen and hydrogen in
stoichiometric proportions. If the fractional conversion is 0.3, determine
the extent of reaction and the outlet flow rate of the reactor.
(b) The feed to the reactor contains 4000 kmol/h of nitrogen and hydrogen
in a ratio of 1:5. If the fractional conversion is 0.3, determine the extent
of reaction and the outlet flow rate of the reactor.
Solution:
(a) N2 and H2 are fed in stoichiometric proportions (1:3). Therefore, the

flow rate of N2 is 1000 kmol/h and H2 3000 kmol/h. Since none of the
reactants are limiting, we choose one as a basis. Select N2 arbitrarily.
Applying Equation 5.5
The outlet flow rate of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia can be determined
from Equation 5.2, based on the extent of reaction calculated for nitrogen:
(b) Nitrogen is the limiting reactant (convince yourself!). For a ratio of 1:5,
the flow rate of N2 is 666.67 kmol/h and H2 3333.33 kmol/h. Calculating
the extent of reactant, using N2 as the limiting reactant:
The outlet flow rate of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia can be determined
from Equation 5.2, based on the extent of reaction calculated for nitrogen:

...........
149 CH F1501/1

31 Ac tivit y 5. 2
(1) Consider the following reaction:
A is the limiting reactant and there are 10 kmol of A present.
•• Determine the number of moles of the other species.

•• If the percentage excess of B is 10%, determine the number of moles
of B required.
(2) 100 kmol/min of ethylene and 100 kmol/min of oxygen are fed to a reactor
to produce ethylene oxide according to the chemical reaction
•• Determine the limiting reactant.

•• Calculate the fractional excess of the other reactant.
•• Calculate how much of the excess reactant remains and how much
product is formed for a 100% conversion.
•• If the fractional conversion is 0.5, determine the outlet stream of the
reactor.
•• If the reaction proceeds to the extent that there is 60 mol/min of oxygen
in the product, determine the fractional conversion of ethylene.
(3) To obtain 100 kg of product C (MW =28), 300 kg of compound A (MW= 30)
and 500 kg of compound B (MW= 27) are reacted as follows:
•• What is the limiting reactant?

•• What is the percentage conversion of the limiting reactant?
(4) A reactor is fed with A and B in stoichiometric proportions. The following

reaction occurs:
If the feed stream contains 100 mol of A and the product stream contains
a total of 280 mol, calculate the conversion.
You can also try to do problems 5.2.1 to 5.2.7 in your prescribed textbook
(Himmelblau, 2013).

myUnisa.
5.2.6 Multiple reactions

In our discussions thus far, we have considered a single reaction. However,
in most chemical processes, multiple reactions occur. The reactants may
...........
150
form products other than the desired product (known as parallel reactions).
In addition, the desired product might react further to produce additional
products (known as series reactions). These additional products are known as
by-products (or undesired products). The additional reactions that may occur
are known as side reactions. One of the main tasks of a chemical engineer
is to maximise the production of the desired product and to minimise side
reactions and the production of by-products. Usually, the more by-products
that are produced, the higher the amount of waste produced from a process
(which may have an environmental impact) and more raw materials would
be required for the process.
5.2.6.1 Extent of reaction for multiple independent reactions

The concept of extent of reaction can also be applied to processes in which
multiple reactions occur. An extent of reaction, ξj, is assigned to each
independent reaction:
where υi,j refers to the stoichiometric coefficient of a species i in reaction j.
The concept of independent reactions is very similar to our previous discussion

regarding independent equations. For a set of chemical reactions to be
independent, we need to find the smallest set of reactions that involve all
the species present. None of the reactions should be a linear combination of
other reactions in the set.
An example of using extent of reactant for multiple reactions:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YusSU0jlOUk&list=PLD4476BAFA5A65
111&index=35
5.2.6.2 Selectivity and yield

We define the terms yield and selectivity to quantify how efficient a reactor
is in producing the desired product.
A high selectivity is desired as it would signify that the reactants were successfully
converted to the desired product instead of the undesired product.
There are a number of definitions for yield. It is therefore very important to

state which yield you are referring to.
...........
151 CH F1501/1

(a) Yield (based on reactant consumed)
The amount of a desired product obtained divided by the amount of the key
reactant (usually the limiting reactant):
(5.7)
(b) Yield (based on feed)
The amount of a desired product obtained divided by the amount of the key
reactant fed takes chemical losses as well as physical losses into account.
(5.8)
(c) Yield (based on 100% conversion)
The amount of a product obtained divided by the theoretical amount of product

that would be obtained if the limiting reactant was completely consumed.
(5.9)
Considering the third definition of yield (i.e. Equation 5.9), why do you think
the actual moles produced are often less than the theoretical amount?
Let us illustrate the calculation of yield and selectivity using an example.

Consider the following two reactions:
D is the desired product, whereas U is undesired. The feed to the reactor

contains 6 mols of A and 3.5 mols of B. 4 mols of A are converted to D and
0.5 mols of A are converted to U.
(1) What is the limiting reactant?

(2) What is the conversion of the limiting reactant?
(3) What is the selectivity of D relative to U?
(4) Calculate the yield of D expressed as:
•• mol of product per mol of A in the feed

•• mol of product per mol of A consumed
•• moles of product per theoretical moles of product formed
Answers:
(1) For reaction 1, A is limiting (the feed ratio of A: B is 1.7:1 < stoichiometric
ratio of A: B is 2:1). For reaction 2, A is the only reactant.
...........
152
(2) The total conversion of A (in both reactions):
(3) 2 mols of D are produced and 0.5 mols of U are produced
(4) Yield: 2 mols of D are produced (use the stoichiometry of the reaction)
••
••
•• The theoretical amount of D that can be produced is 3 mol D (for com-

plete conversion of A and no side reactions). The actual amount is 2
mol D.
32 Ac tivit y 5. 3
(1) Consider the production of formaldehyde by the catalytic oxidation of
methanol. A side reaction takes places in which formaldehyde is converted
to formic acid:
The composition of the product stream (volume %) is as follows:
CH3OH 8.6
CH2O 3.1
HCOOH 0.6
H2O 3.7
O2 16.0
N2 68.0
•• Determine the percentage conversion of methanol.

•• What is the selectivity of formaldehyde relative to formic acid?
•• Calculate the yield of formaldehyde expressed as:
...........
153 CH F1501/1

–– mol of product per mol of methanol in the feed

–– mol of product per mol of methanol consumed
–– moles of product per theoretical moles of product formed
(2) Ethylene glycol, EG, is produced from ethylene oxide and water. A side
reaction produces an undesired dimer, DEG
The reactor feed contains 10 mol/s of ethylene oxide and 30 mol/s water.
The fractional conversion of the limiting reactant is 0.9 and the selectiv-
ity is 0.8. Determine the outlet composition and yield (based on all three
definitions).

myUnisa.
5.3 MASS BALANCE ON SIMPLE REACTIVE SYSTEMS

As discussed in Learning Unit 4, the general material balance for a system is
given by the following relationship:

(4.1)
When performing a material balance on a system in which a reaction has

taken place, it is more convenient to express the equation in terms of moles
than mass. This is because the generation and consumption terms are related
to the stoichiometry of the reaction.
Two methods are used to perform material balance calculations involving

reactions. These are (1) molecular species balances (as was done for non-
reactive systems) and (2) atomic (or elemental) species balances.
5.3.1 Molecular species balances

