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W E L L E VA L U AT I O N
CONFERENCE
Contents
Foreword
Chapter 1
Petroleum Geology of Venezuela
Chapter 2
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs of Venezuela
Chapter 3
Well Planning
Chapter 4
Data Quality and Acquisition Efficiency
Chapter 5
Evaluation of New Wells
Chapter 6
Evaluation and Monitoring of Existing Wells
Chapter 7
Production Enhancement
Chapter 8
Reservoir Description around the Well
Appendix
Units and abbreviations, Index
W ell Evaluation Conferences have been held regularly in the major oil-producing countries of the world for 25 years.
The last one to be held in Venezuela was in 1980, during the rapid accumulation of reserves following nationalization,
and soon after the introduction of computerized service units at the wellsite. Since 1980 many things have changed, both in the
needs of the oil industry and the techniques available to meet those needs. Once again in Venezuela, we are at the beginning of
a new era in exploration and production, and in the application of new value-adding technologies.
The goal of this new book is to show how technology has solved some of the exploration and development problems which
are particularly relevant to Venezuela. Our theme is “Optimizing well production and reservoir understanding from well data.”
The range of topics is wider than before and reflects the current focus on the integration of different services, both in application
and organization.
Within this theme we present examples of well planning and efficiency, evaluating new wells and the reservoirs around them,
and evaluating old wells and increasing their production. Many techniques are considered in terms of their efficiency, quality of
information, and economics. We have included a concise description of the geology of Venezuela and an overview of the typical
This information has been produced in three formats—a Spanish-language book, an English-language book, and on CD-ROM
in both languages. Essentially all the examples are from Venezuela, for which we must thank PDVSA, its affiliates, and the other
companies who gave permission to publish their data. We also thank the authors and contributors for their time and efforts.
We dedicate this book to the many professionals who have contributed to the successful exploitation of hydrocarbons in
Venezuela, and to the many others now arriving to pursue the challenge.
J. Yearwood A. Nicoletti
Vice-President and General Manager, Vice-President GeoQuest
Latin America and the Caribbean, Dowell Latin America
A. Campo
Vice-President and General Manager
South America, Mexico and the Caribbean,
Wireline & Testing
J. Qualtrough C. Paolini
Manager, Latin America Vice-President, Latin America,
Anadrill Integrated Project Management
General geology
The history of oil exploration
in Venezuela
Petroleum basins
elgoajiroblanco@hotmail.com
Figure 1.0
– 1,300,000 m La Vela
offshore
– 1,200,000 m
Ri
Mara
Sibucara er
sa
Hombre Pintado
v
Gu a
Ri
Media
La Paz Maracaibo Tocu y o
La Mene de Maurda
Concepción Ambrosio
Cabimas San Felipe D.F. Caracas
Boscán
Tía Juana LARA Maracay
Lagunillas Valencia r
e
YARACUY Riv
CARABOBO
y
Los Teques Tu
Bachaquero MIRANDA
– 1,100,000 m Urdaneta
Mene Grande ARAGUA
Alturitas Lama Barquisimeto
Lago Ceuta San Juan Yucal - Placer
Lamar de los Morros
centro Tomoraro
ZULIA Trujillo
San Carlos Jobal
Motatán Roblecito Valle
COJEDES Tucupido
El Rosario er Lake Punzón
Río de Oro R iv Maracaibo TRUJILLO
o
Palacio Belén
Los Manueles Bella Vista
1.
36
Fig
Las Cruces
fig
1.45
Tarra
1.
48
40
Mérida Barinas 1.
Fig
Silván MACHETE
MERIDA at
– 900,000 m GUARICO
Silvestre
aR
1.48
Sinco
BARINAS
i
v
r Apure River
ve
er
Ri G uá
e
Fig
TACHIRA ur rico R ive
A r
p
San Fernando
San Cristóbal de Apure
La Alquitrana
APURE
– 800,000 m
La Victoria
Ri Arauca R i ver
Guafita auca ver
Ar
BOLIVAR
Legend
Oil field State Boundaries
– 700,000 m
Gas field Cross Section
Meta River
Condensate field State Capitol
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 km
0 20 40 60 80 miles COLOMBIA
– 600,000 m
100,000 m 200,000 m 300,000 m 400,000 m 500,000 m 600,000 m 700,000 m 800,000 m 900,000
1 1
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1,300,000 m –
Tobago
Caribbean Sea Dragón
Coche
Cubagua
SUCRE Trinidad
D.F.
Fig
Jua Gulf of Paria
Caracas Cumaná San
n
R
Maracay
1.5
iv
r er
5
e
Riv Posa
BO
y
Pe
ARAGUA Manresa
Quiamare
de
Orocual
Loran
rn
Jusepín
al
es
San Juan Yucal - Placer Maturin Tajali
ANZOATEGUI Pirital
de los Morros La Ceiba El Furrial
Carito ive r
Tacat
R
a ip a
Jobal Greater Anaco Greater Oficina Santa BárbaraG u n
Roblecito Valle re iv
Tig R e
r
Tucupido area area
Punzón
Greater Temblador
48 Dakoa Copa Macoya
area Temblador DELTA
1. Guavinita Saban Un 1,000,000 m –
Las Mercedes ar Bombal
Ruiz e
Fig Ipire Riv Jobo Uracoa Tucupita
Palacio Belén e r
Bella Vista Pilón
Barso Morichal
Fig
Bitor Area
Cerro
1.45
Negro
48
1. ORINOCO BELT
Fig River
MACHETE Fig 1.50 HAMACA co
Fig
o
1.50 Ori n
Z
ua
t PAO 900,000 m –
GUARICO er AMACURO
aR
1.48
Ciudad Ri
i
v
Apure River
Caroni
er
ZUATA er Bolívar
G uá
Aro iv
Fig
rico R ive
R
r Reclamation
BOLIVAR
Zone
San Fernando
de Apure
Greater Anaco area Santa Rosa Greater Oficina area
La Florida
El Roble
C Casca Carisito Onado
u Maulpa
a
aR
r
San Joaquín
BOLIVAR Cantaura Acema Acema - Casma
San Roque Mata
Santa Ana Mapiri
El Toco
Kaki Naroo Oscurote
Boca Nipa Oritupano
Guere
Guara Leona
Chimire
Oveja Melones
1 2
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Figure 1.1 the chapter, and also a time chart with the
main geological ages indicated and a
Guajira Aruba
72˚
Peninsula
68˚ 64˚ 60˚ geopolitical map with all Venezuelan cities
Paraguaná Bonaire N
Peninsula Caribbean Sea Grenada
and places cited in the text (Fig. 1.0). Also,
Gulf
of Coro
Venezuela
11˚ nge
La Tortuga Porlamar
Paria
Tobago 11˚ we include a section called the “History of
bia
Maracaibo uis Ra ange La Costa Range CumanáAraya C. de La Costa
e
L R
Sanaragu
a Trinidad Oil Exploration in Venezuela” for those who
ng
lom
Caracas Barcelona Cariaco Carúpano
Valencia
Ra
B Los Teques
Lake Barquisimeto Interior Range may be interested in the history and growth
rijá
Co
A ce
Maracaibo es Interior Range Maturín
ipa
(Central Branch) (Eastern Branch) uan
Pe
tla a
d Trujillo R. G igre
An
O
T
of Venezuela’s most important industry. At
nt n
n Guanare Rio Tucupita
ela
Ri
ic
o
zu
Ri
Po
o G sa
ne Mérida Barinas
rtu
e Ciudad Bolívar the end of the chapter, a list of references
gu
ua
V
ric
Rio co
o
Apu rino
re San Rio O
7˚
S. Cristóbal
Fernando 7˚
consulted for the compilation of figures and
Rio Arauca
text is provided. We also include references
250 to > 5000 m
Reclamation Zone
Guyana
Rio Meta
an
a to other papers and books that should be
Mountain Puerto
u ay if
Belts Ayacucho G as s useful to those who wish to study the
M
Foothill
geology of Venezuelan petroleum basins in
100- 250 m Regions
Sea
Level
0-100 m Plains and
Coastal Plains
more detail.
3˚ 3˚
Colombia Brazil
Physiographic provinces
0 100 200 km There are five main physiographic
50 150 Brazil
72˚ 68˚ 64˚ 60˚ provinces in Venezuela (Fig. 1.1):
1. Mountain ranges
The Venezuelan physio- a.Venezuelan Andes system
Introduction
graphic provinces are: b. Caribbean mountain system (Perijá
The purpose of this chapter on the
1) The mountain belts: Range, San Luis and Baragua Ranges, La
Petroleum Geology and Basins of Venezuela
Venezuelan Andes and the Costa Mountain Range)
is to give the reader a general overview of
Caribbean Mountain System 2. Foothill regions
the geology of the country. Our knowledge
(Perijá, San Luis; Baragua 3. Coastal plains
has been greatly enhanced by the oil
and La Costa Range); 2) the 4. Mainland plains
industry and mining activities that have been
foothills; 3) the coastal plains; 5. Guayana Province.
ongoing for almost a century. Without
4) the plains between the Rocks of a wide age range (Precambrian
entering into a detailed analysis of the
Orinoco River and the moun- through Neogene) are found in the
numerous and unsolved problems with the
tain belts; 5) and the mountain ranges of La Costa and the Andes.
geology, we have integrated the information
Guayana Province or Massif Their formation history is closely associated
presented in many papers and books written
(after NB-18-ll map; MMH, with the evolution of the northern margin of
on Venezuelan geology. We have tried to
1976). the South American plate from the Eocene to
attribute the original contributions of all
the present. The foothill regions (9430 km2)
authors, and have also presented summa-
are covered by Neogene molassic sediments
tions based upon our own experience. We
whose main physiographic features are
have avoided specialized and detailed points
terraces formed during glaciation/deglacia-
of view concerning stratigraphy, sedi-
tion processes.
mentology and geotectonic evolution,
instead choosing to simplify the geology
because of our diverse readership and
limited writing space. For non-specialized
readers, we include a Glossary at the end of
1 3
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Reclamation
Venezuela Imataca Pastora
ira Province Province
tam Orinoco River were overridden by Paleozoic-
Zone
Al
ge
ange
Bogotá Basins as a Precambrian Province Roraima age crustal fragments that were accreted, or
ern R
Province
East
4˚
Colombia Brazil The autochthonous terranes are located
in the Guayana Province, and also form part
Cenozoic Orogenic Belt Imataca Province
of the basement of the Paleozoic to Cenozoic
Late Paleozoic Orogenic Belt Pastora Province sedimentary basins south of the Apure Fault.
Early Paleozoic Orogenic Belt Cuchivero Province There are four provinces of Precambrian
Paleozoic and Cenozoic Basins
rocks in the Guayana Province: Imataca,
Roraima Province
of the Precambrian Basement Pastora, Cuchivero and Roraima (Fig. 1.2).
Eastern Basin of the Precambrian Basement, Boundaries of the
Imataca Province Possible Extension Cordilleran Systems It has not been possible to discriminate
Overthrusting different provinces (with respect to age) in
Northern South America´s the basement of the oil basins to the north of
distribution of allochthonous The coastal plains (117,220 km2) are Guayana Province; this is because there are
terranes in which concentrated in four broad regions: 1) north few wells that have reached the basement in
Precambrian rocks are of Falcón State (Fig.1.0), 2) Barcelona these basins and the available descriptive
present. These terranes coastline (Anzoátegui State), 3) Orinoco information is scarce.
were sequentially sutured to River delta (Delta Amacuro State), and 4) The accretion of allochthonous terranes
the South American north of Sucre State. The mainland plains on the South America plate began during the
continent during the (260,000 km2), with an extensive drainage Early Paleozoic (Caledonian Orogeny: 570 to
Ordovician-Silurian and later network, encompass the land between the 385 Ma); part of these rocks outcrop near
during Late Mesozoic northern mountain ranges and the Guayana Mérida and San Cristóbal in western
through Recent. Province; they are the result of the Venezuela. Later, during the Hercinian
sedimentary filling of the Eastern and Orogeny (385 to 245 Ma), occurred the
Barinas-Apure Basins. suturation, or welding of the allochthonous
In the south is the Guayana Province blocks. These included Precambrian rocks,
(also called “Guayana Massif,” “Guayana among which only the granitic rocks of the
Shield,” or “Guayana Cratón” in the Sierra Nevada in the Santa Marta Massif
geological literature) with 425,000 km2 of (Colombia) have been dated (Fig. 1.2). The
Precambrian-age terranes, with some last collision began during the Cretaceous;
Pleistocene plains built by the Orinoco River this allochthon includes rocks of
and some of its tributaries. Precambrian age near the city of Caracas
(Federal District) and south of Valencia
(Carabobo State).
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Caparo
ult Venezuela
re Fa orogenic belt north of the Apure Fault, the
Apu
nge
Paleozoic Zone
Bogotá
In the Andes, rocks of the Lower
a
Basin
rn R
Weste
4˚ 4˚
78˚ 62˚
Brazil granitic and shelf/slope sedimentary rocks
Cenozoic Orogenic Belt Lower Paleozoic Basin (Ordovician–Silurian). Ordovician metase-
Upper Paleozoic Orogenic Belt Guayana Shield dimentary rocks are found in the subsurface
Lower Paleozoic Orogenic Belt Boundaries of the basement of the Maracaibo Basin and in the
Cordilleran Systems
Overthrusting
Andes. Devonian-age allochthonous terranes,
Northern South America´s welded to South America during the Late
distribution of allochthonous Paleozoic terranes Paleozoic, outcrop in the Perijá Mountains.
terranes in which Paleozoic The rocks of Paleozoic age in Venezuela Part of the accretionary history of the
rocks are present. These are found in several regions, geologically Upper Paleozoic onto the Lower Paleozoic
terranes were sequentially grouped as allochthonous or autochthonous includes granitic rocks, formed as a result of
sutured during the terranes of South America. The auto- subduction below the northern border of
Ordovician and Silurian, then chthonous terranes are found in the South America. These include rocks of the El
during the Carboniferous and subsurface of the Barinas-Apure and Eastern Baúl region (Permian age) and those found
finally during Late Mesozoic Basins (Fig. 1.21), south of the Apure Fault in the subsurface of Eastern, Barinas-Apure
through Recent. (Fig. 1.3). These rocks are typical “red beds” and Maracaibo Basins (Carboniferous age).
from Gondwana (South America and Africa The accreted belt included sedimentary
before its rupture) and Laurentia (North sequences of Carboniferous and Permian
America and Greenland before its rupture); ages; these rocks now outcrop in the Perijá
they are preserved only in the deep and Andes Mountains.
structural depressions of these Venezuelan The last of these allochthonous terranes
basins. The allochthonous terranes are is the Caribbean Mountain System that
distinguished by the age in which they were extends from Guajira Peninsula (Western
tectonically accreted to the north of the North Venezuela) to Paria Peninsula (Eastern
South American plate; there are those North Venezuela), including the subsurface
accreted during the Early Paleozoic, others basement of the Gulf of Venezuela and the
during the Late Paleozoic and the latest La Costa Mountain Range. In this terrane
during the Mesozoic. Paleozoic rocks of Devonian to Permian
ages are found.
1 5
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GENERAL GEOLOGY PA L E O Z O I C A N D M E S O Z O I C
Coro
1 Maracaibo Trinidad
El Pilar Fault
3
Ur
Caracas ica 4
á
2 3 Fa
rij
Espino ul
Pe
t Maturín
Graben
Andes
3
8˚ 8˚
Santander
Massif Apure-Mantecal
Graben 0 100 200 300 km
73˚
Colombia 63˚
1 6
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Figure 1.7
Correlation chart of the most important Early Cretaceous units of Venezuela. Informal units are within quotation marks.
See Yoris, 1985, 1988, 1992, on Sucre Group.
1 7
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(also Early Cretaceous) carbonate shelf, The thickness of both El Cantil and Chimana
which is discontinuous along the Formations is several times the thickness of
deformation (mountain) front to the north of their lateral equivalent in Western Venezuela,
Guárico State (Macaira Limestone). the Cogollo Group.
Escandalosa
ac
1 8
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Figure 1.10
Correlation chart of the most important Late Cretaceous units of Venezuela. Guárico and Vidoño Formations
continue through the Paleocene; Canoa and Querecual Formations start by the end of Late Albian.
1 9
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Figure 1.11
V
N Lesser Antilles
Caribbean Plate Arc
V
Early Paleocene *
La Victoria es
Middle Paleocene * Guárico at
bon
Car
Early Eocene*
Trujillo Matatere
Maracaibo Morán Barcelona
P
Guasare/Marcelina agü
e y Roblecito
Maracaibo-
Cl arin Trujillo
Paují
V Sta. Marta deep Humocaro
Fore Peñas Blancas
Sh
Central
EL
Shallow Block Gobernador
a
llo
American Arc
Ba
as e
Clastics
w
s
Cl
tic
úl
SM
V
a
Misoa
st
South American
Li
ic
-B
ne
Block
am
Colombia
Andean Block Orocué/Mirador
Collision
Range of
Western
en
V B Shallow
t
Clastics Guayana Shield
Farallón
Plate (*) Deformation Front Position 0 50 km
Guárico = Garrapata-Guárico Fms. Event (Paleocene) Gobernador = Gobernador-Masparrito Fms. Event (Eocene)
Trujillo = Trujillo Fm. Event (Paleocene-Eocene) Humocaro = Humocaro-Quebrada Arriba Fms. Event (Eocene)
Misoa = Misoa-Caús-Paují Fms. Event (Eocene) La Victoria = La Victoria-Santa Rita-Jarillal Fms. Event (Eocene)
= Thrust front
ESE migration of the
Caribbean deformation front In North-Central Venezuela, the lateral These fronts generated successively younger
and associated episutural equivalents of the Mucaria Formation grade depocenters to the east of the actual Perijá
sedimentation during vertically to the hemipelagic and turbidite Mountain range.
Paleocene-Eocene times. sequences of the lower Guarico Formation. Figure 1.11 summarizes the sedi-
The Andean-South American To the east, the bathyal sandstones of the San mentation and gradual evolution of the
boundary was located at Juan Formation overlie the black cherts and deformation front as the Caribbean plate
the present position of the sandstones of the San Antonio Formation. passed north of the South American plate
Santa Marta-Bucaramanga Then, in turn, the San Juan Formation grades during the Paleocene-Eocene. For simplicity,
(SM-B) and Bocono vertically to the dark shales of the Vidoño several formations are summarized by one
(B) fault systems. Formation (late Maastrichtian–60 to 65 Ma). name only (e.g., “Misoa” refers to the
sedimentation of lateral equivalents and/or
Cenozoic terrains closely related units, such as the Misoa, Caús
and Paují Formations). Each “event” carries
Paleogene
the most distinctive formation or group name.
Paleocene-Eocene of Western Venezuela.
To the northeast of the South American
During late Cretaceous (Fig. 1.9) to early
plate, the oblique collision of the Lesser
Paleocene, Western Venezuela was affected
Antilles arc generated a series of sheets, or
by the collision between the Nazca Plate
nappes, trending towards the south and
(Pacific Ocean) and Western Colombia. There
southeast. These control the turbidite
is evidence that the sedimentation of the
sedimentation of formations such as Trujillo
Orocué Group (and probably Guasare and
and Morán.
Marcelina Formations) was controlled by the
deformation fronts of this collision (Fig. 1.11).
1 10
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Volcanic
Caribbean
Arc
Late Eocene was deposited in shallower environments
Plate
further away from the deformation fronts,
and afterwards the Marcelina Formation in
coastal-marsh environments.
During the Eocene, a complex sedi-
200 Km
mentary setting existed in the Maracaibo
Oca Basin. Distinct deltaic/estuarine, coastal/fluvial
Fault System
and marine systems developed, depending on
Frontal Thrust
Maximum their geographic position with respect to the
Subsidence Area ?
different deformation fronts, such as in Perijá
South American Plate or later on in Lara to the east. Formations such
Advance of Allochthonous Terranes
as Barco-Los Cuervos and Mirador-Carbonera
? (deposited between the Paleocene and Middle
Eocene–65-40 Ma) represent two similar
Shallow Clastic Sediments Foredeep Sediments Thrust Front sedimentary pulses of fluvial-deltaic origin in
the western part of Maracaibo Basin. In the
Positive Areas Pull-Apart Basin
central part of the basin, the Guasare, Trujillo,
Misoa, Caús and Paují Formations were more
Generation of pull-apart basins at the boundary between the Caribbean and South
marine lateral equivalents of the Barco-Los
American plates; the maximum subsidence areas were located north of Falcón State
Cuervos and Mirador-Carbonera, with a
at this time (Late Eocene) (after Macellari, 1995).
relative, gradual deepening of environments
to the northeast. In the Barbacoas region, east
Figure 1.13
of Trujillo State, the average depth of the
Lesser
Eocene sea was shallow enough to deposit
V N
ic
Caribbean Plate
Ar
tiv
?
Sl
Maturín
Clastic Shelf
faulting (i.e., a “pull- apart” basin) (Fig. 1.12).
?
Positive Area ?
? Paleocene - Eocene of North - Central
South American Plate Paleocene-Eocene Venezuela. Part of the accretion due to the
Lesser Antilles is probably represented by the
Shallow Sandy Clastics Lime-Clay Clastics Predominate over the sediments of the Guárico Formation, plus the
Sandy Clastics (Slope Environment)
limestone and other older units in the
Turbidites Positive Areas
olistostromes. During the Paleogene and
Limestones Direction of Sediment Supply
Neogene, this fold and thrust belt migrated to
Thrust Front the south and east of the nothern margin of
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation at the northern flank of the
Eastern Basin during the Paleocene-Eocene.
1 11
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Figure 1.14
Correlation chart for the the South American plate. Those rocks It is possible that the influence of the
Paleocene-Eocene of originally sedimented in the trough just in oblique collision of the Caribbean plate on
Venezuela. The Colón front of the belt (the foredeep) were later Eastern Venezuela began in the Middle
Formation extends into the uplifted, eroded and re-sedimented into Eocene—the first evidence may be in the
Campanian; the Carbonera, the trough. sandy-glauconitic and foraminiferal-rich
Paují, La Pascua, Roblecito While the Caribbean plate moved to the carbonates deposited on the foredeep
and Los Jabillos Formations east between the South American and North margins located north of Venezuela (Peñas
extend into the Oligocene. American plates, the influence of the fold Blancas and Punta Carnero Formations and
The Guárico Formation may and thrust belts also moved, but to the Tinajitas Member of Caratas Formation). On
reach down to the top of the south, producing the new foredeep of the Margarita Island, the sandy and carbonate-
Maastrichtian wherever the Roblecito Formation, with a probable age rich turbidites of the Pampatar (sandy rich)
Garrapata Formation is between the Late Eocene and Oligocene (?) and Punta Carnero (carbonate rich)
absent. (39-23 Ma). South of the new foredeep, the Formations represent a separate sedimen-
lithosphere bent due to the new load, tation from the Guárico and Roblecito, both
causing the influx of the clastics that in time and space, and are probably related
produced the La Pascua Formation. to accretion near Barbados.
Figure 1.13 summarizes conceptually
Paleocene-Eocene of Eastern Venezuela. the relationship between stratigraphic units
During the Paleocene and Early Eocene, the and deformation fronts. Figure 1.14 sum-
sedimentation was not influenced by the marizes the Paleocene-Eocene stratigraphic
Caribbean deformation fronts. The Vidoño nomenclature, emphasizing the potential
(hemipelagic marls, siltstones and clays) and character of each unit as a seal or reservoir.
Caratas (sandstones) Formations accumu-
lated on a passive continental margin slope.
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Maximum development of the Falcón State pull-apart and generation of extensive positive
areas in Maracaibo Basin and northern Falcón. Toward the south and east, the foreland
basin evolved, developing "troughs" like those of the La Pascua-Roblecito Formations (Late
Eocene-Oligocene) and Carapita-Capiricual (Early-Middle Miocene) (after Macellari, 1995).
1 13
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rc
dA
v fold-and-thrust belt source, and on the south
an
Extinct Island Arc
Isl
X Limit of the side is a Cratón Interior source. Something
ve
X X cti Caribbean Deformation
similar occurs with the La Pascua and
A
?
Naricual/Quebradón Roblecito Formation equivalents, called the
Slope
Merecure Formation in the subsurface of the
Roblecito ? Areo(?)
Areo(?) southern flank of the Maturín Basin.
Los Jabillos Following the diachronism principle, it is
La Pascua Barcelona
Clastic Shelf/Transitional assigned a younger age (Miocene), similar to
? Environment/Deltas
?
the surface Merecure Group.
Merecure/"Naricual"
Chaguaramas
Figure 1.18 summarizes the Oligocene
Oligocene ? stratigraphic nomenclature, characterizing the
South American Plate Merecure 0 50 km units as potential seals or reservoirs.
Figure 1.18
O Palmar/Parángula
PALMAR/PARANGULA Naricual Naricual
Palmar G M
l Ceibote ? (Churuguara/Castillo/Pecaya/ ? E
i u San Luis/Agua Salada) Quebradón R
g E
León a Areo C
o U
c f
Guardulio R
Icotea
e i El Paraíso E
Carbonera
n Carbonera Roblecito
t Los Jabillos
e ?
? a La Pascua Caratas/
Late Eoc. Paují/Mene Grande Arauca Pagüey(?) ? Roblecito ?
Correlation chart of the most important Late Eocene through Oligocene units of Venezuela. Paují, Mene Grande and Pagüey Formations
extend into Middle Eocene; El Fausto Group and Churuguara, Castillo, Pecaya, San Luis, Agua Salada and Quebradón Formations extend
into the Miocene.
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During this time, extensional (Falcón Basin) Basins). Figure 1.22 summarizes the
and foreland basins were created. In Neogene and Pleistocene stratigraphic units,
Western Venezuela, the Barinas-Apure showing their potentiality as source rocks,
foreland basin was influenced by the seals or reservoirs.
formation of the Colombian and Venezuelan In Western Venezuela, the Andean uplift
Andes. The Eastern Venezuela basins produced significant thicknesses of molasse
resulted from the oblique collision between sediments (Guayabo Group, and La Villa, La
the Caribbean plate and the northwestern Puerta and El Milagro Formations—Fig. 1.22).
margin of the South American plate. In the In places, both the North-Andean and South-
Pliocene (Figs. 1.19 and 1.20), the uplifting Andean flanks have molasse sediments that
of Northern Venezuela produced the reach more than 5 km thick (15,000 ft). In the
present-day distribution of petroleum basins Perijá Mountain range, the El Fausto Group is
(Fig. 1.21) and generated the La Costa and the molasse-equivalent unit, and is related to
Venezuelan Andes mountain ranges the mountains of the deformation front on
(dividing the Maracaibo and Barinas-Apure the west side of Maracaibo Basin.
Figure 1.19
N ? Caribbean Plate
cc
?
Ar
Agua Salada
ism os
Urumaco
Urumaco
Pr a d
Caujarao
Caujarao
an
Socorro El Pilar Fault
rrb
Socorro
Isl
Coro
BBaa
Oca Fault Capadare
e
ng
Maracaibo Las
Las Piedras
Piedras
rriijjá
Capiricual
Capiricual Carapita
Carapita
PPee
lo ugl ul
m nagrá
lo
ar
áP Guayana Shield
bi
m
P
a
bi
a
Igneous-Metamorphic
00 100 200
200km
km Basement
Basement
50
50 150
150
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation in all Venezuela (Maracaibo, Falcón, Barinas-Apure and Eastern basins) during the
Miocene-Pliocene. The largest accumulations of continental sediments occur on the flanks of the Andes and La Costa Range. The most
important reservoirs of Venezuela were deposited during this epoch: La Rosa, Lagunillas, Isnotú (Guayabo Group), Carapita, Oficina,
Chaguaramas and Merecure Formations.
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Maracaibo Barcelona At
O lan
Basin Maturín
Trujillo
Peri
Guárico Eastern
s Basin Maturín ce tic
de
E.
An
Sub-basin Sub-basin an
B.L
n
ela Barinas
o Belt
Co
zu
ne Orinoc
Ve
lo
Ciudad Bolívar
Reclamation
San
m
S. Cristóbal Barinas-Apure er
Riv an
a
bi
7˚ Fernando 7˚
Zone
Basin
co ay if
Guyana
no
a
1 16
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Figure 1.22
Carapita
EL FAUSTO/ O AGUA SALADA
Castillo/Agua Clara Chaguaramas Oficina
La Rosa
Early Palmar Pedregoso/San Luis Carapita
Miocene ? Merecure
Guacharaca
Correlation chart of the To the south of the Guárico Mountain To the northeast, the Maturín Sub-Basin
most important units in the front, in the Guárico and Maturín Sub-Basins is filled with shallower facies, such as the
Venezuelan Neogene. (N) (including the eastern Interior Mountain Uchirito and Quiamare Formations in its
and (S) indicate northern Range), transitional deltaic to shallow- northern flank. The Quiamare Formation
and southern flanks of the marine environments are represented by the represents a great variety of environments:
Maturín Sub-Basin. Merecure and Oficina Formations (Guárico lagoon, fluvial channels and alluvial fans,
The El Fausto Group, and western Anzoátegui States). They are reaching several kilometers in thickness in
and the Palmar, Guaharaca, both of great importance as petroleum Eastern Anzoátegui. On the southern flank,
Chaguaramas and Merecure reservoirs. These units change gradationally the Freites Formation shales overlie the
Formations extend into to the east to deeper-water environments Oficina Formation. These shales are
Late Oligocene. represented by the Capiricual and Carapita eventually overlain by the deltaic La Pica
Formations. The Carapita Formation is a Formation and the molassic Morichito, Las
distinctive turbidite unit and is also of great Piedras and Quiriquire Formations (Pliocene
petroleum importance. age). The sedimentary cycle ends with the
To the south, in the Oficina fields and Mesa Formation of Pleistocene age.
the Orinoco Belt, are found the diachronical
younger equivalents of the Neogene cycle.
The basal unit, usually discordant over the
Temblador Group, is the sandy Merecure
Formation, and overlying it is the deltaic
Oficina Formation. The Miocene equivalents
of these units in the Guárico Sub-
Basin–Orinoco Belt have been named the
Chaguaramas Formation.
1 17
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O.P.E.P. Foundation
Great Depression
End of concessions
discovered the Guanaco oil field in 1913.
Nationalization
700
concessions
World War II
World War I
Massive
1 18
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Evaluation of 4
km
the Orinoco WWII that surface activities showed a strong
Belt
3
upward rebound, reaching levels never
100
2
before seen in Venezuela (Fig. 1.23). With an
increase in exploratory drilling after the war,
1
reserves and production doubled during the
0
decade (Fig. 1.26), and 63 fields were found.
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
This compares to the 41 fields found from
Year
1880 to 1940. The three most relevant
Exploration drilling in Venezuela. (Source: Martínez, 1976 and 1994;
discoveries were the Las Mercedes Field
M.E.M., 1985 to 1995; Méndez Z., 1976 and Varela, 1987, Méndez Z.,
(Guárico State) in 1941, commercial oil in
1989; M.M.H.,1962 to 1984).
the Cretaceous of La Paz Field (Zulia State)
The year 1933 heralded the beginning of in 1944, and the giant accumulation of extra-
the use of seismic as a surface tool for heavy crude in Boscán (also in Zulia State),
exploration (Fig. 1.23), and results were in 1946.
quickly seen. Large discoveries occurred in
Eastern Venezuela: in 1936, Temblador, the
first field discovered in southern Monagas; in
1937, the first field of the Greater Oficina
Area was discovered in Anzoátegui State; and
Jusepín Field was found in northern Monagas
in 1938.
