Examining Significant Differences of Gunshot Residue Patterns Usi

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Electronic Theses and Dissertations
12-2007
Examining Significant Differences of Gunshot

Residue Patterns Using Same Make and Model of
Firearms in Forensic Distance Determination Tests.
Heather Lewey
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Recommended Citation
Lewey, Heather, "Examining Significant Differences of Gunshot Residue Patterns Using Same Make and Model of Firearms in Forensic
Distance Determination Tests." (2007). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 2064. http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/2064
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Examining Significant Differences of Gunshot Residue Patterns Using Same Make and
Model of Firearms in Forensic Distance Determination Tests
______________________________
A thesis
presented to
the faculty of the Department of Criminal Justice
In partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
Master of Arts in Criminal Justice and Criminology
_______________________________
by
Heather G. Lewey
December 2007
________________________________
Dr. Larry Miller, Chair
Dr. Michael Braswell
Dr. Dennis Hamm
Keywords: Distance Determination, Firearms, Ballistics, Forensics

ABSTRACT
Examining Significant Differences of Gunshot Residue Patterns Using Same Make and
Model of Firearms in Forensic Distance Determination Tests
by
Heather G. Lewey
In many cases of crimes involving a firearm, police investigators need to know how far the
firearm was held from the victim when it was discharged. Knowing this distance, vital questions
regarding the re-construction of the crime scene can be known. Often, the original firearm used
in commission of a suspected crime is not available for testing or is damaged. Crime
laboratories require the original firearm in order to conduct distance determination tests.
However, no empirical research has ever been conducted to determine if same make and model
firearms produce different results in distance determination testing. It was the purpose of this
study to determine if there are significant differences between the same make and model of
firearms in distance determination testing. The findings indicate no significant differences;
furthermore they imply that if the original firearm is not available, another firearm of the same
make and model may be used.
2
CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………. 2
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………… 5
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………. 6
Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………….. 9
Purpose of the Research………………………………………………………… 10
Hypothesis………………………………………………………………………. 10
Limitations……………………………………………………………………… 10
Basic Assumptions……………………………………………………………… 11
Definition of Terms…………………………………………………………….. 11
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE……………………………………………….. 13
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY………………………………………………….. 29
Introduction…………………………………………………………………….. 29
Procedure for Collecting Data………..………………………………………… 29
Procedure for Treating Data……………………………………………………. 30
4. ANALYSIS OF DATA..…………………………………………………………. . 31
3
5. DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………………… 38
Hypothesis……………………………………………………………………….. 38
Findings…………………………………………………………………………. 41
Implications……………………………………………………………………... 41
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………….......... 43
VITA…………………………………………………………………………………….. 47
4
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Diameter Distance of Five Shots for Each Sidearm…………………………………. 32
2. Analysis of Variance of Sidearms Distance Test Shots……………………………… 33
3. Minimum and Maximum Diameter Measures of Ten Sidearms at Varying
Distances………………………………………………………………………….. 35
4. Analysis of Variance Between Ten Sidearms Mean Diameters in Distance
Determination Tests..…………………………………………………………….... 37
5
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In recent years there has been an increase in interest in the forensic sciences in the United
States. The proliferation of television programs on forensic science and crime scene
investigation is generally seen as the reason for this increased interest. Furthermore, it is
provided that “in a survey of the 500 in the jury pool, the defense found that about 70% were
viewers of CBS’ CSI or similar shows such as Court TV’s Forensic Files or NBC’s Law &
Order (Willing, 2004 ). The San Diego Union Tribune reveals that there has been an increase in
the number of colleges and universities offering forensic science programs of study and degrees
as a direct result of the interest and demand of students entering the field (Lamaine, 2007, pgs 1-
3). Futhermore, “the impact of CSI is evident in other universities across the country…There are
more and more programs that have forensic science now in their curriculums said Edward
Robinson, an assistance professor of forensics at George Washington University, in Washington,
D.C. Between 1999 and 2002, the number of graduate students studying forensics science
jumped from 113 to 190 at George Washington” (Lamanie, 2007, pgs. 1-3).
As a result of the popular media attention to forensic science, jurors in criminal and civil
court cases have come to expect forensic evidence to be presented. A failure on the part of
plaintiff or defense to provide forensic evidence is seen by many jurors as negligent. According
to an article entitled “CSI effect has juries wanting more evidence” in USA Today referencing
the case of Robert Durst, “To legal analysts, his case seemed an example of how shows such as
CSI are affecting the action in courthouses across the USA by, among other things, raising
jurors’ expectations of what prosecutors should produce at trial” (Willing, 2007). This has
forced both police and attorneys to seek forensic evidence in cases just because jurors have come
6
to expect it (Willing). However, the popular media are not fully to blame for this increased
interest in the forensic sciences. Since the case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals and
more specifically the past 15 years have demonstrated that courts are more aware of inconsistent
methods and even erroneous methods of examination by some forensic scientists (Solomon &
Hackett, 1996).
The standard of evidence admissibility used to be the Frye test. Expert testimony was
admitted merely by the expert's credentials, qualifications, status, experience, skill and
reputation. Any deficiencies or flaws in the expert's conclusions would be exposed through
cross-examination (Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013, 1014 (D.C. Cir. 1923). This provided
ample room for error when the believed experts and-or scientists committed perjury in their
testimony on behalf of a party.
The standards for permissibility of professional testimony were changed by the United
States Supreme Court decision in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579,
113 S. Ct. 2786, 125 L. Ed. 2d 469 (1993). Most states now adhere to the Daubert ruling.
Currently under Daubert, the admissibility of expert testimony is to be more meticulously
examined by the trial judge to conclude whether it meets the requirements of Federal Rules of
Evidence No. 702, which provide:
“If scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to
understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue, a witness qualified as an expert
by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education, may testify thereto in the form of
an opinion or otherwise, if (1) the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data, (2) the
testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods, and (3) the witness has
applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case.”
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As a result of Daubert, the forensic community was forced to empirically prove the
assumptions that had been made in the past. For example, it has always been maintained by the
forensic community that no two people possess the same fingerprint. However, there has never
been any empirical study to support that position. Similarly, it has always been maintained by
the forensic community that no two people have identical handwriting. This too, had never been
empirically supported. Forensic scientists in latent fingerprints and forensic document
examination had to provide empirical research to support these claims so that the evidence would
satisfy Daubert provisions and be allowed in court (Solomon & Hackett, 1996).
One area of forensic science that has not been scrutinized by the courts nor studied
empirically has been in the area of firearms and ballistics. Most crime laboratories have a
firearms and toolmark identification section. Forensic experts in firearms and toolmark
identification normally examine spent bullets and casings to match with a suspect firearm. They
may also be called upon to examine trajectories of bullets at crime scenes to establish flight paths
of bullets. And, they are often called upon to determine how far a firearm was held from a
subject (target) when it was discharged, known as a distance determination test.
Most crime laboratory training manuals state very simply that in order to conduct
distance determination testing, the original firearm and similar ammunition must be used. Nearly
all training information indicates that the examiner must use the original weapon and
ammunition for this type of testing with no explanation as to why (Giroux, personal
communication, June 5, 2007). However, one might assume from this rule that there are
differences in gunpowder distance deposits within the same make and model of firearms.
8
Statement of the Problem
While a firearm distance determination test is particularly useful in establishing the
distance a firearm was held from a subject or target when it was discharged, the literature
suggests that the test would be invalid if the same gun in question was not used in the test. There
are obvious differences in ammunition manufacturers with different powder loads and powder
configuration. Therefore, using a different brand and load of ammunition for a distance
determination test would not produce accurate results. However, there are no empirical data to
suggest that using two identical make and model firearms in a distance determination test
produce significantly different results. Again, this is an assumption made on the part of forensic