We can apply Equation 4.1 in terms of moles to an arbitrary molecular species i:
Moles of i entering+moles of i generated by reaction

=moles of i leaving+moles of i consumed by reaction
+accumulation of moles of i
(5.10)
For a steady-state continuous process, the accumulation term is zero.
Consider a steady-state reactor in which the following reaction takes place:
...........
154
If we apply Equation 5.10 for each species of the system, we find:
For species A: Moles of A entering+0 (no A generated)

=moles of A leaving
+moles of A consumed by reaction
For species B: Moles of B entering+0 (no A generated)

=moles of B leaving+moles of B consumed by reaction
For species C: 0 (no C entering)+moles of C generated

=moles of C leaving+0 (no C consumed)
Notice that the consumption and generation terms of the three molecular species
are related by the stoichiometry of the reaction. For example, if 4 mol/min of
A is consumed, we can determine from the stoichiometry that 2 mol/min of C
must be produced and 6 mol/min of B should be consumed. Furthermore, if
you study the equations, notice that for species A (and similarly for species B):
Does this look familiar to you? If you recall, we defined the extent of reaction
in Equation 5.1 as
where ni is the flow rate for component i either in the inlet or outlet stream
vi is the stoichiometric coefficient of species i.
...........
155 CH F1501/1

If we re-arrange Equation 5.1, it can be rewritten in the form of the consumption

or generation term of component i. This is represented as follows:
Therefore, for a single reaction, the extent of reaction (multiplied by the

corresponding stoichiometric coefficient) can be used to determine all the
generation and consumption terms of each species in the material balance
equation.
The total flow rate of a specific stream is the sum of the individual flow rates.
This is mathematically represented as follows:
(5.11)
where S represents the total number of species in the system.
The number of independent equations is equal to the number of species, S, in

the system. Equation 5.11 is the sum of the individual species and is therefore a
dependent equation. In certain cases, species balances may not be independent.
For example, if two molecular species occur in the same ratio throughout the
process, the species balances for those two species may not be independent.
(Think about O2 and N2 in air – these two species are always in the same ratio.)
The extent of reaction can also be represented in terms of the fraction of

conversion of the limiting reactant as previously discussed (see Equation 5.5).
In solving material balance problems involving reaction, we can still apply our
10-step strategy as discussed in Learning Unit 4. Go back and remind yourself
of the 10 steps before you look at the next example!
...........
156
EXAMPLE:
Material balance based on species in the system (adapted from Himmelblau

and Riggs, 2012).
The formation of methyl chloride can be represented by the following reaction:
The feed to the reactor consist of methane, chlorine and nitrogen with the fol-
lowing composition:
Compound Formula Composition (mole

%)
Methane CH4 45%
Chlorine Cl2 50%
Nitrogen N2 5%
Determine the product composition for a 60% conversion of the limiting reactant.
ANSWER
Step 1–5
In this example, no mention is made of any flow rates and only the composition
of the product stream is required. You can therefore select any stream as a
basis, as well as any value. Usually the feed is selected as a basis with a flow
rate of 100 mol/min (any time unit can be selected).
In order to solve this problem, the limiting reactant should be identified using
the maximum extent of reaction possible (or any other method you prefer).
...........
157 CH F1501/1

The maximum extent of reaction is the lowest for methane. Methane is therefore
the limiting reactant.
The actual extent of the reaction is determined by the conversion of the

limiting reactant.
Steps 6 and 7
Perform degree of freedom analysis.
Using the species approach, the following variables will be of importance:
The number of variables to consider, is 11.
The number of unknown variables: 6.
The number of independent equations = 5 (component balance for each

species).
Implicit equation:
Therefore, the degrees of freedom are zero.
Steps 8 and 9
Performing a component material balance for each species
...........
158
Component vi Extent of Feed Consumed Product

reaction [mol/min] [mol/min] [mol/min]
N i,in N i,out
ξ vi ξ
(i) CH4 -1 27 45 (-1)(27) 45 + (-27) = 18
(ii) Cl2 -1 27 50 (-1) (27) 50 + (-27) = 23
(iii) CH3Cl 1 27 0 (+1) (27) 0 + (27) = 27
(iv) HCl 1 27 0 (+1) (27) 0 + (27) = 27
(v) N2 0 0 5 (0)(27) 5+0=5
Total 100 100
Note: T
he stoichiometric coefficient for nitrogen (N2) is zero as it is an
inert component and does not take part in the reaction.
Therefore, the product composition is as follows:
Component Product Composition
N i,out
(i) CH4 18 (18/100) x 100 = 18%
(ii) Cl2 23 (23/100) x 100 = 23%
(iii) CH3Cl 27 27%
(iv) HCl 27 27%
(v) N2 5 5%
Total 100
Step 10
Check answer.
The answer is already checked in the table. The flow rate In is equal to the
flow rate Out = 100 mol/minute. Note that, in general, the overall molar flow
rate does not necessarily need to balance (in = out). It is true in this specific
case since the number of moles on the left-hand side of the chemical reaction
equation equals the number of moles on the right-hand side.
...........
159 CH F1501/1

5.3.2 Atomic (elemental) species balances

Molecular species balances are suitable for single-reaction systems. However,
for multiple reactions or systems in which the reactions are not completely
specified, atomic (elemental) balances are more convenient. The reason for
this is that elements in the system are conserved even though a reaction is
occurring. During a reaction, the elements are merely rearranged to form
different compounds. Thus, there is no generation or consumption of atomic
species.
The general material balance on atomic species (such as C, H, O, etc.) for a

steady-state process simplifies to
(Input) = (Output)
The number of independent equations is equal to the number of atomic

species in the system. In certain cases, atomic species balances may not be
independent. For example, if two atomic species occur in the same ratio
throughout the process, the species balances for those two atomic species
may not be independent.
EXAMPLE:
Atomic species balances (adapted from Himmleblau and Riggs, 2012).
Hydrocracking (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xsqlv4rWnEg) is a
process used in refineries to convert long-chain hydrocarbons to shorter
chain hydrocarbons in the presence of hydrogen. It is a high temperature
and pressure process assisted by the presence of a catalyst. The process is
a complex process consisting of a number of reactions. An example of this
process is the cracking of pure octane (C8H18) resulting in products with the
following mole composition:
(i) Propane (C3H8) 15%

(ii) Butane (C4H10) 60%
(iii) Pentane (C5H12) 25%
Calculate the molar ratio of hydrogen consumed to crack octane.
...........
160
ANSWER
Steps 1–4
Add the supplied data to the diagram. x represents the mol fractions for the
different species.
The problem statement does not specify any information about the reactions
occurring in the system. We therefore will apply the element (atomic species)
balance method.
Step 5, 6 and 7
Select basis, degree of freedom analysis.
Basis P = 100 mol/min
Note: Any stream could have been selected as the basis. The flow rates
obtained, will be different, but the ratio should be the same. In this case, the
mol fractions for the different species were supplied, therefore the basis was
selected as a mol flow rate.
Number of variables: = 3 (F, G, P)