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Incorporation of
La Paz and Mara
Los Barrosos–2
Jobo–Morichal
La Concepción
Loran, cocuina
Las Mercedes
Mene Grande
Lama, Centro
La Canoa–1
(Basement)
Pedernales
Río Caribe
Quiriquire
intensity of Venezuelan exploration, and
Urdaneta
El Furrial
Orocual,
Jusepín
Boscán
Guafita
Oficina
Lamar,
Onado
La Paz
Patao
Millions of cubic meters per year
1.500 surface activity was reduced by more than
half (Fig. 1.23). However, drilling activity
Millions of barrels
200
maintained a high level during the decade.
1.000 New concessions granted in 1956 and 1957
kept the interest in Venezuelan oil high
throughout the rest of this decade.
100
Discoveries continued in the Greater Oficina
.500
Note: From 1914 to 1954 Area and, to a lesser extent, in Guárico.
a total of 3.0 billion cubic
meters were incorporated into the During 1957 and 1958, the Lake Maracaibo
reserves through revisions, new
discoveries and extensions. region yielded large Tertiary finds in its
0 0
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
central and central-eastern areas, including
Year Ceuta, Centro, Lama, Lamar and Lago Fields.
Reserves from exploratory The first Venezuelan continental platform
drilling in Venezuela. Exploratory drilling added more fields to find was Posa-112A, an offshore field in the
(Increments and revisions not the Greater Areas of Oficina, Anaco and Las Gulf of Paria. The maximum exploratory
included). (Sources: Martínez, Mercedes. The new Hydrocarbons Law of drilling depth reached during this period
A.R., 1976, 1987 and 1994; 1943 provided for the duration of all existing was 5,348 m (17,541 ft).
M.E.M., 1985 to 1995; concessions to be extended 40 more years, a
M.M.H., 1962 to 1984). positive move for the oil industry, although 1961 to 1976
the state’s share in exploitation benefits was The “no more concessions” policy
increased by way of taxes. In addition, adopted by the Venezuelan State greatly
abundant new concessions were granted affected the operating strategies of the
during 1944 and 1945, which also had a concession holders during this pre-
significant positive effect on exploration. nationalization period. A drastic reduction in
From 1945 on, exploratory evaluation surface exploration activities is shown in Fig.
intensified and all technology on hand was 1.23. By 1968, exploratory drilling reached
applied. Gravimetry and seismic surveys the lowest level of activity since 1940.
were carried out in areas offshore of Lake Exploratory wells were restricted to already
Maracaibo, and aerial magnetics and other identified areas, with their objectives being
advanced techniques under development new reservoirs above, below or near known
were tested in Venezuela. These tech- oil reservoirs. This type of exploration
nologies contributed to a significant increase yielded discoveries such as the deep
in the regional knowledge of the Venezuelan Cretaceous in Central Lake and Urdaneta
sedimentary basins. Exploration drilling rigs Fields. Frontier drilling and surface
reached depths of approximately 5,200 m exploration activities by the concessionaires
(17,000 ft), as can be seen in Fig. 1.24. ceased completely.
1 20
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70
Venezuela, S.A., a holding in charge of the
10
60 nationalized oil industry, assigned the Orinoco
Massive
concessions Belt to its existing operating affiliates:
at year end (Bm3)
End of concessions 50
O.P.E.P. Foundation Corpoven, Lagoven, Maraven and Meneven.
40
BSTB
They each proceeded to evaluate their
5
30 assigned portion. The campaign was finished
20 five years later (Fig. 1.24) after 669 wells were
drilled, and 15,000 km of Vibroseis seismic
10
Reserves
lines and 54,000 km2 of aerial magnetics were
0 Production 0
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
acquired (Martínez, 1987).
Year Since the nationalization, surface explor-
Production and reserves in ation is based almost exclusively on geo-
Venezuela. (Sources: A significant discovery during the physics, remote sensing and geochemistry. It
Martínez, A.R., 1994; period, besides findings in the above- steadily increased until the 1980s (Fig. 1.23),
M.E.M., 1985 to 1995; mentioned La Vela and southern Lake areas, when it reached its maximum level for the
M.M.H., 1962 to 1984). was Onado Field (1971) in Monagas State. last 15 years. This activity was directed
The exploratory drilling record was 5,813 m toward frontier and traditional areas. 3-D
(19,067 ft) in 1976. seismic has been used since the 1980s as an
additional tool for both exploration and
reservoir description.
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
,
Form.
Thick.
Source
Reser.
y
Source Rock
log
Seal
Formation
Age
ho Lithological Description
Lithology
(ft)
Thickness
Lit
Reservoir
Member
Graphic
(m)
Lithological Description
Los Ranchos
Miocene
1300-1500
Seal
Age
Sandstones and gray shales
with lesser amounts of
siltstones and conglomerates.
Bachaquero
,,
500-900
Variegated claystones, red to
Lagunillas
Cuiba
Shales, claystone, weakly consolidated purple, sandstones and
300-900 sandstones, and some interstratified
Oligocene-Miocene
lignites.
lignites.
EL FAUSTO
Claystones with some
150-200
Macoa
siltstones and sandstones.
na
gu
La
er
w
Tertiary
Lo
Marine shales with iron-rich concretions;
1100-1200
Upper
La Rosa
Peroc
variable amounts of interstratified Claystones and variegated
dle
250
335-
520
,
*
"B Sand"
Coarse-grained sandstone to
conglomerate.
Shaly intervals.
Mirador
160-400
Misoa
Intercalation of sandstones, siltstones
1000-1600
Los Cuervos
295-330
Paleocene
"C Sand"
Carbonaceous sandstones,
siltstones and shales.
Productive interval.
,
Porosity 7.1–20%.
Barco
150-
are Average permeability 149 md.
278
120- Fossiliferous limestones and calcareous
as
Gu 445 sandstones. Carbonaceous shales and
Juan
²600 106-300
Colón/
100 - 300
Cretaceous
Maraca 120 with shale and marl intercalations. Dense, laminated limestone,
dark gray to black,
carbonaceous to butiminous,
Lisure
Maraca
70-120
layers. limestone.
Cretaceous
100-130
Calcareous sandstones,
Lisure
shales.
Apón
250-650
1 23
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Figure 1.30
W E
Perijá Urdañeta Lama Lagunillas Trujillo
Range Icotea High Range
Bachaquero Fault
0
L
Los a Vill Post-Miocene
Ran a Paují
1
cho
s
Two way time ( sec)
La Puerta
El Fau Miocene Lagunillas "B" "B"
sto
2 La Rosa Misoa Misoa
"C" "C"
Paleocene Eocene
3
illo
1.8 Km
Cretaceous Truj
4 Basement
ic
ss
ra
10 km
5
Ju
6
Shaly (Seal) Carbonate Sand/Seal Pairs
1 24
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a
Maracaibo, such as Misoa, Lagunillas and La
bi
Basin
e
m
ng
Rosa (Fig. 1.30—Lake Maracaibo EW
lo
Tru
Ra
Co section). Other good seals include the shaly
ji
rijá
llo
León Formation and some thick intervals of
Pe
Ra
ng
the molasse (Guayabo and El Fausto Groups;
e
Andes and Perijá, respectively).
8
The main oil fields are located on the
Eastern Coast of Lake Maracaibo and the
Oil Field, Eocene Reservoir
main production comes from Tertiary
s
Lake de reservoirs; for example, Cabimas, Tía Juana,
La Luna Source Rock Matured or Over- An
Matured during the Phase 1 (38 My) Maracaibo
e lan Lagunillas, Bachaquero, Mene Grande and
La Luna System Limit (Phase 1) zu
e0
n km 50 Motatán. On the west coast there are fields
Maracaibo Basin Limit Ve
with production from the Cretaceous and
Defined petroleum system in the Maracaibo Basin, La Luna Formation source rock, even Tertiary; for example, Urdaneta (Lake
Phase 1 (38 Ma) (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994). Maracaibo) and several fields of the Perijá
foothills, such as La Concepción, Mara, La
Paz, Boscán and Alturitas. In the central part
Figure 1.33 of the lake, fields are located along the fault
systems of Lama-Icotea (Fig. 1.30), including
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma) the Lago, Centro, Lama and Lamar Fields.
Mesozoic Cenozoic Geologic time
Tr J K Tertiary Q scale
The oil gravity is quite diverse. In
Petroleum
L E M L E L Paleo. Eocene Olig. Miocene PP system events general, the lighter types occur in the deep
Formations
Cretaceous reservoirs, becoming heavier as
Source rock
Seal
depths get shallower. In the upper Tertiary
Reservoir reservoirs of the lake’s Eastern Coast, some
Burial
Trap formation
of the oils have gravities less than 13°API.
Generation,migration,
accumulation
Preservation Petroleum Systems
Critical moment
Figures 1.31 and 1.32 represent the
northeast Lake Maracaibo petroleum system
"Phase 2" petroleum system; Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
generated by the La Luna Formation source
rocks. Oil generation occurs in the northeast
part of the basin, with migration and
accumulation in the southwest during the
Late Eocene. The main traps occur along the
Icotea high, containing Cretaceous and
Eocene reservoirs. The highest probabilities
of accumulation, or critical moment, is
found close to the Oligocene-Eocene
boundary (Fig. 1.31).
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bia
bia
Basin
e
e
om
ng
ng
lom
Tru
Tru
Ra
Ra
Col
Co
jillo
ijá
j
rijá
illo
r
Pe
Pe
R
Ra
ult
ang
ng
a Fa
e
e
Ma
ult
Oil rce
Icote
lin
a Fa
window aF
orm Lake
Or
Icote
oc ati s
ué on Maracaibo de
Lake Gr
ou An
pL an
Maracaibo im u el
it
nez
Gas Ve
window
Condensate or Gas
Producing Field
Sa
Oil Field
Petroleum System Limit of the
nt ssif
M
Oil Field/ Orocué Group
an
a
Condensate/Gas Matured or Over-Matured Orocué
de
Group Limit at the Present Time
r
Petroleum System
Sa
Mixed Origin
an
a
0 50 0 50
Fault
de
km
Faults
km
r
Another system results from the The third system is related to the
Cretaceous source rock (mainly La Luna Orocué Group, southwest Lake Maracaibo.
Formation), but in this case it is widespread This generation seems to be responsible for
across the hydrographic basin of Lake the oil fields to the northeast of Santander
Maracaibo (Fig. 1.33), reaching over-maturity Massif, close to the Colombia-Venezuela
conditions in some areas. Generation, border. Generation, migration and accu-
migration and accumulation occurred during mulation occurred at the climax of Andean
the Andean uplift, filling reservoirs uplifting (Pliocene), which produced the
throughout almost the entire sedimentary complete separation of Maracaibo and
column. The critical moment is considered Barinas-Apure oil basins.
to be the present. This system is the most
important for the Tertiary hydrocarbon
accumulation, especially in the structures
of the following areas or fields: Western
region and Eastern Coast of Maracaibo
Lake, Urdaneta and Lama-Icotea (Fig. 1.34).
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Figure 1.36
NW SE
Perijá Maracaibo Basin
Range Mérida Andes
Lama-Icotea North-Andean South-Andean
Perijá Structure Flank Flank
Fault Boconó Fault
Urdaneta Lama-Icotea Barinas-Apure
Macoa Alturitas Fault System Fault Basin
4 km
20 km
NW-SE structural cross section through the Maracaibo Basin, from the Mérida Andes to the Perijá Range.
"Phase 3" petroleum system; Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Mirador
Mirador Formation
Formation
Los
Los Cuervos
Cuervos Formation
Formation
Middle Eocene (Bartoniense) unconformity between the Mirador and Los Cuervos
Formations (Rubio de San Antonio Road, Táchira State). Courtesy of Franklin Yoris.
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, ,
Figures 1.38 and 1.39
Reserv.
Source
Series
Thick.
Form./Mbr.
Stage
Lithological
Form.
Graphic
(m)
Thickness
Reservoir
Lithology
Seal
Age
Lithology Description
Source
(m)
,
,
,
,
Lithological Description
Age
Seal
Pliocene
la Coarse-grained conglomerates, fine-
550 -
gu
GUAYABO/Parángula/Río Yuca
,,
1400
Mio-
rán grained sandstones, siltstones and
Pa variegated claystones.
Pagüey/Guafita/León
Miocene-Pliocene
,
environments that flanked the Andean
Range.
Middle Eocene-Oligocene
Guanarito
Sandstone proportion increases in the
330-450
middle part of the formation; the unit is
called "Guaranito Member".
León/Guafita/
,
,
,
Eocene-Oligocene
Parángula Formation.
Early Eocene
, Pagüey
to Middle
Los Cuervos
,
50-300
Sandy clastics. Masparrito Dark gray to bluish orbitoidal limestones.
Paleocene
OROCUE
The Orocúe Group includes Barco Formation Gobernador Fine to coarse-grained, pale gray to brown,
150-278
(lower) and Los Cuervos Formation (upper), sandstones sometimes calcareous. Shales
with regional thickness varying from 0 to and siltstones also included.
Barco
Burgüita
carbonaceous.
350-420
Micaceous, sometimes glauconitic and
Maastricht.
Campanian
Burgüita
,
,
proportions of shale, limestone and
sandstone.
,,
Cretaceous
Quevedo
Siliceous mudstones, quartzitic sandstones
180-210
Siliceous mudstone, quartzose sandstones
Quevedo
beds with fish remains. They constitute the ? and cherty limestone.
Navay
EscandalosaLa Morita
150-180
Cretaceous
Shales and dark limestones.
Late
150-427
It´s deepest facies is considered a good Bioclastic and sandy limestones, permea-
source rock. ble massive sandstones and black shales.
te
Bioclastic and sandy limestones, often glau- rdien limestones.
conitic; calcareous ± glauconitic sandstones. Agua
Productive interval
Cenomanian-Turonian
Sandstones ± calcareous.
500
*Aguardiente
Composite stratigraphic column of the South Andean flank, Barinas-Apure
Basin (after González de Juana et al., 1980, and Kiser, 1989).
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Figure 1.40
NW SE
0
RíoYuca
3.5 km
2 Aguardiente
Escandalosa Paleozoic
0
3 0 10 km
NW-SE cross section of the Barinas-Apure Basin The main clastic reservoirs are the
Barinas-Apure Basin (after The Barinas-Apure Basin (Fig. 1.21) is following formations: Escandalosa and
Parnaud et al., 1995). located to the SSE of the Andean Mountain Burgüita (Cretaceous), Orocué Group
Range. The main source rock is the Navay (Paleocene), Mirador-Guafita (Arauca
Formation (Figs. 1.38 and 1.39), of Late Member) (Eocene-Oligocene) (Figs. 1.38 and
Cretaceous age and a lateral facies 1.39). The most relevant carbonate reservoirs
equivalent of La Luna Formation. Secondary are the limestones with secondary porosity
source rocks have been found in the Orocué in the Guayacán Member (Limestone),
Group (Los Cuervos Formation), but only in Escandalosa Formation. Regional-scale seals
the deepest depocenters, associated with the are the shale intervals of Burgüita (Late
great molassic thicknesses caused by the Cretaceous), Pagüey (Eocene) and Guafita
Andean uplift. (Guardulio Member) Formations (Fig. 1.40).
Figure 1.41
Note: Compound names are given to the petroleum
systems, referring to the source rock and the main
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma)
Mesozoic Cenozoic
reservoir names (for example: La Luna-Burgüita). If
Geological time
Tr J K Tertiary Q scale the system is well known by the correlation between
Petroleum
L E M L E L Paleo. Eocene Olig. Miocene PP system events the hydrocarbon in the reservoir and the source rock,
? Formations
it is annotated with (!). If the system is hypothetical,
Source rock
? Seal with only geochemical evidence about the
? Reservoir hydrocarbon’s origin, it is annotated with (.). Finally,
? Burial
Trap formation
if the petroleum system is totally speculative, with
Generation, migration
accumulation
only geological or geophysical evidence, it is
Preservation annotated with (?).
Critical moment
Events chart for the La Luna-Burgüita (!) petroleum system of the Barinas-Apure
Basin, during the Caribbean terrane’s emplacement over the Mérida High.
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La Luna Formation. Picture of an outcrop in the Cuite River (Apure State). Courtesy
of Franklin Yoris.
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Figure 1.43
NE-SW geological/structural
Falcón Basin The oil fields of Falcón Basin are, from
cross section through
The Falcón Basin (see Fig. 1.21) is west to east: Mene Grande de Mauroa,
the Falcón Basin (after
located to the east of Maracaibo Basin, and Media, Hombre Pintado, Las Palmas,
Macellari, 1995).
is separated by the Trujillo Range. The Tiguaje, Mamón, La Vela and Cumarebo.
source rock has been identified as the shales
of the Agua Clara Formation (Fig. 1.43); Petroleum Systems
however, shales of source rock potential Figure 1.44 shows the Falcón Basin
have also been identified in the deltaic- petroleum system. Because of the regional
marine sediments of Guacharaca and Agua geothermal gradient increase, the main
Salada Formations. source rock (Oligocene) generated
The main clastic reservoirs include the hydrocarbons long before the structural
following formations: Agua Clara (La Vela configuration of the entrapment mechanism
Cove and Western Falcón), Socorro was established during the Oligocene-
(Cumarebo Oil Field) and La Puerta Group Miocene transition. The reservoirs are
(Western Falcón) (Fig. 1.43). concentrated in Oligo-Miocene stratigraphic
units, with their structural configuration
Figure 1.44 being formed between the Late Miocene and
Pliocene. This time lag between the
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma) generation of hydrocarbons and trap
Mesozoic Cenozoic
Geological time formation led to the loss of large quantities
Tr J K Tertiary Q scale
Petroleum
L E M L E L Paleo. Eocene Olig. Miocene PP system events of hydrocarbons.
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Agua Clara petroleum system (!), in the Falcón Basin.
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Figure 1.45
N Caucagua-El Tinaco
Belt
Coastal
Range Belt Villa de Cura
Caribbean Belt Espino
Deformation Belt Graben Orinoco
River
San Sebastián La Victoria Guárico Altamira
Fault Fault Fault Fault
Thrusting
Los Roques Front
Island Tar
Bonaire Basin Belt
0 20 40 km
15000 0 1 2km
NW-SE cross section on the basis of seismic interpretation and with well control in
the Guarumen mountain front (after Figueroa and Hernandez, 1990). Cretaceous-
Eocene-Oligocene rocks override the autochthonous basal (Early) Oligocene,
indicating a Miocene-Pliocene age for the last deformation.
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G
uá
The main oil fields are, from west to
zo
r
CORPOVEN ico
át
eg
Basement
ui
50 Km P-C
NZZ-88X
east: Palacio, La Mercedes, Yucal-El Placer,
P-
6
MARAVEN 0 1 2 km
Tucupido, El Jobal, Socorro and Macoya;
Seismic line in the NE-SW direction, Yucal-El Placer is a gas field. To the south of
through the Jurassic Graben to the Guárico State, the Cretaceous and Tertiary
The main source rock (Guayuta and
south of the Guárico Sub-Basin (modi- units gradually pinch-out (Fig. 1.48), creating
Temblador Groups) is currently presumed
fied from Daal et al., 1989). This section stratigraphic traps and asphalt seals in what
to have been overridden by the Guárico
shows how the Paleozoic sediments has been named the Orinoco Belt (Fig. 1.50).
North Deformation Front (Fig. 1.48). Hydro-
were preserved (Cambrian as well as
carbon generation is related to advance of
Jurassic with basalt) in the deep parts
the nappe, rapidly bringing the source rock
of the Espinto Graben. The final well
to the gas window due to tectonic
depth projected over the seismic line
overloading since at least the Late Eocene.
was 14,730 ft (4.490 m).
Figure 1.48
Las Mercedes
Field
Palacio Mucaria,Garrapata, VILLA DE CURA Structural cross sections from a point near the
S Field Guárico and others
N southern limit of the Guatopo National Park
Orinoco River Macapra River
(Altagracia de Orituco, Guárico State) to the
0 m
Recent Chaguaramas Orinoco River, approximately 160 km south
Roblecito
1000 La P 1000 of the intersection of the cross section with the
Carrizal ascu
a
Temblador Macapra River, and along the section from wells
2000
0 50 100
Infante G-D-6 to CAMAZ-1, south of Camatagua.
km Ba Quartzose
sem sandstone 3000 These cross sections show the depth to the
en
t
(autochthon) Cretaceous top, below the thrusting
A B
G-D-6 GRICO-6 GXB-1 CAMAZ-1 front that includes igneous-metamorphic rocks
Chaguaramas N.M (Villa de Cura Group) and Cretaceous-Tertiary
....
sedimentary rocks such as Mucaria, Garrapata,
.... Roblecito
La P 500
ascu Guárico, Roblecito, Peñas Blancas, Naricual,
a
....
...
1000 Quebradón, Quiamare and Chaguaramas Forma-
m
- --. .---
. .. 2000 tions (the last six concentrated in the thrusting
0 10 20 30 40 50 Cr
km eta front, in the so-called "Chacual Complex" (after
ce
ou
s González de Juana et al., 1980).
1 33
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,
,
Figure 1.49 The reservoirs are Neogene, and migration
probably occurred not only from north to
south, but from northeast to southeast.
Reservoir
Formation
Source
Graphic
Lithological Description The origin for the naphthenic-paraffinic oil
Rock
Group
Seal
Lithology
,
, ,
source rock, with tens of kilometers
Oficina
Coarse-grained sandstone.
migration, traveling along the Tertiary basal
5800'
Granular conglomerate. discordance (Neogene-Cretaceous and
Lignite, leaves.
5836' Neogene-Basement). The Orinoco Belt
Occasional shales. extends to the east, delimiting the south
?
,
,
Dolomitic limestones.
border for the whole Eastern Basin. Its
5900'
stratigraphy is shown in the geologic section
5925' of Fig. 1.50.
The most important shale seals are found
in the same units as the reservoirs, e.g.
Tigre
6000' ?
Roblecito, Chaguaramas and Oficina Forma-
Shales with Lingula. tions. The traps are combinations of structural
(extensional faults) and stratigraphic
TEMBLADOR
Ferrolithic levels.
Dolomitic limestones. (channels) traps.
6100' Exogyra.
,
,
,
6117' Whitish and speckled Petroleum Systems
mudstones interval.
The Guárico Sub-Basin is complex in its
petroleum system. Four such systems are
6200'
recognized: 1) Querecual-Oficina (!) (Fig.
Speckled siltstones.
1.51), 2) Temblador-La Pascua (!) (Fig. 1.52),
Pebble conglomerates. 3) Querecual-Chaguaramas (!) (Fig. 1.53), and
Whitish siltstones. 4) Oficina (!) (Fig. 1.54). The source rock of
Canoa
1 34
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Figure 1.50
Aproximately 570 km
West East
Machete-Zuata Hamaca-Cerro Negro
Western Province Eastern Province
Chaguaramas Las Piedras
? Freites
Aprox. 6000'
Roblecito Oficina
La Pascua Oficina
+ +
K + + +
K +
PK
+ + + + +
PK PK
PK
+ Metamorphic Basement
+ (Precambrian (?) )
Schematic structural configuration of the Orinoco Belt (after Audemard et al., 1985).
Figure 1.51
Events chart for the Querecual-Oficina oil system (!), in the Oficina area, Guárico
Sub-Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
1 35
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?
Generation, migration
accumulation
believed to have been generated from
Preservation Miocene source rocks (coals, carbonaceous
Critical moment
siltstones) in the Oficina Formation proper.
Events chart for the Querecual-Chaguaramas (!) petroleum system, The sandstones of the same formation are
Orinoco River Belt (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994). the reservoirs, but some of the oil may have
escaped to the underlying Merecure
Figure 1.54 Formation, with extensional-faulting traps
formed during Late Miocene. The source
200 150 100 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Ma) rock overburden can be related to the thick
Mesozoic Cenozoic Geological time Pliocene (molasse) sequences, associated
Tr J K Tertiary Qscale
Petroleum with the uplifting of the Interior Mountain
L E M L E L Paleo. Eocene Olig. Miocene PP system events
Formations
Range and the resulting lithospheric flexure
Source rock that generates extensional faulting. The
Seal
critical moment is present-time.
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
? Generation, migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Oficina (!) petroleum system, Oficina area, Guárico Sub-Basin
(after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
1 36
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Figure 1.55
NW SE
Araya Interior Range Maturín
Sub-Basin Sub-Basin
Turimiquire Orinoco
Margarita - Los Testigos El Pilar Pirital
Block River
Platform Fault Morichito
Margarita
Island Basin
Maturín
Caribbean
Plate South American Vertical and horizontal scale
Plate 10
km
0 20
km
Conceptual NW-SE geological cross section from Margarita-Los Testigos shelf to the Orinoco River. The north flank of the Maturín Sub-
Basin is associated with the thrusting fronts of large cortical blocks, emplaced to the south due to the collision between the Caribbean and
South American plates.
l
or er Continenta
p
al Co Mo
Las Piedras (Litoral) nti rich
Ca
ta l
Pliocene ap ne
o ito operational domains: north and south of the
r
nta
pap it a l
La Pica (Marine) Cha oral)
L it
Late apit
a" ( 0 Pirital Thrust (Figs. 1.55 and 1.56).
Car
Miocene per Deep water
"Up Undifferentiated Cretaceous Allochthon The stratigraphy of the eastern Interior
shales and turbidites
Middle
Miocene "Middle Carapita "
Pir
2 Range is representative of sedimentation on
ital km
Paleogene SANTA ANITA and
M ERE
CUR
Fau
lt the northern flank of the main Maturín Sub-
to Late EG
rou
Cretaceous TEMBLADOR ps "Lower Ca
rapita "
Basin (Fig. 1.57). A thick and complex
Late Jurassic
Deep water sedimentary sequence ranges from the
shales and turbidites
Paleozoic ? Lower Cretaceous to Pleistocene. On the
southern flank, a simpler stratigraphy occurs,
Shallow Water Crystalline Basement La Quinta
Sandstones and
similar to that of the Guárico Sub-Basin in
Formation
Limestones the subsurface. The Temblador Group (Fig.
Structural cross section showing the tectono-stratigraphic units in the Maturín Sub- 1.49) represents the Cretaceous, and the
Basin’s northern flank. The figure also illustrates the complex tectonic and overlying Tertiary is mainly Oligocene-
sedimentary units that constitute the vertical and lateral equivalents of the Carapita Pleistocene, with alternating fluvial-deltaic
Formation in the subsurface; coeval foredeep environment sediments were and shallow marine environments eventually
deposited in the south, while north of the Pirital High, a piggy-back basin was overlain by continental sediments (Fig. 1.50).
developed, with shallow and continental environments (after Roure et al., 1994). The
Santa Anita Group includes the formations San Juan, Vidoño and Caratas.
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,,
PETROLEUM BASINS M AT U R I N S U B - B A S I N
Figures 1.57 and 1.58 The main source rock in the Interior
Range is the Guayuta Group, especially the
gy Querecual Formation. Its thickness is double
Reserv.
Source
Lithostratigraphic
lo
Formation
Seal
Series Ma Units ho Lithological Description
S Lit
Member
N
Electric Lithological
Pleistocene
Plio- Late
Mesa ?
Las Piedras,
Sandstones and claystones.
T = 275 m. Log Description
that of its Western Venezuela lateral
cene Early Quiriquire,etc.
? Conglomerates, sandstones
equivalent (La Luna Formation) and it has
Midd. Late
Quiamare and often calcareous shale/
10 ?
claystones.
T = 3000-4600 m. Las Piedras
Neogene
Uchirito ?
similar characteristics as source rock. The
Miocene
,
5500'
bedded turbiditic sandstones;
lateral transition of the Cretaceous from the
Early
Carapita
conglomerates at the top. 5800'
20 M
T = 1000-2000 m. 5635'
Sandstones interbedded with northern flank of the sub-basin to the
Late Early Late
?
Oligocene
Naricual
calcareous siltstones and coals.
30
Areo
T = 2000 m.
Shales, siltstones, and glauco-
southern Temblador Group is not known in
nitic sandstones. T = 300m
40 ?
?
Los Jabillos
Thick sandstones interbedded the subsurface because of the considerable
1 with dark shales; the Tinajitas 6000'
thickness of the Neogene sequence. Never-
Middle
Caratas
Eocene
glauconitic. Sandstones
T = 700-200 m. with regular
50 shale
interbedding
theless, it is believed that the Cretaceous
Early
(sandy
a
V
Dark shales increasing its turbiditic source rock is still of good quality in the
Late
i ? T = 700-200 m.
?
Greater Oficina Area, which generated part of
t
? ?
60 d
6500'
Early
o
ñ 6595'
the oil present in these fields.
i
o
?
Sandstones and shales.
Chapapotal
San Juan
p
70 ? T = 0-650 m.
Shales with
The main source rock for the North
thin sandy
,
San Antonio
beds, probably Monagas region was probably Cretaceous
a
M
Siliceous limestones, sand-
turbiditic.
Late
80
stones and black cherts. (Guayuta Group), although the possibility of
r
T = 250-500 m. 7000'
younger source rocks is not discarded.
Cretaceous
a 7190'
90 ? Pelagic black limestones.
Querecual M T= 650-750 m. Younger source rocks would need organic
C
. .
Limestones, sandstones and
shales, the glauconitic content
100 ?
Chim
8
. .
ana . .
. .
is high in some places. matter of continental affinity (e.g., the
Guácharo . . T= 270-535 m.
7500'
. . Bioclastic limestones and argilla-
Naricual Formation is coaly/carbonaceous).
El Cantil
(Upper.)
Guácharo(Low.)
ceous limestones; the sandy Sandstones
? 7
contents increase to the top. with many
110 García
?
T = 700-1000 m.
Sandstones. T = 157 m.
shale
interbeddings
The most important reservoirs are of
Early
1 38
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PETROLEUM BASINS M AT U R I N S U B - B A S I N
Orinoco River 0 20
km
Ciudad Bolívar
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The following definitions are either quoted directly or Half-graben: “A depressed block bounded on one side by
paraphrased from Bates and Jackson (1987), and are a listric fault.” This name is used for some of the relic
presented here as a reference for the chapters in this book portions of Western Venezuela Jurassic grabens in which
that discuss geological concepts. If the reader wants more the La Quinta Formation outcrops in the Andes.
information about these terms, the mentioned reference or Hemipelagic sediments: Typical sediments of the
specialized books are recommended. continental margin and abyssal plain. More than 25% of
Allochthonous: “Formed or produced elsewhere than in its the fraction coarser than 5 microns must be either
present place.” Here, this term is used to designate terrigenous, volcanogenic, and/or neritic.
portions of Earth’s crust, separated from their original Laurasia: The Northern Hemisphere equivalent of
basement and tectonically transported long distances, and Gondwana in the Southern Hemisphere, and from which
being finally emplaced as “allochthonous terranes.” the Northern Hemisphere continents were derived.
Asthenosphere: see Lithosphere. Laurentia: “A name that is widely and confusingly used for
Authochthonous: “Formed or produced in the place where granites and orogenies of Precambrian age in the
now found.” Here, this term is used for the Earth’s crustal Canadian Shield.”
portions that are rooted on their original basement. Limestone: A sedimentary rock made up of more than 50%
Bathyal: “Pertaining to the ocean environment or depth calcium carbonate (calcite); also a carbonate sedimentary
zone between 200 and 2000 meters.” rock containing more than 95% calcite and less than 5%
Chert: “Microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline sedimentary dolomite.
rock consisting dominantly of quartz crystals less than 30 Lithosphere: The solid portion of the Earth, including the
microns in diameter. It may contain amorphous silica or crust and part of the upper mantle. Its rigid behavior
impurities such as calcite, iron oxide, and the remains of contrasts with the underlying asthenosphere, which is
siliceous and other organisms.” capable of “flow” via convection cells while maintaining
Clastic sediments: Sediments formed by particles derived its solid constitution.
from the erosion/weathering of preexisting rocks or other Molasse: “An extensive, post-orogenic sedimentary
sediments, being transported by wind or water. The clastic formation resulting from the wearing down of elevated
fractions are: clay ( < 1/256 mm diameter), silt (1/256 to mountain ranges,” during or immediately after orogeny. It
1/16 mm), sand (1/16 to 2 mm) and gravel ( > 2 mm). is usually very thick.
