READING RHETORICALLY PACKET

“Key Terms: Analyzing Narrative”

• Setting: Every story needs a place to happen, a where and a when. That’s the setting. But
setting can do more than provide a place for events to occur. It can be used it to evoke
atmosphere and mood. It can be an antagonist, preventing heroes from reaching their goals.
Setting can give hints to characters’ states of mind and attitudes, or it can be used symbolically, to
hint at the story’s theme. Setting can be so important to the story that it almost becomes another
character.
• Characters: Characters are sometimes considered the most important part of any kind of
fiction. It is the characters and their interactions, after all, that drive the plot, that create the
suspense and tension, and that readers rely on to draw them into the story. Well-drawn
characters will seem to have lives outside of the fictional work (and writers often talk about
characters as if they are real people).
• Narration and Point of View (POV): The Point of View of a story is the perspective from
which the story is told—the character through which the reader experiences the fictional world.
Most short works make use of a single point of view, while longer works may have many (but
these are not rules). The main points of view are first person, second person (very rare), and
third person, each with several variations. The narrative voice is the voice in which the
narrative unfolds. It may be a separate voice or that of one of the characters.
1. First-person. This mode limits the narrative perspective to what the narrator knows,
experiences, and finds out through interaction with other characters. This narrator may be an
“outside” witness to the events, a minor character, or the central protagonist.
2. Second-person. In this mode, the reader is addressed as “you.” Second-person is rarely
used.
3. Third-person. The narrator is someone outside of the story who refers to all the characters
by name, “he/she,” or “they.”
4. Omniscient. With this narrative convention, the narrator knows everything that needs to be
known about the actions and characters, including their inner thoughts, feelings, and motives.
5. Limited. Here, the narrator tells the story in third person, but remains within the confines of
what is perceived, thought, remembered, or felt by a single character. This character then
becomes the focus or “center of consciousness” for the text.
• Scene: The real drama in fiction comes from scenes. This is not scene in the sense of setting,
but scene as in a confrontation or interaction of some sort between characters (or one character
and some object). Scenes are primarily constructed of dialogue, and each of the characters
involved is striving to gain something (it can be something obvious, like escaping from the bad
guy, or subtle, like staying awake during a boring lecture). Scenes function like building blocks
over the framework of plot.
• Form & Structure: Every piece of fiction needs a shape, and shape has two varieties: form
and structure. Form is what the story looks like; for example, a story in the form of a letter, or a
novel in the form of a diary. Some fiction combines several forms in one piece—a good example
is the novel Dracula, which uses diaries, telegrams, letters and more. Structure, on the other
hand, is the arrangement of the pieces, the order scenes appear in relation to one another.
• Theme: A controlling idea or a subject for philosophical reflection in a literary work. Themes
can be mythical and archetypal (e.g., the fall of the human, symbolic death and rebirth, a quest
for knowledge) or moral and psychological (passion vs. reason, the futility of anger, the vanity of
selfishness, the need for love, etc.). Thus, the same themes can be found in works by different
authors in different eras in a variety of genres and styles.
• Figurative Language: Language that uses words or expressions with a meaning that is
different from the literal interpretation. A few examples would be:

1. Metaphor: An analogy identifying one object with another and ascribing to the first object one or
more of the qualities of the second. A metaphor compares two different things by speaking of one in terms
of the other. Unlike a simile or analogy, metaphor asserts that one thing is another thing, not just that one
is like another. Very frequently a metaphor is invoked by the to be verb: Love is a battlefield. Love is a red, red
rose. The mind is but a barren soil; a soil which is soon exhausted and will produce no crop, or only one, unless it be
continually fertilized and enriched with foreign matter. --Joshua Reynolds. I wonder when motor mouth is going to run out of
gas.
• Tenor: The idea being expressed by the subject of the comparison. For example, the tenor of
the metaphor “love is a battlefield” is love.
• Vehicle: The image by which the idea is conveyed or the subject communicated. The image of
the battlefield articulates love’s inevitable pain.
• Associative Realm: The area of human experience from which the vehicle is drawn. The
associative realm for “love is a battlefield” is a culture that is structured around violence.
2. Symbols and Images: The systematic use of recurrent symbols or images in a work to create an
added level of meaning. Symbol: an object, sign, or image that is used to stand for something else (a flag
may be used to symbolize a nation or one’s patriotism). Image: A word or phrase in a literary text that
appeals directly to the reader’s taste, touch, hearing, sight, or smell. An image is thus nay vivid or
picturesque phrase that evokes a particular sensation in the reader’s mind.
3. Analogy: A comparison of two things, alike in certain aspects; particularly a method used in
description by which something familiar is explained or described by comparing it to something more
familiar. A simile is an expressed analogy, a metaphor is an implied one.
4. Metonymy: A form of metaphor, very similar to synecdoche in which the thing chosen for the
metaphorical image is closely associated with but not an actual part of the subject with which it is to be
compared. “The orders came directly from the White House.”
5. Personification: Personification is a representation of an animal or inanimate object using human
attributes such as form, character, feelings, behaviors, and so on. “The ants in my kitchen have declared war.”
“I can’t get the fuel pump back on because this bolt is being uncooperative.”
6. Simile: A metaphor that uses “like” or “as” to show comparison. In formal prose the simile is a
device both of art and explanation, comparing an unfamiliar thing to some familiar thing (an object,
event, process, etc.) known to the reader: “Binge drinking is like playing with fire.”
7. Synecdoche: A type of metaphor in which the part stands in for the whole, or the whole for a part.
“Ten sails came into the harbor.” “Farmer Jones has two hundred head of cattle and three hired hands.”
8. Hyperbole: Exaggeration, often in a humorous way, to make a particular point. “My eyes widened
at the sight of the mile-high ice cream cone we were having for dessert.”
9. Onomatopoeia: When you name an action by imitating the sound associating with it. “The bees
buzz.”
10. Idiom: An expression used by a particular group of people with a meaning that is only known
through common use. It is therefore cultural and temporal. “I’m waiting for him to kick the bucket.”