Number of elements: = 2 (C, H)
Number of unknown variables: NU = 2 (F and G. We have specified P as the

basis.)
Therefore, there are zero degrees of freedom.
...........
161 CH F1501/1

In order to obtain a unique solution, two independent equations should be

obtained. These include:
(i) atomic species (elemental) balance for carbon

(ii) atomic species balance for hydrogen
Steps 8 and 9
Write equations and solve for unknown variables
Elemental balance: Carbon (independent equation)
Stream P contains three species with carbon. The carbon content of each
species is added individually.
Remember that the moles of C in compound i = number of atoms of C

in compound i × moles of compound i.
Elemental balance: Hydrogen (independent equation)
We need to solve these two equations simultaneously to find F and G.
F= 51.25 mol/min and G = 48.75 mol/min.
Thus, the ratio of hydrogen consumed to octane reacted is:
Step 10
Check answer.
Use the dependent equation to check your answer. In this case, we can apply
an overall balance (in this particular case, F + G = 100). Substitute your
answers and check whether the left-hand side of the equation is equal to the
right-hand side.
Note that in general the total moles in ≠ total moles out for a reactive system.
Here are a few video clips explaining the concepts of molecular species and
atomic species balances:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddtW9G1oUxI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NDm4FRt2fyM
33 Ac tivit y 5. 3
(1) A feed of 520 kg/h consisting of 30.77% (by mass) CH4 (the balance is water)
is fed to a reactor to produce CO and H2. If the conversion of the limiting
reactant is 80%, calculate the mass composition of the product stream.
...........
162
(2) Acrylonitrile is produced from propylene, ammonia and oxygen.
The feed contains 15 mol% propylene, 18% ammonia and the balance is
air. The conversion of the limiting reactant is 25%.
•• Balance the chemical reaction.

•• Determine the product composition (in mol % and mass %) using
molecular species balances.
•• Check your answer using atomic species balances.
(3) Ethanol (C2H5OH) is produced by the hydration of ethylene (C2H4) accord-

ing to the reaction
A side reaction converts some of the product to diethyl ether
The feed to the reactor is a mixture of ethylene, steam and inert gas. The
reactor effluent contains 43.3% ethylene, 2.5% ethanol, 0.14% ether, 9.3%
inerts and the balance is water.
•• Take as a basis 100 mol of product gas, draw a diagram of the system
and perform a degrees of freedom analysis on the system.
•• Determine the molar composition of the feed, the percentage
conversion of ethylene, the fractional yield of ethanol and the selectivity
of ethanol to ether.
(Adapted from Felder and Rousseau, 2000.)
(4) Formaldehyde (CH2O) is produced by the partial oxidation of methanol

(CH3OH). Several by-products are formed as well, such as formic acid (CH2O2),
CO, CO2 and H2O. The feed to the reactor contains 100 mol/h of methanol
and 21.05 mol/h of oxygen. If 40% of the methanol and 95% of the oxy-
gen in converted to products, determine the reactor outlet composition.
(5) Acetaldehyde (C2H4O) is produced by the partial oxidation of ethanol

(C2H5OH).
...........
163 CH F1501/1

A side-reaction occurs, in which some of the acetaldehyde is partially

oxidised to acetic acid
A plant to produce 1500 mol/h of acetaldehyde from pure ethanol and air
is to be designed. Laboratory data indicate that if the feed ratio of ethanol
to oxygen is 6:1, the conversion of ethanol in the reactor is 25% and the
yield of acetaldehyde (based on ethanol consumed) is 0.6.
Calculate the molar flow rates and composition of the inlet and outlet
streams from the reactor.

myUnisa.
5.4 COMBUSTION SYSTEMS

The combustion process entails the reaction of oxygen with a fuel (which
usually contains elements such C, S and H) to produce the oxide forms of
these elements with the simultaneous release of large quantities of energy.
Examples of fuels are solid fuels (such as coal and biomass), fuel oil (high
molecular weight hydrocarbons) and gaseous fuels such as natural gas and
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) (which contains propane and butane).
In South Africa, more than 90% of our electricity is generated from the combustion
of coal. Coal combustion releases energy, which in turn is used to generate
steam. The steam is then utilised to generate electricity. The combustion process
produces pollutants such as ash and gases, including CO2, CO, SO2, NO and
NO2. Some of these gases are known as greenhouse gases (for example CO2)
to which climate change is attributed.
When a fuel is burned in the presence of air, two simultaneous reactions occur:
(i) Complete combustion: the products formed are CO2 and H2O.
Examples of complete combustion reactions:
...........
164
(ii) Incomplete (or partial) combustion: the products formed are CO and H2O.
Examples of partial combustion reactions:
Here are a few video clips regarding combustion that might be of interest to you:
Coal-fired power plant:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-aGzkDGlYSs
Fossil fuels:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zaXBVYr9Ij0
Fossils fuels and climate change:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBLQUplzZZo
34 Ac tivit y 5. 5
South Africa is extremely reliant on coal for electricity production. Use
the discussion tool on myUnisa to describe the social and environmental
impact of the use of coal. Are there any alternatives to coal for our country?
5.4.1 Combustion terminology

•• Air
Air is the source of oxygen in most combustion systems. For most of our
calculations, air is assumed to consist of only oxygen (21%) and nitrogen (79%)
on a volume or mole basis. Air has an average molecular weight of 29 g/mol.
•• Theoretical or required air
The minimum amount of air required for the complete combustion of a fuel.
•• Excess air
In most combustion systems, more air than theoretically required is added to

ensure complete combustion and for safety reasons.
The amount of air in excess of the theoretical air required, in other words what
is required for complete combustion:
...........
165 CH F1501/1

(5.12)
If the percentage of excess air is given (and the theoretical air required is
calculated), the actual amount of air fed to the process can easily be determined.
These video clips are useful for explaining the terminology used in combustion
systems:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XdpOz1IE5cY&list=PLD4476BAFA5A65
111&index=25
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cpceKdgArt4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-1qQFFX-o8
•• Flue or stack gas
The products are gases and unreacted gases leaving the combustion process.
The fuel gas composition might be specified on a wet basis (includes water
vapour) or dry basis (excluding water vapour). A simple calculation is required
to convert from a wet basis to dry basis or vice versa.
•• Orsat analysis
This analysis (developed by H. Orsat) determines the volumes of different gases

in equilibrium with water based on a dry basis (results exclude water vapour).
35 Ac tivit y 5.6
(1) Write the complete and incomplete balanced combustion reaction for
the following fuels:
(ii) C3H8 (ii) C5H10O (iii) CO
Compare your answers with the information below:
(iii) Complete combustion
Incomplete combustion
(ii) Complete combustion

...........
166
Incomplete combustion
(iii) Complete combustion
(2) The analysis of a flue gas on a wet basis yields the following composition:
10% CO2, 1.0% CO, 6% O2 and 75% N2 and 8% H2O
Determine the flue gas composition on a dry basis.
Compare your answer with the following:
Basis: 100 mol of wet gas

10 mol CO2, 1 mol CO, 6 mol O2, 75 mol N2. Therefore, the total dry gas is
92 mol.
To find the composition of the dry gas:
EXAMPLE:
Combustion of propane
Propane is used as fuel for the cooking of food and the heating of homes.
The combustion reaction is presented below:
C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
In this example, propane combustion is performed in a furnace with the stack

leaving through the roof of the house. The furnace consumes 55 g/s propane.
In order to ensure the complete combustion of the propane 20% excess air is
added. Determine the composition of the product stream on a mass fraction basis.
...........
167 CH F1501/1