Rocks dominated by silt and clay fractions are shales and Nappe: “A sheetlike, allochthonous rock unit, which has
(siliceous) mudstones, by sand are sandstones, and by moved on a predominantly horizontal surface.” The
gravel are conglomerates. mechanism of transport is usually thrust faulting.
Conglomerate: see Clastic sediments. Neritic sediments: Those sediments deposited in a marine
Diachronism: “The transgression, across time planes or environment between low tide level and the shelf break.
biozones, by a rock unit whose age differs from place to Olistolite: see Olistostrome.
place.” Olistostrome: Stratigraphic intervals made up of chaotic,
Economic basement: In the oil industry, the oldest rocks lithologically diverse blocks (Olistolites, sometimes up to
in a given place that do not contain hydrocarbons (ex: several kilometers long), accumulated by sliding and
sedimentary Jurassic rocks in the Venezuelan oil basins, or slumping of unconsolidated sediment.
igneous and metamorphic rocks with no porosity and Orogenesis: “Literally, the process of formation of
permeability). mountains.” In modern usage, orogenic mountain chains
Gondwana: The Late Paleozoic continent of the Southern are considered the collision boundaries between tectonic
Hemisphere. The term originates from the Gondwana plates.
System of India, which is Carboniferous to Jurassic age Pangea: A supercontinent that existed 200 to 300 million
and includes glacially derived and coal sediments. years ago and included most of the existing continental
Graben: Elongated portion of the Earth’s crust, relatively crust. From this supercontinent the present continents
depressed in comparison with surrounding areas and were derived by fragmentation and displacement via
bounded by faults on its long sides. plate tectonics.
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GLOSSARY
Pelagic sediments: Marine sediments formed mainly from Tectonic plate: A rigid portion of the Earth’s lithosphere with
open ocean-suspended particles. These particles can be seismic activity along its borders. Over geologic time, it has
either nektonic or planktonic. The term pelagic also refers been postulated that the Earth’s tectonic plates moved over
to the water of the ocean as an environment. the asthenosphere via convection cell mechanisms.
Pull-apart basin: An extensional basin formed between Terrain: “A tract or region of the Earth’s surface considered
two strike-slip faults. as a physical feature, an ecological environment, or some
Regression: “A retreat or contraction of the sea from land planned activity of man.” Here, the usage is physical
areas,” with a potential increase in subaerially exposed (geological).
areas. A regressive sedimentary sequence is identified Terrane: “A fault-bounded body of rock of regional extent.
when its sediments’ paleodepth steadily decreases as they A terrane is generally considered to be a discrete
decrease in age. allochthonous fragment of oceanic or continental material
Sandstone: see Clastic sediments. added to a craton at an active margin by accretion.”
Shale: see Clastic sediments. Thrust front: Regions of the lithosphere associated with
Siltstone: see Clastic sediments. nappe emplacement; normally they form mountain ranges
Subsidence: “The downward settling of the Earth’s surface near collisional plate limits. Ex: in Venezuela, the Interior
with little or no horizontal motion.” In a sedimentary basin, Mountain Range (Serranía del Interior) is considered a
an increase in subsidence results in a higher capacity to thrust front associated with the nappe emplacement
receive sediment. If the basin is trough-shaped, the basin caused by the collision between the Caribbean and South
axis reflects the deepest subsidence points. American Plates. Thrust fronts are also associated with
“fold and thrust belts”.
Transgression: “The spread or extension of
the sea over land areas.” A transgressive
sedimentary sequence is that in which the
Eonotheme Eratheme System and Sub-system Series
Numeric
Age
paleodepth of its sediments steadily
(Eon) (Era) (Period and Sub-period) (Epoch) (Ma) increase as they decrease in age.
Holocene
Quaternary Pleistocene
1.64 Trough: An elongated crustal depression,
Pilocene
Cenozoic Neogene 23.3 usually associated with a subduction-type
Miocene
Tertiary
Paleogene
Oligocene, Eocene,
Paleocene
65 plate boundary or transformal limit (ex:
Cretaceous Upper (Late)
Lower (Early) 145.8
Marianas Trough, in the Pacific Ocean).
Upper (Late)
Jurassic Medium (Middle) 208
Troughs (also: foredeeps) can be found
Mesozoic
Fanerozoic
Lower (Early)
Upper (Late) parallel to the trend of “fold and thrust
Triassic Medium (Middle) 245
Lower (Early) belts” due to the lithospheric plate flexure
Upper (Late)
Permian 290
Lower (Early) produced by its weight.
Carboniferous 362.5 Turbidite: Sediment body deposited from
Upper (Late)
Devonian Medium (Middle)
Lower (Early)
408.5 turbidity currents.
Paleozoic
Silurian Turbidity currents: Density currents
439
Ordovician
Upper (Late)
Medium (Middle)
caused by different amounts of matter in
Lower (Early)
510 suspension. They commonly occur along
Cambrian
570 the continental slopes and delta fronts,
Precambrian
ic
zo
very high.
Pr
2500
Archaic Vergence: The direction of movement of
lithospheric masses involved in thrusting;
Main units of the Chronostratigraphic (Geochronological) Global Standard Scale: also “the direction of overturning or of
Ages are in millions of years (Ma) corresponding to those of Harland et al (1990) inclination of a fold.”
Salvador (1994 : 86) modified.
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Yoris, F.G., Ostos, M.; Boujana, M.; Pérez, J.; Booth, G.; Packer, S.; Galea, F.
Passalacqua, H. ; Fernández, F. ; Gou, Y. y Roure, F. (1995) Crustal
y Lander, R. (1996) Detailed Lithostratigraphy and Age Determinations of La
Architecture and Strain Partitioning in the Eastern Venezuela Ranges. En :
Luna Formation in two sections of S.W. Táchira State (Venezuela). AAPG
Tankard, A.; Suárez, R. y Welsink, H.J.: Petroleum Basins of South America.
Bull.; 80 (8): 1346.
AAPG Mem. 62: 667-680.
Yoris, F.G. ; Ostos, M. ; Boujana, M. ; Contreras, O. y Lander, R.(1996) Mirador
Pérez de Mejía, D. ;Kiser, G.D. ;Maximowitsch, B. y Young, G. (1980)
Formation in SW Táchira State, Venezuela : Potential Reservoir for the
Geología de Venezuela. En : Felder, B. (Coord.), Brie, A. ;Gartner, J. ; Hepp, V.
Paleogene Sequence. AAPG Bull. 80 (8): 1346.
; Hrabie, M ; Kervella, M. ; Mons., F. ; Mowat, G. ; Neville, N. ; Plomb, J. ;
Sadras, W. ; Tejada, A. ; Trassard, J. ; Vidal, J. Y Zinat, D. : Evaluación de Yoris, F.G. (1992) Análisis de secuencias clásticas por métodos petrográficos
Formaciones en Venezuela. Schlumberger Surenco S.A. ;1ra. Ed. : 287 p. y estadísticos. Tesis Doctoral en Ciencias Geológicas. Fac. Ing.; Dept.
Geología (UCV): 1045 p.
Rivero, F. (1956) Léxico Estratigráfico de Venezuela. Bol. Geol. (Caracas) ;
Pub. Esp. 1 : 728 p. Yoris, F.G. (1992) Localidades tipo para los miembros de la Formación
Chimana en la Serranía del Interior, Venezuela nororiental. Geos (Caracas);
Roger, J.V. (Coord.); Arteaga, N. (Coord. ) Cabrera,J.; Valera, G.; Jam., P.;
(30): 295-324.
Castillo, M.; Boesi, T. y Sancevic, Z.A. (1989) Exploración. Sección II :
Ingeniería de Yacimientos y Geología de Producción. En: Barberii, E.E.(Editor Young, G. ; Bellizzia, A. ; Renz, H.H. ; Johnson, F. ; Robie, R. y Más Vall, J.
Técnico) La Industria Venezolana de los Hidrocarburos. Ediciones del CEPET, (1956) Geología de las cuencas sedimentarias de Venezuela y de sus campos
Caracas, Tomo 1: 2-167 a 2-261. petrolíferos. Bol. Geol. (Caracas) ; Pub. Esp. 2 : 140 p.
Roure, F. ; Carnevali, J.O. ; Gou, Y. y Subieta, T. (1994) Geometry and kine-
matics of the North Monagas thrust belt (Venezuela). Marine and Petroleum
Geology 11 (3) :347-362.
Salvador, A. (1994) International Stratigraphic Guide. I.U.G.S. y GSA (Boulder)
; 2da Ed. : 214 p.
1 44
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Chapter 2
Introduction
Tía Juana (onshore)
Lagunillas
Tía Juana (offshore)
Ceuta
Mara Oeste
Silvestre
Oveja
Santa Rosa
Carito
El Furrial
Pedernales
Cerro Negro
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2 1
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Formation
Offshore Area produce heavy crudes from the Miocene-age Centro. Production comes primarily from the
AGE
Member Reservoir
Lagunillas and La Rosa Formations that Eocene (“B” and “C” sandstones) and par-
overlie the Eocene unconformity (Fig. 2.1). tially from the Miocene La Rosa Formation,
BA–SUP–10
Upper
BA–SUP–57 These reservoirs extend offshore along the Santa Barbara Member. Crudes are mainly
BA–2
Medium lake coast, but at greater depth, which light. Light oil is also produced from the
BA–MED–38
affects fluid properties and results in heavy Paleocene Guasare Formation limestones.
Bachaquero
BA–INF–59
constitute the main Eocene hydrocarbon La Luna Formation and the Socuy Member,
Lower
BA–16 reservoirs. Crudes are medium to light, all of Cretaceous age, are fractured
MIOCENE
varying with depth. The “B” sandstone sandstones and light oil producers. Some
Laguna
A–3
Laguna
package, divided into nine members, mainly Lama Field characteristics, shown in the
A–10 produces medium crude and partially light Table 2.2, describe the Center Lake oil
Bárb. Lower Upper Lower Lag.
LL–3–4–5 crude from the B-7 to B-5 sandstones. The accumulations in general terms.
LL–7–11
LL–12 “C” sandstone package has a light crude
LL–34
accumulation and the C-7 to C-4 members c) Western coast
LR–11
are the main producers. The area’s most important fields are
La Rosa
Gas and condensates from the Creta- Boscán, Mara-La Paz and Urdaneta north-
SB–14–71 ceous have been discovered in the Ambrosio ward and Tara-Manueles southward. In
Sta.
Sta.
SB–05
Field, close to Cabimas, north of the Lake. general, oil from Basement and Cretaceous
EOCENE
The prevailing production mechanisms limestones is light, and heavy to medium
Stratigraphic nomenclature of are solution gas, water drive, and compac- from the Tertiary (Eocene, Misoa Formation
Miocene reservoirs—Bolívar tion, as well as gas and/or water injection for to the north, Mirador Formation to the
District Coast (Source: Roger, pressure maintenance in the reservoirs. south). There are some exceptions, such as
J. V. et al., 1989). Later in this chapter, the Tía Juana, heavy crudes from the Eocene Boscán and
Lower Lagunillas-07, B-6-X.03, and Ceuta Urdaneta Fields and 16°API Cretaceous Mara
Eocene “C”/VLG-3676 are described as Field (see Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir des-
examples of Eastern Coast reservoir . cription later in this chapter). The La Paz
Field produces light oil from the Basement
and Cretaceous; however, nearby the La
Table 2.2 Concepción Field is a light oil and gas
Formation Gravity Depth OOIP Recovery Drive** producer from the Tertiary. To the south,
Member* °API M ft MMSTB Factor (%)
medium to light oil accumulations are found
Sta. Barbara (a) 29–32 7–11 750 30 1,2
in the Tertiary, and the Cretaceous lime-
Misoa (b) 29–34 7.1–13.5 7600 40 1,2,4
stones contain gas and condensates. The
Guasare (c) 35–38 10–17.5 10 17 2,3
light to medium oil from the Cretaceous lime-
S/L/C (d) 32–42 12.4–20 720 21.5 1,2,3
stones are in the center zone, which includes
*(a) Miocene, (b) Eocene, (c) Paleocene, (d) Cretaceous Socuy/La Luna/Cogollo
** 1. Water, 2. Solution gas, 3. Gas cap, 4. Expansion Alpuf, San Jose and Machiques Fields.
Characteristics of the oil-producing sands in the Lama Field, located in Center Lake.
2 2
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Figure 2.2 2) Falcón Basin Silvan, Maporal and Palmita Fields are in the
In the Falcón Basin the hydro- northern area. Water is the prevailing
Formation
carbon accumulations occur in reservoir drive mechanism.
AGE Sand Member
depth range Oligomiocene rocks. In general the
AQ–A6 oil from the Falcón Western fields b) Apure
LOWER-MIDDLE MIOCENE
A7–10 (Tiguaje, El Mene, Hombre Light crudes come from Guafita
B Azul
C Pintado) and some from Eastern (Oligocene Carbonera Formation, Members
D
F fields (Mene de Acosta, Cumarebo) “A” and “B”) and La Victoria Fields
Oficina H Moreno comes from sandstones. From the (Cretaceous Escandalosa Formation). The
TERTIARY
U
250–1500 feet 3) Barinas–Apure Basin
The most important hydrocarbon
a) Barinas
CRETA- Temblador accumulations occur in Tertiary formations
CEOUS Heavy to medium crudes are pro-
800–2000 feet
mainly from the Oligocene (Merecure
duced from the Eocene Gobe-
Stratigraphic column Oficina Formation— Formation) and the Miocene (Oficina and
rnador Formation (Members “A”
Greater Oficina Area (Source: Roger, J. V. Merecure Formations), (Fig. 2.2). More than
and “B”) and medium crude from
et al., 1989). 10,000 proven reservoirs have been
the Cretaceous Escandalosa Forma-
classified, most of them being small, with
tion (Member “P”). The Páez-Mingo, Hato
variable rock and fluid characteristics and all
and Sinco Fields are located in the southern
with known natural production mechanisms.
area; Silvestre (see reservoir P1/2 [0017] later
in this chapter) is in the center area, and
a) Greater Oficina Area
South Anaco thrust fault reservoirs
Figure 2.3a mainly contain saturated and unsaturated
oils, as well as some dry gas and condensate
40,000
30 Percentage of each region total types.
The produced crudes are light (Zapata,
34.823 34.819
Nardo, Chimire, Kaki, Sato, La Ceibita, Zulos,
30,000 Budare), medium (Oficina Central, Limón,
Yopales, Nipa, Mata, Oscurote, Aguasay) and
48 67
heavy (Melones, Migas, Oveja, Dación,
MMSTB
2 3
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* Mainly Oficina
Oil ** Includes other Associated and c) North Monagas Area
minor fields solution gas The main light oil fields are Jusepín,
Remaining oil and gas reserves (1996) by region and geographical area. Santa Bárbara, Mulata/Carito, El Furrial;
medium to heavy crude fields are Orocual
Figure 2.3c
and Manresa (Las Piedras Formation); and
Western near the Amacuro Delta medium to heavy
2% 1%
crudes are from Pedernales (La Pica Forma-
12% tion). Also described later in this chapter are
the so-called “Naricual Sands” from Carito
Central and El Furrial Fields. The main differ-
ence between these two is a huge gas cap in
98% Maracaibo 88% 99%
Barinas-Apure
Carito Central.
C⁄L M H ⁄ XH
Eastern
2% 1% 3% 2% 3%
10%
13%
23% 74%
1%
C L M
2% 5%
1% Anaco
11%
San Tomé
N.Monagas
49%
37% S.Monagas
Guárico
95% Orinoco Belt
H XH
Remaining oil reserves (1996) by type of crude and geographical area.
2 4
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e) Orinoco Belt
30 Percentage of each region total Western
20000 Eastern
The 8.9 million acres in the Orinoco
24%
18000 Belt area have been divided into four sectors
17,782 17,481
from east to west: Cerro Negro (see Bitor
MMSTB
14000 14,903
13,903 76%
10000
12,187 Area reservoir description), Hamaca, Zuata
36 36 40
8013 and Machete. For the next decade, 600
6000 37
2 1 5 4174 2879 3578
MBOPD of enhanced crude (synthetic) are
2000 1 22
25
792 217 575 36 25 31 3 383
expected from five major projects. Also, an
0 383
C L M H XH C L M H XH C L M H XH additional production of 400 MBOPD is
Venezuela Western Eastern expected, which would be used to prepare
Cumulative oil production (1914–1996) by region and type of crude. and export Orimulsión® (70% extra-heavy oil
with 29% water and 1% surfactant).
2) Guárico sub-basin
The producing zones of the Guárico
sub-basin consist of the Cretaceous Tigre
Formation and the Tertiary La Pascua,
Figure 2.5a
Roblecito and Chaguaramos Formations.
Commercial production is located in the
30 Percentage of each region total Western
400
Eastern
Greater Las Mercedes area where 20
389 388
42% 58%
hydrocarbon accumulations are distributed
between seven fields. Southward crudes
300 have low gravity and high viscosity; to the
281 35 285
north condensate, associated gas and dry gas
are found; and in the center transitional-
MMSTB
35
200 207 gravity crudes are present. In the early stages
182
176
44 of production, water was the main reservoir
drive, which later on was replaced by a
25 28
100 105 103 solution gas drive.
45
27 22 22
35
28 35
3 22
2 1 6 4 7
0
C L M H XH C L M H XH C L M H XH
Venezuela Western Eastern
2 5
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Oil Gas*
MMSTB Bscf
2 6
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Figure 2.6
West Mara
5
Maracaibo Altagracia
Cabimas
B-6-X.03 1 Tía Juana
3
2 Lagunillas
LL-07
Bachaquero
Lake
Maracaibo
4 Cumana
Barinas
Ceuta Barcelona
Silvestre
6
El Carito El Furrial 11
0 40 km 9 10 Maturín Pedernales
0 50 km Santa Rosa
8
Tucupita
Oveja oco
Typical hydrocarbon 7 Bitor Area Orin
12
reservoirs
0 50 km
A total of 12 reservoirs are Ciudad Bolívar
identified in Fig. 2.6 and the following
table, and are considered typical of the
Ref. Field Reservoirs
area in which they are located. Each of
1 Tía Juana Lagunillas Formation
these reservoirs is described below from the
2 Lagunillas Lower Lagunillas-07
production, geological, petrophysical and
3 Tía Juana B-6-X-.03
reservoir engineering points of view.
4 Ceuta Eocene “C”/VLG-3676
11 Pedernales P2 Sands
2 7
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U
0'
U D
U D
D U
U D D 1250' U
shales interbedded with thin sandstone
U D D
layers. The Lagunillas Formation (1260 ft
125
0' U D 75
0'
thick) is a sequence of shales, clays and
D U
D U
sandstones with occasional lignite layers.
D U
DU
The La Puerta Formation is a sequence of
1750 D U
' D U
D U D U white and gray clays, claystones and gray
D U
sandstones.
Lake D U
Maracaibo
2250 12
' U 50
D '
D U 1750
'
Structural contour
D
Fault
U Lower Lagunillas Top
2 8
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Figure 2.9 c) Depositional environment The cutoffs used for porosity, water
The Lower Lagunillas Member in the saturation and shaliness are 20%, 50% and
Formation (AGE)
Tía Juana Field consists of paralic, non- 50%, respectively.
ILD
Member
GR Depth ILM marine sediments showing eventual marine
0 (gAPI) 120 (ft) .2 (ohm-m) 2000
transgressions. Toward the northwest, the Fluid properties
lower section consists of alluvial fan and The oil formation volume factor (FVF)
fluvial deposits. Conglomeratic sandstones is 1.05 RB/STB and the initial gas-oil ratio
are very common, as well as claystone (GOR) is 90 scf/STB at a 725 psia bubble
2300
conglomerates with a sandy matrix and point pressure and 113°F. These values are
some intervals of claystones and averages and vary according to the
heterolites. Near the top of the section it is producing sandstone depth. Oil gravity
Lagunillas (MIOCENE)
less sandy, with the paralic deposits being fluctuates between 9.2 and 14°API (12°API
more common, consisting of medium- to average) and the temperature between 100
Lower Lagunillas
2400
fine-grained sandstones. and 125°F. The original pressure was
between 400 and 1000 psia, oil viscosity at
Petrophysical properties 100°F and atmospheric pressure between
The formation is a sequence of shales 1500 and 70,000 cp.
2500 and high-porosity (approximately 36%), un-
consolidated sandstones (Fig. 2.9). Perme- Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96
abilities are between 2 and 6 darcies and Reserves calculations were made
irreducible water saturation is approx- based on a 39,429-acre area, 130-ft average
imately 10%. The primary clays are sandstone thickness, 36% porosity, 68% oil
2600
kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite, whose saturation, and an oil FVF of 1.05 RB/STB.
volumes may reach 10 to 20%. The typical The official results are OOIP=11,114
interpretation parameters for the Waxman- MMSTB, recovery factor=25%, and
La Rosa
Smits equation are: a=1, m*=1.6, n*=2.0, and remaining reserves=1002 MMSTB.
rg=2.6 g/cm3. Water salinity is between
Typical log of the Lower
2500 and 3500 ppm equivalent NaCl. Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96
Lagunillas in Tía Juana Field.
a) Production, injection and pressure history
Figure 2.10
The Tía Juana Field was discovered in
1928. Since then and until 1959, the “cold”
4000
Wells-month average production was about 75 MBOPD,
Wells-month
3000
with accumulations of 418 MMSTB coming
2000
from approximately 900 wells. From 1957
1000
until 1962, thermal recovery tests were
0 completed, such as Cyclic Steam Injection
GOR (scf/STB)
GOR
B, S & W (%)
80
B, S &W (CSI), In Situ Combustion (dry and wet)
60
400
40
and Thermal Sandwich. In 1964, a CSI
20 project was started on a large scale, which
0 0 increased the production to 110 MBOPD.
Qo
Np (MMSTB)
Qo (MBOPD)
Np 1500
M-6
Thermal CSI SDI
150 recovery Generalization 1000
shut-in due
pilot to market
tests 500
CSI+
Large scale Additives
CSI test Nationalization
0 0
'52 '56 '60 '64 '68 '72 '76 '80 '84 '88 '92 '96
Year
Production history of the Tía Juana reservoir.
2 9
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Structural b) Stratigraphy
N
Isopach The LL-07 reservoir consists of the
Reservoir limit
Laguna and Lower Lagunillas Members of
0'
'
700
60
650'
–3 D
Fault
–34
20
0' U the Lagunillas Formation, and the La Rosa
00' Well
and Santa Bárbara Members of the La Rosa
Di
ke
D
S. 55000 The reservoir conformably underlies the
D Bachaquero Member, also from the
U
–36
00
Lagunillas Formation, and uniformly overlies
U '
50
D
D
–3
70
U 80
0' important member is the Lower Lagunillas,
0'
D
U
which contains 89% of OOIP. This member
–40 has been divided into three layers: LL-A, LL-
00
' 0'
50 UD B and LL-C. The Laguna Member is
S. 60000
U D 650'
–4
20 subdivided into four lenses, from LaA to
0'
450' LaD, and the La Rosa Formation into two
lenses, the LRA and LRB.
35
0
–4
'
U D
40
0'
40
–48
0'
00'
D
U U –46
00'
D
550' U D
S. 65000
–5
00
700' –52 0'
00 D
' 650'
U
–5400'
350'
500'
2 11
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Formation (AGE)
GR Members of reservoir LL-07 consist mainly of
0 (gAPI) 100
fluvial-deltaic deposits with some coastal
Member
CALI ILD RHOB
Depth marine sediments, while the La Rosa
(ft)
0.8 (in.) 18 0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 1.9 (g / cm3) 8.9
Formation is predominantly marine. In
general, the Laguna Member represents a
LaA less extensive progradation than that of
the Lower Lagunillas, since fewer and
3500
thinner sandstones are present. Its fluvial
Laguna
LaB
deposition apparently did not extend as far
westward and southwestward as the Lower
Lagunillas (MIOCENE)
LRA
La Rosa
3900
LL-A LL-B LL-C
LRB
Thickness (ft) 20–51 26–54 17–43
Figure 2.16
The Laguna Member and La Rosa
400 Formation sandstones do not have as attrac-
Qo (MBOPD) B,S&W (%) GOR (scf/STB) Producers
40
40
20
0
'56 '60 '64 '68 '72 '76 '80 '84 '88 '92 '96
Year
Production history of the LL-07 reservoir.
2 12
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Qiw (MBPD)
300 90
oil, 179 MMSTB of water and 863 Bscf of
gas. A total of 960 wells have been
200 60
completed. 284 of these wells are, on
mechanical pumps, producing 34,250 BOPD
100 30
(average December 1996) with a 850 scf/STB
GOR and 47% B, S & W. Until 1979 the
0 0
'84 '85 '86 '87 '88 '89 '90 '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 annual decline rate was 7.2%, when more
Year wells were completed in the reservoir,
Injection history of the LL-07 reservoir. increasing its production until 1984. In
February 1984 a water effluents injection
Fluid properties
project was initiated on the southern flank.
Data from pressure-volume-temperature
The production continues to decline but at
(PVT) analyses (samples taken at 3700 ft
an annual rate of 1.8%. Since 1991, the
subsea and 140°F) were used to determine
production was maintained constant above
the LL-07 reservoir fluid properties, as
30,000 BOPD (Fig. 2.16). Water effluents
shown below:
coming from the Lagunillas Tank Yard were
Original pressure 1785 psia injected, mainly in the LL-A, LL-B and LL-C
Bubble point pressure, Pb 1785 psia lenses through 10 injector wells at a rate of
Oil FVF @ Pb 1.145 RB/STB 90 to 110 MBWPD, totaling 446 MMbbl of
GOR @ Pb 213 scf/STB water (Fig. 2.17). It was observed that the
Oil viscosity @ Pb 21 cp injected water in the LL-C which was already
Oil gravity 18 °API flooded, invaded the LL-B through vertical
communication.
The original bubble point pressure
Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96
declined from 1785 psia at a rate of 0.67
The following average data were used
psia/MMSTB. The water injection started in
to calculate oil reserves: 68 ft sandstone
1984 when the pressure was 780 psia and
thickness, 31,639 acres of area, 30% porosity
the cumulative oil production was 1400
and 84% oil saturation. Results are shown in
MMSTB (Fig. 2.18). Pressure increased in the
the next table:
reservoir up to the actual 911 psia, indicating
that the secondary recovery was beneficial
OOIP 3828 MMSTB
(between 1000 and 1400 psia were observed
Recovery factor* 44.75%
in the non-drained areas, between 600 and
Remaining reserves 201 MMSTB
800 psia in the productive zone, and
*Including primary (39.29%) and secondary (5.46%)
between 900 and 1200 psia in the area close
to the injectors). Cumulative fluid
89% of OOIP comes from the Lower
replacement is 78%. Cyclic steam injection
Lagunillas Member (LL-A=40%, LL-B=35%,
has been successfully tested in six wells; this
LL-C=14%), an average of 10% from the
is another production technique that will
Laguna Member, and less than 1% from the
allow the recovery of substantial remaining
La Rosa Formation.
heavy oil reserves.
2 13
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2 14
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–4
70
0
intervals called “A”, “B” and “C” from top to
–5
00
0 bottom. “A” has the poorest geological and
B-6-X.02 U D
DU NORTH-02
petrophysical characteristics, with an
00
0 average thickness of 15 ft. It is believed to
–5
have been eroded in several places. “B” and
0
–470
U
D B-6-X.93 “C” each have a 60-ft average thickness.
U D
Each sandstone body is massive and shows
NORTH-01 good vertical transmissibility.
D U
SOUTH-03
D U
50
0 c) Depositional environment
–5
The B-6-X.03 reservoir reflects six
prevailing environments of deposition:
SOUTH-01
crevasse fan, littoral, stream mouth bars, main
B-6-X.10 0
–550
channel, distributary channel and delta front.
0
–600 SOUTH-02 Petrophysical properties
A-01
The source of basic petrophysical data
is from 24 cores from 24 wells with almost
UD 1500 porosity and 1900 permeability
Structural
measurements. The correlation between
Area limit permeability and porosity is very poor for
B-6-X.85
D
Fault each of the available cores. Therefore, two
U
groups of correlations have been established
Anticline axis
according to the interpreted environment of
deposition, which affects the porous matrix.
Structural map of the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
Table 2.4
Fluid property average values for the six regions that divide the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
2 15
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Formation
reservoir layers and sectors. Based on 55
Member
(AGE)
CALI SFLU NPHI
4 (in.) 14 1 (ohm-m) 1000 45 (p.u.) -15 drainage capillary pressure tests, a correla-
GR Depth RXO RHOB
0 (gAPI) 150 (ft) 1 (ohm-m) 1000 1.9 (g ⁄ cm3) 2.9
tion of the irreducible water saturation with
B5X 6800 permeability and porosity was elaborated.
The ranges of the petrophysical properties
are as follows:
Permeability 63 to 144 md
B6X
Fluid properties
7000 Average fluid property values for the six
regions that divide the B-6-X.03 reservoir are
shown in Table 2.4:
The reservoir’s formation water analysis
indicates 8000 ppm chlorine with 3000 ppm
7100
bicarbonates.
2 16
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90
60
30
0
Gas injection rate per calendar day (MMscf)
100
75
50
25
0
Cumulative water injection (MMSTB)
Cumulative gas injection (Bscf)
400
200
0
'72 '74 '76 '78 '80 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96
Year
Injection history of the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
2 17
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Table 2.6
Project Starting date Type Volume 1996 Average
MMbbl MBWPD
Figure 2.25
Introduction Geology
The Eocene “C”/VLG-3676 reservoir is
a) Structure
located southeast of Lake Maracaibo
At the Eocene level, the structure is an
(Block VII) and southwest of Ceuta Field
oriented east-west homocline with 3° to 7°
(Fig. 2.25), extending over one of its
gentle dip to the south (Fig. 2.26). Its most
subdivisions called “Area 2 Sur.” With a
important components are the north-south-
N proven oil area of 28,000 acres containing an
trending VLC-70 and VLG-3686 faults
Bachaquero OOIP of almost 2800 MMSTB of light oil, the
dipping to the east, being the reservoir’s
Area 2 Sur is considered one of the most
III
Mene western and eastern boundaries,
IV
Grande
attractive fields in Ceuta, confirmed by the
respectively. The northern limit is a
XI
high productivity of its completed wells and
VII Barua northeast-oriented normal fault. The
XII Motatán the potential reservoir development to the
southern limit has not been determined,
Ceuta: VLG-3676
south.
since this area is under consideration for
expanding the reservoir.
Location map of the Ceuta
Field.
2 18
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–14000'
Well The lower C section thickness varies from
D –141
00 00
U
–142
00' –14
1 700 to 800 ft and consists of clean and
0'
–1460 massive sandstones interbedded with thin
–14200'
–14300'
shale layers. The Misoa Formation
–14400' unconformably overlies the Paleocene
Guasare Formation limestones. Hydrocarbon
–14500'
accumulation is controlled by stratigraphic
–14600'
–14700' U
D and structural factors that have created
complex sandstone body continuities and
ault
–14800'
distributions, primarily in the C-2 and
6 86 f
–14900'
V L G- 3
–15100'
c) Depositional environment
–15200'
The basal section of the Eocene
–15300'
“C”/VLG-3676 reservoir was deposited by a
–15400'
ult
–15500'
–15600' into a brackish-water estuary. The
–15700'
development of numerous distributary
–15800'
channels enabled the deltaic system to
–15900'
–16000' advance rapidly. A subsequent marine
–16100' transgression caused the channels to retreat,
–16200'
where they were overlain by delta front
0' deposits such as mouth bars and prodelta
–1630 –16400'
shales. The geometry of these deposits
–16500'
–16600' varies from asymmetrical, elongate channel
' sandstones to long, laminated mouth bar
–16700 –16800'
deposits. The width of the channels is
–16900'
–17000' estimated is to be approximately 20 times
–17100' their thickness.