Example of Metaphor
Metaphor: Love is a battlefield.
Tenor: Love
Vehicle: battlefield, war
Associative Realm: culture structured around violence
Associations with vehicle/battlefield: bloodshed, men, pain, winners/losers, weapons, casualties.
Meanings highlighted by this metaphor: love is responsible for much conflict; love is a painful
emotion/experience; love can wound/destroy/maim
Meanings masked/blocked by this metaphor: Love is comforting; love is joyful

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 “Writing Skills”
What is an Argument: An argument involves the process of establishing a claim and then
proving it with the use of logical reasoning, examples, and research as support.

Organizing Your Argument:

• Title
• Introduction (with thesis statement)
• Body Paragraphs (constructing topic sentences, building main points, countering the opposition)
• Conclusion

Titles: A title is an introduction to your essay. Its purposes are to draw people in and get them
interested in what you have to say.

Titles in essays have several important functions:

• They grab the reader’s attention;

• They introduce a topic;
• They convey the overall spirit of an essay.
Creating Titles:
• Offer a provocative image
• Pick up on words or examples offered in the body or conclusion of the paper
• Ask a question
• Avoid titles that are too general or lack character

Introductions: The introduction is the most important part of your essay and must contain your
thesis statement. In the opening paragraph, you will introduce your topic and text/author to be
discussed, offer the specific thesis you intend to prove, and indicate how you intend to go about proving it.
The introduction thus gives the reader a clear sense of the whole essay – think of it as a “road map” of the
essay – although it contains no specific evidence to back up its claims. Remember, you must “hook” your
reader in this paragraph: be creative and interesting. Take a stand, rather than announce a subject. Be narrow,
rather than broad. Be specific, rather than vague or general. Keep your introduction focused on one main point.
Your Introductory Paragraph must include (What, How, Why):
• Introduces the topic to be discussed
• Introduces the title and author of the text you will analyze
• Offers the specific thesis you intend to prove
• Indicates how you intend to go about proving your thesis based on different literary elements.
Methods for Constructing an Introduction:
• Personal anecdote
• Example – real or hypothetical
• Question
• Quotation
• Shocking statistics
• Striking image

Thesis Statement: must be incorporated into your introduction. There are moments when a
thesis statement could appear in the body or conclusion of your paper; but for ENG112, you will always
incorporate your thesis statement in your introductory paragraph.
• The MOST IMPORTANT SENTENCE(S) IN YOUR PAPER
• Answers the question: “What am I trying to prove?”
• Not a factual statement, but a claim that has to be proven throughout the paper.

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Developed Paragraphs: Effective paragraphs develop your main idea by providing enough
detail – including visual detail – to hold the reader’s interest. Paragraphs are the building blocks of papers.
Ultimately, a paragraph is a group of sentences that support one main idea.
Every paragraph in a paper should be
• Unified—All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a single controlling idea
(often expressed in the topic sentence of the paragraph).
• Clearly related to the thesis—The sentences should all refer to the central idea, or thesis, of
the paper (Rosen and Behrens 119).
• Coherent—The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and should follow a definite
plan for development (Rosen and Behrens 119).
• Well-developed—Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and
supported through evidence and details that work together to explain the paragraph's controlling
idea (Rosen and Behrens 119).