Answer
The problem is solved using the 10-step method.
Steps 1–4
In order to calculate the amount of oxygen and air required, the propane mass
flow rate should be converted into mol flow rate. We assume that propane
converts completely, in other words there is no propane in the flue gas.
Step 5
Feed mol rate = mass flow rate / MW(propane) = 55 g.s-1/ 44g.mol-1= 1.25
mol/s
Basis: feed mol rate = 1.25 mol/s
Steps 6–9
There are six unknowns (as shown in the figure). We can write six independent
equations:
•• 3 reactive component balances (O2, CO2, H2O)

•• Inert (N2) component balance
•• Excess air specification
•• Implicit equation (sum of moles of components in flue gas = Total stream
flow, P)
Thus, the degrees of freedom are zero.
Check whether the reaction is balanced. From the stoichiometry of the reaction,
for every mole of propane consumed, 5 moles of oxygen is required. Thus,
the theoretical oxygen mole flow rate is: 1.25×5 = 6.25 mol/s.
...........
168
The actual oxygen supplied is thus 20% more than this amount: 1.2 x 6.25
= 7.5 mol/s.
Using the reaction stoichiometry, the products formed can be estimated:
C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
Reactants Products
Stream C3H8 O2 CO2 H2O
Stoichiometric ratio 1 5 3 4
Actual required 1.25 3 × 1.25 = 3.75 4 × 1.25 = 5

(mol/s)
a) Air stream
Air consists of 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. It is assumed that the other
gases are negligible. In order to determine the nitrogen in the product stream,
the amount of nitrogen in the feed stream A should be determined. This is
done as follows:
The total oxygen flow rate in A = (xA,oxygen) (Atotal) = 7.5 mol/s
Atotal = 7.5 / 0.21 = 35.71 mol/s
Nitrogen flow rate in stream A = (xA,nitrogen) (Atotal) = 0.79 × 7.5 / 0.21 = 28.21
mol/s.
You can assume that nitrogen is inert and does not undergo any chemical
changes. This implies that the mole flow rate in the flue gas stream for nitrogen
is also 28.21 mol/s.
b) Product stream
The different components in the product stream were determined from the
stoichiometry of the reaction equation. The flue gas contains 3.75 mol/s CO2
and 5 mol/s H2O and 28.21 mol/s nitrogen. In addition to this, the flue gas
stream contains oxygen. The oxygen is due to the excess amount supplied. The
amount of oxygen in the flue gas is determined by subtracting the theoretical
required amount from the actual amount supplied.
...........
169 CH F1501/1

Amount of oxygen in product stream = supplied amount – required amount
= 7.5 – 6.25 = 1.25 mol/s
To summarise, the different components in the product stream are as follows:
Component Mole Mol Molecular Mass flow rate Mass fraction of

flow rate fraction mass product stream
[kg/s]
[mol/s]
C3H8 0 0 44 0 0.00
O2 1.25 0.03 32 (1.25) (32) =40 40/1084.88 = 0.037
N2 28.21 0.74 28 789.88 0.728
CO2 3.75 0.10 44 165 0.152
H2O 5 0.13 18 90 0.083
Total 38.21 1.00 1084.88 1.00
Step 10
Check your answer.
You can check the total mass in = total mass out (convince yourself that this
correct!).
36 Ac tivit y 5.7
(1) Consider the combustion of natural gas with 20% excess air. The composi-
tion of the natural gas is 95% methane and 5% propane on a mole basis.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O 95% (v/v)
C2H6 + 3.5O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O5% (v/v)
Determine the composition of the flue gas.
(2) Methane is burned with 20% excess air. 75% of the methane is converted
to CO2 and the balance reacts to form CO. Determine the composition of
the flue gas stream.
(3) Propane is burned with excess air. The flue gas composition is:
5% CO2, 3.5% CO, 7% O2, and 73.1% N2 and 11.4% H2O
Calculate the percentage excess air used.
...........
170
(4) Methane is burned with 20% excess air. 75% of the methane is converted
to CO2 and the balance reacts to form CO. Determine the composition of
the flue gas stream.
(5) Try example 5.14 in Himmelblau and Riggs (2012). The example is related
to the combustion of coal.
(6) Try examples 5.5.1 and 5.5.5 in Himmelblau and Riggs (2012).
Feedback on questions 1–4 will be given by your e-tutor or lecturer on

myUnisa.
5.4.2 Recycle and purge

In Learning Unit 4, we introduced the concept of a recycle. In this section, we
extend the concept to reactive systems.
As mentioned previously, it is uncommon to attain a 100% conversion in a

reactor. Most processes operate at low conversions. This means that a large
amount of the expensive reactants leaves the reactor unconverted. Recycles
can be used to send the unconverted reactants back to the reactor. This is an
effective and economical method of increasing the yield and reducing the
environmental impact of a process.
Figure 5.1 shows a simple block flow diagram of a reactor-separator-recycle

system for the chemical reaction AB operating at steady-state. Note that we
need to include a separator to separate the product (B) from the unconverted
reactant (A). The unconverted reactant is recycled and mixes with the fresh
feed. The mixed stream is fed to the reactor.
FIGURE 5.1
Block flow diagram for a process with a reactor, separator and recycle.
With recycle systems, we can define the conversion in two ways:
...........
171 CH F1501/1

Single-pass conversion, XSP: The conversion across the reactor, in other words
the streams entering the leaving the reactor

(5.13)
Overall conversion, XOA: The conversion across the entire process, in other
words the stream entering and leaving the overall process

(5.14)
To illustrate the difference between the two conversions, consider the data
provided in Figure 5.1.
The single pass conversion can be calculated to be:
The overall conversion is
Note that the overall conversion is 100% because we assumed that the separator
is perfect, in other words all of the reactant A ends up in the recycle stream.
In reality, separators are far from perfect (as you will learn in other modules),
which means that the overall conversion would be less than 100%. However,
the overall conversion will always be higher than the single-pass conversion
in the reactor.
Performing material balances over reactive recycle systems can be complex. Let
us illustrate some strategies that you may use to solve this type of a problem.
Consider the ammonia synthesis process we discussed previously. Suppose
we would like to produce 100 kmol/s of NH3. We would like to find the flow
rate and composition of all the other streams.
...........
172
Assume that the N2 and H2 are fed in stoichiometric ratio. Also suppose that
the single pass conversion is specified. (If this has not been specified, would
you be able to solve the problem? A degree of freedom analysis would answer
this.) We can also assume that the separator is a perfect separator, in other
words all the ammonia is completely separated from the unconverted reactants.
Where should we start? During our discussion on multi-unit systems (Learning

Unit 4), we mentioned that it is wise to start with the system that has the least
degrees of freedom (or zero degrees of freedom).
We can analyse the following systems: the overall system, feed-recycle mixing
point, the reactor and the separator.
Feed-recycle mixing point: Four unknowns (what are they?) and two equations
(component balances). Therefore, 2 degrees of freedom.
Reactor: Five unknowns and three molecular species balances. Thus, 2 degrees
of freedom. Note that the single pass conversion is specified in this case.
Separator: Five unknowns and three balances, in other words 2 degrees of

freedom.
Overall system: Two unknowns and two atomic species balances. (You could
also specify this in terms of molecular species balances). Thus, there is 0 degrees
of freedom. We can start here!
Overall N balance:
Overall H balance:
Thus, we have determined the fresh feed. The next step is to follow a
certain component through the system. Usually, this would be the limiting
reactant. But, in this particular case, it does not matter as the reactant is fed
in stoichiometric ratio. We would like to relate an unknown variable to known
variables.
Let us follow nitrogen. We can write nitrogen material balances for the reactor,
separator and mixing point:
...........
173 CH F1501/1

We can combine these equations to relate the nitrogen feed to the reactor to
the single pass conversion and nitrogen fresh feed:
Using this information and the balances we wrote, we can find the nitrogen
flow rate in all the other streams. We can then use the stoichiometry of the
reaction to find the hydrogen feed to the reactor. We can write hydrogen
balances to solve for the hydrogen flow rates in all the streams.
Try it out. If the conversion XSP = 0.3, determine the flow rates and composition
of all the streams.
37 Ac tivit y 5. 8
(1) If the reactants in the feed stream occur in stoichiometric proportions,
would the recycle stream also be in stoichiometric proportions? Assume
a perfect separator.
(2) The following reaction
occurs in the process shown below. The process operates at steady state.
The feed stream (1) is a mixture of A and B in a molar ratio of A: B of 1:2.