Petrophysical properties
Structural map of the b) Stratigraphy
The Eocene “C”/VLG-3676 reservoir is a
VLG-3676 reservoir. The stratigraphic sequence from top to
continuous sequence of shales and shaly
bottom consists of the El Milagro and Onia
sandstones, some of them of considerable
Formations of Pleistocene-Pliocene age, then
thickness (Fig 2.27). The most productive
the La Puerta, Lagunillas (Lower Lagunillas,
facies have porosities varying from 11 to
Laguna and Bachaquero Members) and La
17%, the irreducible water saturation is
Rosa Formations of Miocene age. Miocene
around 20% and shale volume less than 15%.
rocks unconformably overlie the Eocene
Shales are mainly composed of kaolinite and
Misoa Formation, which is partially eroded
illite with some smectite.
at the “B” sands (Upper: B-1 to B-5, Lower:
B-6/7) level. Those sandstones conformably
overlie the “C” productive sands (Upper: C-1
2 19
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Sand
0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 45 (p.u.) -15
(ft) (%) saturation (%)
CALI IDPH RHOB
Depth
C-1 12–47 11.5–14.3 28–43
(ft)
0.6 (in.) 16 0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 1.9 (g / cm3) 2.9
C-2 62.5–95 12.0–14.4 19–35
C-1
16200 Water saturation calculations were
determined using the Waxman-Smits
equation with a = 1, m* = 1.9 to 2.0, n* =
1.85 to 2.0. Cutoffs for water saturation,
porosity and clay volume were 50%, 10%,
16400 and 50%, respectively.
A 70-md average (range 50 to 1000 md)
absolute permeability was obtained from
C-2
core analysis and validated by build-up
Misoa (EOCENE)
Fluid properties
C-4 PVT analysis of a C-3 producer (samples
taken at 15,000 ft subsea and 309°F) yields
17000 the following characteristics:
2 20
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Wells-month
15
Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96
GOR
completed in the Eocene “C”/VLG-3676
B, S & W (%)
B, S & W 80
2
60 reservoir, of which 23 are producing an
1
40 average of 36.6 MBOPD. Cumulative oil
20
production is 36 MMSTB (Fig. 2.28). Until
0 0
Oil rate
1993, the exploitation plan consisted of
NP (MMSTB)
30 Np 30 multiple selective completions and then was
20 20 focused to non-selective single completions
10 10 with commingled production of C-1 to C-6
0 0
sands. The production distribution has been
'77 '79 '81 '83 '85 '87 '89 '91 '93 '95 '97 estimated as follows: 61%, 28%, 8% and 3%
Year
from C-3, C-2, C-5 and C-4 sands, respec-
Production history of the VLG-3676 reservoir. tively. The GOR has gradually increased up
to the 1000 scf/STB level, while water
production is practically insignificant.
Figure 2.29 At 15,000 ft subsea, the original pressure
was estimated at 9950 psia for all the
reservoir sandstones. To date (Fig. 2.29) the
10000 pressure in the northern sector of the
Several
reservoir is lower for individual sand, such
wells as: 5450 psia in C-3, the most productive
8000
Pressure (psia)
Year
main production mechanism of the Eocene
Pressure history of C-3 unit “C”/VLG-3676 reservoir, based on produc-
in the VLG-3676 reservoir. Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96 tion behavior and fluid characteristics.
The last Eocene “C”/VLG-3676 hydro-
carbon reserves calculation, including all C-
1 to C-7 sands, was made in September
1996. The resulting 23% increase in OOIP
was caused by the drilling of a well south of
the Area 2 Sur. The results are as follows:
2 21
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0'
90
10
–8
90
–6
–8
D
–6
N
'
U
D
U seven structural blocks, dipping approxi-
00 D U
–8900
–7300
1
U
D
–4 mately 20˚ southward, two of which have
'
D
10
'
0'
–2900 0' U
–6
0'
0
00 37
–930
D
1 D – U
–4 U
00
' contacts were not detected. Water-oil
0' 3
0'
–1 0'
–4
U
D 90
–6 between 6500 and 7500 ft subsea.
0'
70
0'
–890
–5
0'
0'
70
D D 30 0'
–5
U –7 D 50 U
00'
0' 0'
U –8 D
90 50 U
–41
–4 D U U –6
0'
D
0' 0'
70
0' 10 90
–5
–730 –8 –8
0'
Structural
50
0'
50
–4
D U D
–6
Fault
0'
90
U U
–4
U D Well
D
0 0.5 1.0 km
2 22
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Group (AGE)
2 (ohm-m) 20000 0.3 (V/V) 0
Formation
HLLS NPHI lies unconformably on top of Paleozoic
GR
2 (ohm-m)
RXOZ
20000 0.3 (V/V)
RHOB
0 rocks and conformably underlies the
Depth
0 (gAPI) 150 (ft) 2 (ohm-m) 20000 2.1 (g ⁄ cm3) 2.7 Guasare Formation of Paleocene age. The
Maraca Cretaceous sequence, from bottom to top,
consists of the Rio Negro Formation (65 ft),
Cogollo Group (1400 ft), La Luna Formation
(340 ft) and Mito Juan/Colón (1200 ft)
4250 Formations. The hydrocarbon accumulations
are found in the Cogollo Group limestones
(Apón, Lisure and Maraca Formations) and
Lisure
c) Depositional environment
4750
Deposition of the Río Negro Formation
reflects a fluvio-shoreline environment,
bars and lateral lagoons in the Apón
Formation, marine in the Maraca Formation
and low-energy euxinitic marine in the La
Luna Formation.
5000
Petrophysical properties
Modern resistivity and porosity logs
(Fig. 2.32) were run in the Cretaceous
Apón
2 23
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Fluid properties
Petrophysical properties in the West Mara Field.
Results from a PVT analysis of 15.7°API
oil gravity taken at 5500 ft subsea at 157°F
Figure 2.33
are shown in Fig. 2.33.
200 1.14
1.08
(scf ⁄ STB)
(RB ⁄ STB)
120
1.06
degree of uncertainty in the rock property
100
80
values, several reserves estimates have been
1.04
60 made. The last one, in 1995, indicates an
1.02
40 OOIP of 503 MMSTB and 47.7 MMSTB
1.00
20
of remaining reserves, for a recovery factor
0 0.98
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 of 15.0%.
Pressure (psia)
PVT fluid analysis of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir. Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96
10
0
Qo
Qo (MBOPD)
12 NP
20
9
6
10
3
0 0
'72 '74 '76 '78 '80 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96 '98
Year
Production history of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
2 24
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Pressure (psia)
electrical pumps at 6.6 MBOPD with
2500
15% B, S & W and 800 scf/STB GOR
2400
(Fig.2.34).
2300
The original pressure of 2588 psia (more
2200
than 1400 psia above the bubble point
2100
pressure) was calculated from early tests.
2000
The pressure has gradually declined and is
1900
0 5 10 15 20 now 2000 psia, indicating that the reservoir
Cumulative production (MMSTB)
is still undersaturated (Fig. 2.35).
Pressure history of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
b) Reservoir’s drive mechanisms
The reservoir’s pressure and production
behavior suggest that the main reservoir ener-
gy source is a water drive probably combined
with the fractured limestone compaction.
2 25
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.@
of two sandy sections interbedded with a
C.
O.
U D
W.
thin layer of shale (Fig. 2.38). In the P-1/2
O.
(0017) reservoir, this lenticular shaly layer
–9
40 has an irregular, thin development, so that
0'
both P-1 and P-2 sands form a single homo-
U
D geneous lens (as far as production behavior
is concerned). The top and bottom of the P-
25' 1/2 sand are well defined by a regional shaly
D
0 0'
U –93 100'
50'
layer of constant thickness, and there is no
125' 75'
vertical communication with the underlying
and overlying layers. The P-1/2 sand is
Isopach-structural map of the P-1/2 (0017) reservoir.
medium to coarse-grained, crossed-stratified,
and contains residues of carbonaceous
Figure 2.38
plant material and occasional compacted
limolite intervals.
ILM NPHI DTCO
Formation
Sand
(V/V) (ms ⁄ ft )
GR ILD RHOB DTSM
Depth
0 (gAPI) 200 (ft) 2 (ohm-m) 2000
1.9 2.9 240 40 The P-1/2 sandstone deposition is
(g ⁄ cm3) (ms ⁄ ft)
interpreted as a fluvial-deltaic environment
La Morita
(CRET.)
Petrophysical properties
Escandalosa (CRETACEOUS)
*Timur equation
Other data: area: 482 acres; thickness: 59 ft
11900
R2
2 26
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B, S & W (%)
2000
GOR @ pb 19 scf/STB
2 27
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Petrophysical properties
Petrophysical properties were estimated
by analyzing 13 complete sets of logs (Fig.
Figure 2.41
2.42). Porosity values were determined by
density and neutron log data corrected for
Structural
N shaliness. The resulting average values were
Pinch-out
U O .O
.W. Producer compatible with those obtained from core
C@
D –34
26'
Injector (gas) data from two wells:
(ES Injector (water)
T)
–3 D
40 Fault
0'
–3 –33 U
Average values Range
30 50'
0'
Porosity (%) 30.2 29.0–33.4
Water saturation (%) 10.9 4.8–17.0
Permeability (md) 2384 958–4267
2 28
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Formation (AGE)
SP SFLU NPHI
as others of importance, are shown below:
200 (MV) 0.0
0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 60 (p.u.) 0.0
CALI ILO RHOB
Sand
Depth Datum 3300 ft subsea
(ft)
0.8 (in.) 18 0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 1.65 (g/cm3) 2.65
Temperature 149 °F
Gp
10 40
4
30
2 with 39% B, S & W and 11,000 scf/STB GOR.
0 0 The almost 25% recovery of the OOIP was
Qo (MBOPD)
Np (MMSTB) 60
due mainly to the large volume (more than
10
100 Bscf) of gas injected into this heavy
Np
Qo
40
5
20
crude reservoir (Fig. 2.44). Oil recovery by
0 0
natural depletion was less than 13%.
'54 '57 '60 '63 '66 '69 '72 '75 '78 '81 '84 '87 '90 '93 '96
Year
Production history of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir.
2 29
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Figure 2.45
Introduction Geology
Reservoir RG-14-COEF, discovered in
a) Structure
1947, is located approximately 6 miles
The Greater Anaco Area is located on
north of Anaco, in the State of Anzoátegui
the upthrown block north of the Anaco
La Vieja (Fig. 2.45), and extends over approximately
0 10 km
La Ceiba
thrust fault, along which is a series of domes
26,000 acres. The reservoir is characterized
Santa with the hydrocarbon fields, San Joaquín,
Greater Rosa by a large gas condensate cap covering a
Anaco Area Santa Ana, El Toco, El Roble, San Roque and
El Roble light oil leg. Gas injection started in 1959
Anaco Santa Rosa.
after a sharp pressure drop in the reservoir.
San Joaquín The Santa Rosa dome is elongated in a
After cumulative injection of 2220 Bscf of
Santa Ana N N45°E direction. It is asymmetrical with a
El Toco Anaco thrust gas, the oil and condensate cumulative
fault
gentle 8° to 11° northwest flank and a steep
production is 118 MMSTB, which represents
southeast flank dipping 20° into the Anaco
Location map of a 61.2% recovery from the original volume
thrust fault. The dome is cut by two
the Santa Rosa Field. of liquids in place.
southeast-dipping faults that are parallel to
the axis of the Santa Rosa dome. The
reservoir RG-14-COEF covers the greater
portion of the Santa Rosa Field’s proven area
and consists of a structural-stratigraphic trap,
whose limits are shown on the isopach-
structural map (Fig. 2.46).
2 30
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5’
.... O.C.O.C ....
. @ -10500´(Est
.... .) .... .... member of Oficina Formation of Early to
.... .... Middle Miocene age. The CO-EF sands are
.... –10000’ . ...
divided into four bodies: CO-E1, CO-E2, CO-
E3 and CO-F1, which are separated by
–9000’ shales that are locally discontinuous and
80’
90’
100’
coalescing. The NOS increases from
–8000’ southwest to northeast and reaches its
greatest thickness of 70 to 90 ft in the north-
0’
central sector.
00
00’0’
–8
700
c) Depositional environment
–70
Structural
Isopach N Deposition of the CO-EF occurred in a
Fault
Oil producer
5’
deltaic environment with two distinguishing
Gas injector
units: a channel overlying mouth bar
Isopach-structural map of the RG-14-COEF reservoir. deposits and a splay overlying distal bar
deposits. The first type of sandstones is
Figure 2.47 found in the northeast section of the
reservoir where different lenses coalesce and
AT10
have greater sandstone thickness and initial
AT20
porosity. The second type of sandstones is
Formation (AGE)
GR AT30
0 150 AT60
found in the southwest section of the
( gAPI )
reservoir. There the lenses are separated by
SP AT90
Sand
Depth
–200 ( mV ) –100 (ft) 0.1 ( ohm-m ) 1000 shales and have a more heterogeneous
8450 nature than the channel, resulting in less
productive wells.
CO-
D
Oficina (EARLY TO MIDDLE MIOCENE)
Petrophysical properties
8500 Petrophysical properties were deter-
CO- mined from porosity, resistivity, gamma ray
E
logs (Fig. 2.47), and core analysis data.
Average rock properties for the gas
8550 condensate cap and the oil leg are as
CO- follows:
F1
Oil leg Gas con-
zone densate cap
8600
Thickness (ft) 56 40
CO-
F2 Area (acres) 3500 22,670
2 31
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Pressure (psia)
3000
Remaining reserves 8.1 6.7 —
15 60
2000
10 40 Originally the CO-EF sands contained
approximately 100 bbl of condensate per
1000
5 20 MMscf of gas. The 14.8 MMSTB of remaining
fluids are mainly located in the northeastern,
0 0 0 eastern and southern sections of the
'54 '60 '66 '72 '78 '84 '90 '96
reservoir.
Year
Production and pressure
Other studies show an average porosity
history of the RG-14-COEF Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96
of 15%, maximum porosity of 20% and
reservoir.
average permeability of 286 md. Producing a) Production, injection and pressure history
facies are clean with only small amounts of Production of reservoir RG-14-COEF
kaolinite. Water salinity is 14,500 ppm (NaCl). started in April 1950 from well RG-14, which
was completed in the gas-condensate cap.
Fluid properties Gas injection started in 1955 after some
Oil leg fluids were determined from pressure drop in the reservoir. Until
a PVT test taken at 7750 ft subsea and December 1996, 10 wells have been drilled
280°F in well RG-120, which yielded the into the oil leg and 10 into the condensate
following data: zone. The cumulative production of these
wells through natural flow and artificial gas
Original pressure 4445 psia
lift is 1177.6 MMSTB of oil and condensate,
Bubble point pressure, pb 4240 psia
1673 Bscf of gas and 9.6 MMSTB of water.
GOR @ pb 1476 scf/STB
The produced gas exceeds the original
Oil FVF @ pb 1.944 RB/STB
gas in place by 327 Bscf, which indicates
Oil viscosity @ pb 0.25 cp
that a great percentage of it is coming from
Oil gravity 37.2 °API
the injected gas (2220 Bscf through 13
Initial GOR 1881 scf/STB
injection wells).
After more than 40 years of gas
To determine the fluid properties in the injection, production has dropped sharply,
gas condensate cap a PVT analysis was while GOR water percentages have
performed by recombining the separator substantially increased (330 BOPD, 100,000
products (oil and gas) taken from well RG- scf/STB and 39% B, S & W). The reservoir
58. The recombined fluid showed a dew pressure has declined from 4445 psia to 2625
point pressure of 4675 psia at 274°F. The psia and is explained by leakage of some of
measured condensate gravity was 51.5°API the gas injected into the eastern flank of the
and the initial gas condensate GOR was dome which passed laterally to the western
13,200 scf/STB. flank and the CO-G sand. See Figs. 2.48 and
2.49 for a graphical display of the
production, pressure, and injection histories.
2 32
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250
into the RG-14-COEF reservoir. This
Pressure (psia)
200
1500 3000 secondary recovery project was very
profitable early in its production life, since to
150
1000 2000 date 61.2% of the original fluids (oil and
100 condensate) in place has been recovered.
500 1000
50
0 0 0
'54 '60 '66 '72 '78 '84 '90 '96
Year
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15000' U 14 4 0 0 '
D
166
14
60
Petrophysical properties
00' U 0'
The formation is a sequence of
14
N
15
U U
80
00
D
D 0' 0'
D
sandstones and shales interbedded with coal
layers, all of which are clearly seen on
Structural map of the “Naricual Sands” in the Carito Central Field.
regular logs (Fig. 2.52). More difficult to
b) Stratigraphy observe are the sandstones containing tar,
The locally named “Naricual Forma- which are found at some levels in the
tion,” which is still under study, has been reservoir. The main producing facies have
divided into three sandstone bodies: Lower porosities between 11 and 15%. Perme-
Naricual (700 ft thickness), Middle Naricual abilities are from 40 to 1000 md and the
(400 ft thickness) and Upper Naricual (400 ft irreducible water saturations are low (10 to
thickness). All the Naricual section is com- 15%). They contain relatively small amounts
posed of sandy layers interbedded with of kaolinite and carbonate cement. However,
shales of variable thickness and extent. The facies with porosities of 7% and shale
Naricual underlies the Carapita Formation volumes up to 30% are also considered
shales of Oligo-Miocene age. The pressure productive. Typical log interpretation para-
behavior in these Naricual sandstone meters are m and n=1.8, and formation
packages is uniform and similar, indicating water salinity=13,000 ppm (NaCl). Perme-
some type of vertical communication. ability varies considerably with porosity and
clay content, and is not easy to determine
accurately. OBM is used routinely.
2 34
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Formation
.45 -.15 140 40
4 (in.) 14 as well as pressure measurements and initial
(AGE)
LLS (V/V) (ms ⁄ ft )
Sand
RHOB DTSM
GR Depth MSFL 1.9 2.9 240 40
production tests, show a fluid distribution
0 (gAPI) 200 (ft)
1 (ohm-m) 1000 (g ⁄cm3) (ms ⁄ ft) from top to bottom as: gas, condensate,
volatile, light and medium crude (Fig. 2.53).
This gradation leads to a variation of fluid
properties with depth, as can be observed in
Table 2.8. Other important data are indicated
below:
14200
"Upper Naricual"
2 35
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Middle oil 4000 1.524 864 0.415 3 a) Production, injection and pressure history
Lower oil 3500 1.430 686 0.640 1 Since April 1988, when the “Naricual
Formation” started its production life, to
Fluid property variations of the “Naricual Sands” in the Carito Central Field.
date, 21 wells have been drilled, 15 of which
were dual string completions. Cumulative
Figure 2.53 production is 258.7 MMSTB of oil (13.57% of
the OOIP), 362.7 Bscf of gas and practically
–12,000
no water. The December 1996 average
Upper gas cap zone
production was 103.4 MBOPD by natural
–13,000
Medium gas cap zone
flow with traces of water and 1880 scf/STB
Lower gas cap zone
GOR (Fig. 2.54). On December 24, 1996, a
Depth (ft ss)
–14,000 Gas-oil interphase @ 14,040 ft Transition zone @ 200 ft gas injection project was initiated. The
Upper crude zone discovery well’s original reservoir pressure
–15,000 Saturation was 11,367 psia calculated at a datum of
Medium crude zone pressure
14,040 ft subsea. Drill stem pressure tests
–16,000
taken from other wells and corrected at
Lower crude zone
O.W.O.C @16,585 ft
Original datum, using defined pressure gradients for
pressure
each fluid zone, indicated a 15.4
–17,000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 psia/MMSTB decline index. Actual pressure
Pressure (Mpsia)
is 7630 psia.
Fluids column of the “Naricual Sands” in the Carito Central Field.
b) Reservoir’s drive mechanisms
Figure 2.54 The prevailing reservoir production
140 300 mechanisms are rock-fluid expansion
Qo
120 Np 250 combined with a gas cap drive.
Np (MMSTB)
100
Qo (MBOPD)
200
80
150
60
100
40
20 50
0 0
Qg
Gp 500
400
Qg (MMscf/D)
400
Gp (Bscf)
300
300
200
200
100 100
0 0
'88 '89 '90 '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98
Year
2 36
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U
-1 D
0
U
60
D
-1
U
pre-Oligocene, and underlies the Oligo-
'
00
D
60
U
-1
2 37
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Form. (AGE)
CALI
6 (in.) 16 2 (ohm-m) 2000 .45 (V/V) -.15
Pressure build-up tests and drill stem
GR ILM RHOB
Sand
Depth
0 (gAPI) 200 (ft) 2 (ohm-m) 2000 1.9 (g ⁄ cm3) 2.9 tests characterized these “Naricual Sands”
as relatively homogeneous and of high
flow capacity.
15000
The Simandoux equation was used to
determine the water saturation (m and
n=1.89, a=0.81). Formation water salinity is
15100
approximately 18000 ppm equivalent NaCl.
Porosity was calculated through an equation
where matrix and fluid densities were 2.65
"Upper Naricual"
"Naricual " (OLIGOCENE)
15200
and 0.89 g/cm3, respectively. Permeability
was considered to be a function of effective
porosity, water saturation and shaliness,
15300
which in the best zones is low (less
than 5%).
15400
Fluid properties
There is a linear relationship between
depth and temperature. The geothermal
"Middle Naricual"
15500
gradient in El Furrial Field is 1.43°F/100 ft
with 272°F at 13,000 ft subsea. There are
substantial variations in the chemical
characteristics of the fluids and the
“Naricual Formation”
hydrocarbon thermodynamic properties in
partial log in El Furrial c) Depositional environment
both horizontal and vertical directions,
Field. The Lower Naricual section was
which are related to API oil gravity, as
deposited in a nearshore environment
shown in Table 2.10.
formed by estuarine tidal channels,
Variations in the hydrocarbon
paleosurfaces, littoral bars and bays. The
thermodynamic properties have resulted in
Middle Naricual was deposited in a
the formation of a high-viscosity bituminous
sublittoral neritic environment with a
layer of variable thickness. This layer occurs
condensation surface at the base, and the
at the base of the structure and all across the
Upper Naricual in a coastal marine
field. Likewise, an approximate 350-ft
environment with coastal bars and bays,
thickness of medium crude to bitumen
estuarine channels, and paleosurfaces.
transition zone has been found. Three
different fluid sectors are shown in the next
Table 2.9
table (depths are in ft subsea):
Sand Porosity Permeability Water NOS
(%) (md) saturation (%) (ft)
Sector Top transition Top bitumen 16°API
“Lower Naricual” 14.8 268 8.3 290 zone layer crude level
“Middle Naricual” 15.1 370 7.7 162 North 15,400 15,800 15,700
“Upper Naricual” 15.3 509 7.2 220 South 14,650 14,900 14,800
2 38
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Np (MMSTB)
500
Cumulative injection
and Injection rate (MBWPD)
550 MBWPD
500 Injection rate
plant
approximately 272 MMSTB of oil, the
400 pressure drop was 3039 psia (down to 7971
400 MBWPD
psia), indicating an 11.2 psia/MMSTB
300
plant pressure decline factor. From 1992 to date,
200 when the water injection started, this factor
was reduced to 2.7 psia/MMSTB, indicating
50 MBWPD
100 6 MBWPD
plant
plant that the pressure maintenance project is
0
highly beneficial (Fig. 2.58).
'92 '93 '94 '95 '96
Year
2 39
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2 40
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GR IDL RHOB
Petrophysical properties
Sand
Depth
0 (gAPI) 150 (ft) 0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 1.65 (g / cm3) 2.65
Petrophysical studies of wireline logs
Top Perdernales and limited cores show the lithology in the
Pedernales to be predominantly sandstones,
Top P2
siltstones and shales. Clays are mainly illite
4900
with some kaolinite and smectite. The
sandstones are fine- to medium-grained and
5000 have good to moderate sorting with little or
no cementation. In the finer, shalier
sandstones, irreducible water can be high.
5100
La Pica (MIO-PLIOCENE)
P2
5200
approximately 20,000 ppm (NaCl) and m
and n are less than 2.0. Permeability was
estimated using available log and core data
5300 and crossed-checked against test data. Cutoff
criteria to define net sand thickness were
60%, 13% and 50% for volume shale,
5400
porosity and water saturation, respectively.
5500
Top P5
P5
5600
2
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SW-ENE stratigraphic
Ranges of these parameters are shown Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96
correlation in the
in the next table: Proven reserves have been calculated
Pedernales Field.
using two methods, the volumetric and
Net oil sand 128–254 ft
reservoir simulation methods, with similar
Porosity 16–30 %
results:
Water saturation 18–37 %
Figure 2.64
Pressure
officially estimated to be 377 MMSTB
Reservoir average pressure (psia)
16 Field GOR
Monthly oil rate 3000
(33 Producers) considering a recovery factor of 12% and
14
(11 Prod.)
2500 1509 MMSTB probable OOIP.
12
10 2000
8 1500
(11 Producers)
6
(17 Producers) 1000
4 World
War II
500
2
0 0
'35 '40 '45 '50 '55 '60 '65 '70 '75 '80 '85 '90 '95
Year
Production and pressure history of the P2 sands, Pedernales Field.
2 42
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Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96 The third phase of production (1981 to 1985)
peaked at 1000 BOPD (17 wells were drilled)
a) Production and pressure history
with an additional 1 MMSTB. The final phase
The Pedernales Field has produced
started with an Operating Services Agree-
from the P2 sands 61.8 MMSTB of
ment signed in 1993. The production has
oil over a period of 61 years (1935 to 1996)
been between 15,000 and 20,000 BOPD from
in four separate phases. During the first
an additional 15 completed wells. A gas
phase (1935 to 1942) the field reached a
injection project was started in September
peak of 5000 BOPD and yielded a total
1995 in the southwest area. See Fig. 2.64 for
production of 9 MMSTB, followed by a four-
a graphical display of the P2 production and
year shut-in due to World War II. Production
pressure history.
during the second phase (1947 to 1965)
reached a peak of 12,000 BOPD (43 b) Reservoir’s drive mechanisms
producers) and yielded a cumulative oil Rock and fluid expansion was the main
recovery of 57 MMSTB and 56 Bscf of gas, reservoir production mechanism until bub-
then was shut-in again for 16 years after ble point pressure was reached, and then
the expiration of the operator’s contract. solution gas became the prevailing drive.
2 43
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2 44
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Member
Form.
(AGE)
Gamma Ray Unit Environment
API
with a PVT analysis from well CO-04,
considered to be the most representative of
the reservoir.
MIOCENE)
(MIDDLE
Freites
F–1
Shallow marine
Deltaic margin Average PVT CO-04
F–2
Bubble point pressure* (psia) 1143 1040
F–3
Datum (ft subsea) 2500 2266
0–4
Pilón
0–7c
Marine events Bitumen gravity (°API) 8.2 8.0
0–8
* Same as original pressure
Oficina (LOWER MIOCENE)
Fluvial deposits
only 1.6% of the Orinoco Belt.
Morichal
0–13
Deltaic deposits
Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96
0–14
a) Production history
0–15 The Morichal Member’s remaining
reserves represent about 96% of the Bitor
0–16 Landside
Valley fills Area. A major portion, now under
exploitation, includes a pilot test initiated
Igneous-metamorphic Basement (PRE-TERTIARY)
back in 1984 in the so-called Production
Stratigraphic column in the Bitor Area. Experimental Blocks. It is difficult to analyze
production behavior because of the large
Table 2.11 numbers of field tests and the unpredictable
Morichal Jobo Pilón Total production shutdowns that occurred
OBIP (MMSTB) 18,541 1055 21 19,617 between 1984 and 1996. The cumulative
Recovery factor (%) 12.2 9.0 9.0 12.0 bitumen production until December 1996
Remaining reserves (MMSTB) 2166 95 2 2263 was 96 MMSTB and, for that month, the
average production was 70 MBBPD with
Bitor Area estimated bitumen reserves as of 1996.
12% B, S and W and 160 scf/STB GBR.
2 45
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800
It is assumed that the Morichal Member
Gas-bitumen ratio, GBR (scf/STB) crude was initially gas-saturated at its
400 original pressure. This assumption implies a
possible gas-solution drive. Compaction, as
0
Bitumen production rate, Qb (BBPD) in the Bolívar District Coast, might have
50000
helped oil recovery. However, cumulative
25000
bitumen production is relatively small
0
'83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 '89 '90 '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 compared to the OBIP and subsidence has
Year not yet been observed. Incidentally, there is
Production history of the Bitor Area. some water invasion but neither its source
nor its energy are yet well known. All these
By July 1996 a total of 349 wells had been
reservoir drive mechanisms must only be
drilled, including four horizontal wells
considered as “possible” until better infor-
where electrical submersible pumps were
mation on the Bitor Area, through special
successfully installed with added diluent at
studies of pressure/production behavior
the pump entry level. Also, a total of 23
analysis, is obtained.
horizontal reentries were performed, initially
completed with a progressive cavity pump.
and with contributions from M.Milán (MEM), F.García (PDVSA), I.Benzaquén (BITOR),
P.Talarico and D.Flores (Corpoven), C.Camacho, L. Escandón and K.Larrauri (Lagoven),
M.Rampazzo, X.Verenzuela, J.C.Ustariz and M.Méndez (Maraven), and E.Cazier,
B.Cunningham and H.Torres (BP de Venezuela).
2 46
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Roger, J.V, N. Arteaga, J. Cabrera, G. Valera, P. Jam, M. Castillo, T. Boesi, Z.A. G. Zambrano, A. Granado A. Rincón - SPE 18279 – 1988 - “A Compositional
Sancevic, Salazar, G. Rivero, F. Gómez, R. López – 1989- “Explotación Simulation Evaluation of the Santa Rosa Colorado EF Reservoir, Eastern
Sección II: Ingeniería de yacimientos y Geología de producción ) en la Venezuela”
Industria Venezolana de los Hidrocarburos”. Efraim Barberii, Editor Técnico-
V. Villarroel - AAPG (Structural Traps VIII) – 1993 -“Santa Rosa Field –
Ediciones del Cepet, Caracas – 2 tomos.
Venezuela - Eastern Venezuela Basin”
J.C. Bernys – PDVSA – 1981 – “Aplicación de los procesos térmicos para la
Corpoven – Gerencia de explotación áreas norte de Monagas, 1994-
explotación de los crudos pesados en Venezuela”
“Memoria descriptiva – Proyecto de recuperación secundaria mediante la
Lagoven – Informe de progreso – 1996 “Proyecto de recuperación secun- inyección de gas en la formación Naricual del campo Mulata/El Carito”
daria – Yacimiento LL-07.