Conclusions: Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an essay to write, and many writers feel
that they have nothing left to say after having written the paper. A writer needs to keep in mind that the
conclusion is often what a reader remembers best. Your conclusion should be the best part of your paper.
A conclusion should
• Reemphasize the main points made in your paper: You may choose to reiterate a call to action or
speculate on the future of your topic, when appropriate.
• Echo your introduction
• Give the essay a sense of completeness, and
• Leave a final impression on the reader.
• Avoid raising new claims in your conclusion
Suggestions & Strategies:
• Challenge your reader by redirecting them to the information in your paper and suggestion how
they may apply it to their real lives.
• Redirect your readers: Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your
paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your
conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally.
• Looking to the future to emphasize the importance of your paper. It may help them apply the
new information to their lives or see things more globally.
• Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new
perspective on the topic

Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas: The most convincing ideas in the world,
expressed in the most beautiful sentences, will move no one unless those ideas are properly connected.
Unless readers can move easily from one thought to another, they will surely find something else to read
or turn on the television. Providing transitions between ideas is largely a matter of attitude. You must
never assume that your readers know what you know. In fact, it's a good idea to assume not only that your
readers need all the information that you have and need to know how you arrived at the point you're at,
but also that they are not quite as quick as you are. You might be able to leap from one side of the stream
to the other; believe that your readers need some stepping stones and be sure to place them in readily
accessible and visible spots.

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 In-Text Citations
You've read the work, developed a thesis, and identified your evidence. Now you're ready to work your
evidence into your draft. Here are some effective techniques.

1. Quoting
What is a quote?
Quoting involves taking a word, phrase, or passage directly from the story, novel, or critical essay
and working it grammatically into your discussion. Here's an example:
In his novel, The Secret Agent, Conrad describes Verloc as "undemonstrative and burly
in a fat-pig style" (69). The pig image suggests that Verloc is not a lean, zealous anarchist,
but is actually a corrupt, complacent middle class man who is interested in preserving his
comfortable status.
Notice three things about the example above:
o The passage from the novel is enclosed in quotes and the page number is indicated in
parentheses.
o The passage is introduced in a coherent grammatical style; it reads like a complete,
correct sentence. For more help, see our handout on using quotation marks.
o The quote is interpreted, not patched on and left for the reader to figure out what it
means.
When should I quote?
o To make a particularly important point
o When a passage or point is particularly well written
o To include a particularly authoritative source
How should I quote?
o All quotes must be introduced, discussed, and woven into the text. As you revise, make
sure you don't have two quotes end-to-end.
o A good rule of thumb: Don't let your quotes exceed 25% of your text.
o Do not use long block quotes in shorter papers. Keep your quotes short and concise.

2. Paraphrasing
What is paraphrasing?
o This is using your own words to say what the author said. To paraphrase the quote used
above, you might say something like:
o Conrad describes Verloc as a big man who isn't very expressive and who looks like a pig
(69).
When should I paraphrase?
o Paraphrasing is useful in general discussion (introduction or conclusion) or when the
author's original style is hard to understand.
o Again, you would need to interpret the paraphrase just as you would a quote.

3. Summarizing
What is summarizing?
o This is taking larger passages from the original work and summing them up in a sentence
or two. To use the example above: Conrad uses pig imagery to describe Verloc's
character.
When should I summarize?
o Like paraphrasing, summary is useful in general discussion which leads up to a specific
point and when you want to introduce the work and present the thesis.

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In-Text Citations: Incorporating Passages into Your Paper as Support

Incorporating passages into your paper:

In writing about literature or any specific text, you will strengthen your discussion if you offer
specific passages from the text as evidence. The greatest mistake writers make when quoting
others is when they assume that quotations speak for themselves because the meaning of the
quotation is obvious to them. Quotations must always be integrated with your argument and
that relationship must be clearly articulated or spelled out for your reader. Your over-riding goal
of analysis writing is to demonstrate some new understanding of the text. Remember: quotations support
or illustrate your own points. They are not substitutes for your ideas and they do not stand by themselves.

Principles of analyzing a passage

Given that quotations don’t speak for themselves, you need to build a frame around them in
which you do that interpretation. Quotations that are inserted into a text without a frame are
sometimes called “dangling” quotations because they are left dangling without any explanation
or interpretation.

To frame a quotation you need to insert in between your own words/ideas, like a sandwich. The
introductory or lead-in claims should explain who is being quoted and set up what the quotation
says; the follow-up statement should explain why you consider the quotation to be important or
relevant to what you have to argue.

Introduction or Your Interpretation

“Quotation”
Lead-In Claim

Always follow these steps:

1. Offer a thesis or topic sentence indicating a basic observation or assertion about the text
or passage.
2. Offer a context for the passage without offering too much summary.
3. Cite the passage (using correct format).
4. Then follow the passage with some combination of the following elements:
o Discuss what happens in the passage and why it is significant to the work as a
whole. How does it support your argument?
o Consider what is said, particularly subtleties of the imagery and the ideas
expressed.
o Assess how it is said, considering how the word choice, the ordering of ideas,
sentence structure, etc., contribute to the meaning of the passage.
o Explain what it means, tying your analysis of the passage back to the significance
of the text as a whole and to your own argument.
5. Repeat the process of context, quotation and analysis with additional support for your
thesis or topic sentence.