The product stream (4) consists of pure P and has a molar flow rate of 20
kmol/h. The recycle stream contains no P. The feed to the reactor (stream
(2)) should have a molar ratio of A to B of 1:3 so that the reaction operates
with an excess of B.
Calculate the molar flow rates and compositions of all streams.
(3) Try problems 4 and 5 on page 295 of Himmelblau and Riggs (2012).
Feedback on questions 1–2 will be given by your e-tutor or lecturer on

myUnisa.
...........
174
In many processes, the feed material to the process does not contain only the
required reactants. There may be inert material or contaminants in the feed
material. If this material is not removed from the process, it will accumulate
in the process. This could mean that steady state cannot be attained and the
process might not operate effectively. A similar situation is possible if the reactor
produces by-products that are not removed.
A purge stream (as shown in Figure 5.2) can be used to remove the accumulated
material (separation of the material might be too expensive). A certain fraction
of the recycle stream is withdrawn (split) from the process to remove the
contaminants or inerts. A purge stream could be a simple splitter.
At steady state, the contaminant flow into the process must equal the contaminant
flow in the purge stream. Also, the composition of all the streams at the split
is equal.
FIGURE 5.2
Block flow diagram for a process with a recycle and purge.
The procedure for solving a problem involving a purge would be very similar
to the recycle system. We start with the overall material balance (which would
now include the purge stream) and then follow a specific component through
the process.
Let us illustrate the procedure using the ammonia synthesis case. The feed
flow rate is 100 kmol/s and contains nitrogen and hydrogen in stoichiometric
proportions and 1 mol % argon. The purge flow rate is 20 kmol/s. The single-
pass conversion is 20% and the separator is assumed to be perfect. We would
like to find the flow rate and composition of all streams.
...........
175 CH F1501/1

Let us start by looking at the material balance for argon (an inert gas that does
not take part in the reaction). At steady state, the argon entering the process (1
kmol/s) must leave in the purge stream. This corresponds to 5% of the purge
stream. Thus, the nitrogen and hydrogen in the purge stream make up the
remaining 95%. As we showed with the recycle system, an overall balance is
usually a good place to start. However, in this case, the overall balance must
account for the purge stream as well.
Let us write the molecular species balances (as opposed to atomic species
balances) for the overall system:
NH3 balance:
where F4 represents the total flow rate of the product (NH3) stream and ξ
represents the extent of reaction.
N2 balance:
where xP,N2 represents the mol fraction of nitrogen in the purge stream P and
xF1,N2 represents the mol fraction of nitrogen in the feed stream, F1.
H2 balance:
where xP,H2 represents the mol fraction of hydrogen in the purge stream P and
xF1,H2 represents the mol fraction of hydrogen in the feed stream, F1.
We also know that
In other words, the sum of the mole fraction in the purge stream must be equal
to 1. The mole fraction of argon in the purge stream is 0.05.
Solving these equations simultaneously, gives us the values for
ξ = 20 kmol/s (how is this extent related to the extent in the reactor?), F4 =

40 kmol/s, xP, N2 = 0.2375 and xP, H2 =0.7125.
We can then follow the same procedure that we used for the recycle system,
in other words following a specific component through the system, to find the
flow rates and compositions of the streams.
We shall leave it up to you to solve the numerical values of the flow rates
and compositions of the various streams.
Here are a few video clips showing examples of material balances for reactive
systems that include recycle and purge:
...........
176
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qb_q4zSA2KQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wR7pyO3HZW0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=47tPvx3lOKc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gOuOxozb4pE
38 Ac tivit y 5.9
(1) By writing balances over each unit, show that the inert purge flow rate
must equal the inert feed rate.
(2) Consider a process with a recycle and purge stream. What is the effect of
low purge stream flow rate? What is the effect of high purge stream flow
rates?
Try problems 6.3.6–6.3.9 in Himmelblau and Rigss (2012).
5.5 EXAMPLES
As you work through the examples below, think of each of them as an activity.
First study the problem and try to do it on your own before checking your
answer against the solution.
5.1 A mixture of methane and ethane is burned with 30% excess dry air. The
mixture contains 35% ethane and 65% methane.
5.1.1 Determine the composition of the flue gas.

5.1.2 Determine the elemental analysis of the flue gas.
5.1.3 Calculate what the Orsat analysis will be.
5.2 A process stream from a plastics plant contains the following compounds:
Compound Mol percentage
CS2 40
SO2 10
H2O 50
The plant manager tasked you to investigate the possibility of burning

the gas in the presence of excess air. The products will be emitted to the
environment. Air pollution laws require that the flue gas should not contain
more than 2% sulphur dioxide as per the Orsat analysis. Calculate the
minimum percentage excess air required to stay within the regulations.
...........
177 CH F1501/1

5.3 In a test, 86 kg of 100% hexane (C6H14) is burned with 1600 kg of air
to form a product consisting of the following: carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
oxygen and water.
Calculate the total amount of products formed, as well as the individual

products formed as mentioned above in kmol.
5.4 Consider the combustion of methane. Methane is fed to a reactor at

100 kmol/h in the presence of 55% excess air. The reaction goes 60%
to completion.
Calculate the following:
(a) The theoretical air to the reactor

(b) The actual air supplied to the reactor
(c) An Orsat analysis
(d) Gas analysis on a wet basis
5.5 A synthesis gas stream is burned with 30% excess air. The composition
of the synthesis gas is as follows:
Compound Mole percentage
CH4 10
CO2 12
CO 8
N2 67
O2 3
The methane conversion to CO2 is only 90%, with the rest burning
incompletely. Calculate the Orsat Analysis.
5.6 The following reaction
occurs in the process shown below. The process operates at steady state.
The production rate of P is 20 kmol/h. The feed to the process contains
A and B in stoichiometric proportions.
...........
178
5.6.1 If the recycle flow rate is 180 kmol/h and contains no P, what is
the fractional conversion in the reactor?
5.6.2 If the recycle contains 10% P (flow rate is still 180 kmol/h),
determine the fractional conversion in the reactor.
5.6.3 Consider whether the feed contains A, B and 1% inert I. The