firearms identification experts.
Frequently, police investigate shooting crimes where the distance the firearm was held
when discharged is a significant piece of evidence. Particularly in suicide cases involving
gunshots at close range and self-defense claims in shooting investigations, the distance a firearm
was held to the victim when it was discharged may become the single most important piece of
evidence in the finding of guilt or innocence. However, just as frequently, the suspect firearm
may not be available for testing or may be missing or damaged to the point that it cannot be test
fired. The defense has a legal obligation to obtain independent testing of evidence presented
against them and it may be difficult to obtain the actual firearm used in the crime to make these
tests. Also, the suspect firearm may be destroyed, damaged, or simply missing. If the suspect
firearm can be identified as to make, model, and caliber, it may be appropriate to use an identical
firearm for testing purposes. Before the scientific community and the courts recognize this,
empirical testing must be done to determine if there are significant differences between same
make and model firearms in distance determination tests.
9
Purpose of the Research
It was the purpose of this research to determine if significant differences existed between
same make and model of firearms in distance determination tests. If it could be shown that no
significant differences exist in these tests, the forensic community and the courts may use
evidence acquired from the testing of an identical firearm when the actual firearm is not
available for testing.
Hypothesis
The following null hypothesis was formulated based on the literature and purpose of the
research:
Ho: There will be no significant differences between same make-model firearms in
making distance determination tests.
In order to test this hypothesis, it was necessary to procure a number of same make-
model firearms for testing. This was accomplished by contacting a local law enforcement
agency to provide service firearms used by their officers. The police agency used in the present
study issued Heckler and Koch .45 caliber semi-automatic pistols as sidearms to their officers.
Ten pistols were stratified randomly selected from the police arsenal and subjected to distance
determination testing at the police firing range.
Limitations
The single most limiting factor of the present study was the use of only one particular
make and model firearm to conduct the study. Other firearm manufacturers may have different
production standards that may or may not affect distance determination testing. Another limiting
factor was no long guns (i.e., rifles or shotguns) were used in the present study. Barrel length is
a contributing factor for distance determination testing and the barrel length for the firearms
10
under study were 4.5 inches.
Basic Assumptions
It was assumed for the purposes of this study that the 10 pistols selected for testing were
representative of all same make and model pistols of this manufacturer. The police firearms
instructor inspected each of the test firearms for suitability of the testing procedure.
Definition of Terms
Definitions, as they are recognized by Tennessee Administrative Office of the courts:
(www.tsc.state.tn.us/geninfo/publications/forms)
Ballistics: The study of a projectile in motion. There are 3 types of ballistics: interior, within
the firearm; exterior, after the projectile leaves the barrel; and terminal, the impact on a target.
Bullet: The projectile that can be shaped and-or composed differently for a variety of purposes.
Some known names are round nose, hollow point, jacketed (full metal jacket or total metal
jacket), wadcutter, or semi-wadcutter.
Caliber: This is the diameter of the bore measured from land to land, usually expressed in
hundredths of an inch (i.e., .22 cal) or in millimeters (i.e., 9mm).
Casing: The tubular structure holding the bullet, gunpowder and primer.
Gunshot powder residue: Also known as Gunshot Residue (GSR). Unburned gunpowder
(nitrates), partially burned gunpowder, and smoke from completely burned gunpowder
discharging from the muzzle of a firearm.
Muzzle: The end of the barrel of a firearm where the bullet is discharged. In distance
determination tests, it is the distance from the muzzle to the target that is being established.
Stippling-Tattooing: Terms used in forensic pathology to describe damage to skin due to close
gunshot wounds. The burning powder strikes the skin and burns reddish marks around the
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entrance hole of the bullet (www.tbi.org).
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
One of the leading causes of unnatural death in the United States is from firearms.
Homicide, suicide, and felonious assaults are committed using firearms more than any other type
of weapon. Furthermore, accidental shootings account for nearly one fourth of all accidental
deaths in the United States. Because of the frequency of deaths and injuries resulting from
firearms, firearms identification, testing, and ballistics becomes an increasingly larger
component of most state and federal crime laboratories.
According to the Center for Disease Control’s National Vital Statistics Report of
September 16, 2002, “28,663 persons died from firearm injuries in the United States” (CDC,
2002, p. 10). Furthermore it is provided that “firearms suicide and homicide, the two major
component causes, accounted for 57.9 and 37.7 percent, respectively, of all firearm injury deaths
in 2000. The other components—firearm accidents, firearm injuries of undetermined intent, and
legal intervention involving firearms—accounted for 2.7, 0.8, and 0.9 percent, respectively”
(CDC). The United States Department of Justice’s Bureau of Justice Statistics state that in 1993
“4.4 million violent crimes of rape and sexual assault, robbery, and aggravated assault. Of the
victims of these violent crimes, 1.3 million (29%) stated that they faced an offender with a
firearm” (CDC). More recent findings according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics suggest “477,
040 victims of violent crimes stated that they faced an offender with a firearm…incidents
involving a firearm represented 9 % of the 4.7 million violent crimes of rape and sexual assault,
robbery, and aggravated and simple assault in 2005” (United States Department of Justice, July
1995, NCJ-148201). Although these are alarming, they are reality.
13
In most cases of suspected homicide and suicide committed with a firearm, police
investigators need to know how far the firearm was held from the victim when it was discharged.
Knowing the distance the weapon was from a victim can answer vital questions regarding self-
defense issues, self-inflicted wound issues, and re-constructing the events surrounding the
shooting. Determining how far a firearm was from the victim when it was discharged requires
testing the same firearm and same ammunition in a methodical series of range test fires. These
test fires are made from varying distances, usually from contact out to 36 inches, against a white
fabric or poster board. The deposited gunpowder residues are then compared from the test
firings to the actual clothing or skin on the victim. This provides an estimation of the distance
that the weapon was from the victim when it was discharged.
Nearly all the literature on this subject state that the same weapon and ammunition must
be used for testing. The reasoning behind this appears to be the examiner needs to know that the
firearm in question is in good working order and that any alterations made to the firearm (cutting
off parts of the barrel, rust build-up in the barrel, etc.) are controlled for in the testing procedure.
In fact, none of the state and federal crime laboratories will accept a case to make a distance
determination without the actual firearm and same ammunition. However, even when the crime
laboratory does test the actual firearm in question, the results are stated in terms of estimations
and bracketing rather than as a specific distance. For example, a report often reads “the gunshot
residue pattern displayed on the victim’s shirt was consistent with test firings, using the same
firearm and same type of ammunition, from 18-24 inches.” In addition, there have been no
studies performed on whether same makes and models of firearms have any significant
differences in the manner that they produce powder residues using the same type of ammunition.
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Frequently, police investigators need to know the distance a firearm was held from a
shooting victim when the weapon has not been located or has been destroyed. Because crime
laboratories will not perform a distance test without the actual firearm, the police cannot make a
determination about the distance of the shooting that can be used as evidence for or against a
defendant at trial. Quite often, the police know the caliber of weapon and even the type of
weapon that was used in a shooting but do not have the actual weapon or the weapon has been
altered by boring out the riflings or has rusted due to being thrown in water. If the police can
determine what type of firearm and ammunition was used in a shooting and determine how far
that firearm was from the victim when it was discharged by using a similar firearm in distance
testing, it would be a great benefit not only to the prosecution but to the defense as well.
As the criminal mind becomes more popular in the media and increasingly gains a large
variety of audiences, the demand of research and continuous education within the realm of
forensic science becomes a requirement. The failure to further educate within this area has
shown itself evident in several cases where these advances may perhaps have been valuable.
Dating all the way back to 1879, the New York Times (1879) reports that Josiah Bacon was
found on the floor of his San Francisco hotel room with a pistol shot. The article states, “He had
been dead for several hours. No fire-arm was found in his rooms, and as the hemorrhage was
entirely internal, there were no means of judging his movements subsequent to the fatal shot.
Furthermore, it is provided “There is some ground for the opinion that the tragedy was a murder
and not a suicide. The clothing of the dead man was not burned where the ball entered” (New
York Times, 1879). When considering the above statements, it is clear that this case, over a