Lagoven/Corpoven - 1992 - “Estudio del campo El Furrial para la implantación
M.A. Shagroni, T. C. Boberg, J. A. González, L. E. Matheus – Exxon/Lagoven de un proyecto de recuperación secundaria mediante un proyecto de inyec-
“LL-7 Reservoir Engineering studies ” ción de agua en la formación Naricual”
Lagoven- Ing. de Petróleo – Dpto. de Producción – División de Occidente Lagoven/Corpoven - Informe de progreso - 1996 – “Proyecto de recuperación
1993- “Evaluación del comportamiento de inyección de aguas efluentes del secundaria yacimiento Naricual – Campo El Furrial”
yacimiento Lag. Inf. -07”
J. Herbas Pizarro – SPE 23685 – 1992 – “Reservoir engineering studies to
J.E. González- Lagoven — 1993 – “Estudio de Ingeniería – B-6-X.03” implement additional recovery projects in El Furrial Field”
Lagoven – Informe de progreso –1996 - “Yacimiento B-6-X.03 - Proyectos de M.Villalba, P. Pérez, C. Marcano – Corpoven – 1996 – “Memoria descriptiva –
inyección de agua – Norte-1, Norte-2, Sur-1, Sur-2 ” Proyecto perforación horizontal – Yacimiento RG-14 (COEF) Campo Santa
Rosa” British Petroleum – 1996 – “Pedernales Phase 2 – Reservoir Studies”
L. Rodríguez, J. Miranda - Corpoven – 1988 - “Simulación del compor-
tamiento de producción del yacimiento 0017 Arena P1/2 - Campo Silvestre” A. Santos, M. González – Geo Exploración, C. A. – 1996 – “Evaluación geológ-
ica área Bitor”
Simupet C.A.– 1994 “Estudio integrado de los campos Ostra, Oveja , Yopales
Sur-Yacimientos: OM -100, Arena-J-3, Campo Oveja - Informe preliminar ”
2 47
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Chapter 3
Well Planning
Chapter overview
Risk analysis in well construction
The choice of drilling fluids to minimize
reservoir damage
Predicting wellbore stability
Geosteering
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WELL PLANNING
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
3 1
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R I S K A N A LY S I S I N W E L L C O N S T R U C T I O N
3 2
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WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.1 Last in our hierarchy is the well under Operational risk assessment:
construction. No fixed value can be assigned “Reasonable assurance”
M $1,000,000
$1,037,500
(0.65) example is extreme, others fall within a wide
L
(0
0)
us
as
er
risk/reward/economics
$1,000,000
Various preliminary designs that meet the
El
im
0)
.2
in
$825,000
lin
$852,500 M
er
5) $775,000
.1
(0 . 6
5)
$1,200,750
$2,200,000 of the preliminary designs will have inherent
Fai
5)
l
advantages and disadvantages. Each design
.2
(0.3
(0
5)
H
$1,650,000
5)
3 3
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R I S K A N A LY S I S I N W E L L C O N S T R U C T I O N
3 4
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WELL PLANNING
The engineer now applies the probability • problem zones (lost circulation, pore
factors to each of the costs and arrives at a pressure, instability, etc.)
“risked cost” for eliminating the liner as well • requested completion (size of tubulars
as setting the liner as usual. If necessary, a and other equipment)
sensitivity analysis is done to more com- • equipment availability
pletely evaluate the data. Sensitivity analysis • geological and reservoir data (reservoir
is usually reserved for more complex trees structure and composition, targets, etc.).
where multiple options are present. In this The geometry of the borehole is always
case, setting the casing as usual has resulted designed from the bottom up. Consideration
in a lower “risked cost” as compared to is given to the number of strings needed to
attempting to eliminate the liner. reach the final objective within reasonable
In past years, designs with little regard to assurance. Depending on the type of well
the overall picture were sometimes selected and, in some cases, economics, a contingency
because of cost or operational advantages. In string may be allowed for in the preliminary
today’s environment, the reservoir and design. This particular portion of the design is
economics in general must play a crucial role usually done when all of the information
in final design selection. Decision trees, risk from the above designs are gathered, as all
analysis concepts, and input from the various influence the configuration of the borehole.
disciplines can be used to select the design Below is an example of how risk analysis can
that yields the maximum return on the be used to select wellbore geometry. In this
resource. example, the accuracy of assessing the
The challenge of well construction is position of a geological target is being
finding the optimum design for each evaluated in a horizontal well application.
operation, a design that within “reasonable The optimum wellbore geometry will be
assurance” accomplishes the goals and selected using drilling, geological, and
objectives, is economic, and ensures the directional expertise combined in a risk
safety of both rig and personnel. This analysis approach.
responsibility now must be shared by all
appropriate disciplines instead of by the Example B: Deciding to
drilling engineer alone. drill a pilot hole
Discussed below is one particular design Example A was one of an operational
—the wellbore geometry configuration. An decision that has typically been made by well
example decision tree shows how a particular construction (drilling) personnel solely on
design can benefit from the input of all the cost information. Example B, on the other
appropriate disciplines and the resulting hand, uses cost information in conjunction
economic analysis. with information provided by the geologist,
directional personnel, and others. The
Wellbore geometry additional input results in more accurate
Numerous factors influence the selection decision making.
of wellbore geometry. As a result, many In this example, the team is attempting to
options are usually evaluated to select the decide whether or not a vertical pilot hole
configuration that economically achieves the should be drilled prior to constructing a
stated goals of the well. Following is a partial lateral in a horizontal prospect (Fig. 3.4).
list of factors usually considered when
designing wellbore geometry.
3 5
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R I S K A N A LY S I S I N W E L L C O N S T R U C T I O N
Risked costs
(0
H
M $3,000,000
$3,075,000 sonnel and offset data, feels that without a
ed (0.35)
eed
c ti o
nn pilot hole the need for a significant course
(0
r e 5) $2,500,000
.2
Cor ( 0 .7
5)
nee
.2
(0.2
(0
ded
5)
a portion of the hole. Note that the probability
H
M $2,300,000
$2,295,000
(0.50)
for a higher-than-average cost is greater (40%
e
ol
L
th
(0
$2,150,000
lo
0)
pi
e
$3,100,000
at
5)
.1
El
$2,650,000
.
20
ve
)
r ti
$3,300,000
constructing the vertical pilot hole, plugging
0
.1
(0
M $3,000,000
$2,970,000
(0.60) tional plan). The probability in the bottom
L
(0
3 6
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WELL PLANNING
Geophysics Petrophysics
Conclusion
Seismic information
and interpretation
Formation properties In reality, net present value (NPV) is used
more often than cost data alone. Cash flow-
The boardroom of well
After the branches were constructed, the stream calculations are performed with
construction.
drilling engineer calculated the estimated cost reserves, expected revenue, cost estimates,
for each outcome and placed them in the tree taxes, and others to arrive at NPV for each
accordingly. Costs and risks associated with option. Once NPVs are assigned to the various
the following were included: options, they are risked with the probability
• geologic uncertainty for each case factors assigned. With this method, the option
• setting/sidetracking off openhole cement with the largest NPV is the optimum choice. In
plug(s) in case of course correction either case the important point is that modern
• rig time associated with each possible well construction design takes into account
outcome the goals of all disciplines (Fig. 3.6). The
• and others. decision tree is one method by which these
Once risked, the decision tree revealed different goals can be quantified and put
that the lowest “risked cost” is the case of together to arrive at a reasonable assurance
penetrating the reservoir at 45°, logging, then that they are met.
3 7
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Kro, Krw
steps with backflow pressures, which
also vary; others do not.
6. The drilling fluids themselves will per-
form differently depending on whether
0
0 1 or not the test mud formulations includ-
Sw
(a) (b)
ed drilled solids (real or simulated).
Mud solids invasion Wettabililty change Given the range of possible mud
Filter cake plugging Fluid saturation change formulations (i.e., with the same name but
Formation fines migration (blocking)
Clay swelling Emulsion formation with and without drill solids), varying mud
Polymer adsorption ⁄ Water coning weights with different weighting agents,
precipitation Gas breakout
Scale formation Condensate banking along with the range of possible test
Wax formation (paraffin,
asphaltine)
conditions, laboratory data suggest that
Sludge formation relatively small changes in drilling parameters
Stress-induced permeability change
Perforation plugging or downhole conditions can radically affect
our efforts to choose the right fluid for a
A summary of the and their prevention must be a major design particular formation.
mechanisms of formation factor in most horizontal wells (Fig. 3.7). As a result, the choice of drilling fluids is
damage. The heavy type However, the tools we use to predict often made by simple intuition; i.e., what
indicates mud-induced formation damage from drilling fluids are seems to make sense for a formation. Our
damage mechanisms. flawed. Standardization of methodology intuition leads us to believe that:
between laboratories is nonexistent. When 1. Saturated, sized salt drilling fluids are
possible, cores from the actual formation in formation-friendly, because it makes
question are used; more often “standard” core sense to assume that salt particles that
material is used, e.g., Clashach and Birchover may enter a formation will also be
Sandstone. There are at least six variables in dissolved away when exposed to
the experimental procedures for testing unsaturated fluid.
return permeability that will affect the results: 2. Polymer fluids with calcium carbonate as
1. A major variable is the decision to a weighting/bridging agent might invade
compare permeabilities based on a given a formation, but should easily be
time period or on a given volume removed with acid.
throughput. The results may vary 3. Any fluid that contains bentonite should
enormously depending on this choice of be avoided, because it seems likely that
parameter. fine bentonite particles will invade a
2. Core lengths and diameters vary greatly. formation, hydrate and be difficult or
These decisions are largely based on a impossible to remove, thus impeding
decision on how much time should be hydrocarbon flow through the formation.
devoted to each experiment. 4. The use of barite should be avoided
3. Core preparations vary greatly. In some because barite particles cannot be
laboratories, the cores are cleaned with a removed from a formation by dissolution
methanol-toluene or similar solvent in acid or water.
system to remove asphaltenes prior to
testing. Other labs use the cores as is.
3 8
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WELL PLANNING
Figures 3.8 & 3.9 drilling fluid on and in a formation: filter cake
formation, particle invasion (added solids
100
100 and drilled solids), filtrate invasion (water, oil,
(a) (b) (c) (d) in the far less permeable Birchover sandstone
(Clashach permeability averaged 644 md and
average pore size was 26.6 microns;
50 50
Birchover averaged 12.5 md permeability and
average pore size was 2.64 microns). All gave
complete (100%) return permeabilities (Fig.
3.10). The effect of applying simulated
0 0
reservoir pressure to remove mudcake
Static Dynamic Different backflushing
decreased return permeability using the sized
Recovery in permeability for 10.5 Recovered permeability for Clashach Sand- salt system more than with either MMH or the
ppg fluids, Birchover Sandstone, stone, 300 psi differential, 240 min polymer fluid (Fig. 3.11). When cores were
60 min filtration: ■ MMH weighted a) when filter cake left in situ, b) with 2 psi backflushed at a variety of pressures, the
with CaCO3, ■ Polymer weighted backflush pressure c) with 6 psi backflush sized salt system showed less recovery than
with CaCO3, ■ Saturated sized salt pressure d) with 10 psi backflush pressure: the others, especially at the lower pressures,
■ MMH weighted with CaCO3, ■ Polymer again suggesting the resistance to cake
weighted with CaCO3, ■ Saturated sized salt removal with the sized salt system.
3 9
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WELL PLANNING
3 11
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interpret. For example, the data may favor the drill under-balanced and therefore remove the
invert oil based mud (IOBM) as it may seem source of energy that forces drilling fluids into
to cause the least reduction in return permea- the formation. However, other non-mud-relat-
bility. But because the particle size distribution ed factors cannot be ruled out either, such as
of the muds in a field situation is so difficult wax formation as a component of the crude.
to control, it is often suggested that this para-
meter, rather than mud type, may cause the An integrated approach
observed differences in permeability reduc- First, it must be realized that contact with
tion. Often the relative effect of overbalance any drilling fluid will cause some damage to
pressure is difficult to separate from the effects any formation. The question, then, is not how
of particle size distribution. So, the balance of to avoid formation damage, but how to avoid
the data, added to practical considerations, formation damage that will affect hydro-
often results in a decision to use OBM, while carbon production. The ultimate goal is to
attempts are made to monitor and control develop a tool for drilling fluid design that
particle size distribution as well as to minimize can account for this as well as pure drilling
overbalance. Furthermore, we are only in the problems; in other words, one that combines
early stages of investigating the impact of the skills and concerns of reservoir, petro-
completion fluids on permeability reduction. leum, drilling and fluids engineers.
So, it is far from clear what should be the Millions may have already been spent
answer to the crucial question: what is the trying to avoid formation damage that really
relationship between these data, especially doesn’t matter. As stated before, when a
the results of return permeability tests, and vertical well is fractured, the resulting induced
actual production results? fractures may extend thousands of feet into
The control of drilling solids quantity and the reservoir, rendering irrelevant solids and
quality in OBM is difficult. With WBM the filtrate invasion within feet of the well bore.
rheological and fluid loss properties give clear From a formation damage point of view, the
indications of the buildup of fine solids. This fluid loss, fine solids content and the nature of
is not so with OBMs, which are far more the weighting agent affected nothing. The
tolerant to solids from a purely drilling point difficulty with horizontal wells that are to be
of view. When a fluid performs well from a completed without cementing and perfor-
drilling point of view, it is difficult to justify ating, is that more of the producing formation
replacing it based on retort measurements of is exposed to the over-balanced drilling fluid
solids. Therefore, strict control of particle sizes and it is generally exposed for a longer time.
will require the availability of particle size So, the drilling fluid must be chosen so as to
analysis on a frequent and rapid turnaround minimize the formation damage at initial con-
basis, plus a policy of replacing fluids that fail tact, and reduce the time of contact through
to meet a particle size specification. Improved better drilling rates. This choice must include
solids control equipment and practices may decisions on whether various washes and
well help to keep mud particles in an accept- breakers, designed to remove filter cake, are
able size range. As mentioned previously, to likely to help or ultimately cause more
dispose of “contaminated” OBM on this basis damage. An alternative is simply to skip
is difficult in the absence of sufficient actual the washes and back-produce the drilling
well production data that demonstrate in the fluid through the completion equipment.
field what is observed in the lab. The use of a fluid such as MMH, which
The only alternative to this practice may be to
3 12
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WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.17
Advantages Flexible Easy cake removal Easy cleanup Excellent hole Low fluid loss
Cheap NaCI compatible Good density range cleaning Filtrate compatible
with formation compatible with Avoids erosion of with most formation
fluids most formation soft formations fluids
fluids Minimal loss to Stable under
fractures reservoir conditions
The B–Lower reservoir of the Misoa contact, originally at 9741 ft, is the limit of the
Formation is located in the north part of Block accumulation to the south. The structural dip
III in Lake Maracaibo. The structural map is quite uniform with a magnitude of 2 to 4°
(Fig. 3.18) shows that the top of the reservoir in the south/southeast direction.
is on the upthrown side of a fault system that The cumulative production of the
acts as a seal for the hydrocarbon B–Lower reservoir is 26 MMSTB and the re-
accumulation to the north. An oil-water maining reserves are estimated at 36 MMSTB.
3 13
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3 14
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WELL PLANNING
The MDT pressure points show a single gradient over the entire B-6 reservoir. Borehole stability analysis
Using the information collected in the
Figure 3.21
pilot hole, a wellbore stability analysis was
performed to ensure that the horizontal hole
Dev.1 Hole could be drilled within the targeted sandstone
azimuth
Caliper 1-3 0 (deg) 10 in the planned direction without formation
-20 (in.) 20 Azimuth
Caliper 2-4 Differential caliper Ovalization azimuth 0 1
Pad 1 failure, such as rock collapsing or fracturing.
azimuth
-20 (in.) 20 0 (in.) 10 0 (deg) 200 N After determining the direction of the mini-
Hole
Depth
Bit size Ovalization Pad 1 azimuth W E
deviation mum horizontal stress, which would be the
(ft) -20 (in.) 20.
20 Rupture zones 0 (deg) 400 S 0 (deg) 10
preferred hole direction for mechanical stabili-
ty, wellbore stability simulation was per-
9400 formed to estimate the mud weight required
to support the borehole wall.
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WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.23 shear waveforms, respectively. The azimuth of technique i.e NNE. The AAA and SWA methods Figure 3.25
the fast shear (the azimuth of the maximum show NNW and do not agree with the previous
North
Depth (ft) horizontal stress) is shown in track 2. Track 4 methods.
9450.0
displays actual fast and slow shear waveforms The three-dimension core measurements
9498.0
9548.5
from receiver 7 together with the processing also showed a maximum stress oriented at 45˚
9599.0 window. At levels of higher anisotropy, the time from the vertical. The principal stresses are
West East
9649.5
difference between the waveforms can be seen. therefore not in an horizontal plane and the
9700.0
It is also convenient for trend analysis to two-dimension measurements such as AAA
display the fast shear azimuth on a crossplot and SWA have to be taken with caution.
scaled east-west and south-north on the
South
horizontal and vertical axis, respectively Borehole stability simulation and mud
The DSI anisotropy results
(Fig. 3.23). The color of the dots indicates weight prediction
can also be presented
depth range. The fast shear direction in well The borehole stability simulation is done
on a crossplot.
VLC-1184 is consistent over the entire interval, with the interactive workstation program
with an average azimuth of 15°. IMPACT. IMPACT analyzes and predicts well
The core recovered from the interval 9540 behavior by integrating information from logs,
to 9600 ft was oriented in order to perform stress well tests and core measurements. The compu-
orientation measurements that would validate tation is organized in individual modules that
the maximum stress direction derived from compute elastic moduli, rock strength and
wireline logs. Several methods were used, such stresses (Fig. 3.25). Once the mechanical
as Anelastic Strain Recovery (ASR), Shear Wave properties evaluation is done, the user chooses
Amplitude Anisotropy (SWAA) and Acoustic the application that corresponds to the problem
Anisotropy Analysis (AAA). to be analyzed: hydraulic fracturing design,
Figure 3.24 compares the wireline-derived wellbore stability evaluation, or sanding
horizontal maximum stress directions with the evaluation.
directions obtained from core measurements. The minimum inputs required by IMPACT
The direction obtained by both wireline are compressional and shear slowness logs, a
methods are in good agreement with the density log, and a volumetric analysis of the
direction returned by the ASR core-based formation such as ELAN.
The first module computes the dynamic
Figure 3.24 elastic moduli using one of the following
models: Single Component, Biot-Gasmann or
N In the AAA method anisotropic velocities are used as indica-
ASR DSI
Shear modulus. Statistical analysis tools are
SWAA BOL tions of in-situ stress orientations. Velocities are measured in
AAA
multiple directions perpendicular to the axis of the core, and in the available to relate log-derived elastic moduli
axial direction. It is a two-dimentional analysis, with an assump- with static moduli measured from cores.
tion that one of the principal stress is parallel to the core axis.
The SWAA method is based on finding the maximum absorb-
Dynamic elastic moduli in well VLC-1184 were
tion of shear waves propagated vertically through a specimen. calculated using the single component model.
Two shear wave sources are placed along the core axis and one of
In this model, elastic moduli are a function of
W E the sources is rotated in small angular increments. The amplitude
of the shear wave is measured for each increment and with contin- the formation bulk density and the
ued rotation the minimum shear wave amplitude is determined. compressional and shear velocities.
The direction of the core corresponding to the minimum amplitude
infers the direction of the maximum in-situ horizontal stress. The second module calculates static
ASR relies on monitoring time dependant strain relaxation of moduli and rock strength parameters from elas-
freshly-cut, oriented core. The strain recovery, due to the relaxation
of the sample detached from its parent rock mass (the core), is tic moduli and formation volumes. Various
S
measured and is related to the directions of magnitudes of the in- empirical correlations are available, and core
Comparison of wireline- and situ stresses, using elastic or viscoelastic relationships. ASR is a
completely three-dimensional measurement and does not require
measurements can be input to user-defined
core-derived horizontal
assumptions about the magnitudes or directions of any of the correlations. In well VLC-1184, UCS (Uncon-
maximum stress directions. principal stresses.
fined Compressive Strength) values computed
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WELL PLANNING
GEOSTEERING
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GEOSTEERING
Figure 3.27 This information is provided by pre-job plan- situations, pre-job modeling and geosteering
ning and modeling of the target and surround- are used to keep the well within the target, as
ing formations, and needs to be displayed on shown in the last example.
Sensor looking up. a wellsite screen along with the data recorded
Low GR sees mostly sand
while drilling. Since the exact geometry can- Roof and floor detection
not be predicted with the accuracy required, The principle of using the GST for roof
several different scenarios are prepared, and floor detection is shown in Fig. 3.27. Single
representing the response of the most likely point station readings are taken with the sensor
Sensor looking down.
High GR sees mostly shale
alternatives. Only in this way can the well be facing up or down. These readings can be
steered geologically rather than geometrically. plotted on a polar plot with zero at the center
Lastly, it is important to have a GeoSteering and the value increasing toward the perimeter.
Roof and floor detection a)
coordinator at the wellsite to coordinate In this case, when the GR sensor looks up the
by rotating the azimuthal
between the geologist, the logging-while- readings are high, indicating shale, while when
sensors to look up or
drilling (LWD) engineer, the directional driller it looks down it reads low, indicating
down. b) by comparing bit
and anyone else involved in the operation. sandstone. The largest dot shows the most
resistivity, which reads the
The first capability is provided by the recent reading. The azimuthal resistivity faces
average around the tool
GeoSteering Tool (GST), which provides an in the opposite direction and is used in the
near the bit, and button
azimuthal resistivity and gamma ray (GR) same way. Alternatively the azimuthal
resistivity which is further
measurement from as close as 2.5 ft from the resistivity can be compared with the bit
behind but can be pointed
bit (Chapter 4–5). In oil-based or very fresh resistivity, which is an azimuthal average
up or down.
mud, the only resistivity-based measurement nearer the bit. The difference between the two
that works is the bit resistivity, and that only indicates the trend.
qualitatively. This works because, unlike the Figure 3.28 shows the logs recorded
other electrodes, the bit is in contact with the while drilling a horizontal well in Eastern
formation so that current can pass between it Venezuela. The target was a 3 ft. thick interval
and any other part of the drillstring in contact with the highest resistivity (70 ohm-m) within
with the formation, such as a stabilizer. In such a sand about 12 ft. thick. The casing shoe was
muds it is necessary to use an induction-based set at 3872 ft with the well nearly horizontal.
measurement such as the ARC5* Array Near 4000 ft, while sliding with the button
Resistivity Compensated tool, even though the facing highside, the resistivity at the bit was
distance behind the bit is much greater. The found to be higher than the resistivity above
planning and modeling capability is provided the well. (76 ohm-m vs 60 ohm-m — see Fig.
by the PowerPlan package and INFORM 3.28. The tool face curve in the depth track
(Integrated Forward Modeling), and by the shows that it is facing up at this point).Given
GeoSteering screen at the wellsite. that the well had previously moved through a
In practice different variations are used long shale section, it was felt that this was a
for different situations. One case is strong enough indication that the well was
Geostopping, meaning the use of LWD data to moving in the right direction, and that drilling
set casing or coring points as close to the need not be inconvenienced by making a roof
target as possible. Clearly the closer the and floor test. The decision was made to
measurement is to the bit, the more exactly rotate and both ROP (rate of penetration) and
the casing point can be picked. In other resistivity increased. For the next 250 ft. the
situations the GST measurements are well dropped while the resistivity remained
sufficient to indicate whether the borehole is high. However, at 4250 ft. the bit resistivity
moving out of the current formation, and started to fall. Since this could have been
whether it is doing so by the roof or the floor. either the roof of the sand moving down or
An example is shown below. In yet other the floor being reached, it was decided to
3 20
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WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.28
400
400
Button Resistivity
Bit Resistivity
(ohm-m)
(ohm-m)
4
0 180 0 180 4
Depth
(deg)
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
4700
4800
4900
5000
GTF
(ft)
150
3445
(gAPI)
(ft ⁄ h)
ROP
TVD
(ft)
GR
3465
500
0
Geosteering logs in a horizontal well. When the tool is sliding, the tool face readings are smooth and indicate the direction of the sensors.
Resistivity is up, GR down when Tool face = 0˚ (GTF in center of depth track); resistivity is down, GR up when toolface = ±180˚ (GTF is at
either edge of depth track). Data gaps are caused by high ROP.
make an azimuthal check. The button 3.29) and show clearly that above the well the
resistivity in Fig. 3.28 is seen to fluctuate as the GR is low and the resistivity high, while
checks are made between 4250 ft and 4390 ft. below the well the opposite is true. The
The button resistivity is clearly greater than better sand is therefore above the well.
the bit resistivity when the button is highside Drilling continued sliding highside, with
e.g. at 4265 ft. This showed that the well was some increase in resistivity, but it soon
approaching the floor and needed to move became clear that the well had left the good
up. By 4330 ft. the well was being steered part of the sand. The well was sidetracked
upwards. Monitoring of the azimuthal and drilled down from 5000 ft., but with the
resistivity and GR continued. same result. It was concluded that the sand
By 4600 ft. MD, while sliding with the had pinched out.
bent sub turned lowside to reduce angle, the Overall the well was steered within an 8
bit resistivity started dropping and was lower ft. sand for more than 1000 ft., much of the
than the resistivity facing down. The GR has time in the high resistivity section. This was
increased while the lowside resistivity remains achieved by regular comparisons of the bit
high around 70 ohm-m. This, combined with resistivities with the azimuthal measurements
the drop in bit resistivity suggests that the well taken while sliding to control angle. Thus
has reached the roof of the sand. The even though the sand pinched out 600 ft.
reduction in angle was continued and short of the expected horizontal reach, the
resistivity remained high for another 330 ft. well produced 1400 bbl/day, 700 bbl/day
After 4950 ft. MD the sudden fall in more than planned.
resistivity induced another comparison of
both GR and resistivity above and below the
well. Several measurements taken around
4990 ft were plotted on a polar plot (Fig.
3 21
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GEOSTEERING
800
MFA 186 determining the continuity of marker beds.
1200
An idea of expected structural dip can also be
seen from the seismic section and used in
MFA128
1600 creating initial models.
2000
2400
3 22
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WELL PLANNING
Trejectory #2
Offset - logs Squared - logs Tool response
Trejectory #1
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
r
1600
1700
D
C B
3200
3400
3600
4100 3900 3700 3500 3300 3100 2900 2700 200 20 2 0.2
INFORM (Integrated Forward Modeling) is an The figure above breaks the INFORM process into
interactive workstation-based system that has been basic steps.
developed to support horizontal well operations during the 1. Geologic cross sections, seismics, isopach maps and log
pre-job planning and formation evaluation phases. At the data from nearby wells are examined along an azimuth
heart of the system is a comprehensive array of parallel to the planned wellbore trajectory.
Measurement While Drilling/Logging While Drilling 2. Wells logs representative of the expected geology are
(MWD/LWD) and wireline logging tool forward models corrected and squared into common layers of virgin
linked to an interactive graphical display. Primarily a tool formation properties.
for the petrophysicist, the system also provides tight 3. A cross section of the Geological model is formed within
integration with other oilfield disciplines. INFORM, represented by a series of one or more layer
During pre-job planning, geological information, columns of petrophysical properties.
including cross section data and marker positions, is used 4. A database of log responses to this Geologic model is
to assist in the construction of a petrophysical model of the created, based on the tools that will be run in the
prospect. This model is integrated with trajectory files from planned well (especially those tools used for geosteering
the Drilling Planning Center to predict MWD/LWD tool purposes), and using detailed knowledge of their
response. All these data are accessible from a database and response to different geometries. This is called a Relative
may be viewed and manipulated through interactive Angle Table or RANGDB.
graphical displays. 5. Planned well trajectories can be combined with the
database to simulate possible log responses in a
particular well before it is drilled. This simulation is also
known as Forward Modeling.
6. The RANGDB can be exported to the Anadrill
GeoSteering Screen to allow real-time investigation of
new geological scenarios as real-time data are compared
to the simulated logs.
3 23
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GEOSTEERING
3 24
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(gAPI)
90
41.76 and the well moves first into the shalier
GR
50.52
60 57.84
30
73.32
83.76
section at the top and then out into overlying
0 90.00
1000 95.52 shale. In Fig. 3.33, the formation dips up.
98.28
(ohm-m)
100 101.16
Phase
103.80
10 105.96
B A 109.44 The GeoSteering operation
1 116.40
123.23 The INFORM models are imported to the
1000
Trajectory
(ohm-m)
GR
Modeled
10
Phase buildup phase of the well, the GeoSteering
1 Modeled
3350
Attn coordinator, working with the geologist,
matches events seen on the real-time logs
with the synthetic curves calculated by the
TVD (ft)
41.76
90
GR
50.52
60 57.84
73.32
data. Note that these profile data are
30 83.76
0 90.00 displayed versus formation TVD projected to
1000 95.52 Figure 3.35
98.28 a vertical line that lies directly under the rig
(ohm-m)
100 101.16
Phase
103.80
105.96
(this is an important factor to consider when
10
B A 109.44
1 116.40 formation dip is significant). In Panel C, both
123.23
1000
the planned (blue dash line) and the actual
(ohm-m)
Trajectory
measured (solid black line) wellbore
ATTN
100 Modeled
GR
Modeled
10
Phase trajectories are shown. The measured
1 Modeled
Attn trajectory is updated in real time from the
3450
measurement while drilling (MWD) survey
measurements and is also extrapolated ahead
by 150 ft using the last two surveys.
TVD (ft)
3 25
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GEOSTEERING
3 26
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WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.36
2000
(ohm-m)
Phase
0.2
C B A
Depth
4650
4600
4550
4500
4450
4400
4350
4300
4250
4200
(ft)
150
(gAPI)
GR
0
Real-time log display of GR and phase resistivity in the horizontal section. Figure 3.35 shows continuation of the well
in a 61⁄8-in. hole running the SLIM1* and ARC5.
The GeoSteering screen has now switched to a
Figure 3.37
second model that better represents the U1
MFA 128 MFA 204 sandstone and can be used to try and maintain
Vertical Section View
3050 Section at 216.85˚ MFA186 the BHA within this sandstone.
Initially the well dropped low (difficult to
3100
build an angle in the soft sandstone) and at
3150
4400 ft (A) the resistivity began to fall. This is
3200
shown more clearly on the real-time log display
True vertical depth (ft)
3 27
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GEOSTEERING
At 5100 ft MD (-2200 ft drift), the whether the well was leaving the target by the
resistivity began to fall again, and at this point top or the bottom at 4400 ft, and it would
the well was climbing at 92° (Fig 3.35). The have been difficult to keep systematically
formation model (Fig. 3.35, correlation 2) within the sandstone.
showed the well approaching the thin shaly
streaks at the top of the U1 sandstone. No Conclusion
drilling parameters indicated any change. GeoSteering helps ensure that horizontal
However, the drop in resistivity and and highly deviated wells reach and stay
confidence in the model were sufficient to within their targets. Measurements close to the
convince the wellsite coordinators to drop the bit help decide the precise point at which to
well slightly to maintain it within the target stop drilling and set casing or start coring .
zone and avoid the thin shaly layers. Azimuthal measurements near the bit deter-
Figure 3.37 compares the trajectory of the mine if the well is leaving the target by the
original plan and the actual well. There is no roof or the floor. Pre-job modeling and the
doubt that a purely geometrically drilled well wellsite GeoSteering screen allow compar-
would have missed the objective entirely. In isons of actual vs. predicted measurements as
practice, some adjustments would probably a basis for steering the well. Not all effects are
have been made at the casing point. However, modeled, but GeoSteering offers more choices
without the pre-job modeling and planning, and instils more confidence in decision-
and with the uncertainties in formation tops making, thus minimizing the risk of drilling
and dips, it would have been difficult to know horizontal wells.
REFERENCES
Fraser, L., Reid, P., Williamson, D., and Enriquez Jr, F., 1995, Mechanistic Terratec, 1996, Static and dynamic properties and in-situ stress direction, well
investigation of the formation damaging characteristics of mixed metal VLC-1184.
hydroxide drill-in fluids and comparison with polymer-base fluids, SPE 30501,
Alford, R.M., 1986, Shear data in the presence of azimuthal anisotropy.
Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition
held in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., October 22-25. Schlumberger Oilfield Services 1995, Horizontal Well Planning, Evaluation
and Execution.
González, G., Coll, C., Gamero, H., Meza, E., Simon, C., Cespedes, A, and de
mena, J., 1997, Pozo horizontal VLC-1184 Reto Tecnologico, SVIP 084, Prilliman, J. D., Allen, D. F., and Lehtonen, L. R., 1995, Horizontal well place-
Sociedad Venezolana de Ingenieros de Petroleo, XI Jornadas Technicas de ment and petrophysical evaluation using LWD, SPE Paper 30549, Society of
Petroleo en Maturin, Monagas, Feb 19-22. Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in
Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., October 22-25.