recycle contains no P and the purge (from the recycle stream) is
11 kmol/h. What is the production rate of P for 200 kmol/h feed?
5.7 Ethylene oxide is produced by the catalytic oxidation of ethylene
A side reaction, the combustion of ethylene, occurs as well:
The fractional conversion of ethylene in the reactor is 20%, of which 90% takes
part in the first reaction. The reactor outlet stream is fed into a separation unit:
the ethylene and oxygen are recycled, the ethylene oxide is taken as product
and the CO2 and H2O are discarded.
The stream entering the reactor contains ethylene and oxygen in a ratio of 3:1.
Determine the feed flow rate and composition, as well as the recycle stream
flow rate and composition required to produce 2200 kg/h of ethylene oxide.
5.6 ANSWERS
5.1
The complete combustion of methane and ethane can be represented by the

following reactions:
Basis: 100 kmol of gas mixture.
...........
179 CH F1501/1

The theoretical amount of oxygen required for the complete combustion of

methane and ethane:
Methane: For every mole of methane burned, 2 mole oxygen is required
Oxygen required = (amount of mole methane in feed) × 2
= 2 (0.65) 100
= 130 kmol
Propane: For every mole of ethane burned, 3.5 mole oxygen is required.
Oxygen required = (amount of mole ethane in feed) × 2
=
= 3.5 (0.35) 100
= 122.5 kmol
Total oxygen required = Nmethane + Nethane = 130 + 122.5 = 255.5 kmol.
The excess amount of oxygen is required from the following relationship:
Amount of oxygen in air supplied = (mol fraction of oxygen in air) (total air
supplied)
= (xoxygen) A
328.25
328.25
= (0.21) A
Total air supplied A = 328.25 / 0.21 = 1563.1 kmol.
Amount of oxygen left after combustion = 328.25 – 255.5 = 72.75 kmol.
...........
180
Amount of nitrogen in air: nnitrogen = (mol fraction of nitrogen in air) (total air
supplied)
= (0.79) (1563.1)
= 1234.8 kmol
Compound Reaction Initial After combustion

amount
Compounds in flue gas
[kmol]
CO2 H2O N2 O2
Methane 65 65 130 -
Ethane 35 70 105 -
Air 1234.8 72.75
Total 100 135 235 1234.8 72.75
The composition of the flue gas is determined as the mole % of each component.
Compound Amount [mole] Mole percentage

[%]
CO2 135 (135/ 1677.55) x 100 = 8.05
H20 235 14
N2 1234.8 73.61
O2 72.75 4.34
Total 1677.55 100
5.2 The compounds in the flue gas can be summarised in the table below.
...........
181 CH F1501/1

Compound Compound Amount [mole] Mole percentage

present in
[%]
C CO2 135 (1) = 135 (135/3731.1) 100 = 3.6
H H2O 235 (2) = 470 12.6
O O2, CO2 , 135(2) + 235(1) + 75.75(2) = 656.5 17.6

H2O
N N2 1234.8 (2) = 2469.6 66.2
Total 3731.1 100
5.1.3 T
he Orsat analysis provides the mole percentages of the different compounds
in the flue gas, excluding water.
Compound Amount [mole] Mole percentage
CO2 135 (135/1445.55) x 100 = 9.4
N2 1234.8 85.4
O2 75.75 5.2
Total 1445.55 100
5.2 Basis: 100 kmol/h of process stream.
...........
182
The reactions of importance:
In order to calculate the excess air required, the composition of the product
stream needs to be determined.
The total SO2 in the flue gas can be determined from the combustion reaction
and the feed composition.
From the reaction:
Stoichiometric coefficients
1 3 1 2
Actual amount 40 120 40 80
The theoretical amount of oxygen required = 120 kmol.
The total amount of SO2 in the flue gas is 80 kmol + 10 kmol = 90 kmol/h.
From the environmental law, the sulphur dioxide composition according to

the Orsat analysis is 2% (mole basis).
...........
183 CH F1501/1

The total flue gas can therefore be determined from the SO2.
90 = (0.02) P
P = 4500 kmol/h
Oxygen calculations:
From the reaction equation, the theoretical amount of oxygen required is 120
kmol.
The oxygen reflected in the Orsat analysis is the excess oxygen.
The excess oxygen can be determined from the following equation:
Therefore the supplied oxygen is calculated by
The nitrogen supplied is therefore:
From a material balance for the flue gas stream:
Total flow rate = P = = 40 + 90 +D + 451.4 + 3.762 D = 4500
D = 823 kmol/h
Summary of flue gas composition on Orsat basis
Compound Amount of mole in flue gas Mole percentage

[kmol] [%]
CO2 40 0.9
SO2 80 + 10 = 90 2.0
O2 D = 823 (823 / 4500) × 100 = 18.3
N2 (3547)/4500) × 100 = 78.8

= 3547
Total 4500 100
...........
184
5.3
Assumptions:
1. Steady state process.
2. Complete combustion takes place.
(i) Conversion of mass to moles (MW of hexane = 86 kg/kmol, MW of air

= 29 kg/kmol)
86 kg C6H14 1 kmol
= 1 kmol C6H14
86 kg C6H14
1600 kg Air 1 kmol Air

= 55.17 kmol air
29 kg Air
...........
185 CH F1501/1

(ii) O2 in = 55.17 × 0.21 = 11.59 kmol O2
N2 in = 55.17 × 0.79 = 43.58 kmol N2
(iii) Basis: 1 kmol C6H14
IN = OUT
F+A = P
1 + 55.17 = P
P = 56.17 kmol
In Out Consumed Generated
C6H14 1.00 0.00 1.00
O2 11.59 11.59 – 9.5 = 2.09 9.5
N2 43.58 43.58
CO2 0 6 6.00
H2O 0 7 7.00
Excess air:
...........
186
5.4
The reaction products include not only the products from complete and
incomplete combustion reactions, but also O2 and N2. The nitrogen entered
the reactor as part of the air. As it did not participate in the reactions at all, it
must of course exit in the flue gas. The same with oxygen. It did participate
in the reactions, but more oxygen than required was fed to the reactor so that
the unreacted oxygen must leave in the flue gas. In combustion calculations,
we assume that all the fuel reacts. The fuel that did not react in the complete
reaction will react in the incomplete reaction. Thus, there will never be fuel
in the combustion products.
Basis: F = 100 kmol/h
(a) & (b) Air requirements
Total air supplied = 310 / 0.21
= 1476.19 kmol/h
Amount of nitrogen supplied = (0.79) 1476.19 = 1166.19 kmol/h
For complete combustion:
Only 60% of the methane undergoes complete combustion.