century old, provides confirmation that research within forensics must be provided.
15
Likewise, DeHaan, in his publication of the Journal of Forensic Sciences (1983),
describes a young white male who was found shot to death in his home. DeHaan then provides
the evidence of critical importance to reconstruct the circumstances of the crime, because the
weapon itself was not recovered. To do so, DeHaan states “Weapons similar to that allegedly
used were test fired under controlled conditions and residues from the muzzle and cylinder blast
were compared to residues at the scene. Based on these comparisons, standard distance
determinations, the pathological findings, and the characteristics of the recovered projectiles, the
dynamics of both victim and perpetrator could be reconstructed. Their relative positions and the
sequence of the shots were also reconstructed. The comparisons conducted in this case revealed
that black powder revolvers produce large amounts of unusual residues which supplement the
usual range of firearm evidence to make even complex reconstructions possible” (DeHaan,
1983, p.1).
In a study that was presented at the Second Indo-Pacific Congress on Legal Medicine and
Forensic Science in 1986 T. Suwanjutha explains the importance of muzzle target distance. In
Suwanjutha’s article entitled “Direction, Site and the Muzzle Target Distance of Bullet in the
Head and Neck at Close Range as an Indication of Suicide or Homicide” it is argued that “In
order to determine whether it was suicide or homicide, the path of the bullet, the site, and the
muzzle target distance must be considered” (Suwanjutha, p. 1). The study emphasized the
relevance of determining muzzle to target distance for reconstructing of the crime scene. A
situation that would emphasize the importance of crime scene investigation was depicted within
an article by Ermenc and Prijon (2005) in the Journal of Forensic Science International. A 21-
year-old student was shot to death while in her home. Ermenc and Prijon stated that “The
firearm, projectile and cartridge have not been found despite an intensive search. The daughter
16
and mother tested positive for traces of gunpowder, while the son had traces on his hands and
vest” (p. 1). According to the shot patterns of the crime scene, authorities speculated whether
this shooting was an accident or intent. Ermenc and Prijon provides strong emphasis on the
importance of conducting firearms distance determination testing and what answers can be
provided by the crime scene itself, even without the suspect firearm.
More recently was the death of the late Commerce Secretary Ron Brown. In an article by
Sperry in the World Net Daily Exclusive (2001), it was stated that “a handgun carried by a body
guard assigned to protect Brown, ‘was lost and not recovered’ from the wreckage of his plane,
which crashed in Croatia in 1996”. Additionally, it was revealed that “the internal security
report was completed in March 1999—15 months after an Air Force forensic pathologist
disclosed that an unusual wound at the top of Brown’s head could have been a bullet hole”.
Unfortunately, an autopsy of Brown’s body was not ordered and there was no attempt to recover
the missing .357 Magnum from his bodyguard. According to World Net Daily (2001) there were
many different speculations as to the unusual wound to Brown’s head along with why the
missing firearms was not recovered or investigated. The questions that arise within this sensitive
case are obvious, if investigators had pursued the missing .357 Magnum, it may have aided in
locating pieces to the mysterious puzzle of Brown’s death. That is an answer that will never be
known due to the limited forensic investigation and research within the case.
Shoebridge, a Metropolitan police officer for many years, describes how Barry George,
charged with the murder of Jill Dando, attempted to appeal his conviction within his article in the
Guardian Unlimited (2002). Jill Dando was a British television presenter who worked for the
BBC over 15 years. At the time of her murder, police conducted a high-profile search for her
killer. Although BBC’s case transcript demonstrates that a thorough search of the scene was
17
performed, the police found no physical evidence to help identify the shooter. It was given by
BBC news that the only physical evidence at the scene was a 9 millimeter bullet and cartridge.
George’s appeal was denied and his murder charge sustained. Shoebridge provides his opinion
stating “despite the failure of George’s appeal, the role of both the police and prosecution in
bringing him to trail deserve scrutiny, as do the failings of the police investigation. It should be
remembered, however, that the decision to convict George was one for the jury alone. At a time
of increasing pressure on rights to jury trial, the key question may be how best to deliver justice
when a jury insists on following its instincts, rather than the evidence before it” (Shoebridge, p.
3). Once again, the obvious need for increasing awareness for forensic science is imperative,
particularly ballistics. Juries are requiring more physical evidence due to their increased
awareness through media; therefore, continuous research must follow to ensure proper and
complete investigations are conducted, along with fair and concise trials.
According to the City News (2007) in West Toronto, Ontario Canada, Jordan Manners, a
well liked 9th grade high school student, was gunned down in the hallway of her high school
during May this year. Police have no gun, no suspect, and no motive regarding the case.
Clearly, this becomes another piece of substantiation that should advise law enforcement
personnel and the forensic community of the increasing demand for forensic knowledge,
empirical research, and education. In California, June 20, 2007, Joseph Diggs is serving a 25
prison sentence along with two others related to the case on charges of conspiracy to commit
murder, attempted murder, and related charges. His attorney, Marc Zilversmit, is still fighting
alongside his client after 12 years, believing in his innocence. On June 18, 2007, Zilversmit filed
a brief with the Ninth Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals hoping to overturn his client’s conviction.
The summary of Zilversmit’s argument states “No substantial evidence linked him to these
18
crimes. No motive was alleged for Diggs’ participation in the crime, no physical evidence linked
him to the crime, and there was no eyewitness evidence whatsoever that he played any role in it”
(Zilversmit, 2007, p. 5). Cases like the ones mentioned should prompt researchers, professors,
and students to expand on this field. In any crime, all people are presumed innocent until proven
guilty; therefore, it is the sole duty as governing officials to ensure research is ongoing on a
continuous basis. Otherwise, the criminal may get away, mistrials could occur along with the
possibility of false convictions and various other faulty mishaps.
Wilber (1977), in his compilation entitled, Ballistic Science for the Law Enforcement
Officer, illustrates one specific method of estimating the distance from which a shot was fired.
This method requires an “examination of the pattern of powder markings and smudgings left on
the skin or on the clothing”. When a shot is fired, the “firing a cartridge from a gun drives out
the bullet from the barrel along with a mixture of gases, burnt powder, partially burnt powder,
lubricant, and metal dust” (Wilber, p. 217). Furthermore, Wilber provides that “these cocentric
areas vary in diameter with distance of muzzle to target…there is no way to establish reliable file
standards for powder patterns as related to the distance of the shot. The firearm itself must be
test fired, hopefully with the ammunition in question, in order to establish the soiling pattern for
that particular combination of gun and ammunition” (Wilber, p. 217). With these specific
instructions, there was no alternative method of testing for those cases that lack the original
weapon.
In the fourth edition of Moenssens, Starrs, Henderson, and Inbau’s (1995) Scientific
Evidence in Civil and Criminal Cases, it is clarified that separating crimes involving firearms as
accidental or murder for example, may conceivably be a predictor on a professional
determination of the distance between the gun muzzle and the first surface of the target (victim’s
19
clothing or skin). Furthermore, for determining this range there is no specific formula or table,
“in fact, what actually occurs is only an approximation” (Moenssens et al., p. 338). Moreover,
many previous cases demonstrate the importance of this piece of evidence. In Williams v. State
(Moenssens et al.), shot dispersal experimentation was admitted into evidence when it was
shown that the test was a standard comparison of the shot dispersed in the wound with
experimental patterns obtained by using cartridges and loads similar to the ones found in the
defendant’s shotgun which was recovered at the scene of the crime. When this evidence is
clarified, it can corroborate a homicide defendant’s claim as to his or her location at the time of
the shooting, which could ultimately mean life or death for a defendant. It is also provided that
in Guerrero v. State (Moenssens et al.), the appellate court reversed a murder conviction finding
that there was a reasonable possibility that the death was caused accidentally. Testimony
revealed a small powder burn on the victim’s index finger and also that the gun used to kill the
victim was discharged while in contact with her face. Also, in State v. Atwood (Moenssens et
al.), the tests were conducted with the original weapon and similar ammunition, and
consequently the sheets of blotting paper used in the tests were admitted into evidence.
According to the California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training’s
workbook for the “Forensic Technology for Law Enforcement” Telecourse presented on May 13,
1993, special instructions for testing distance of muzzle to targets are especially specific. “For
gunpowder or shot pattern tests to have significance, it is essential to obtain ammunition
identical in make, type, and age to that used at the crime scene. This duplicate ammunition is
necessary for firing in the weapon in question to determine the distance of the muzzle of the
weapon from the victim or other object at the time the questioned bullet was fired (Forensic
20
Technology for Law Enforcement, 1993, p. 8 of 12). The ideal question that arises is ‘why’ or
‘what-if’ when the original firearm is cannot be located.