Esmersoy, C., Koster, K., Williams, M., Boyd, A., and Kane, M., 1994, Dipole
shear anisotropy logging, presented at the 64th Annual International meeting, Wu, P., Tabanou, J. R., and Bonner, S. D., 1996, Petrophysical interpretation
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Los Angeles, California, October 23-28. of a multispacing 2-MHz MWD resistivity tool in vertical and horizontal wells,
SPE Paper 36547, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical
Brie, A., and Bratton, T., 1996, IMPACT, a geomechanical wellbore evaluation
Conference and Exhibition held in Denver, Colorado, U.S.A., October 6-9.
system, ISRM news journal, vol2 no. 1.
3 28
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Chapter 4
Chapter overview
Logging While Drilling
The PLATFORM EXPRESS
Pressure gauge performance
Wireline job planning
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S I T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
4 1
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The fundamental advantage of using LWD We first review the features of the main
is to obtain formation measurements while LWD tools in use today. We then show the
drilling. Because information is available in applications of LWD as a wireline replace-
real time, decisions are made faster regarding ment, followed by the applications only avail-
casing or coring programs, completion able with LWD and the applications to
intervals, and subsequent wireline logging optimize drilling.
requirements. An additional benefit is that
better hole conditions usually prevail early in LWD features
the life of the drainhole, minimizing Table 4.1 is an overview of all present
environmental effects requiring corrections. LWD services, showing tool sizes and the
Furthermore, LWD provides important new most important features and applications.
data that have not been available from The basic physics of the principal
wireline services, such as azimuthal density, LWD measurements are further summa-
anisotropy, and information from near-bit rized below.
sensors needed for real-time decisions.
Table 4.1
Tool ADN CDN ARC5/IMPULSE CDR RAB ISONIC GST
Tool sizes 4.75" 6.75" 6.75" 8.0" 4.75" 6.75" 6.75" 8.25" 6.75" 8.25" 6.75" 8.25" 6.75" 8.25"
Sensor • Density: Crystal • Density: Crystal • 2 MHz EM Wave • 2 MHz EM Wave • Focused direct • Monopole • Direct current
Type • Neutron: Helium • Neutron: Helium • Gamma ray: • Gamma ray: current sonic source • Gamma ray:
• Caliper: Ultrasonic Crystal Crystal • Gamma ray: Crystal
Transducer Crystal
Basic • Azi. RHOBs: ROBB • TNPH • Attenuation • ATR • RBit • DT • Bit resistivity
Outputs ROBU ROBL ROBR • RHOB (average) resistivities: A10H A16H • PSR • RRing • ITT • Button resistivity
• Azi. DHROs, PEFs • RHOB (rotational) A22H A28H A34H • GR/SGR (U,P,Th) • RSB • GR
• Avg. RHOB, PEF • PEF • Phase shift • PCAL • RMB • Inclination
and DHRO • DCAL resistivities: P10H P16H • RDB • Toolface
• TNPH P22H P28H P34H • GR
• Ultrasonic caliper: • GR
VERD + HORD • PCAL
Basic • Bulk density • Bulk density • 5 x phase resistivity • Phase resistivity • Bit resistivity • DT compressional • Bit resistivity
Features • Neutron porosity • Neutron porosity • 5 x attenuation • Attenuation • 4 x laterolog type from downhole • Azi. resistivity
• Hole diameter resistivity resistivity resistivities waveform • Azi. gamma ray
• Gamma ray • Gamma ray • Azi. gamma ray • Real-time DT • Inclination at the bit
Extended • 4 x azi. density • Rotational- • Borehole-corrected • Borehole-corrected • 3 x azimuthal • Extended waveform • Geosteering
Features • Borehole-corrected corrected density resistivity resistivity • Azimuthal testing processing
neutron porosity • Differential caliper • Phase caliper • Phase caliper
• 2 x ultrasonic caliper
Main • Hydrocarbon • Hydrocarbon • Rt inversion • Rt inversion • Borehole imaging • Seismic correlation • Azimuthal station
Applications detection detection • Invasion profile • Rh & Rv inversion • Formation dip while drilling measurement
• Lithology • Lithology • Rh & Rv inversion • Real-time • Interval velocity
determination determination formation dip • DT-derived porosity
4 2
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,,
,,
D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
,,
,,
(a) (b)
should the conditions necessitate their
Formation 1 recovery back to the surface. The ADN can
be run stand-alone or in real time.
Up Up CDR* Compensated Dual Resistivity Tool
Left Right Detectors Left Right
Down
The CDR sends a 2-MHz electro-
Down
magnetic wave from a transmitter T, and
Stabilizer
measures the phase shift and attenuation
Formation Formation 2 between a pair of receivers R (Fig. 4.2).
Borehole compensation is achieved by
As the drill collar rotates, the
sending signals sequentially from two trans-
ADN measurements are ADN* Azimuthal Density Neutron
mitters, one above and one below the
summed into four quadrants. The ADN provides a compensated neu-
receivers, and averaging the results. After
The up, left and right tron, a lithodensity, and an ultrasonic caliper
transformation, these measurements provide
quadrants may only be valid measurement. The measurements are sepa-
two Electromagnetic Propagation Resis-
with a stabilizer, as in (b). rated into four quadrants: up, left, down,
tivities with different depths of investigation
and right (Fig. 4.1). In deviated and
and vertical resolutions (Rps refers to
horizontal wells, the down quadrant of the
Resistivity Phase Shallow and Rad refers to
lithodensity provides an accurate measure-
Resistivity Attenuation Deep). In most
ment in conditions where the hole diameter
conditions the depths of investigation are
is larger than the tool diameter (i.e.,
shallower than a dual induction, but the ver-
collar+stabilizer). This occurs when the tool
tical resolutions are higher. A calibrated
is run slick, or an under-gauge stabilizer is
gamma ray (GR), either regular or
used (Fig. 4.1a). If a full-gauge stabilizer is
spectroscopy, is also available.
used, then all quadrant lithodensities will be
Figure 4.2 The resistivity data can be inverted
accurate and this can provide a way of
to determine R t and invasion profile, or
measuring formation heterogeneity (Fig.
Attenuation
resistivity
anisotropy.
Phase shift
resistivity T 4.1b).
The Ultrasonic measurement is made
with a sensor in-line with, and only a few ARC5* Array Resistivity Compensated,
R
R
inches away from, the lithodensity detectors. 5 depths of investigation
The hole diameter is obtained by summing The ARC5 makes 10 independent,
the standoff measured in opposite borehole-compensated, 2-MHz Electromag-
T quadrants. This provides two diameters netic Propagation Resistivity measurements
(vertical and horizontal) that give an with different depths of investigation using
Volume investigated by the
Compensated Dual Resistivity (CDR) indication of hole shape and condition. The an array of five transmitters and two
The CDR provides a Phase Neutron measurements are by their nature receivers (Fig. 4.3). The physics of the
Shift Resistivity and an relatively unfocused, and therefore the four measurements are the same as the CDR, with
Attenuation Resistivity with quadrants are usually summed and both phase shift and attenuation being
different depths of presented as a single curve. measured between the receivers for each
investigation and vertical transmitter firing. The two receivers are
resolutions. spaced 6 in. apart in the middle of the array.
The transmitters are located 10, 22, and 34
in. above, and 16 and 28 in. below the
midpoint between the two receivers.
4 3
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Resistivity
at the Bit
4 4
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
bent housing
NBS with,
adjustable
Surface-
azimuthal resist.,
PowerPak
Stabilizer the addition of a 4-ft long near–bit sub (NBS)
azimuthal GR, + Bit resistivity
PDM inclination bearings (Fig. 4.5). It includes a fixed bent housing
and RPM
between the bearing section and the surface-
adjustable bent housing.
The NBS is an assembly that provides
E-Mag Azimuthal resistivity
Geosteering tool bit resistivity, azimuthal resistivity, azimuthal
Azimuthal
gamma gay (GR) GR, inclination, tool face, and motor
The data are used to compute an information. Measurements are made at a
The GST provides bit
invasion profile, R t, and to quantify such distance of 2.5 to 8 ft from the bit face. The
resistivity, azimuthal resis-
sources of azimuthal variation as formation NBS uses wireless telemetry (E-mag) to
tivity, azimuthal GR and incli-
dip and large fractures. Formation dips can communicate with the Measurement While
nation within 6 ft of the bit in
be computed and transmitted to the surface Drilling (MWD) tool above the power
order to make geosteering
in real time. section so that no direct wiring through the
decisions in real time.
The GR measurement is focused, and motor or other drill string components is
may be acquired in four quadrants, needed.
referenced to down. Resistivity and GR from the GST are
oriented with respect to the GST tool face to
Figure 4.6 provide resistivity up/down data and GR
up/down data for geosteering purposes
RING ROBB (Chapter 3–19).
GR .2 (ohm-m) 2000 1.65
(g ⁄ cm3) 2.65
0 (gAPI) 200 RBM
.2 (ohm-m) 2000 TNPH
RBD 60 (p.u.) 0
LWD applications
Caliper .2 (ohm-m) 2000
PEB
6 (in.) 16 Depth RBS TLC* Tough Logging Conditions
(ft) .2 (ohm-m) 2000 0 10
System Replacement
The most obvious use of LWD is as a
replacement of TLC* Tough Logging
Conditions System drillpipe-conveyed log-
4200
ging operations for more efficient wellsite
operations. Virtually all horizontal wells in
Venezuela requiring basic petrophysical and
geological data are currently being logged
4400
with LWD.
Figure 4.6 shows the standard LWD
suite RAB and ADN run in a horizontal well
in the Bare Field in Eastern Venezuela. The
4600
log shows the reservoir section where the
differences in resistivity mainly reflect
4 5
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P10H A10H
.1 (ohm-m) 1000 .1 (ohm-m) 1000 RHOB
GR LLD
P16H A16H 1.65 (g ⁄ cm3) 2.65
0 (gAPI) 200 .2 (ohm-m) 2000
.1 (ohm-m) 1000 .1 (ohm-m) 1000
GR TNPH
P22H A22H
0 (gAPI) 200 .1 (ohm-m) 1000 .1 (ohm-m) 1000 60 (p.u.) 0
P28H A28H CALI LLS
.1 (ohm-m) 1000 .1 (ohm-m) 1000 6 (in.) 16 Depth .2 (ohm-m) 2000 DRHO
Depth P34H A34H (ft) -.75 (g ⁄ cm3) .25
(ft) .1 (ohm-m) 1000 .1 (ohm-m) 1000
5600
4100
4200
5800
4300
4400
6000
4500
4 6
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
LWD-only applications
Azimuthal data
17600
Figure 4.10 is a log from the same well
as Fig. 4.6, here showing the importance of
having azimuthal data to determine petro-
physical and geological heterogeneities. The
full data set acquired while drilling includes
neutron porosity (TNPH), azimuthal
17700
densities and formation photoelectric factor
(PEF), vertical and horizontal borehole
diameter, laterolog-type resistivities with
four depths of investigation, borehole
imaging and formation dips.
On the unidirectional logs shown in
17800
Fig. 4.6, TNPH and ROBB data suggest a
vertical fracture zone at 4555 ft. On the RAB
images shown in Fig. 4.10 it can be seen
that the apparent fracture zone is in fact
only present at the bottom of the well.
Other features of azimuthal logs can also
Resistivity data from the Example 2 be seen in Fig. 4.10. At 4400 ft the borehole
ARC5 from the vertical well LWD has recently been used as the only crosses a thin shale that has a dip of 4˚ in the
SLE-3 in Sur del Lago in Lake means of logging vertical wells where direction WNW. At 4630 ft the Vertical and
Maracaibo. borehole stability problems exclude the use Horizontal Diameters default to 6.5 in., indi-
of conventional wireline logging. Figure 4.9 cating that the BHA is stationary, and that the
shows a vertical, deep and hot well in the bit was being rotated only by the mud motor.
Sur Del Lago region of Lake Maracaibo.
4 7
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Figure 4.10
15
TNPH
(p.u.) ROBR 45
2.15
ROBU
⁄ cm 3
)
ROBL
g
ROBB
1.65 (
Depth
(ft)
100
VERD
(gAPI)
(in.)
GR
HORD
6
TD: 4/283
The log shows the azimuthal The ADN is oriented in line with the tool Pre-invasion Rt determination
data from a horizontal well in face, allowing the density detectors to be in In most cases, experience has shown
the Bare Field. continuous contact with the formation even that there is some degree of invasion even
when drilling with mud motors. Thus, the when acquiring LWD data during the
only density output available is the bottom drilling process. In Fig. 4.7 the separation of
quadrant, ROBB—the others are simply not the Phase Shift resistivities indicates a
present. Throughout most of the log the slightly invaded zone from 4500 to 4600 ft.
quadrants ROBL, ROBH and ROBU are However, the deeper-reading Attenuation
measuring densities considerably lower than Resistivities overlay each other and agree
ROBB, implying that these quadrants were with the 34-in. Phase Shift Resistivity,
affected by mud between the detectors and implying that they are all reading R t. Thus, in
the formation. This is because the ADN was spite of some invasion, R t can be read
run slick (without stabilizer) and the only directly from the curves without the need
point in direct contact with the formation for inversion.
was the bottom quadrant (ROBB).
4 8
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Hole degradation
While apparent resistivities computed
from the attenuation and phase shift of the
CDR's 2-MHz electromagnetic wave are
borehole-compensated, and therefore insen-
X700
sitive to changes in hole diameter, the
relative phase between receivers and
transmitters is sensitive to borehole size
and mud conductivity. This sensitivity is used
to estimate an average borehole diameter
when a sufficient contrast between the
mud and formation conductivities exists.
Since the phase caliper can be obtained during
The log shows both Wireline In cases where the invasion is deeper, drilling or on subsequent bit trips, time-lapsed
and LWD data from a vertical an R t inversion can be made in playback. In overlays can provide information on hole
well in Lake Maracaibo. horizontal wells where factors other than just alteration while drilling the well.
The difference in resistivity invasion influence the resistivity measure- Figure 4.12 is a three-pass overlay of
values is caused by time- ments, modeling has to be used to deduce caliper measurements taken while drilling,
dependent invasion. the correct R t (Chapter 8–35). while conditioning the hole running in,
and conditioning pulling out. The drilling
Time-lapse logging fluid identification
and conditioning down passes indicate
Invasion can be turned to advantage
wellbore alteration with time. This includes
when logs are run at different times, hence at
both enlargements at X620 and X740 ft (A)
different stages of invasion. Fig. 4.11 shows a
and reductions in diameter from X600 to
CDR log recorded while drilling with a
X640 ft and X700 to X760 ft (B). In this
wireline shallow Laterolog (LLS) and Micro-
4 9
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,
Figure 4.12
ing a pre-job model and running a GST. The
Reaming Reaming out caliper
pre-job model computes the LWD logs that
0 3 6 (in.) 16 are expected along the planned trajectory of
(RPS)
Drilling rate Phase resistivity Reaming in caliper
the well. The model uses as input the local
100 (ft/hr) 0 2 (ohm-m) 200 6 (in.) 16 geology (e.g., cross sections, seismic sections,
,
Drilling
Gamma Ray 0 3 Attenuation resistivity Drilling phase caliper
isopach maps), petrophysical properties of the
(RPS)
0 (gAPI) 150 2 (ohm-m) 200 6 (in.) 16 beds in and near the well, and accurate
knowledge of LWD tool response. The input,
A B computations, and output are handled by the
program INFORM. A more detailed descrip-
tion is given in Chapter 3–23.
Later, while drilling, the predicted LWD
logs are compared to the real-time LWD data
X700
to confirm the validity of the geological
Reaming In model or to re-evaluate it in real time. The
INFORM model can be used with conven-
A B
tional LWD tools and/or the GST. The
advantage of the GST is that the near-bit
sensors allow immediate correction of the
trajectory when unpredicted changes occur.
X800 The GST can be used in connection with the
INFORM pre-job modeling or on its own, as
in the example below.
GeoSteering
Figure 4.13 on the following page shows
a well in the Budare Field in Eastern
X900 Venezuela where the GST was run on its own
Drilling solely to optimize drilling. As the GST
determined that the upper sandstone (Sand
1) was much thinner than anticipated, it was
decided to continue down to a lower target
example, the conductivity contrast between
The log shows the evolution (Sand 2) without plugging back and side-
the mud and formation allows us to measure
in hole diameter from subse- tracking. By having the inclination at the bit,
the hole diameter with an accuracy of 0.5 in.
quent runs measured by the it was possible to steer sharply down through
and 36 in. vertical resolution. The maximum
Phase Caliper. the dividing shale and avoid setting casing to
diameter that can be read by the phase
protect this zone. On encountering the lower
caliper is approximately 24 in.
reservoir, the GST allowed the drainage hole
Optimizing drilling to be drilled smoothly, without any doglegs.
The ultimate goal of drilling, and in parti- Doglegs could not only have impeded the
cular of extended-reach drilling, is to place completion of the well but also reduced the
the well in the optimal position in the reser- efficiency of the horizontal section.
voir. This can best be achieved by geo-
steering, or altering the trajectory of the well
according to the geological changes
encountered while drilling.
4 10
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Figure 4.13 part shows RBIT and GR from the GST along
the horizontal displacement. The fluctua-
4330
TVD (ft) tions of the GR in the reservoir reflect
yyyyyyy
,,,,,,,
varying shaliness in the sandstone.
C B A
4380 In summary, the GST avoided a side-
TM
Sand 1
track, minimized shale exposure in the devi-
ated section, and ensured a smooth trajectory
,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy
4430
in the reservoir.
U1/4
Sand 2
4480
Conclusions
2850 2650 2450 2250 2050 1850 1650 1450 It can be observed from the examples
70
shown that LWD has moved from a cost-
140
Gamma ray (gAPI) oriented alternative to wireline logging, to a
60 Bit resistivity (ohm-m) 120
method of acquiring petrophysical data on
50 100 its own merits. This is seen in the increasing
40
GR number of vertical and slightly deviated
80
wells logged only with LWD.
30 60
LWD not only acquires conventional
20 40 petrophysical measurements under the opti-
10
Res. mal borehole conditions, but gives addi-
20
tional information such as azimuthal densi-
0 0
2850 2650 2450 2250 2050 1850 1650 1450 1250
ties, “pre-invasion” R t, anisotropy evaluation,
Horizontal displacement (ft) and allows more precise geosteering.
Apart from the obvious aim to acquire
The upper drawing shows
The upper part of Fig. 4.13 shows the the best petrophysical data in any borehole,
the trajectory, and the lower
trajectory penetrating the upper thin LWD has a major function in placing
graph shows the resistivity and
sandstone at A, dropping through the shale extended-reach wells in the optimum posi-
GR data from a well where the
(B) and then taking a smooth horizontal tion in the reservoir, thereby maximizing pro-
real-time data determined the
path through the reservoir (C). The lower duction and minimizing future interventions.
actual well placement.
4 11
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4 12
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Figure 4.16 that is invaluable for application in rough holes, as can be seen
borehole corrections. in Fig. 4.16. The high-resolution skid with
The MCFL* Micro- its associated sensors is shown in Fig. 4.17
Cylindrical Focused Log Note the integration of sensors TLD–BS
is an Rxo device mount- (Back Scatter Detector), SS (Short Spacing
ed on a single, fully arti- Detector), LS (Long Spacing Detector),
Flex
joint culated pad that presses MCFL–ML (MicroLog) in this pad. An
against the formation example of how the density performs in
and is integrated washed-out holes is shown in Fig. 4.18.
between the density This example comes from the Melones
detectors. It is designed Field in Eastern Venezuela and clearly high-
to measure the resist- lights the ability of the PEX to get very high-
ivity of a cylindrical quality data in a highly rugose and washed-
volume extending only out hole. The density measurement continues
a few inches into the to read good formation signal throughout the
formation, correspond- various washouts because of the unique
Flex ing to the invaded zone ability of the PEX flexibility and TLD pad
joint
and to a very similar articulation to follow the washout and read
volume of formation correctly. These good-quality outputs are
measured by the den- important in this hydrocarbon-bearing zone,
sity. A microlog-type of that has an R t of approximately 20 ohms and
Density skid logging in washed-out hole. The unique
measurement is also an effective porosity of approximately 32%.
design of this system allows the pad to freefloat and
taken from this pad. A single Highly Integrated Gamma Ray
follow very rugose hole shapes.
Sensors for TLD* Neutron Sonde (HGNS) provides gamma ray
Figure 4.17 Three-Detector Lithology Density measure- and neutron porosity measurements with a
ments are mounted on the same pad. Three vertical resolution of 24 in. from a 6-in. sam-
detectors are located 16 in., 8 in. and 2 in. pling rate. Alpha processing is used to achieve
from the source, measuring the scattered a 12-in. vertical resolution of the neutron log.
gamma rays in nine distinct energy windows. Both neutron outputs are fully corrected for
The counts in each of these windows are environmental effects, with the near and far
then inverted using a forward response count rates being dead-time corrected as well
model, yielding formation density, formation as depth- and resolution-matched. Corrections
PEF, mudcake density, mudcake thickness usually applied in the field are for hole size,
and mudcake PEF. The combination of the standoff, mudcake, borehole salinity, mud
three detectors allows for the reconstruction weight, pressure and temperature. Small
of a very robust 16-in. vertical resolution calibration sources are included internally so
density. The high-resolution density is that tools no longer require external
reconstructed from the backscatter and short- calibration sources as earlier tools did. The
spacing detectors using the low-resolution HGNS also incorporates the telemetry for the
measurement as a constraint to the proces- tool, as well as a Z-axis accelerometer to
sing, and has a vertical resolution of 6 in. The accurately measure downhole tool movement.
backscatter detector is used in characterizing This allows the data to be speed-corrected so
the very shallow zone properties such as that all PEX measurements can be depth-
rugosity, standoff and mudcake, as well as matched in real time, allowing more accurate
improving the statistics in very dense determination of bed boundaries and less
Integrated Density/ formations. Flex joints and the freefloating chance of misinterpretation and the possibility
Microresistivity pad. pad assembly greatly improve the pad of missing thin zones.
4 13
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4 14
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Efficiency
Repeat analysis example. PEX efficiency gains are made in a
The repeat section analysis (Fig. 4.20) is
The main run was logged at variety of ways. The shorter length allows
a powerful presentation that allows the
3600 ft/hr while the repeat the tools to be handled more easily and
engineer and observer to see all curves from
was run at 1800 ft/hr. quickly. Less rat hole is required to get log
the main and repeat pass overlaid on each
readings over the lowest sections of the well.
other. Shading between curves indicates
Figure 4.21 provides a picture of just how
when the separation is beyond an acceptable
much this difference in length really is. This
tolerance. Even with the numerous washouts
reduction in length, together with the
throughout this section, there is near-perfect
increased speed of rig-up and rig-down,
agreement in all of the outputs.
reduced calibration time, and ability to log at
twice the speed while providing higher
quality measurements, all decrease the time
required to perform a job.
4 15
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taken from an actual case in Western Vene- Day rig rate $30,000
Triple-combo
zuela. Significant savings are achieved when Drilling rate 50 ft/hr
saving 30 minutes here and there in dif- Drill rat hole 0.76 hr 1.80 hr
period. It is broken down into PEX, PEX- Interval logging time 1.94 hr 3.89 hr
sonic runs. In this direct comparison of actual Final surface calibration 0.25 hr 0.75 hr
38 ft
Venezuelan figures, it can be seen that PEX Rig down tool 0.30 hr 1.00 hr
has saved an average of 6.9 hours per well. Total logging-related time 4.9 hr 10.3 hr
The main savings come from one less run in Conditioning trip 0.0 hr 12.0 hr
the hole, but savings can be also be seen in Additional run 0.0 hr 5.0 hr
Triple-combo versus PEX the area of rig-up/rig-down (0.6 hr) and a Reliability 0.0 hr 1.0 hr
length (90 ft versus 38 ft)— direct comparison of logging time (0.7 hr). Total rig-related cost $6,172 $35,403
14
13.4
Rig-up RIH 2
1.4
The DSI (page 4–33) can be combined with
12 RIH 1 DSI/BHC
PEX/Triple-combo TOOH 2 1.3 PEX to create a very powerful combination.
TOOH 1 Rig-down
10
Change
Logging speed in these cases is usually
Time (hours)
3.6
8 governed by how many modes are utilized
6.5 with the DSI. In the combined DSI/PEX data
6 5.5 1.0 1.1
0.8 1.3 1.0 above, the tool was normally run at 900
4 0.9
ft/hr.
2.6 2.9 3.0 From March 1996 through March 1997,
2
0.7 0.8 1.0 PEX was run in 141 wells for 11 different
0
PEX PEX/BHC-DSI Non-PEX operators, and saved a total of nearly
Breakdown of PEX versus non-PEX logging times. $500,000 in rig time (Fig. 4.23). Rig time
saved by avoiding a wiper trip is not
Figure 4.23
included in this figure. A detailed
4,000
$490,000
500,000 breakdown of rig time was used for each
Rig cost-avg/hr Total $ saved $3,600 $3,500 450,000
3,500 Avg $/well saved operator to arrive at the average savings per
Total rig time $ saved
Avg. rig time $ saved
$3,100 400,000
3,000
$335,000
350,000 well for Eastern, Western and total
2,500 300,000
Venezuela. These savings ($3,500 per well)
2,000 250,000
4 16
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HMIN HMNO
AIT-H 2'
Tens 50 (ohm-m) 0 10"
AIT-H PEFZ
0 (lb ´ ft) 5000 HCAL BS Resistivity 20"
Image 30" 0 10
DSOZ 6 (in.) 16
60" PXND
RSOZ SP
AHTD2 90" DPHZ
2 (in.) 0 –100 (mv) 0
AHTD1 RXOZ NPOR VCL
Depth ECGR (in.) RT (p.u.) RWA
(ft) 0 (gAPI) 150 –90 90 0.2 (ohm-m) 200 0.5 (V/V) 0 0 200 0 (ohm-m) 1
3170
3200
4 18
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102 103
101 102
100 101
4 20
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
102 102
101 101
The effect of drift on a buildup in a homogeneous The effect of drift on a long buildup in a homogeneous
reservoir with a constant pressure boundary. reservoir with constant pressure boundary.
deviate from the model at late time and Figure 4.30 considers a long duration
falsely indicate a boundary or reduction of buildup of 400 hours in a homogeneous
permeability away from the well. Figure 4.28 reservoir but with a constant pressure
shows the same case, but with a formation boundary at 2500 ft from the well. Applying
permeability of 100 md and a gauge drift of 2 only 0.04 psi/day of gauge drift renders the
psi/day, a similar erroneous late time devia- effect of the late boundary almost
tion is observed. imperceptible.
Figure 4.29 uses a model of a well in a These examples serve to highlight the
homogeneous reservoir with a constant detrimental effect that sensor instability can
pressure boundary at 300 ft from the well. have on well test interpretation. Even
When 2 psi/day gauge drift is considered, relatively small gauge drift can have a
the derivative assumes a shape that could be significant impact on the trend of the pressure
incorrectly diagnosed as that of a well in a derivative, which can lead to erroneous
heterogeneous (dual-porosity) reservoir. interpretation. The effects are more marked if
the permeability-thickness product is high
and/or the test duration is long.
103 102
102 101
101 100
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101 10–2
100 101
Derivative of model
Derivative of model Derivative of model with 0.5 psi noise,
Derivative of model with 0.1 psi gauge resolution and 2 psi
0.1 psi gauge resolution gauge drift
10–1 k=1000 md 100 k=200 md
10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102
Elapsed time (hr) Elapsed time (hr)
The effect of gauge resolution on a buildup in an infinite- The effect of noise, gauge drift and resolution on a buildup in a
acting homogeneous reservoir. homogeneous formation with constant pressure boundary.
Figure 4.31 displays the case of a well in Figure 4.34 shows a model of a well in a
a homogeneous reservoir of 100 md perme- homogeneous formation of 200 md perme-
ability. The simulated data show the effect ability with a constant pressure boundary at
on the derivative of 0.25 psi peak-to-peak 300 ft from the well. The simulated data
random noise (no gauge drift is included). includes 0.5 psi peak-to-peak random noise,
Although the effect of the noise is evident, it 2 psi/day gauge drift, and gauge resolution of
is not detrimental to the data interpretation. 0.1 psi. It is clear that such data would lead to
The model in Fig. 4.32 is generated with the a totally erroneous interpretation.
same parameters as used in Fig. 4.31 except A further consideration is the transient
that the formation permeability is 1 darcy. response to a temperature variation of the sen-
The noise level of 0.25 psi has now become sor. This characteristic leads to a transient mea-
detrimental to making a reliable model suring error in the observed pressure entirely
diagnosis and interpretation. caused by a temperature change of the sensor.
Figure 4.33 illustrates the effect of gauge The effect is non-linear and is a function
resolution. The model used is the case of a of the magnitude of the temperature change
well in a homogeneous reservoir of 1 darcy and the rate of change of temperature.
permeability. The simulated data incorporate This effect will be particularly acute in gas
the effect of a pressure gauge resolution of wells where rapid and large changes in
0.1 psi. While the resolution degrades the wellbore temperature can be expected. If a
quality of the derivative, the interpretation suitable gauge is not used in such wells, a
would not be compromised in this case. significant distortion of the pressure deriva-
In general, the effects of gauge noise and tive will be observed.
gauge resolution on the derivative response
are mitigated by the powerful smoothing
algorithm used to generate the pressure deri-
vative. In the case of a real pressure sensor,
the effects of gauge drift, noise and resolution
can not be separated, as has been done here.
4 22
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Figure 4.35 The Universal Pressure Platform Technology is currently being developed to
The design of the Universal Pressure reduce the power consumption of the
Platform of gauges was made with primary WCQR, which will make this WTQR gauge
consideration placed on the gauge metrology. obsolete.
Battery Electric The tool architecture of the Universal UNIGAGE-HSapphire (WTSR). This
section line
section Pressure Platform family of gauges is modular gauge incorporates a 20,000-psi hostile envi-
(see Fig. 4.35) and the tools comprise three ronment sapphire strain gauge. The sensor
basic components: employs the strain gauge measurement prin-
• a power section, which is either a ciple in that strain-dependent resistors are
battery or an electric line adapter sputtered onto a sapphire crystal substrate.
through which power is supplied The sapphire has the advantage that, unlike
Microcontroller from the surface through a cable metal substrates, the “creep” characteristics of
• a common recorder section, which con- the sapphire are very low, which gives the
tains the microprocessor and memory gauge excellent long-term stability.
UNIGAGE • a sensor section, which can incorporate UNIGAGE-Sapphire (SLSR). This gauge
recorder EEPROM
section data memory one of a variety of sensors. The appro- incorporates a 10,000-psi sapphire strain
priate gauge sensor can be chosen to gauge sensor. It is identical in principle of
obtain the best metrological performance operation as the WTSR except that it is used
within the acquisition constraints. in non-hostile conditions.
Processor
The Universal Pressure Platform family of
Features
gauges is as follows:
To obtain superior metrological perfor-
UNIGAGE-CQG (WCQR). This gauge
mance, the entire gauge has been designed
comprises a Schlumberger Crystal Quartz
for data quality, reliability and shock
Gauge, which uses a single quartz crystal reso-
resistance. To this end, the following design
nator. Two independent modes of resonance
features were imposed on the Universal
are induced in the crystal, one of which is
Sensor sub
Pressure Platform tools:
section
mainly pressure-dependent and the other
• The entire gauge, including the sensor
which is mainly temperature-dependent. In
section, is rated for Class 6 (harsh
this way, a temperature-compensated pressure
environment). A summary of Class 6 test
is obtained with almost no thermal inertia
specifications are shock tests of 500 G for
effects. This sensor is unique in that it has a
2 msec repeated three times per axis,
dynamic response that is as good as a strain
CQG Customized Sapphire and vibration tests from 10 to 185 Hz for
sensor quartzdyne sensor gauge but has stability, accuracy and resolu-
sensor 20 minutes repeated three times per axis.
tion characteristics of a crystal gauge.