The complete combustion reaction is represented by the following equation:
...........
187 CH F1501/1

CO2 produced: (60 kmol CH4) × (1 mol CO2 / 1 mol CH4) = 60 kmol CO2
produced
H2O produced (60 kmol CH4) × (2 kmol H2O / 1 kmol CH4) = 120 kmol
H2O produced
Oxygen used: (60 kmol CH4) × (2 kmol O2 / 1 kmol CH4) = 120 kmol O2
reacted
For incomplete reaction:
Methane reacting incomplete = 40% =0.4 × 100 = 40 kmol/h
CO produced: (40 kmol CH4) × (1 mol CO2 / 1 mol CH4) = 40 kmol CO

produced
H2O produced: (40 kmol CH4) × (2 kmol H2O/ 1 kmol CH4) = 80 kmol H2O
produced
Oxygen used: (40 kmol CH4) × (3/2 kmol O2 / 1 kmol CH4) = 60 kmol O2
reacted
Summarise the results.
Compound In Generated Consumed Out Mass %
N2 1166.19 - - 1166.19 73.1

O2 310 (120+60) 130 8.1
CO2 0 +(60) - 60 3.8
CO 0 +(40) - 40 2.5
H2O 0 +(120+80) - 200 12.5
Total 1596.19 100
...........
188
Orsat analysis:
Compound Out Mass %
N2 1166.19 83.5
O2 130 9.3
CO2 60 4.3
CO 40 2.9
Total 1396.19 100
Note: The ratio between complete and incomplete combustion can be

determined from the Orsat analysis: 2.9/(4.3+2.9) = 0.4.
Wet analysis:
Compound Out Mass %
N2 1166.19 73.1
O2 130 8.1
CO2 60 3.8
CO 40 2.5
H2O 200 12.5
Total 1596.19 100
Note: The ratio between complete and incomplete combustion can be

determined from the wet analysis: Incomplete 2.5 / (3.8 + 2.5) = 0.4, complete
3.8 / (3.8 + 25) = 0.6.
5.5.
Basis: 100 mol of feed gas
There are two fuel components, namely CO and CH4.
...........
189 CH F1501/1

Three reactions are possible:
Reaction 1:
Reaction 2:
Reaction 3:
Total air requirements
Theoretical oxygen requirement:
Reaction 1: 10 kmol CH4 requires: (10 kmol CH4) × (2 kmol O2 / 1 kmol CH4)
= 20 kmol O2 required.
Reaction 2: 8 kmol CO requires: (8 kmol CO) × (0.5 kmol O2 / 1 kmol CO)

= 4 kmol O2 required.
Total O2 required = 24 kmol.
But 30% excess air required, so actual O2 required = 1.3 × O2 required =

31.2 kmol O2 required.
The feed stream contains 3 kmol O2, therefore the O2 required = 31.2 -3 =
28.2 kmol O2.
Air supplied = (28.2 kmol O2)*(1 mol air / 0.21 kmo1 O2) = 134.2857 kmol
air supplied.
N2 supplied = air supplied – O2 supplied = 134.2857 – 28.2 = 106.0857

kmol N2 supplied.
The actual products formed:
Reaction 1:
CO2 produced = (0.9 × 10 kmol CH4) × (1 kmol CO2 / 1 kmol CH4)

= 9 kmol CO2 produced
O2 used = (0.9 × 10 kmol CH4) × (2 kmol O2 / 1 kmol CH4)

= 18 kmol O2 used
Reaction 2:
CO produced = (0.1 × 10 kmol CH4) × (1 kmol CO / 1 kmol CH4)

= 1 kmol CO produced
O2 used = (0.1 × 10 kmol CH4) × (1.5 kmol O2 / 1 kmol CH4)

= 1.5 kmol O2 used
...........
190
Reaction 3:
CO2 produced = (8 kmol CO) × (1 kmol CO2 / 1 kmol CO)

= 8 kmol CO2 produced
O2 used = (8 kmol CO) × (0.5 kmol CO2 / 1 kmol CO)
= 4 kmol O2 used
O2, In – O2, Used = O2, Left
O2, Left = (28.2 +3) – (18 + 1.5 + 4) = 7.7 kmol O2, Out
N2, In = N2, Out = 106.09 + 67 = 173.09 kmol
COIn + COproduced – COconsumed = COout
COout = 8+1–8
= 1 kmol COout
CO2 in + CO2 produced = CO2 out
CO2 out = 12 + (9 + 8) = 29 kmol CO2 out
Orsat analysis
Compound Out Mass %
N2 173.09 82.11
O2 7.7 3.65
CO2 29 13.76
CO 1 0.48
Total 210.79 100
...........
191 CH F1501/1

5.6
5.6.1 W
e can write molecular species balances for the overall system. We
begin with species P:
Therefore, we can solve for the overall extent:
The balances for species A and B can be used to find the feed flow rate:
Since the feed stream is in stoichiometric proportions and all the unconverted
reactants end up in the recycle, A and B in the recycle stream should also be
stoichiometric. Thus,
We are given the total flow rate of the recycle stream:
...........
192
We can therefore solve for the species flow rates in the recycle:
We can write species balances at the mixing point:
A balance across the separator:
Therefore, the conversion in the reactor (using species A as the basis):
The conversion for species B is also 0.25 (since none of the species is limiting
in this case).
5.6.2. The overall species balance remains the same.
As before,
We are given the total flow rate of the recycle stream, which contains 10% P,
in other words 18 kmol/h
We can therefore solve for the species flow rates in the recycle:
...........
193 CH F1501/1

We can write species balances at the mixing point:
A balance across the separator:
Therefore, the conversion in the reactor (using species A as the basis):
5.6.3.
We start with species balances on the inert at steady-state:
As before,
We are given the total flow rate of the purge stream:
Since we have calculated the amount of inerts, we can determine the flow
rates of A and B in the purge stream:
...........
194
The total flow rate of the feed stream is 200 kmol/h. If A and B are in
stoichiometric proportions:
We can write molecular species balances for the overall system.
The molecular species balance for A
We can write the molecular species balance for P:
Thus, the production rate of P is 63 kmol/h.
5.7
...........
195 CH F1501/1

The moles of ethylene oxide required:
Let us start by writing molecular balances across the reactor. Firstly, we know
that the amount of ethylene oxide in stream 3 must be 50 kmol/h (all the
ethylene oxide is separated from the by-products and unconverted reactants,
and ends up in stream (4)).
The molecular species balance for ethylene can be written in terms of single-
pass conversion (which has been specified):
We have also been given the yield of ethylene oxide:
Rearranging,
Therefore, the amount of ethylene leaving the reactor:
The amount of oxygen in the feed to the reactor is a third of the amount of
ethylene fed into the reactor:
The molecular species balance for all the components can be written in terms
of extents of reaction (reaction 1 produced EO and reaction 2 is the combustion
reaction):
...........
196
The amount of ethylene and oxygen in the recycle stream:
Thus, the feed stream:
We shall leave it up to you to determine the composition of the streams. You

can check your answers by using atomic species balances across the overall
system.
39 Ac tivit y 5.10
(1) In this learning unit, we introduced various approaches to solve material
balances on reactive systems. Given its importance in chemical engineer-
ing, it is important to check your answers. What strategies do you use to
check whether you answers are correct?
(2) If you were given a problem, but you have no clue where to start or if you
start solving a problem and then get “stuck”, what strategies do you use
to overcome these challenges in solving problems?
...........
197 CH F1501/1