West Virginia State Police’s 8th edition Laboratory Field Manual (2007) provides some
types of firearm examinations that are performed. In the section entitled, Examinations and
Possible Determinations, it is stated as follows: “Distance Determinations: Determine
approximate distance from impact to muzzle. (*Must have firearm used in the incident for
determination)” (wvstatepolice.com, 2007, p. 1). Furthermore, it is provided that “in certain
shooting cases, it may be important to know the approximate distance between the muzzle of the
firearm involved and the victim” (wvstatepolice.com). No case should be weighted any less than
the one before, all should receive the proper attention and manpower regardless of the
circumstances to ensure that justice is served. Therefore, when crimes involving a firearm occur
and that firearm cannot be located, then this form of testing needs to be re-evaluated. As
criminals are becoming more educated, developing more thought out, premeditated crimes, it is
imperative that law enforcement personnel do the same.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Handbook of Forensic Science (2003) provides
that “The deposition of gunshot residue on evidence such as clothing varies with the distance
from the muzzle of the firearm to the target. Patterns of gunshot residue can be duplicated using
a questioned firearm and ammunition combination fired into test materials at known distances.
These patterns serve as a basis for estimating muzzle-to-garment distances” (p. 54). A reputable
website, FirearmsID.com, indicates the testing of muzzle to target creates a ‘shot pattern’.
Additionally, “the unknown pattern is then compared to test patterns created with the suspect gun
fired at known distances. This will allow for an approximate muzzle to target distance to be
determined” (www.firearmsid.com, 2003, p.1 of 7). The limited literature on this subject
21
essentially instructs investigators to use the original weapon, and when stating the results of the
test to use the term ‘approximate’. This term refers to estimation, fairly accurate, rough, near,
inexact, or, not accurate. Consequently, this demonstrates that even using the original weapon is
not 100% accurate. Hence, if a crime involving a firearm occurs and the original firearm used is
missing, yet the make, model, and ammunition used are known, the use of the known make,
model, and ammunition should be weighted the same because this testing is not entirely accurate
first and foremost.
The Orange County Sheriff Forensic Science Firearms Unit (2004) in California
describes specific firearm examinations they conduct. Specifically, regarding distance
determination testing, it is declared “By comparing these patterns to standard patterns generated
in the laboratory, it is often possible to give an estimation, or range, of how far away the muzzle
of the firearm was from the victim. Similar examinations may also be performed with shotgun
pellet patterns. A more accurate distance estimation generally requires use of the firearm in
question and ammunition equivalent to that used in the crime” (Orange County Sheriff Forensic
Science Firearms Unit, Brochure). Serving as the Director of the crime scene unit with the Los
Angeles County Sheriff’s Department and as an Adjunct Professor at California State University
in their Criminal Justice Department, Fisher provides similar instruction for distance
determinations. In the 7th edition of Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, Fisher (2004)
presents these same instructions. “To make a distance determination, it is important to use both
the same firearm and ammunition used in the crime. A series of test firings are made into paper
or cardboard at different distances and the test patterns are compared with evidence” (Fisher, p.
427). Additionally, Fisher illustrates the significance of this form of evidence stating that it “is
particularly important because of the large amount of useful information it can provide. Because
22
this type of evidence is encountered so frequently, investigators must be familiar with the proper
methods of handling this evidence and its value to the case” (Fisher, p. 427).
Virginia’s Department of Forensic Science Firearm/Toomark Procedures Manual (2007),
provides specific instructions for investigators conducting evidence testing. In section 7.6.8
entitled Test Pattern Production it is provided that “a systematic approach should be used in
conjunction with a working hypothesis formed by observations based on previous testing to
include visual, microscopic, and chemical tests to produce test patterns with the appropriate
firearm and ammunition for the purpose of developing a range determination.” (Virginia
Department of Forensics, Toolmarks and Prodecures Manuel, 7.6.8). Furthermore, specific
aspects of this procedure are described, “it is essential that the suspect firearm and appropriate
ammunition be utilized for these tests” (Virginia Department of Forensics). The Manual further
states that “by utilizing the suspect firearm and appropriate ammunition it may be possible to
obtain a reproduction of gunshot residue pattern(s) and or shot pellet pattern(s) present on the
questioned item…comparing the test patterns to the questioned pattern(s), a determination may
be possible as to the approximate bracketed distance a particular firearm’s muzzle was from the
questioned item at the time of firing” (Virginia Department of Forensics).
According to the FEI Company’s (2006) publication, Tools for Forensic Science
Techniques, distinguishing the shooting distance is key evidence in firearms forensics. “If
residue patterns are detected then these are compared with test targets produced by firing the
firearm in question at various known distances which allows the examiner to approximate the
distance from the object that was shot to the muzzle end of the firearm” (FEI, p. 6).
Missouri’s Department of Highway Patrol training manual (2006) instructs that “the
suspect firearm and suspect ammunition are test fired into similar target material at varying
23
ranges. These tests are then analyzed in the same way as the questioned bullet hole is. An
approximate range can be concluded when the questioned pattern is compared to the test fired
targets” (mshp.dps.missouri.gov, Retreived July 25, 2007).
Connecticut’s Department of Safety training manual (2001) also provides specific
guidelines for evidence submission by law enforcement officials. Particularly within the
Distance Determination heading the instructions are “To preserve gunpowder patterns on
clothing, package items flat and when possible on a hard surface, i.e. cardboard and wrapped in
brown paper. The actual weapon must be submitted in order to conduct distance testing”
(Connecticut Department of Safety, 2001, p. 4). Only those two instructions are given regarding
this type of testing, and without reason. Usually, within any type of law enforcement training or
education, the trainers inform the trainees on these subjects on why specific actions are taken and
why other specific actions are not taken.
A proclaimed firearms expert, Ronald R. Scott (2006) has over 40 years of experience
with firearms-ballistics all across the United States. Not only has he testified as expert over 250
times in State and Federal Courts, he also has extraordinary resume including military weapons
and training. Additionally, he is a retired Commanding Officer of Massachusetts State Police
Ballistics Section. He also is the founder of the reputable website, azballistics.com. Scott
illustrates the importance of distance determination testing and the ability it has to strongly help
investigators in their attempt to finding missing links within their cases. Scott states:
“The goal is to conduct tests which will approximate the distance from the object/victim
that was shot to the muzzle end of the suspect firearm. Certain facts of the case can be proven
or disproven when these tests are performed correctly. The presence of intervening objects must
24
be considered. The paramount factor is to duplicate the pattern of powder stippling, soot, and
other markings in the exact manner as it appears on the victim or object by replicating the angle
of the weapon, using the evidence weapon and same ammunition” (Scott, personal
communication, August 24, 2006).
Furthermore, when asked about using this alternative method of determining muzzle-to-
target distance Scott (2006) provides this answer:
“The idea will be to convince the jury that by using a similarly make and model weapon
that the tests are unscientific but this is not true. In a legal setting, it is always important
to use or replicate evidence using the weapon. The difference will be that the expert
opinion, or testimony, cannot be testified to in the degree of scientific certainty had the
actual weapon been used for the tests. While there may be little or no difference in the
results of gunshot distance determination, the fact still remains that it is not being
conducted with the actual evidence weapon. It is they jury’s decision as to how much
reliability should be given to such a similar weapon test. So while there may be no
difference, the defendant is still entitled to claim or ask the jury not to give it as much
weight to the actual weapon. It is really more a matter of law and fairness than it is any
great difference in the test results. It is the duty and responsibility of the opposing
attorney to raise any doubt no matter how little it might be. My experience is that if a
defense attorney raises that issue, then the prosecutor will usually rebut it with testimony
that the difference would be too little” (Scott, personal communication, August 24, 2006).
Siegel (2007), in his textbook entitled Forensic Science, The Basics, describes the
elements of this type of testing. “When a bullet is fired from a gun, hot gases containing residue
25
from the primer and smokeless powder will be expelled from the barrel and will travel for short
distances in a roughly conical pattern” (Siegel, p. 235). This implication essentially states that
these gaseous materials being exerted from the barrel of a firearm will travel a distance in an
approximate narrow direction. Furthermore, Siegel adds “Depending upon the distance from the
weapon to the target, some of this residue may be deposited on the target. The size of the
gunshot residue pattern can be used to determine the approximate distance between the weapon
and the target when the bullet was fired” (Siegel, p. 235)). This would support the idea that no