• A complete history log of cumulative
Tool architecture for the UNIGAGE-QUARTZ (WTQR). This
tool usage and jobs are stored in the
Universal Pressure Platform gauge uses a Schlumberger-modified Quartz-
memory of the recorder. This provides a
family of gauges. dyne sensor. This sensor uses two separate
way of tracking the gauge utilization so
quartz crystal resonators for temperature and
that appropriate preventative main-
pressure measurement, which leads to
tenance and recalibration can be conve-
significant thermal inertia. The sensor does,
niently scheduled before any degrada-
however, have excellent stability, accuracy
tion in performance is observed.
and resolution. The sensor has the advan-
tage of having a low power consumption
and so is used for long-duration well tests
where stability is important, but where large
temperature variations are not expected.
4 23
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4 24
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
102
0
-10
10–1
0 20 40 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101
Elapsed time (hr) Elapsed time (hr)
Downhole pressures by two different types of gauges Buildup data from the WCQR shown in Fig. 4.36. The deriva-
(WCQR and WTQR), showing negligible drift. tive is very smooth and is interpreted with a model for partial
penetration with changing wellbore storage.
Example 2. High mobility reservoir shut-in the rate of the pressure increase was
In this example, a WTQR gauge was run approximately 0.005 psi/min. Only gauges
on electrical cable for a production test in with a very high resolution can pick up such
Eastern Venezuela. Bottomhole pressure was small pressure changes. The high resolution
approximately 7,500 psia and the bottomhole of the WTQR is ideal for use in these very
temperature was 280°F. high mobility wells. The log-log plot of the
This well produced from a very produc- pressure derivative and the type-curve model
tive gas condensate reservoir. The producti- match for the second buildup period are
vity index was 350 Mscf/D/psi, which meant shown in Fig. 4.39. The high mobility results
that at 17 Mscf/D/psi, the drawdown was less in wellbore storage only lasting around 1 min,
than 50 psi. A Modified Isochronal test was which makes it difficult to obtain a clearly
performed (Fig. 4.38) in which the shut-in defined wellbore storage regime, but enough
periods lasted only 6 hr.. At the end of each data were captured to define a type-curve
60,000
Flow rate (Mscf ⁄ D)
107
Pressure (psia)
7560
7550 40,000
7540 106
20,000
7530 Flow rate
kh ⁄ µ = 337,000 md–ft ⁄ cp
S = 1.9
105 k = 240 md
7520 0
20 30 40 50 60 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101
4 25
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108
16000 kh = 59 md Derivative of model
S = –1.3
Pseudo-pressure change
and derivative (psi2 ⁄ cp)
Derivative of data
14000 Mobility ratio = 0.45
Mobility change at
Pressure (psia) 107 71 ft
12000
10000
8000 106
6000
4000 105
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102
Elapsed time (hr) Elapsed time (hr)
Large pressure changes on a WTQR gauge in a deep, Buildup data from the WTQR shown in Fig. 4.40. The smooth
hot well. derivative indicates low hysteresis on the gauge.
match. The infinite-acting radial flow regime The interpretation model is for a well in a
is smooth and well defined on the derivative reservoir where the mobility of the formation
despite the high formation mobility, which in a zone up to 70 ft from the wellbore is
causes a very small rate of pressure change at around 50% lower than the virgin reservoir
the end of the buildup. The quality of the beyond. This reduction in mobility has
match can be seen in the simulation of the probably been caused by the injectivity
entire pressure history in Fig. 4.38. In such a testing operation. The low hysteresis of
high-mobility formation, the gauge metrology the WTQR allows it to be exposed to rapid
is extremely important. Any small degree of and large cycles of pressure and still be able
gauge drift would erroneously indicate bar- to acquire high-quality data suitable for
riers in the reservoir, and excessive noise or reliable interpretation. The derivative in this
low resolution would lead to a poorly defined case is smooth and yields an interpretation
derivative that would be impossible to that is easily reconciled with the events
interpret reliably. This example demonstrates during the test.
the benefit of employing a high-quality
pressure sensor in these types of tests. Conclusion
By using simulated data, the importance
Example 3. Hydraulic
of high stability, good resolution, and low
fracturing/Injectivity testing
noise characteristics of a pressure sensor have
Two WTQR gauges were run in a well in
been demonstrated. The Universal Pressure
Eastern Venezuela. An injectivity test was per-
Platform family of gauges have been design-
formed on the well before the main produc-
ed to deliver good metrological performance.
tion testing. During the injectivity test, an
A range of sensors are available so that a
absolute maximum pressure of 16,000 psia
sensor can be chosen for a particular well
was reached while the gauges were down-
test to obtain the best metrological perfor-
hole (Fig. 4.40). The temperature under static
mance within the operational and environ-
conditions was approximately 300°F. During
mental constraints.
testing, the bottomhole pressure was drawn
Three field examples were presented
down to approximately 5000 psi. Conse-
from Venezuela that serve to demonstrate
quently, the gauges in this test were exposed
the ability of the Universal Pressure Platform
to variations in pressure of 11,000 psi. The
family of gauges to capture high-quality
log-log plot of the final buildup and the
pressure data under a range of conditions.
interpretation model are shown in Fig. 4.41.
4 26
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Traditionally, logging tools were de- incorporating them into a complete well
signed for a specific measurement or environ- evaluation. We illustrate this approach in the
ment. Typical examples are the induction following example of a well evaluation plan.
resistivity and laterolog resistivity tools, which
were each designed for different mud systems. Proposed well evaluation
The induction works in non-conductive muds The following scenario will be used to
and the laterolog in salt-saturated muds, and demonstrate effective pre-job planning: a
both work in moderately conductive muds up development well with casing set at 3,000 ft,
to certain limits. These tools were normally and an 8.5 in. bit size down to 10,000 ft. The
run alone because the tool architecture and sandstone-shale environment has an average
recording systems did not support simul- porosity of 20% in the deepest 2,000-ft zone
taneous measurements. Major gains in of interest. The expected hydrocarbon type
efficiency were made by combining various is oil with an API gravity of 25, gas-oil ratio
tools and expanding the recording systems to (GOR) of 200, and a bottomhole tempera-
handle more data. For example, developing ture of 200°F.
the three-channel recorder enabled the SP to The requested logging program is stan-
be recorded in the same pass as the resistivity dard resistivity, formation density, neutron
measurements. The recording systems and porosity, microlog, natural GR, compressional
tools continued to evolve throughout the velocity, shear velocity, nuclear magnetic
1970s and 1980s, allowing more and more resonance (NMR) porosity, permeability and
single-measurement tools to be combined and bound fluid volume. While most of the logs
more information to be recorded. This will be run over the entire well, the NMR
approach greatly increased wellsite efficiency. measurements and shear velocities are only
In these wells, pre-job planning was limited to needed over the deepest 2,000-ft zone of
providing the tool requested or required for interest. The logging tools that will be used
the environment and minimizing the descents are the PEX*, CMR* Combinable Magnetic
into the well. Resonance tool, and the DSI*.
During the 1990s, data recording, analy-
sis systems and borehole measurement plat- CMR job plan
forms have evolved exponentially. The archi- The pre-job planning starts with the
tecture of the borehole tools has changed CMR, which has a wide range of operating
from a simple tool design for a specific modes depending on the formation, the
environment to a measurement platform that borehole and the client objective. The
is adaptable to the environment in which it physics of NMR logging is reviewed in
will be used. Changes in the surface record- Chapter 5. NMR logging is special because
ing systems allow many different combina- of the relatively long time required between
tions of measurements to be made at the each measurement to align the hydrogen
same time. The complete evaluation system nuclei (the wait time), and the relatively
(surface and downhole) can now be adapted low signal-to-noise ratio. The formation
to specific well environments and operating rock and fluid determine the wait time and
conditions. This adaptive approach allows the the time to acquire each sample. The down-
highest-quality measurements to be made in hole temperature determines the stacking, or
the most efficient manner possible. While this averaging, which, together with the sample
approach increases wellsite efficiency, it interval, determine the vertical resolution. All
requires more pre-job planning for deter- these factors may influence the maximum
mining the individual measurements and speed at which the log can be run.
4 27
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4 28
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In this well there are rather few long T2s, The evaluation, made with the main
so that the distributions and the CMR CMR pass, is shown in Fig. 4.45. Since the
porosity from the two passes are very oil is not expected to be heavy, the
similar. Normally, the porosity from the measured BFV is the irreducible water
fast pass would read too low because the volume. This volume is essentially the
late T2s are not properly measured. same as the volume of water seen by the
resistivity/porosity interpretation (see
Figure 4.45 track 3) so we conclude that the well will
produce clean oil. Permeability showed
Fluids considerable variation and was important
CALI Water Saturation Oil Limestone in deciding which intervals to perforate.
(in.) Sxo
Moved oil Sandstone
6 16 1 (V / V) 0 T2 Distribution
The cleaner upper part of each sand has
BS Water Bound water
(in.)
Sw no calcite cement, and is interpreted as a
6 16 1 (V / V) 0 Irreducible water Shale 3 (ms) 3000
Depth K (CMR) Sw (CMR) CMRP Volume Analysis T2 Cut–Off
sand bar from the borehole images. As
(ft) 1000 (md) 0.1 1 (V / V) 0 0.25 (V / V) 0 1 (V / V) 0 3 (ms) 3000 expected, permeabilities are high.
13400 Immediately below the lower sand bar is
a finer grained sand body with increased
clay content. Permeabilities are predicted
to be more than one order of magnitude
lower, even though porosities are only
about 4 p.u. less.
13500 To summarize, in normal NMR logging we
wish to measure T2s of 1 sec or more. If we
only measure T2s of 33 msec or less, then we
can use shorter wait times with fewer echoes
and log much faster. In this example, the key
information needed from CMR logging was
also obtained from a Bound Fluid pass with
13600
the same accuracy, but with 9 times the
speed of a normal pass. If the CMR is required
for gas or light oil detection, for a full T2
Evaluation of the same well The BFV and permeability from the distribution, or where the applications are
as Fig.4.44. The CMR bound two passes also agree well. The main uncertain, then a normal log should be
fluid predicts the well will differences, e.g., at 13,425 ft, are because recorded. However, if the applications are
produce clean oil. induced fractures are affecting one pass known to be BFV, permeability or heavy
more than the other. This also happened hydrocarbon evaluation, then a CMR Bound
on the repeat pass at normal speed. Fluid pass can give the same information at
Permeability was calculated from the the same logging speed as standard PEX logs.
Timur/Coates equation (Chapter 5–4),
since the T2, log equation depends on a full
T2 distribution. Porosity is taken from
other logs, either density porosity or, in
this case, effective porosity from ELAN.
4 30
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
4 31
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4 32
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
4 33
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Depth Z
Varying moveout
Z Z
4.53
Arrival time
4 34
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D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Summary
DSI job planner—Source Zone Advisor with data from this example marked in red.
Two main factors have contributed to the
Table 4.4 increased need for comprehensive job plan-
Measurement Logging Logging Rig RIH ROH Total ning. First is the much greater complexity and
System Interval speed time up/down time
higher number of options in modern logging
PEX 7000 3600 1.94 1 1 0.3 4.24
CMR 2000 300 6.67 1 1 1 9.67 tools. Second is the focus on improving
DSI Comp/Shear 2000 900 2.22 1.5 1 0.3 5.02
SDI Comp 5000 1800 2.78 2.78 wellsite efficiency and reducing costs. The
Sub 21.71
important role of pre-job planning is opti-
PEX CMR 2000 300 6.67 1 1 0.3
PEX CMR 5000 3600 1.39 1.39 mizing efficiency while assuring high data
DSI Comp/Shear 2000 900 2.22 1.5 1 0.3 5.02
SDI Comp 5000 1800 2.78 2.78 quality. The CMR, DSI and Well Evaluation
Sub 18.16
plans discussed above illustrate these tradeoffs
PEX 7000 3600 1.94 1 1 0.3 4.24
CMR-DSI 2000 300 6.67 1 1 0.3 8.97 and show how simple, portable software can
CMR-DSI 5000 1800 2.78 2.78
Sub 15.99 be used by logging engineers and oil
PEX CMR-DSI 2000 300 6.67 2 2 0.3 9.97 company personnel to ease the task.
PEX CMR-DSI 5000 1800 2.78 2.78
Sub 12.74
CONCLUSION
New technology has led to improve- of sensor. Therefore, to obtain the best qual-
ments in the quality of borehole data as well ity (fit for the purpose) and the best acqui-
as the efficiency with which it is recorded. sition efficiency, good job planning is essen-
Several of the major advances have been tial, and should be a concern of the data user
described: the rapid development of LWD; a as well as the data recorder. The following
new standard in wireline triple-combo chapters show how this good-quality data can
logging (PEX); the importance of pressure be applied to solving problems of formation
gauge metrology. evaluation, production enhancement and
The modern flexibility in data acquisition reservoir description in Venezuela.
is considerable, whether it is in conveyance
type, tool response, vertical resolution or type
4 35
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REFERENCES
4 36
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Chapter 5
Chapter overview
NMR: principles and petrophysics
Tar detection and permeability evaluation
in North Monagas
Identification of gas and tar layers with NMR tools
Reservoir fluid sampling
Evaluation in the Orinoco Belt
Carbonates: lithology-independent porosity
Prediction of water-cut in a sand with low
resistivity contrast
Identifying producible zones in OBM wells
Continuous wireline fluorescence logging
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
5 1
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1 2 3 4 600
Decay due to
terms of the total proton population, or
molecular interactions
Decay due to porosity. The relaxation depends on the
B0 variations
strength of different molecular interactions
and is the sum of many relaxations, fast and
slow, from different parts of the sample.
Time (msec)
Spin echoes
5 2
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
50
20 may not be fast enough. T2D is negligible
40
except in gas because low magnetic fields,
15
30 and hence low field gradients, are used. For
20
10 pure water T2B is several seconds and,
5
because the total T2 is an inverse sum of the
10
components, has a negligible influence.
0 0
0 20 40 60 0 10 20 30
However, T2B may be significant in the case
Buoyancy porosity (p.u.) Buoyancy porosity (p.u.) of large pores (long T2S), or in mud filtrates
where T2B is short because of paramagnetic
Comparison of NMR and buoyancy porosity on a large number of cores from
ions. In general, the T2 relaxation in water-
sandstones and carbonates (Straley et al).
filled rocks is a direct indicator of pore size
and is highly correlated with other
Figure 5.4 There are three types of
measurements of pore size or pore throat,
relaxation, one due to
1 such as mercury injection pressure.
T2 decay interactions with the pore
surface, T2S, one due to
Signal amplitude
Petrophysics of NMR
bulk relaxation within the
in water-filled rocks
pore fluid, T2B, and one
Porosity: Numerous laboratory studies
due to diffusion of protons
have shown that NMR porosity is very close
in a magnetic field gradi-
to core porosity derived from buoyancy
ent, T2D. T2S depends on
0 methods (Fig. 5.3).
0 100 200 300 400 the pore size: the smaller
Free fluid: The measured T2 decay is
Time (msec) the pore size, the larger the
usually transformed into a T2 distribution by
8 number of protons close to
T2 distribution mathematical inversion (Fig. 5.4). After this
the pore walls and
transform, the total area under the curve
Signal distribution
Large pores
the faster they will
represents porosity, and the signal at each
relax. The mea-
decay time is the volume for that T2. It is
sured T2 can then
possible to define a value for T2, T2,cut, which
be written:
Small pores divides the porosity into fluid from larger
1/ T2 = 1/ T2S + 1/ T2B + 1/ T2D pores above the cut-off that is free to move,
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 where 1/ T2S = r S/ V (1) and fluid from smaller pores below the cut-
CMR derived
5 3
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brine saturated
T2 distribution
these experiments the water-filled NMR
signal is measured and converted into a
Irreducible
cumulative T2 distribution starting from the
0.5
water
volume smallest pores or shortest T2 (Fig. 5.5). The
sample is then desaturated, usually by
spinning in a centrifuge, and the remaining
irreducible volume of water is calculated
0.000 0.0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 10000 either by direct weighing methods or from
2MHz T2(TE = 350 msec) relaxation time (ms) an NMR measurement on the desaturated
sample. The intersection of this irreducible
0.049 1.0
Sample 02-16 water volume with the cumulative T2
Normalized amplitude
above T2,cut=33 msec for samples from two wells (Straley et al).
5 4
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
,,,
pretation, f is usually taken to be NMR porosity, undergoes surface relaxation with a relaxivity
which closely approximates the laboratory por- about a quarter that of water. Light oils will
osity. As with free fluid, it is often advisable to therefore relax much faster in oil-wet pores
refine the coefficients in the permeability trans- than in water-wet pores. However, heavy oils
forms for a particular reser- may not be much affected, since the total
,,,
Figure 5.8
voir through laboratory relaxation will depend essentially on T2B. In
measurements on core oil-wet pores, the permeability equation must
Protons in water
relax at grain surface plugs. Carbonates, in parti- be established empirically by adapting the
cular, need special studies. coefficients in equation (2) or (3) to match
core and test data for that formation.
,,,
Protons in gas
or oil relax by
Pores containing Hydrogen Index (HI): The HI of a fluid is
bulk + diffusionoil and water the amount of hydrogen relative to water. For
mechanisms
Bulk relaxation: When most medium oils it is equal to 1, but in heavy
pores contain more than oils it is usually less than 1 (Fig. 5.11). In light
Water
one fluid, the relationships oils it may also be less than 1 if there is a large
are more complex. In a amount of dissolved gas.
water-wet rock, the oil is Permeability: Because the oil relaxes at
not in contact with the its bulk rate independent of pore size,
In water-wet rock, hydro-
pore surface. Since for light and medium oils the T2 distribution is no longer solely
carbons relax by bulk and
the oil-water interface is a non-relaxing representative of the hydraulic radius.
diffusion mechanisms. The
surface, the oil decays at the T2 of the bulk oil
water-hydrocarbon interface
independent of pore size (Fig. 5.8). Very
is not a relaxing surface,
viscous oils start to behave more like a solid
except at high oil viscosity.
and there can be relaxation at the surface.
5 5
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100
However, if T2,oil < T2,cut, the oil signal
appears as bound fluid. In this case in
equation (3), BFV should be decreased and
10 FFI increased by the volume of oil detected
by the measurement.
When considering the effect of oil, it
1 ⁄ T2 = 1 ⁄ T 1 + (1 ⁄ T2)D
must be remembered that the volume
1
investigated by the CMR has usually been
invaded by mud filtrate, especially for light
and medium oils.
0.1
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Viscosity (cp) Pores with gas
Gas has long T1 values, ranging from
Logarithmic mean T2 versus viscosity for bulk oil samples from the Belridge Field
3 to 7 sec, depending on formation
(triangles), international oil field samples and oil viscosity standards (plus symbols)
temperature and pressure. Therefore, in
(Morriss, 1994).
normal logging conditions only part of the
gas is polarized and the signal measured is
Figures 5.10 and 5.11 too low. Gas also has a very low HI, further
lowering the signal relative to a water-filled
T2: 45 msec Sample 1
Grav: 27˚API 1 rock. In addition, gas diffuses within the
Visc: 20 cp
pore space during the course of the
Hydrogen index
0.5
measurement. Due to the gradient in the
T2: 8.3 msec Sample 2
Grav: 16.2˚API magnetic field B0, there is an additional
Visc: 300 cp 0.2
relaxation, T2D, which will shorten the
0.1 measured T2 while keeping it in the free-
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0 fluid range (see equation (1)).
T2 (msec) 0.05
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 These features can be used to detect
˚API gravity gas, for example, by comparing the CMR
T2 distributions for two oil
signal with other porosity measurements, or
samples pressed from sidewall HI as a function of API gravity for a suite of
by comparing two runs recorded with
core plugs. Viscosity is estimated dead oils from 4 to 60˚API at 77°F. Note that
different acquisition parameters that were
from the API gravity using in downhole conditions, the light oils may
chosen to cause a different response in gas.
published tables (Morriss, 1994). contain a large amount of dissolved gas,
Permeability can still be obtained from
thereby reducing the HI (adapted from
equation (3), taking the porosity from
Vinegar, 1991).
another source, such as the density log in
shaly sandstones or the density-neutron log
combination.
5 6
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
CMR Tool
The principle of the CMR is the same The standard outputs are CMR
as a laboratory NMR instrument. The two porosity (CMRP), free fluid and bound
powerful permanent magnets provide the fluid volume (CMFF and BFV), perme-
static magnetic field, B0. The transmitter ability, and the T2 distribution. Other
and receiver are provided by an antenna outputs include the analysis of the T2
that is skid-mounted to cut through mud distribution in terms of pore size, the
cake and has good contact with the detection of hydrocarbons and the vis-
formation. By design, the tool cosity of oil. Polarization or wait time,
measurement volume is a region from number of echoes, echo spacing and other
about 0.5 in. to 1.25 in. into the formation parameters can be selected according to
and stretches the length of the antenna, the needs of the job (Chapter 4–29). With
about 6 in. The volume in front of the echo spacings being reduced to 0.2 msec,
antenna up to 0.5 in. does not contribute and with processing that takes advantage
to the signal, which allows the tool to of the early echoes, the CMR is able to
ignore a certain amount of rugosity, similar measure T2s down to 0.3 msec.
to a density tool.
The CMR is only 14 ft long and is
combinable with many other logging tools.
The bowspring eccentralizer, or external
powered calipers, ensure good contact
over most hole sizes. Calibration is simple
and consists of placing a bottle of water
against the skid to simulate 100% porosity.
Permanent magnet
Bowspring
eccentralizer Borehole wall
Electronic
cartridge Antenna
14 ft
5 7
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TA R D E T E C T I O N A N D P E R M E A B I L I T Y E VA L U AT I O N I N N O RT H M O N A G A S
–10
Low through nonsealing faults, leaving behind on the mobility of the fluid, k/m. Figure 5.12
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
the heavier asphaltenes and resins. shows the typical effect on Stoneley velocity
Frequency (kHz)
Because it is uneconomical to test each and attenuation in sandstones with perme-
0.25 zone, it is important to use logs to abilities of 1.0, 0.1 and 0.01 darcy with a
High
distinguish unproductive intervals. However, fluid viscosity of 1.0 cp. Similar effects will
Attenuation (1 ⁄ q)
0.20 Medium
Low
(b) the majority of the wells are drilled with be observed if the permeability is held
0.15
OBM, so that many conventional techniques constant and the viscosity varied. It can be
0.10
are limited or not applicable. In this seen that at low frequency, the Stoneley is a
0.05 situation, two measurements have been used sensitive measure of mobility, providing the
0.00 to indicate fluid mobility—the Stoneley wave latter is reasonably high.
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
and NMR. In combination with standard The Stoneley was used successfully in
Frequency (kHz)
logs, these can clearly separate zones of low the late 1980s as an indicator of which zones
Theoretical predictions for mobility with extra-heavy oil. In addition, to test. A quick but reliable result was
(a) velocity difference they can be used to estimate permeability. important, so the efforts focused on use of
(relative to impermeable The example below illustrates the use of the the Stoneley energy. The total amplitude
rock) and (b) attenuation Stoneley wave measurement in this situation. between 0.5 and 5.0 kHz at one receiver was
for three rock mobilities: summed, inverted and then normalized
(adapted from Winkler between 0 and 1 using the lowest and
et al., 1989). highest values found in the well.
5 8
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
5 9
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TA R D E T E C T I O N A N D P E R M E A B I L I T Y E VA L U AT I O N I N N O RT H M O N A G A S
5 10
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Conclusion
In the Oligocene and Cretaceous sand-
stones of North Monagas, acoustic logs can
15,800
clearly distinguish between mobile and
immobile fluids. Unlike resistivity, this distinc-
tion works in OBMs as well as WBMs.
Acoustic logs can also be used to estimate
B
permeability. However, in the current state of
A the art, this needs calibrating against another
15,900 source of permeability.
Core analysis and log interpretation results from MUC-20. An alternative method of estimating
permeability and detecting tar in OBM wells
is with NMR. An example is shown in the
following pages.
5 11
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I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F G A S A N D T A R L AY E R S W I T H N M R T O O L S
The Santa Bárbara Field, located in the Effect of gas on CMR porosity
area known as North Monagas, is geologically NMR tools measure a signal pro-
very complex, both in the structural and portional to the volume of hydrogen in the
stratigraphic sense. It is characterized by a pore fluids and are, therefore, a measure-
very unique and complex distribution of ment of the formation’s hydrogen index
medium to light hydrocarbons that are of (HI), which is significantly less in the case of
considerable economic interest. gas. In this simple manner, NMR tools
With more than 2500 ft of reservoir provide a gas detection indicator analogous
deposition, gravitational segregation has pro- to the conventional neutron porosity
duced a fluid column exhibiting considerable measurement. However, unlike the latter, the
variations, from light crude at the bottom of NMR does not respond to changes in
the structure, to gas condensate near the top. lithology nor to neutron absorbers, nor does
In addition, a region of critical fluid has been it suffer any “excavation effect”. The
identified at the gas-oil interface. Additional difference between the HI of oil and gas is
complexities are associated with the presence significant.
of asphaltenes and discrete tar levels that may Published charts allow us to estimate
have a significant impact on field management the importance of the variation in HI
during production. between an oil and a gas. For an example,
In such an environment, fluid charac- with pure methane, at the downhole
terization becomes a very important log conditions corresponding to these wells, the
interpretation issue. Traditionally, this implies gas HI would be 0.5, while that of a 30˚API
estimating formation hydrocarbon density oil would remain 1, close to water.
based on invaded zone saturation and Therefore, based on hydrogen effect alone,
assumed hydrocarbons, filtrate, matrix density CMR porosity in a 100% gas zone would be
and neutron responses. In many cases, results halved.
become ambiguous because of deep invasion However, CMR porosity is reduced even
or lithology changes masking changes in further in gas because of its long polariza-
formation fluid density. In the case of the tion time, or T1 (see above, page 5–6). The
Santa Bárbara Field, the interpreter’s task is long T1 means that in standard logging
made more complex by variable invasion of conditions the hydrogen in the gas is
OBM filtrate that cannot be characterized by uncompletely polarized and does not
resistivity logs. In other words, a small contribute to the signal.
density-neutron separation can be attributed An empirical polarization correction
either to a mixture of gas and invading OBM, based on an estimated T1/T2 ratio is
or to a light oil, with shallow invasion. In routinely applied to compensate for this
addition, tar levels are not seen by incomplete polarization. While this
conventional logs. polarization correction is adequate for
The following interpretation examples liquid-filled rocks, it is normally insufficient
demonstrate how NMR in combination with in gas zones. and does not fully compensate
conventional porosity logs can provide the the reduction in CMR porosity.
additional information required to reliably
distinguish between gas, liquid and tar in the
Santa Bárbara Field.
5 12
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I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F G A S A N D T A R L AY E R S W I T H N M R T O O L S
5 14
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
5 15
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I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F G A S A N D T A R L AY E R S W I T H N M R T O O L S
.25 V⁄V 0 Quartz msec. This is consistent with the OBM filtrate
Water Coal signal of 300 msec, as measured on the
MDT Pressure T2 Cut–off
9950 (psi) 10150 Oil mud Bound surface at room temperature by the CMR tool.
filtrate water 1 (ms) 3000
MDT Mobility When allowing for changes of viscosity due
1000 (md ⁄ cp) .1 Gas Clay T2 Distribution
Depth CMR Permeability Fluid analysis Volume analysis
to temperature that will raise the bulk oil
(ft) 1000 (md) .1 .25 V ⁄ V 0 1 V⁄V 0 1 (ms) 3000 filtrate T2, this response qualitatively confirms
15,100 that most of the porosity is invaded by filtrate.
Any diffusion occurring in the gas fraction of
the pore fluids is too small to be noticed.
A
In the upper interval, the T2 distribution
is much broader, extending from less than 10
msec to about 800 msec, and has a tendency
15,150
to flatten out and evolve into two separate
peaks. This is most probably due to
B
significant diffusion effects taking place in
C
the large amount of gas in the pore space,
and shortening the T2 distribution times in
15,200 the gas phase.
D
This example shows that although both
zones are gas-bearing, the reduction in gas
Deeply invaded gas-bearing section of the same well. effect caused by deeper and more complete
OBM invasion can easily be mistaken for
or as light oil. The interpretation of gas is light oil, based on density-neutron informa-
supported by the liquid filled porosity from tion alone. Independent calculation of gas
CMR, CMRL, which generally agrees with the volume from the CMR confirms that the zone
oil filtrate volume from density-neutron. In is in fact gas-bearing.
the intervals where it does not, such as B
and C, it is assumed that the gas has not yet Diffusion effects
migrated back to the borehole wall. This is Molecular diffusion is much faster in gas
more likely than in the upper interval (Fig. than in liquid. This effect can be observed
5.18), given the shorter time since drilling, in the NMR response.
the lower permeability (track 1) and the Diffusion has a significant effect on
lower MDT mobility. Some zones show the pulsed NMR measurements, since a diffusing
amount of gas decreasing with depth below molecule with a polarized proton can travel
a shalier streak, e.g. at A and D, indicating a significant distance between successive
that gravity segregation is at work. manipulations. As the static magnetic field of
a logging tool is not uniform, this
displacement will cause a dephasing of the
proton magnetization, and a shift in the
T2 distribution toward shorter times.
5 16
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2100
50 %
dew point results in a high percentage of
2000
liquid formation. This liquid or retrograde
1900
condensate is relatively immobile when
1800 40 % compared to the gas phase; therefore,
1700
production will preferentially be gas, and the
1600
valuable liquid will not be produced.
1500 30 %
1400
20 %
1300 10 %
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Temperature (˚F)
5 18
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5 19
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Figure 5.22 In the openhole environment, a new OBM filtrate is miscible with reservoir
generation wireline formation tester known hydrocarbon fluid, which not only makes
as the MDT has been developed specifically contamination more difficult to detect, but
to obtain high-quality samples at multiple also the consequences of the contamination
Electric power
module
depths in the well. A modification to this are much more serious, since the mud filtrate
tool is being developed that allows it to be can significantly change the PVT properties
Hydraulic power
run in a cased hole, drill a hole in the casing, of the reservoir fluid.
module take a fluid sample, and then re-plug the The MDT wireline formation tester has
hole with a special steel plug. For sampling overcome the limitations of the RFT by being
Probe module during a well test or at any time during pro- designed specifically with reservoir fluid
duction of a well, a new bottomhole sampler sampling in mind. The tool incorporates a
has been developed that allows a sample to pump that enables pumping of the forma-
OFA
module be captured downhole and brought to tion fluid into the wellbore to clean up the
surface under monophasic conditions. formation fluid to condition it for sampling.
Multisample Preservation of the monophasic state of the Only when the fluid being pumped is pure,
module
sample means that PVT laboratory results a representative reservoir fluid sample is
more faithfully represent the true fluid captured into a sample chamber. The tool is
Pump-out
module properties. able to identify the fluid flowing through it
Surface sampling of liquid and gas in a by use of a resistivity measurement and from
surface separator for recombination in the an analysis of the absorption of light in the
A typical configuration of the
laboratory in the ratio of the field measured visible and near-infrared region. Resistivity
MDT for openhole sampling.
GOR usually complements other sampling distinguishes hydrocarbon from WBM
methods. However, it has drawbacks if it is filtrate, while optical analysis discriminates
used as the only sampling procedure. gas from liquid and formation hydrocarbon
from OBM filtrate.