5.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The problems presented in this unit and the previous unit were small enough
to solve by hand. Usually, chemical engineering problems in industry may
involve a large number of unknown variables and equations. It is convenient
to solve such problems using computer programs. Chemical engineers employ
process simulators (such as ASPEN plus, Chemcad, etc.) to design, analyse
and optimise processes.
In industry, material balances rarely “balance”. This is because most processes

do not operate at steady-state. In reality, process variables fluctuate constantly.
In the industry, we rely on measurement equipment for determining flow rates
and compositions. This equipment may be inaccurate and the people operating
plants may also introduce errors in data collection.
In real problems, you are never provided with all the information required
to solve a problem. You would need to make informed assumptions or
look up information from various sources (for example, physical properties
of compounds). Also note that in many of the problems presented, the flowsheet
and operating conditions are provided to you. However, an important part
of chemical engineering is making decisions on the flow sheet and operating
conditions by considering the many alternatives. This is termed process
synthesis.
5.8 REFERENCES
D.M. Himmelblau & J.B. Riggs, Basic principles and calculations in chemical
...........
198
EPI LO G U E
EPILOGUE
In this module, you were introduced to basic chemical engineering concepts
and principles such as unit, dimensions, process variables, chemical reaction
equations and stoichiometry, and material balances. You should now be able to
apply these chemical engineering concepts to formulate and solve the material
balance equation in batch and continuous systems, as well as in simple reactive
and multistage systems.
Think back about everything you have learnt in this module and consider
what the most important things you have learnt were. I would like to remind
you of the overall learning outcomes and assessment criteria of the module:
Define the basic and fundamental units and dimensions in engineering analysis and calcu-
late their values.
•• Can you differentiate between dimensions and units?
•• Can you recognise and specify the SI and American Engineering (AE) units for
physical and chemical variables (temperature, pressure, concentration, flow rate,
density, etc.)?
•• Can you convert units of a quantity using conversion factors?
•• Can you apply the concept of dimensional homogeneity (consistency) to validate

an equation or function?
•• Do you employ a suitable number of significant figures in calculations?
Measure and/or calculate the conditions of process streams and process units.
•• Are you able to identify the main components and unit operation of a typical
chemical process?
•• Will you be able to explain and use the relationship between mass and volume,
molar and mass flow, as well as between molar and mass concentration in
calculations?
•• Can you discuss the different methods used to measure physical and chemical
variables (such as pressure, temperature, flow rate, etc.)?
Apply material balances in simple batch and continuous systems.
•• Can you explain the concept of conservation of mass?
•• Can you classify chemical processes as batch or continuous and as steady or

transient?
•• Can you conduct a degrees of freedom analysis for material balance problems?
...........
199 CH F1501/1

•• Will you be able to apply the general material balance principle to batch
operations?
•• Will you be able to solve material balance problems for continuous non-reactive
processes under steady state conditions (for example, distillation processes)?
Formulate and solve material balances to reactive systems and multiple-stage systems.
•• Can you determine and/or use parameters such as conversion, extent, limiting
and excess reactants, as well as yield in chemical reactive systems?
•• Will you be able to formulate and solve material balances for simple reactive
systems, including combustion processes?
•• Can you solve material balances involving multiple-unit systems, involving recycle
or purge streams?
Reflect on each outcome and decide whether you have successfully achieved
each outcome.
It is important to note that the concepts taught in each learning unit are not
isolated from each other. They are interrelated and you will be required to
integrate all the concepts when trying to solve problems. For example, you
will rarely encounter unit conversion problems on their own. They will rather
be integrated into material balance problems and you have to realise that
converting the unit is merely one step in solving the problem.
It is also important to realise that you are learning the concepts in this module
not merely to pass this module. These concepts will serve as a foundation for
the next level of modules in chemical engineering technology as well as for your
career in the chemical industry. If you have not mastered these fundamental
concepts, you are likely to struggle in other modules as the concepts studied
in this module form the basis of other chemical engineering modules. For
example, you will study a module called “Separation Principles”, in which you
will analyse various pieces of equipment that are used for separating materials.
The basis of the analysis is material and energy balances. This reminds me
of something a lecturer used to say to us when we asked him what to study
for the examination for a certain course. His response was: “Everything you
learnt from grade 1!”.
I am sure you have realized how important effective study methods are,
especially in modules that mainly involve calculations. There is very little
“remembering” or “regurgitating” in this module. This module mainly requires
“understanding” and “applying” concepts. Therefore, cramming of work at
the last minute will not help you much. Working consistently throughout the
year (or semester) will be far more beneficial. Set learning goals and ensure
you achieve these. Practice, practice, practice. The more problems you try to
solve, the more efficient you will become at solving them.
...........
200
EPI LO G U E
Use as many resources as possible, such as your prescribed and recommended

books, the library, the internet, e-tutors and lecturers and most importantly
your fellow students. Learn how to reflect on and assess your work.
Finally, I hope you have enjoyed this module. I wish you success in your studies.
...........
201 CH F1501/1

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4.2.2 Process classification 95

Your study material for this module includes:

•• This study guide

Module code-year-semester, for example CHF1501-18-SI.

2. CONTACT DETAILS AND STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES

You can also make use of the following contact routes:

Unisa website http://www.unisa.ac.za or http://mobi.unisa.ac.za

•• request library material

•• Unisa Directorate for Counselling and Career Development (DCCD)

•• career advice and how to develop your employability skills

•• Student Health and Wellness

Your physical health is an important factor in your learning success. Obtaining

Note that if you do have a health-related condition such as HIV/AIDS, or if you

•• The Advocacy and Resource Centre for Students with Disabilities

You can also contact the centre at 012 441 5470/1.

3. PURPOSE AND OUTCOMES OF THIS MODULE

This module is part of the National Diploma in Engineering in Chemical

•• define the basic and fundamental units and dimensions in engineering

4. HOW THE CONTENT OF THIS MODULE IS ORGANIZED

6. THE TEACHING APPROACH USED IN THIS MODULE

7. MODULE-SPECIFIC STUDY PLAN

Reading and re-reading Tutorial Letter 101 and the intro- 3

Skimming learning units and textbook, forming a thorough 6

In-depth study of Learning Units 1–3, making summaries 24

In-depth study of Learning Units 4–5, making summaries 24

Middle of •• Read and re-read Tutorial Letter 101 and the

March (4 •• In-depth study of Learning Units 1 and 2, making

April (4 weeks, •• Complete Assignment 1 (depending on how you

May (4 weeks, •• Complete your in-depth study of Learning Unit 3.

June (4 weeks, •• Complete Assignment 2 (depending on how you

July (4 weeks, •• Complete your in-depth study of Learning Unit

August (4 •• Complete Assignment 3 (depending on how you

September •• Revision and preparation for the examination.

8. HOW SHOULD YOU GO ABOUT STUDYING THIS MODULE?

Your work on each learning unit should involve the following:

Your study file should comprise:

•• answers to each activity in each learning unit

9. ASSESSMENT IN THIS MODULE

•• How your assignment and examination marks will be calculated

Tutorial Letter 101 also contains the actual assignment questions.

Good luck and enjoy the course!

1 An Overview of Chemical Engineering

“Norway invests US$162 m in CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage) project”

“New ‘one-pot’ route to alcohols and aldehydes”

“Plans to produce formaldehyde from CO2”

“Waste plastic turned into hydrogen and nanotubes”

We shall start by defining what chemical engineering is.

“Chemical engineering is a branch of engineering that applies physical sciences

In short, chemical engineering is about developing processes that physically

The chemical engineering profession comprises of three main role-players/

The chemical engineering team (engineer, technologist and technician) are

(1) Research and development

The team is responsible for the conception and development of a new

(2) Design and manufacturing of process equipment and plants

As a member of a multidisciplinary team, which may include mechanical,

required and the operating conditions (such as temperature, pressure, flow

(3) Plant construction, commissioning and operation of a process plant

(4) Product sales

A chemical engineering team with a sound technical background may

A natural progression in the career of a chemical engineering practitioner is

Effective communication (both written and oral) is an important skill for a

4.2.2 Process classification 95

Force = m.a with units N or kg.m.s-2 (2)