type of testing is absolute or completely accurate. Siegel also provides that there are margins to
this assessment that should be considered when muzzle-to-target measurements are made:
“Distance of firing determinations are done by test firing the same weapon and ammunition at
various distances, and then comparing the size of the stippling and soot pattern on the target.
Not even another weapon of the same exact type will reproduce gunshot patterns, and serious
errors can occur in interpretation if the exact same weapon isn’t used” (Siegel). Siegel did not
provide a reference for this statement nor did he elaborate on why exact type firearms would not
produce similar results in testing.
Giroux, a Physical Scientist and Forensic Examiner within the Firearms-Toolmarks Unit
of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, provided information on the strict procedures one must
follow in order to conduct this type of testing. Giroux states “it is required that the contributor
send in the suspect firearm and some indication as to the type of ammunition that was used
(cartridge, a cartridge case, and-or bullet). If the contributor is unable to provide the firearm or
there isn’t any indication as to they type of ammunition used, we are unable to perform this type
of examination. During training, as well as in the FBI’s Gunpowder and Gunshot Residues
26
course, as an instructor, we have seen variability in the GSR patterns when different firearms are
used even if the same make and model”. (Giroux, personal communication, June 13, 2007).
In 1993, the U.S. Supreme Court set the standards on the admissibility of forensic
evidence for most states in Daubert vs. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (509 U.S. 579, 1993). One
of the tenets required under Daubert is “…expert opinion based on a scientific technique is
inadmissible unless the technique is ‘generally accepted.’” While requiring the original firearm
to be used for distance determination testing is a ‘generally accepted’ technique among firearms
examiners, there is no scientific basis for the accepted technique (www.findlaw.com, Retreived
May 7, 2007).
The stated procedures for this specific type of testing do not explain why certain tasks
have to be performed in specific manners. Testing protocols mandating that investigators use the
original weapon and same or similar ammunition while conducting this test should state why this
is important. There is no supporting literature or empirical research that can corroborate that this
mandate is necessary. While there is ample evidence to suggest that shotgun pellet and gunshot
residue dispersion varies with same make-model shotguns, there is no empirical evidence to
indicate such with single bullet firearms (rifles and handguns). Additionally, none of the
literature addressing distance determination testing mentioned firing the test weapon several
times at the same distance to determine reliability. It would stand to reason that, if the
assumption were true that same make-model firearms produce different distance gunshot residue
deposits, there would be some variation with the same original firearm tested several times. The
main question remains why do same make-model firearms produce different gunshot residue
patterns? If the stated testing results are approximations rather than exact distances, the
differences between same make-model firearms would have to be substantial to make a
27
difference in test results. And, with quality control standards in place at firearm manufacturing
plants, it would be difficult to understand why this occurs.
The only way to determine the validity of the requirement of using the original firearm in
distance determination testing is to conduct an empirical study of same make and model of
firearms in distance testing to determine if significant differences occur between same make and
model firearms. This would either provide support for the generally accepted practice of crime
laboratories requiring the original firearm for testing purposes or open the door to allow
laboratories to test same the make and model firearm if the original is destroyed or otherwise
unavailable.
28
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOY
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to determine if significant differences existed between
same make and model of firearms in distance determination tests. The null hypothesis tested
was: There will be no significant differences between same make-model firearms in making
distance determination tests.
Procedure for Collecting Data
Permission was obtained from the Chief of the Johnson City Tennessee Police
Department to use police issue sidearms and the police firing range to collect data for the present
study. Ten sidearms were selected from the police arsenal. The selection of sidearms was based
on how much use each firearm had in terms of number of rounds fired. The use index was: 1)
unissued (less than 100 rounds fired); 2) moderate use (less than 3000 rounds fired); and, 3)
heavy use (more than 3000 rounds fired). Three sidearms were stratified randomly selected from
both the unissued and heavy use categories within the police arsenal. The remaining four
sidearms were selected from the moderate use category. The literature suggested that barrel
wear and damage might affect distance determination testing and was the main assumption for
using the same firearm in any such test. The selection of sidearms based on these criteria was an
effort to control for this assumption. Each of the 10 selected firearms had passed safety
inspection and was in proper working order. The 10 firearms were Heckler and Koch .45 caliber
semi-automatic pistols with a barrel length of 4.5 inches. The ammunition was standard issue for
the Johnson City Police Department (.45 caliber Speer Lawman, 230 grain, total metal jacket).
The 10 selected sidearms were test fired at five distances: 3 inches; 6 inches; 9 inches; 12
29
inches; and, 24 inches from the target. Each firearm was fired five times at each distance to
ensure each firearm was performing consistently. The targets were clean white cotton fabric cut
in 40 by 40 inch squares and mounted onto firing range target backing material. Each firearm
was fired by a certified police firearms instructor using a photographic tripod and level to insure
the firearms were being held consistently. Measurements were taken from muzzle to target in
inches before and after each shot using a carpenter’s steel tape measure.
Each target was examined for the presence of gunpowder residue deposits. The deposits
formed a circular pattern on the targets dispersing outward from the bullet hole. Each circular
pattern was measured in both circumference and diameter in inches using the bullet hole as the
center point of measurement. Because some powder deposits may fly outside the general pattern
area, circumference was based on the deposit of at least two particles within the outermost
circular area to be included in the measurement. The diameter measurements in inches for each
trial of five shots were used in the analyses.
Procedure for Treating Data
Because the independent variable (firearm) was measured on a nominal level and the
dependent variable (powder deposit diameter measure) was measured on an interval level,
Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to determine significant
differences between and within any of the 10 firearms distance test firings. A post-hoc test was
used to determine whether any significant differences occurred with ANOVA.
30
CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Descriptive statistics were used first to compare differences and similarities between each
firearm’s five shot trials and between all firearms at the varying distances. Repeated Measures
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was then used to test for significant differences between and
within the test firings. Table 1 displays the measurements taken for all 10 sidearms with five
shots at each distance. Five shots were made at each distance to insure the sidearm(s) were
performing reliably. As the data in Table 1 indicate, there was some variation both within each
sidearm’s five shot trial as well as between all sidearms.
Table 2 shows the ANOVA results for each of the 10 sidearms five shot trials. The
analysis indicates that there were no significant differences found in the five shot trial
measurements with any of the 10 firearms selected. This indicated that each firearm selected for
testing performed in a reliable manner, depositing gunpowder residues consistently in a similar
pattern size. It was noted that, as the distance increased beyond 9 inches, the range of minimum
and maximum diameter measurements increased substantially (see Table 3). While there is no
mention in the literature regarding trials in the actual distance determination testing of firearms,
this finding would indicate that it may be important to test a firearm using three to five trials in
order to demonstrate the reliability of the firearm’s performance.
31
Table 1
Diameter Distance Tests of Five Shots for Each Sidearm
(Diameters measured in inches)
___________________________________________________________
Sidearm
Distance/Shot Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
_________________________________________________________________________________________
3 Inches / First Shot 5.25 5.25 5.50 5.75 5.00 5.25 5.50 5.25 5.13 5.25
3 Inches / Second Shot 5.13 5.50 5.25 5.25 5.50 5.25 5.25 5.75 5.50 5.25
3 Inches/ Third Shot 5.25 5.50 5.13 5.13 5.25 5.50 5.00 5.50 5.25 5.25
3 Inches/ Fourth Shot 5.50 5.25 5.00 5.25 5.13 5.25 5.50 5.25 5.00 5.25
3 Inches/ Fifth Shot 5.25 5.25 5.50 5.25 5.25 5.75 5.25 5.50 5.25 5.25
6 Inches/ First Shot 6.75 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00
6 Inches/ Second Shot 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.25 7.13 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.13 6.75
32
Table 2
Analysis of Variance of Sidearm Distance Test Shots (N=10 sidearms)
_____________________________________________________________________
Shot Number
1 2 3 4 5
_____________________________________________________________________
3 Inch Distance
Minimum 5.00 5.13 5.00 5.00 5.25
Maximum 5.75 5.75 5.50 5.50 5.75
Mean 5.31 5.36 5.28 5.24 5.35
Median 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25
Mode 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25
Standard Deviation 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.17 0.17