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 “Dialogue & Intertextuality/Allusion”
Dialogue: This sequence is based in a two-fold understanding of dialogue: literally, we can
think of dialogue as a scripted verbal exchange between characters, which appears most often in
drama. Figuratively, we can think of dialogue as a “conversation” across time and texts about
common ideas or problems. This dual definition illustrates the ways careful reading and writing
require attention to several kinds of dialogue at play in any language act. Consider the dialogue
between writer and reader, between text and context, between contemporary writers/readers
and historical events as a couple of examples. For example, Jonathan Safran Foer’s Extremely Loud
and Incredibly Close makes it necessary to have an understanding of other national traumas such as
Hiroshima and the Dresden bombings.

Intertextuality/Allusion: In Acts of Reading, Patricia Harkin defines intertextuality as “the

many ways in which texts enter other texts and change them: texts can refer or allude to other
texts, play with them, parody them, or satirize them, argue with them, answer their questions,
and raise other ones. Intertextuality occurs when one texts makes its audience think of another
text” (560). For instance, Jonathan Safran Foer’s Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close dialogues with
William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Stephen Hawking’s A Brief History of Time, and many of The
Beatles lyrics.

“Gaps and Borders”

Gaps: Sometimes when we read, we experience frustration, resistance, or moments of pause
because we don’t understand a reading. We might feel that we are “missing something” or that
there is a “gap” in our reading. In Patricia Harkin’s words, “Gaps are an invitation to make
meaning, a moment when the reader knows that there is something else she needs to know in
order to make meaning.” Sometimes gaps make the reading process seem difficult, choppy, or a
struggle; other times, we aren’t aware of gaps because we fill them in with our own assumptions
and with information that helps the text make sense to us.

Borders: “Borders” can be understood places that “stop” our reading and get in the way our
interaction with a text. Often, a border is a place where we need to relax our assumptions or
current beliefs in order to “cross” into a new place. We might think, “I can’t understand this
material because it’s written by an Asian woman” (or a gay man, an older person, a devout
Catholic, a more educated person, you get the point). Or we might decide that “the writing is
more difficult (sentimental, technical, satirical, irreverent) than I usually read.”

However, borders can also be seen as an invitation to cross into new territories where we can
encounter, explore, and identify with new reading positions. Borders should be seen as sites of
opportunity for negotiating meanings in a text.

Remember, encountering a border doesn’t mean that we’re narrow-minded or “stupid,” it just
means that we may have to work a little bit harder to understand a writer’s perspective.

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 SECONDARY SOURCES:
WHAT ARE THEY? WHY DO THEY MATTER? HOW DO THEY WORK?

What is a secondary source?

• A book or article that discusses the text you are discussing
• A book or article that discusses a theory related to the argument you are making
• A book or article that discusses the social and historical context of the text you are
discussing

• A secondary source of information is one that was created later by someone who did not
experience first-hand or participate in the events or conditions you’re researching.
Secondary sources in an academic setting are generally scholarly books and articles.

• For secondary sources, often the best sources are those that have been published most
recently. If you use a secondary source that was published decades ago, it is important to
know what subsequent scholars have written on the topic and what criticism they have
made about the earlier work or its approach to the topic.

Integrating secondary sources:

• When you use secondary sources, be sure to show how they relate to your thesis
• Don’t overuse any one secondary source, or for that matter, secondary sources in general
• Remember that this is your paper, your argument—the secondary sources are just
helping you out.

Goal of secondary source:

• A secondary source will support or enhance your own argument. By incorporating a
secondary source into your own paper, your argument will gain more validity because a
scholar or specialist supports an argument similar to the one you are analyzing.
• Again, do not let the secondary source speak FOR you. Instead, use it to support your
own ideas and your own argument.

Incorporating secondary sources into your own argument:

• Given that quotations don’t speak for themselves, you need to build a frame around them
in which you do that interpretation. Quotations that are inserted into a text without a
frame are sometimes called “dangling” quotations because they are left dangling without
any explanation or interpretation.
• To frame a quotation you need to insert in between your own words/ideas, like a
sandwich. The introductory or lead-in claims should explain who is being quoted and set
up what the quotation says; the follow-up statement should explain why you consider the
quotation to be important or relevant to what you have to argue.
• Be sure to use research to support the claims made in your topic sentences – make your
research work to prove your argument!

Follow all guidelines in this packet under “In-Text Citations: Incorporating Passages into Your Paper as Support”.
Remember, in-text citations from your secondary sources should only support or illustrate your main points. They
are not substitutes for your ideas and they do not stand by themselves.