F = .744 with 4 & 36 degrees of freedom, p = .568
6 Inch Distance
Minimum 6.75 6.75 7.00 7.00 7.00
Maximum 7.00 7.25 7.25 7.13 7.13
Mean 6.98 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.04
Media 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00
Mode 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00

F= 1.21 with 4 & 36 degrees of freedom, p = .324
33
9 Inch Distance
Minimum 7.50 7.50 7.50 7.50 7.50
Maximum 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00
Mean 7.70 7.75 7.78 7.80 7.70
Median 7.75 7.75 7.75 7.75 7.75
Mode 7.50 7.75 8.00 7.75 7.50

F = 0.545 with 4 & 36 degrees of freedom, p = .703
12 Inch Distance
Minimum 8.50 8.50 8.00 8.00 8.50
Maximum 10.00 10.00 9.75 10.00 10.00
Mean 9.10 9.23 8.90 9.03 9.15
Median 9.00 9.00 9.00 9.00 9.00
Mode 9.00 9.00 9.00 9.00 9.00

24 Inch Distance
Minimum 11.00 11.00 11.00 11.00 11.00
Maximum 13.50 13.50 13.50 13.50 13.50
Mean 12.20 12.55 12.33 12.13 12.05
Median 12.25 12.88 12.25 12.00 12.00
Mode 11.00 13.00 11.75 12.00 12.00

34
Table 3
Minimum and Maximum Diameter Measures of Ten Sidearms at Varying Distances
_______________________________________________________________
Distance Minimum Maximum Difference
_______________________________________________________________
3 Inches 5.00 5.75 0.75
6 Inches 6.75 7.25 0.50
9 Inches 7.50 8.00 0.50
12 Inches 8.00 10.00 2.00
24 Inches 11.00 13.50 2.50
35
As the data in Table 4 depict, there were no significant differences between the 10
firearms at any of the five distances. At 3 inches, the mean distance measures ranged from 5.23
to 5.45 inches in diameter for each sidearm (0.22 inch difference, F = 0.098, p = 0.761). At 6
inches, the distance measures ranged from 6.95 to 7.10 inches in diameter for each sidearm (0.15
inch difference, F = 4.210, p = 0.070). At 9 inches, the distance measures ranged from 7.65 to
7.95 inches in diameter for each sidearm (0.30 inch difference, F = 0.076, p = 0.790). At 12
inches, the distance measures ranged from 8.55 to 9.40 inches in diameter for each sidearm (0.85
inch difference, F = 0.032, p = 0.862). Finally, at 24 inches, the distance measures ranged from
11.85 to 12.70 inches in diameter for each sidearm (0.85 inch difference, F = 0.445, p = 0.521).
Interestingly, all of the differences in measurements for each of the 10 sidearms were less than
one inch.
Surprisingly, no significant differences were found between the firearms that were
unissued (less than 100 rounds fired through them) and those that had been fired over 3000
times. This would also indicate unless the barrel of a firearm was substantially damaged or
altered normal wear and tear does not significantly affect distance determination testing results.
36
Table 4
Analysis of Variance Between Ten Sidearms Mean Diameters in Distance Determination Tests
____________________________________________________________________
Sidearm 3 Inches 6 Inches 9 Inches 12 Inches 24 Inches
____________________________________________________________________
1 5.28 6.95 7.80 8.55 12.70
2 5.35 7.00 7.65 9.10 11.90
3 5.28 7.02 7.70 9.05 12.05
4 5.33 7.10 7.75 9.35 12.45
5 5.23 7.05 7.65 9.30 12.25
6 5.40 7.05 7.90 9.40 12.35
7 5.30 7.05 7.95 9.30 12.60
8 5.45 7.03 7.75 9.00 11.85
9 5.23 7.03 7.65 8.95 12.05
10 5.25 6.98 7.65 8.80 12.30
F= 0.098 4.210 0.076 0.032 0.445
P= 0.761 0.070 0.790 0.862 0.521
37
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study sought to determine whether there were significant differences
of gunshot residue patterns using same make and model of firearms in forensic distance
determination tests. It was predicted that there would be no statistical difference among the same
make and model of firearms and their gunshot residue dispersal patterns.
Hypothesis
Based on the literature and the policies of firearms identification examiners, the
assumption has been that the same firearm used in the commission of a crime must be examined
for distance determination testing. It was assumed that every firearm is different in the way it
disperses gunshot powder residue, even among the same make and model firearms. However,
this assumption has never been tested empirically. As a result, the null hypothesis formulated for
the present study was that there would be no significant difference in gunshot powder residue
deposits among same make and model of firearms.
Empirical research within this specific area of criminal justice is particularly miniscule,
which made previous literature and research somewhat difficult to substantiate. By contacting
reputable persons with background experience, training, and knowledge, many people of this
expertise felt that continuing research within any aspect of law enforcement, including firearms,
is crucial to the field entirely. Ed Moran, who is part of the Alabama Department of Forensic
Services, expressed essentially what all procedural manuals instruct, “our procedures are to use
the same firearms and same type of ammo (bullet style and powder) to more precisely
approximate the actual muzzle to target distance” (Personal Communication, May 21, 2007).
38
Yet, if the subject firearm(s) is missing, Moran stated that they do not do the testing “due to the
variables that can occur even with the same make, mode, and barrel length etc”. This type of
statement is because of the limited research there is on firearms testing, which steers laboratories
to have strict guidelines because they do not know anything otherwise. Yet, Moran validated the
importance of this type of testing stating that it “can be very important when either trying to
corroborate the witness testimony or dispel the story told” (Moran, personal communication,
May, 21, 2007). This is exactly what occurred in a more recent case in St. Augustine, Florida,
when a couple’s 3 year anniversary celebration ended horribly.
A trip that began as an anniversary celebration ends with death. In April, 2002, Justin and
April Barber went to the beach to celebrate their 3 year wedding anniversary. Barber describes
the evening “We were walking along, and I was looking down, watching the waves come in over
feet and I felt April tense up. And I looked up and a man was approaching us, very quickly.
And he was not too far away…the man was holding up his hand, seemed agitated and demanded
cash” Furthermore he told detectives that he remembered hearing a shot and then struggling for
the weapon. He then passed out briefly, then, when he “came to” he ran up and down the beach
looking for April. He found her face down floating in the water and attempted to drag her about
100 yards up the beach, but something was wrong with his body, he did not realize yet he had
been shot. He got April as far as the foot of the boardwalk. He said that once he put her on this
rail, she then fell down and he could not pick her up. At that point he elected to leave and go get
help. Police scoured the beach and scrubs for clues, using metal detectors, helicopters, and came
up empty every time.
For Justin Barber to corroborate his story, he told authorities that he had been shot, a total
of four times, yet could not clearly remember what happened because he passed out after the first
39
gunshot. Detective Howard Cole, the lead detective on this case, did not stop searching for
answers to these mysterious questions. Testimony demonstrated that the gun shot wounds “all
were—within a range of all the testimony…that is consistent with being self-inflicted”. Based
on Detective Howard’s training and experience, these gunshot wounds looked peculiar;
therefore, he continued to research. Dr. Tepas described the wound to the right chest as
“tangential” meaning, off to the side. In order to help investigators narrow down a motive and
keep the investigation moving along thoroughly, the wounds on Justin Barber demonstrate a key
piece of this puzzle. (Murphy, MSNBC Dateline Correspondent, 2006).
Sergeant Jay Lawing of the Saint John’s Sherriff’s Office, who assisted in the Barber
case, provides his expertise on the subject matter. Sgt. Lawing feels that distance determination
testing is important when determining if a gunshot wound is self inflicted or not, but the
information is combined with other factors. However, this type of testing does not solve a case,
it does give investigators an idea of what happened at one moment in time and hopefully that
information coincides with the rest of the investigation. Sgt. Lawing is not an expert of the
specifics done within the lab and speculates that conducting testing without the original weapon
“would not be used in court, since there would be so many variables unanswered because you
don’t have the original weapon”. Furthermore, Sgt. Lawing states that when these tests are
conducted “the reports are only estimates of approximate range, i.e. three to five feet. The only
definitive distance that can be scientifically proven is a contact wound”. As demonstrated, this
area of testing is so limited, that most do not trust the possibility of it being an option to the
criminal justice system. Along with many others, and despite the possible variables, Sgt. Lawing
believes that any testing that can be done that would help an investigation is worth while.
(Lawing, personal communication, June 13, 2007).
40
Findings
Based on Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) testing of 10 sidearms, there were no
significant differences found between any of the 10 sidearms at any of the distances measured (3,
6, 9, 12, and 24 inches). Based on these findings, the null hypothesis was not rejected.
There were no significant differences noted for a single firearm being test fired five times
at the same distance (known as a trial). Although there were some variations, ANOVA testing
indicated similar size patterns of gunshot residue deposits occurred in each trial.
Implications
The results of this study indicate that forensic distance determination testing may be
performed when the original firearm is not available. Even when the original firearm is provided
for such testing, the opinions provided by the firearms examiners are approximations rather than
specific measurements. And, while no significant differences were found with trials of five shots
for each sidearm in this study, it might be important for the examiner to test fire a firearm three
to five times at each distance to verify the reliability of the firearm in producing the same
patterns, even if the original firearm is used for testing. Apparently, from the present study’s
findings, there were no pattern differences found between new (unfired) firearms and older
firearms that had been fired over 3000 times. Therefore, if a test firing is to be made with
another firearm of the same make and model as the original used in commission of a crime, the
fact that the test firearm is new or used is of no consequence assuming the original firearm’s
barrel has not been substantially altered or damaged.
Crime laboratories and forensic firearm examiners should not be too quick to change
their current policies based on the findings of this study. However, they should be cognizant that
the same make and model firearms may produce no significant differences in the manner they
41
deposit gunpowder residues with the same or similar ammunition. More research is needed in
this area, specifically with different types of firearms. The present study focused on a particular
make and model semi-automatic pistol. Future studies should include revolvers, rifles, shotguns,
and black powder firearms to determine if they, too, produce similar findings. In addition, future
studies should also examine the differences in ammunition used in the same make and model of
firearms to determine if the same ammunition must be used in order to produce the same distance
determination results.
42
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46
VITA
HEATHER G. LEWEY
Personal Data: Date of Birth: August 2, 1983
Place of Birth: Johnson City, Tennessee
Marital Status:Single
Education: East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee
Criminal Justice, B.S. 2004
Criminal Justice and Criminology, M.A., 2007
Professional Experience: Tuition Scholar, East Tennessee State University, College of Arts
And Sciences, 2005-2006
47

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Examining Significant Differences of Gunshot

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Model of Firearms in Forensic Distance Determination Tests

the faculty of the Department of Criminal Justice

East Tennessee State University

of the requirements for the degree

Master of Arts in Criminal Justice and Criminology

Dr. Larry Miller, Chair

Dr. Michael Braswell

Dr. Dennis Hamm

Keywords: Distance Determination, Firearms, Ballistics, Forensics

Model of Firearms in Forensic Distance Determination Tests

in commission of a suspected crime is not available for testing or is damaged. Crime

firearms in distance determination testing. The findings indicate no significant differences;

make and model may be used.

Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………….. 9

Purpose of the Research………………………………………………………… 10

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE……………………………………………….. 13

Procedure for Collecting Data………..………………………………………… 29

Procedure for Treating Data……………………………………………………. 30

1. Diameter Distance of Five Shots for Each Sidearm…………………………………. 32

2. Analysis of Variance of Sidearms Distance Test Shots……………………………… 33

3. Minimum and Maximum Diameter Measures of Ten Sidearms at Varying

4. Analysis of Variance Between Ten Sidearms Mean Diameters in Distance

Robinson, an assistance professor of forensics at George Washington University, in Washington,

testimony on behalf of a party.

Currently under Daubert, the admissibility of expert testimony is to be more meticulously

Evidence No. 702, which provide:

understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue, a witness qualified as an expert

empirically supported. Forensic scientists in latent fingerprints and forensic document

subject (target) when it was discharged, known as a distance determination test.

While a firearm distance determination test is particularly useful in establishing the

firearms identification experts.

when discharged is a significant piece of evidence. Particularly in suicide cases involving

make and model firearms in distance determination tests.

available for testing.

Ho: There will be no significant differences between same make-model firearms in

making distance determination tests.

determination testing at the police firing range.

Definitions, as they are recognized by Tennessee Administrative Office of the courts:

jacket), wadcutter, or semi-wadcutter.

hundredths of an inch (i.e., .22 cal) or in millimeters (i.e., 9mm).

discharging from the muzzle of a firearm.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

firearms, firearms identification, testing, and ballistics becomes an increasingly larger

component of most state and federal crime laboratories.

1995, NCJ-148201). Although these are alarming, they are reality.

possibility of false convictions and various other faulty mishaps.

accidental or murder for example, may conceivably be a predictor on a professional

According to the California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training’s

gunpowder or shot pattern tests to have significance, it is essential to obtain ammunition

‘what-if’ when the original firearm is cannot be located.

Possible Determinations, it is stated as follows: “Distance Determinations: Determine

determination)” (wvstatepolice.com, 2007, p. 1). Furthermore, it is provided that “in certain

imperative that law enforcement personnel do the same.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Handbook of Forensic Science (2003) provides

first and foremost.

describes specific firearm examinations they conduct. Specifically, regarding distance

Virginia’s Department of Forensic Science Firearm/Toomark Procedures Manual (2007),

conjunction with a working hypothesis formed by observations based on previous testing to

Department of Forensics, Toolmarks and Prodecures Manuel, 7.6.8). Furthermore, specific

questioned item at the time of firing” (Virginia Department of Forensics).