Sampling in openhole The MDT can be configured in many
Sampling technology has evolved ways because of its modular construction.
significantly in recent years. Until recently, it The selection of modules and their position in
was not generally considered feasible to the tool string are decided by the objectives
obtain PVT-quality samples from an of the operation and the well characteristics
openhole wireline formation tester such as and conditions. A typical MDT configuration
the RFT. During the drilling process, the for sampling is shown in Fig. 5.22. The tool is
formation is always invaded to a greater or set at the desired depth by hydraulically
lesser extent by mud filtrate. Samples taken forcing the probe against the formation wall.
by the RFT were usually contaminated with The probe cuts through the mudcake to make
mud filtrate. An attempt to overcome this was communication with the formation, while the
to take “segregated” samples where flow was surrounding rubber packer isolates the probe
initially directed to one sample chamber to from the hydrostatic borehole pressure.
“clean-up” the zone around the RFT probe,
and then to a second chamber to capture
what was hoped to be uncontaminated
reservoir fluid. In highly invaded zones this
method still resulted in contaminated
samples. The situation has been further
complicated by the widespread use of OBM.
5 20
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@À,Q¢
that contains six separate cylinders each
capable of holding 450-cm3 of sample. A
¢Q,À@
motor-driven, surface computer-controlled
throttle valve provides inlet choking to
@@@@
ÀÀÀÀ
,,,,
QQQQ
¢¢¢¢ ¢Q,À@
control the pressure in the flowline so that
Fluid flow the fluid can be maintained in a monophasic
condition. In addition, a water cushion is
@@@@
ÀÀÀÀ
,,,,
QQQQ
¢¢¢¢
Flowline
used behind the sample chamber piston to
Liquid detector
further regulate the sample collection. The
Water Oil Gas
cylinders once filled are sealed by a control
The OFA module with its two sensor systems: one for liquid detection and analysis valve. At the surface, the cylinders can be
and the other for gas detection. detached from the module and shipped
directly to a PVT laboratory without the
Figure 5.25
need for sample transfer. This feature
eliminates the possibility of mishandling the
Sample point sample at the well site.
The MDT single probe has a diameter
Single-shot of just less than one inch. If the formation has
control valves
Motor-driven
throttle seal low permeability, then the pressure drop due
valve
to fluid withdrawal can be considerable and
may cause formation fluid to become dipha-
Water
cushion sic, leading to unrepresentative samples.
line
Flowline bus
Manual
shut-in
valves
Water
cushion
choke
Motor-driven
throttle seal
valve
5 22
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5 24
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5 26
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
60 %
55 %
5 27
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E VA L U AT I O N I N T H E O R I N O C O B E LT
The enormous reserves of heavy and They are essentially meandering river channel
extra-heavy oil in the Orinoco Belt are fills and crevasse splays that vary considerably
generating ever-increasing interest in the oil in quality, thickness and extent. The oil gravity,
industry. These shallow reservoirs are rather while always characterized as heavy, from
special from the point of view of formation about 6 to 12°API, also varies according to the
evaluation. The area being drilled, and becomes heavier as one
Figure 5.32
producing sand- nears the Orinoco River.
stones are from The Oficina sands are high-porosity,
the Oficina Form- unconsolidated sands held together by tar. A
ation that uncon- Scanning Electron Microscope photograph
formably overlies (Fig. 5.32) reveals that the sand grains are
Precambrian spaced quite far apart and are not cemented.
crystalline rocks. The pore system is very well preserved with
large, well interconnected pores. However,
sand bodies may be no more than a few
centimeters thick and are separated by thin
shale layers.
Scanning Electron Microscope photograph of a clean, medium-
grained, loosely packed Oficina sand sample. Magnification 80x.
5 28
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.33
Fluids
Water Coal
1900
2000
2100
2200
Composite display of the In such an environment, log analysis heavy crude displacement. In this way, logs
interpretation of a well in must go beyond the simple differentiation will contribute to the identification of the
the Zuata area of the Orinoco between an oil- and a water-bearing zone, better sandstones for horizontal drainhole
Belt, incorporating ELAN, and must attempt to characterize both oil placement. The example that follows is taken
CMR and MDT information. gravity and reservoir quality, in terms of from a well drilled in the Zuata area of the
depositional trends and relative ease of Orinoco Belt.
5 29
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E VA L U AT I O N I N T H E O R I N O C O B E LT
800
5 30
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
100
A representative sample of Faja stock
tank oil from the area of the well was tested
in the laboratory and had a viscosity 2656 cp
10
at surface conditions, versus 1257 cp at down-
Orinoco Belt hole temperature. The NMR response of the
sample
sample was also measured, using the CMR
1 ⁄ T2 = 1 ⁄ T 1 + (1 ⁄ T2)D tool itself. Figure 5.36 shows the response at
1
downhole temperature. The T2 distribution
exhibits a clear peak at 5 msec and fits the
general trend of T2 versus viscosity shown in
0.1
Fig. 5.35
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 Surprisingly, a second T2 peak is seen at
Viscosity (cp)
about 500 msec. This suggests that there is
Logarithmic mean T2 versus Gradient information should be com- water in the sample, approximately 10% in vol-
viscosity for bulk oil samples of pleted by sample analysis, either from a ume. As no water could be detected by visual
various international oil fields. single-phase sample taken in the production inspection, a sample of this oil was submitted
The Orinoco Belt sample column or from a wireline formation tester. to Dean Stark analysis, yielding a 7% water
follows the curving trend of the (Partially filled standard sample chambers content, and confirming that the water is in fact
more viscous oils. were recovered some years ago with the RFT emulsified within the heavy oil sample.
tool in the Orinoco Belt, confirming the Downhole T2s measured by the CMR
feasibility of this technique). over the Oficina sandstones of the same well
also show a clear bimodal distribution, as
Figure 5.36
shown in Fig. 5.33, presented in wiggle form
in track 4 and in variable density display in
track 5. As in the surface oil sample, the
heavy oil peak, labeled T2P1, is found in the
shorter T2 region. The second peak at higher
Amplitude
5 31
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.38 For example, at 1 in., all three curves formation, from 0.75 to 1.25 in. away from the
read higher than the theoretical Rxo, borehole, in a bulk manner, and provides a
Synthetic resistivity with RB2=60 ohm-m, RB1=90 ohm-m more reliable estimate of movability.
from CMR free-fluid
and RB0=117 ohm-m. As expected, Borehole images from the FMI give
LLD
B2 yields the lowest Rxo estimate, with additional information regarding this complex
B2 resistivity
B1 and B0 progressively more invasion process. Figure 5.39 shows an FMI
B1 resistivity
influenced by the virgin zone resistivity. image with static normalization recorded in a
Depth B0 resistivity
(ft) However, even B2 overestimates Rxo by cored section of this well. The oil-bearing
1 (ohm-m) 1000
50%. Conversely, for an invasion sandstones appear lighter in color, while the
diameter exceeding 1.5 in., differences more conductive shales appear darker. In the
between the three resistivities are sandstones, changes in resistivity near the
1900
greatly reduced. wellbore create an image with a patchy
To compare the shallow radial inform- aspect, indicating a very heterogeneous
ation provided by the MCFL to the CMR invasion pattern in three dimensions, at a
information, we have calculated a syn- scale of a few centimeters within the same
thetic resistivity curve from the volume sandstone body, the darker zones corres-
of filtrate seen by the CMR. This ponding to deeper invasion. These hetero-
2000 synthetic resistivity curve is plotted on geneities cannot be detected easily on the
Fig. 5.38, along with the three MCFL raw core photograph.
resistivities and the deep laterolog Figure 5.40 provides at least a partial
resistivity. All four shallow curves agree explanation for the varying depth of invasion
very well in regions of deep invasion, observed in the Oficina sandstones. Both the
such as the upper three sandstones or static and dynamically normalized images are
the very flushed zone between 1980 ft displayed side by side, along with the
2100
and 1968 ft. However, in the less invaded corresponding stratigraphic dips. The three
sandstones, large discrepancies exist resistivity curves from the MCFL, along with
between the synthetic curve and Bo or the apparent filtrate volume corresponding to
B1, even though their midpoint is close each resistivity curve, are shown for
to the CMR depth of investigation, while reference. The static image clearly shows a
the agreement with B2, a much shallow- region of higher resistivity, or shallower
2200 er measurement, remains reasonable. invasion, in layers where the sedimentary
This is because the invasion pattern is far dips are higher, whereas sandstones showing
from piston-like. Resistivity tool low dips (i.e., perpendicular to the vertical
measurements react to the continuous hole) are more completely flushed.
water phase, while the CMR sees the This implies that lower dipping beds,
Comparison between actual resis- total water volume. In heavy oil, as which previous studies on the Orinoco Belt
tivity curves from the MCFL and invasion progresses away from the have associated with crevasse splays, may be
Laterolog sensors and theoretical borehole wall, it loses its continuity drained more efficiently by a vertical well than
Rxo corresponding to the actual around the grains, and stops contributing higher dipping beds, associated with river
filtrate volume seen by the CMR. to the resistivity signal. For this reason in channel fill deposits. Unfortunately, typical
The discontinuous invasion profile heavy oil with shallow invasion, only the crevasse splays have limited lateral extent,
causes B0 and B1 to miss much of shallowest resistivity curve can be contrary to river channel fill deposits. In a
the invading filtrate, even though expected to read a representative filtrate horizontal well, the lateral extension and
they investigate a similar volume. volume. It may still underestimate the frequency of the thin interbedded shales seen
Only the very shallow B2 reading true movability, as seen at 2180 ft. The on the FMI images will be the key to recovery.
approaches the true value. CMR, by contrast, sees the total amount
of filtrate that has penetrated the
5 33
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E VA L U AT I O N I N T H E O R I N O C O B E LT
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
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E VA L U AT I O N I N T H E O R I N O C O B E LT
Borehole
MDT, DSI, FMI and CMR, allows the log
drift
S
FMI image
True dip
analyst to go beyond the traditional volu-
True dip metric interpretation to characterize reservoir
(deg)
Depth
quality and oil type, and estimate oil recovery.
N E S W N
(ft)
0 10 –10 (deg) 90 The CMR allowed us to estimate the
1950
viscosity of the oil and to quantify the pore
fluids, separating displaced oil from the
remaining oil in the pore space and estimating
the fraction of this oil directly coating the
grains. Because of the irregular nature of
invasion in heavy oil, the estimate of pro-
ducible oil from CMR was considered more
reliable than the one obtained from conven-
2000
tional microresistivity curves. The DSI allowed
us to independently corroborate indications of
fluid displacement from MDT and other logs
and to derive a stand-alone mobility indicator.
The FMI, beyond information on rock texture
and invasion patterns, also supplied an easy
way to delineate sandstone units, determine
stratigraphic dips and infer the direction of
2050
sediment transport, an important factor in
planning reservoir development.
FMI image and dips reveal a strongly heterogeneous sandstone. From the dip
orientation, the paleocurrent direction can be inferred.
C A R B O N AT E S : L I T H O L O G Y- I N D E P E N D E N T P O R O S I T Y
The large majority of Venezuelan fields Only in very shaly carbonates is there some
produce from sandstones. Nevertheless, a few uncertainty as to how much of the very short
produce from carbonates, and present differ- T2s are associated with microporosity in the
ent petrophysical challenges. For example, in shales rather than the carbonates.
complex carbonates, it is difficult to obtain an Carbonates also can have a very
accurate estimate of porosity from conven- broad pore size distribution, from micro-
tional logs without combining many measure- crystalline to vuggy, which greatly affects
ments or resorting to costly calibration against estimates of producibility, permeability and
core. However, NMR porosity is derived hydrocarbon saturation from resistivity logs.
independently from formation lithology, NMR T2 distributions provide useful
eliminating errors associated with the un- information on the pore size distribution.
known matrix effects on other measurements.
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C A R B O N AT E S : L I T H O L O G Y- I N D E P E N D E N T P O R O S I T Y
In interval B (12,100 to 12,060 ft), the the CMR which, as a result, will show more
neutron-density separation and the GR dolomite in place of shale. The T2
response are high. This can be caused by distribution in this horizon becomes
shale or dolomite with high uranium bimodal, and suggests the presence of
content, or both. Normally, this would be vugular porosity, within a dolomitized
interpreted as shale, as was done in this matrix of some effective porosity.
case. However, the CMR shows significant Based on these observations, we see
porosity throughout the interval, with a peak that the bottom 20 ft of this carbonate
at 12,075 ft. There is no reason to doubt the (interval A) has no reservoir potential, and
CMR porosity—the hole is in gauge, and that useful porosity is to be found in the
there is no indication of a mud signal upper 60 ft. Of these 60 ft, the upper 40 ft
(typically a strong and constant signal (interval B) are missed by traditional
around 10 msec). Consequently, we should petrophysical analysis, and are correctly
reinterpret this zone with the porosity from seen only by the CMR.
P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W - R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
One of the major problems of log A simple interpretation of the top zone,
interpretation is the identification and including clay correction, gives a water
evaluation of low-resistivity and low-contrast saturation of 42%, or a water volume of 11
pays. These are zones that produce clean oil, p.u. In many rocks this would imply water
but in which there is little contrast in production, or at least the production of oil
resistivity between a water and an oil zone, with a large water cut. However, the CMR
and usually also the surrounding shales. tool shows that there is an average of 10 p.u.
There are three main causes—a thinly of bound fluid throughout the zone.
laminated sand-shale sequence in which the Therefore, this zone should produce clean
shale dominates the resistivity response; high oil with a small water cut. In fact, the top
irreducible water trapped usually in fine zone was tested and produced clean oil with
pores and which gives a high water saturation a productivity index of 0.974 bbl/day/psi.
but is not producible; and a high content of To better understand and quantify this
dispersed clay. Often the last two causes result, a series of measurements were made
occur together. The following section shows on plugs taken from the core over the
an example of this from Eastern Venezuela. interval 5945 ft to 5974 ft. These included
In Fig. 5.43 two sandstones can be mineralogy (Dual Range Fourier Transform
seen—one at 6100 ft with resistivities around Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy), chemical
30 ohm-m, and one at 5900 ft with analysis, NMR and electrical measurements.
resistivities around 7 ohm-m. Both have
approximately the same porosity (27 p.u.)
and are expected to have the same formation
water resistivity of Rw=0.14 @ BHT (160°F).
While the lower sandstone, with Rwa=2.5,
should clearly produce oil, the top sand-
stone, with Rwa=0.5 and hence a quicklook
water saturation above 50%, is doubtful.
5 38
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
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P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W - R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
Quartz Carbonate
dently monitor the quality of the FT-IR
mineralogy, and to determine logging tool
response parameters. The analysis includes 23
Chert Illite
elements using a variety of methods: X-ray
Fluorescence, Prompt Neutron Activation,
Qtz+ Chert Smectite
Coulometry, and Induction Coupled Plasma
Mass Spectrometry. The volume of each
K-Feld Kaolinite
element in each sample is compared with the
volume reconstructed from the mineralogy.
Na-Feld Chlorite
The latter is obtained from the mineral volume
found by FT-IR and the elemental
Ca-Feld Glauconite
composition of each mineral standard.
The results for this well are shown in Fig.
Feldspar Clay
5.45. The major elements compare very well,
0 20 40 60 80
while the trace elements Th and U do not.
Evaporite
This is probably because of trace minerals
Mineralogy of the six samples, as deter-
such as rutile, zircon and monazite, which are
mined by FT-IR. The top four samples 0 20 40 60 80
not measured by the FT-IR. Otherwise, the
are typical of the shaly sandstone facies, while the bottom two are essentially shale.
results confirm the FT-IR mineralogy.
The accurate FT-IR mineralogy combined
Figure 5.45
with the array of elemental concentrations
Silicon Calcium Iron measured on the same samples enables us to
50 40 15
calculate logging tool response. For example,
40
30 the matrix GR is calculated from the Th, U and
Core (wt %)
Core (wt %)
Core (wt %)
10
30
20
K concentrations according to the formula
20
5
(Ellis, 1987):
10
10
GR = 4 Th + 8 U + 16 K (11)
0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 0 5 10 15
Reconstructed (wt %) Reconstructed (wt %) Reconstructed (wt %)
The matrix density is computed from
grain density values for each mineral and the
Potassium Aluminum Sulfur mineral concentrations determined by FT-IR
5 15 20
Core (wt %)
Core (wt %)
3
10 is computed in the same way. The chemical
2
10 concentrations and the matrix density values
5
5
are entered into the SNUPAR computer
1
program, which calculates a wide variety of
0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 20 nuclear properties and logging tool response
Reconstructed (wt %) Reconstructed (wt %) Reconstructed (wt %) parameters (McKeon and Scott, 1988). The
Thorium Uranium parameters computed in this study included
30 10
Comparison of the zero porosity formation response to
7.5 volumes of elements thermal neutron (NPHIMAT), zero porosity
Core (ppm)
Core (ppm)
20
5
measured directly formation hydrogen index (HIMAT), form-
10 versus reconstructed ation photoelectric factor (PEF), and sigma
2.5
from mineralogy. matrix (SIGMAT).
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 2.5 5 7.5 10
Reconstructed (wt %) Reconstructed (ppm)
5 40
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Figure 5.46 These results can also be used to check However, to distinguish between them will
the usefulness of different logs in estimating be difficult, so we will solve for an
100
clay and other volumes. For example, Fig. appropriate mixture of the two. We can also
Total clay (wt %)
80
5.46 compares the (GR), neutron-density, and estimate the amount of orthoclase (K-
60 SpectroLith estimates of clay weight percent feldspar) with the help of the NGS, but we
40 with the FT-IR values. The GR is quite good cannot measure the plagioclases directly. (We
20
but shows a spread of about 10 API units for could estimate them using the ratio of
the same clay volume in the sandstones. plagioclase to orthoclase of approximately 4:1
0
0 50 100 150 There is also some non-linearity. The neutron- from the mineralogy.) There are no significant
Gamma ray (API)
density correlation is good. The SpectroLith carbonates or evaporites.
100
technique estimates the volumes of the major The minerals and the tool response
Total clay (wt %)
80
lithologies (sandstone, clay, carbonate, parameters to be used in log evaluation are
60 evaporite) from measurements of elemental shown in Table 5.4. Also shown are the
40 concentrations, mainly Si, Ca, Fe, Su, Ti, Gd. response parameters for the two main
20 As is shown in Chapter 6–17, this technique lithologies present, sandstone and clay. The
0
generally gives more reliable estimates of clay latter are calculated from the response
0 20 40
volume than the GR. In this case the results parameters for each mineral and the mineral
N-D (sandstone separation p.u.)
are similar to the neutron-density results. concentrations determined by FT-IR. In this
100
However, SpectroLith may be used through case, the sandstone group contains all
Total clay (wt %)
80
casing in old wells where a good set of minerals except clays.
60 openhole logs is not available.
40
Electrical parameters
Log interpretation model Porosity exponent (m), saturation
20
and end-point calculation exponent (n) and CEC were measured on
0
0 50 100 The accurate FT-IR mineralogy helps us three samples. The results are shown in
Spectrolith
decide what minerals to put in our log Table 5.5 and Fig. 5.47. The exponents m, n
Clay volume as predicted interpretation model. The main clay is illite and the resistivity index I are shown after
by GR, Neutron-Density with small, and approximately equal amounts correcting for the effect of clay conductivity
and SpectroLith versus of smectite and kaolinite. The two latter clays using the Dual Water model. Because of the
actual volume measured both have low Th/K ratio, so together they friable nature of the rock, the number of
on six samples. may be distinguished from illite with the help samples analyzed is small. However, the
of Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy (NGS). results are consistent, and will be used for
the log interpretation, with a=1, m*=1.84,
n*=1.90.
Table 5.4
5 41
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P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
Figure 5.47 The volume of clay-bound water is often Note also (Table 5.5) that NMR porosities are
taken to be the fraction below 3 msec on average 2.3 p.u. less than buoyancy
100
(Straley, 1994). In practice, capillary-bound porosities in the sandstones.
Resistivity index, I* = Rt/Ro,
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3 water may also be found either below this Therefore, even after allowing for
corrected for clay
value, while clay-bound water may be found inaccuracies in the measurements, there is
10
above it, or may decay too fast to measure. good evidence that a significant amount of
The T2 of clays has been related to clay type capillary-bound water occurs below 1 msec,
(Prammer, 1996), but there is also evidence and that some porosity is missing from the
that it depends more on clay distribution and NMR signal due to the clays.
1 history. Figure 5.48a shows the volume below
0.01 0.1 1
3 msec (BFV3) plotted against the volume of Log processing
Brine saturation
clay-bound water (CBWm), calculated from The log interpretation model and
Brine saturation versus
the mineralogical analysis, using the Dual parameters are based on the mineralogical
Resistivity Index corrected
Water model with CEC and rdcl values from and electrical parameters described above.
for clay effects on plugs 1,
Table 5.4. The separation between the 1:1 The CMR was recorded with an echo
12, and 20. The slope gives
line and the actual trend shows that there is a spacing of 0.32 msec, and is processed to
n*=1.96.
large proportion of capillary-bound water give a T2 distribution between 0.3 msec and
below 3 msec. In addition, BFV3 is generally 3 sec. To obtain the fastest components, we
lower than CBWm in the sandstones by about must use the signal from the first few echoes
1 p.u., suggesting that some clay-bound water with little or no averaging between echoes.
is not measured by NMR. The intercept with This lowers the signal-to-noise ratio for these
the X-axis suggests that up to 3 p.u. is components, and is compensated for by
missing. The same trends are seen if we plot increasing the averaging over depth levels.
the porosity below 1 msec (Figure 5.48b). In this case, a five-level average was used.
Note the good agreement between CMR
Figure 5.48 porosity and density (Fig. 5.43).
The clay-bound water is calculated from
0.15 0.15
Clay-bound fluid from
fluid fluid
calculated by subtracting half the clay-bound
mineralogy
fluid fluid water from the CMR bound fluid between 0.5
0.05 0.05 and 21 msec. (By subtracting only half,
we allow for the missing porosity noted
0.0 0.0 above.) The results are shown in Fig. 5.49.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
The effective water saturation in zone 1 is
NMR bound fluid < 3 msec NMR porosity < 1 msec
found to be close to 30%, all of which is
Clay-bound fluid from mineralogy versus NMR signal below (a) 3 msec, and (b) 1
capillary-bound water. This zone will
msec.The black line is the 1:1 clay-bound fluid line.
produce clean oil.
Permeabilities measured on the core
Table 5.5
plugs would normally have been used to
Sample Porosity Grain density CEC Formation Porosity Exponent calibrate the NMR permeability. However,
Nº V/V g/cm3 meq/100 g factor, F m m*
the permeabilities were measured with
1 0.290 2.66 1.19 9.39 1.81 1.830
air and after cleaning, which effectively
12 0.302 2.66 0.82 8.45 1.78 1.795
removed all capillary-and clay-bound water.
20 0.253 2.67 2.54 10.6 1.72 1.760
This can be seen from the high buoyancy
Electrical and other properties measured on three samples. The CEC was measured porosity values in Table 5.6.
on wet chemistry. The resistivity of the brine was 0.273 ohm-m at 25°C. The
effective confining stress was 2000 psi.
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
Log interpretation results using ELAN and parameters from log-core integration.
Table 5.6
Sample Porosity, Porosity, Permeability BFV, after T2 Cut-off BFV, with BFV BFV Clay-Bound Water
No. (Buoyancy) (NMR) (air, 2000psi) desaturation msec 21 msec cut-off <3 msec <1 msec (Mineralogy)
V/V V/V md V/V V/V V/V V/V V/V
NMR properties measured on six samples using low field NMR with echo spacings of 0.16 and 0.4 msec.
5 43
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P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
The predictions were confirmed and ex- now be applied with confidence to other
plained by core analysis. FT-IR spectroscopy wells in the area—both openhole evaluation
and chemical analysis determined the min- of new wells and through-casing spectro-
eralogy, and hence the optimum log inter- scopy evaluation of old wells.
pretation model and tool response para- The combination of core and log data,
meters to be used. Electrical measurements and the interpretation methodology used
determined the correct porosity and satura- in this example, serves as a model for
tion exponents. NMR analysis determined the the interpretation of other low resistivity
cut-offs to be used for capillary- and clay- pays caused by high irreducible water and
bound fluid volumes. These parameters can clay content.
5 44
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
BFV BFV
B
18600
18000
18700
18100
A
18800
OBM filtrate invasion in an oil zone, confirming that the zone is at
irreducible water saturation.
OBM filtrate invasion in a water zone showing both complete and
incomplete flushing of the free water.
Both cases are seen on the logs in Fig. Fortunately in this case, differences between
5.51. The lowest zone (A) shows some Sw and Sxo remain small and, more
movable water (white) between the water important, the same change in wettability
flushed by the mud filtrate (dark blue) and the affects the CMR-derived Swirr. Therefore, if
irreducible water (light blue). Therefore, this Sxo equals the CMR-derived Swirr but is a little
sandstone has not been completely flushed by less than Sw, the zone can still be at
filtrate, at least at the depth of the AIT 10-in. irreducible water saturation and produce
tool. On the other hand, sandstone B at 18,600 clean oil.
ft shows no remaining movable water and has An example of this is shown in Fig.
been flushed. The MDT pressures fall on a 5.52, where moved water at several levels
water gradient, confirming that these are, in reflects slight differences between Sw and
fact, water-bearing sandstones. Sxo. However, Sxo remains almost identical to
In hydrocarbon zones at irreducible Swirr, indicating a zone at irreducible water
water saturation, oil is displaced by oil saturation. This interval was perforated and
and generally Sw=Sxo=Swirr (Fig. 5.50c). produced 400 bbl per day of clean oil.
However, in some cases, one may paradoxi-
cally still observe Rxo > Rt and therefore Sw
>Sxo. This anomaly occurs when surfactant
invades the formation, changing the wetta-
bility of the sand grains (Lavigne, 1997).
5 45
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
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Quartz
West Texas), we have seen crude oils that
Blue induced
B2 fluorescence Bound water exhibit much larger blue than red fluorescence;
2.0 –2.0 T2 Distribution
HCAL B1
Red induced
Illite these are light oils.
B0 Volume analysis T2 Cut-off
Depth
(ft) 6.0
BS fluorescence
In both the red and blue channels the
(in.) 16 1 (ohm-m) 100 –2.0 2.0 0.0 (V ⁄ V) 1.0 0.3 (msec) 3000
fluorescence signal occurs in two distinct
forms; at certain depths, the fluorescence sig-
nal is very large and shows substantial varia-
tion signal magnitude with depth. These zones
show low permeability in the CMR and
2500 Platform Express logs. At other depths, the
fluorescence signal is somewhat smaller and
nearly constant with depth. In these latter
zones, both the CMR and Platform Express
indicate high permeability. An explanation
consistent with these results is that the perme-
able zones are invaded, flushing the crude oil
and reducing the fluorescence signal; however,
the sandstones are relatively uniform, giving a
nearly constant fluorescence signal with depth.
2600
The low-permeability zones may consist of
finely laminated shale-sandstone sequences.
The hydrocarbons in these low-permeability
sandstones are not swept away, and our mea-
surement is not impeded by any mudcake, so
the fluorescence signal is large. However, the
shale laminations do not fluoresce much,
giving highly variable fluorescence signal with
depth. This log example illustrates not only the
Fluorescence log along with Figure 5.54 shows an FLT log example detection and some characterization of
CMR and ELAN results from obtained from field testing in Patagonia. In hydrocarbons in continuous wireline fluores-
a well in the Lagunillas Field. addition to the FLT, the Platform Express and cence, but also indicates that information
Reservoir sandstones are the CMR were run, providing very good stan- about the formations can be gleaned from the
characterized by large blue dards for comparison. The SP in track 1, and fluorescence log.
and red fluorescence. Shales the induction and MCFL resistivity curves in Figure 5.55 shows another FLT log
rich in organic matter also track 2 clearly distinguish permeable zones. example, this time recorded in the
emit considerable red track 3 presents the porosity data from Lagunillas Formation in Lake Maracaibo.
fluorescence. Platform Express and CMR, the CMR free-fluid Along with the blue and red fluorescence,
porosity being shaded in yellow. The FLT shown in track 3, a caliper log is displayed
curves are presented in track 4, and show the in track 1, showing a rather rugose hole
power level of blue fluorescence (blue curve) with no significant mudcake buildup.
and red fluorescence (red curve).
5 48
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E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
The high-resolution resistivity curves B0, B1 content in the upper sandstone. There are
and B2 provided by the MCFL sensor of the several types of shale layers in this well. Low-
Platform Express confirm the densely lami- resistivity shales are seen at 2665 and 2600 ft.
nated nature of the formation sandstones They exhibit almost no red or blue fluores-
and the flushing of the near wellbore vol- cence. (The fluorescence signals in these zones
ume by mud filtrate, as shown in the ELAN are baseline.) Likewise, in the low-resistivity
evaluation presented in track 4. The CMR T2 shales at 2490 and 2520 ft, there is very little
distribution shown in track 5 shows very signal. In contrast, the high-resistivity shaly
short T2 times, confirming that we are in the sandstone section between 2590 and 2530 ft
presence of heavy oil reservoirs. exhibits a high level of red fluorescence
Comparison between the MCFL response broadly correlating with resistivity variations.
and the FLT fluorescence curves confirms the However, the blue fluorescence remains non-
very high resolution of the optical measure- zero and relatively invariant in this section.
ment. Interestingly, the mechanical design of Perhaps the upper sandstone and to some
the optical windows proves to be relatively degree the high-resistivity shale contain some
immune to the borehole rugosity seen in this blue fluorescing crude oil.
well. Even in the more rugose sections, the In this Venezuelan example, fluores-
small FLT optical windows maintain contact cence has provided additional information
with the formation and provide us with a on the formations beyond the detection of
continuous reading of fluorescence. hydrocarbon-bearing intervals.
Fluorescence in the reservoir sections is
very high. The lower reservoir gives out a Conclusion
very strong red signal, and a somewhat lower The application of fluorescence in the oil
blue fluorescence, consistent with what is patch has had a long and continuing life.
expected in the heavy Lagunillas oils. In Many have dreamt of a continuous wireline
comparison, the upper sandstone shows a fluorescence log; this is the first attempt to
reduced fluorescence level. This is probably make this a reality. The feasibility and the
because this sandstone is shalier, has a higher potential of fluorescence logging are evident
irreducible water saturation as shown by the in our field examples. Fluorescence logging is
ELAN, and by and large has been more at a very early stage of development; the exact
deeply invaded than the lower sandstone. utility of fluorescence logging for particular
Interestingly, the reduction in fluores- fields will have to be established and may
cence appears to be higher for red than for depend on local field and wellbore condi-
blue. Perhaps this is due to the different oils tions. This effort in fluorescence logging will
contained in the two sandstones. Perhaps this be continued with the intention of increasing
phenomena is related to the increased shale measurement robustness and expanding the
utility of the fluorescence log.
This chapter was written by V.Patel (BP de Venezuela), E.Decoster, A.Douglas, R.Chambers,
O.Mullins, Xu Wu, M.Kane, P.Rabbito, T.Terabayashi, N.Itagaki and J.Singer.
with contributions from D.Flores, J.C.Porras and A.di Massimo (Corpoven), A.Lamus,
C.Curtis and T.Clancy (Petrozuata), O.Ortiz, A.Khayan and R.Sanseviero.
5 49
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REFERENCES
5 50
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Chapter 6
Chapter overview
Saturation through casing
Porosity through casing
Lithology through casing
Permeability and pressure
Advances in production logging
Hydraulic integrity
Permanent monitoring systems:
Extending the life of a reservoir
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
6 1
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S AT U R AT I O N T H R O U G H C A S I N G
Sf=(1-Vcl–f)Sma+VclScl+fSwSw+f(1-Sw)Sh (2)
6 2
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
6 3
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S AT U R AT I O N T H R O U G H C A S I N G
Alpha processing
Water
Spectral processing is hampered by
large statistical uncertainties and requires
very low logging speeds to ensure that
enough gamma rays are measured.
0 2 4 6 8
Energy (Me V) Another approach uses broad energy
windows in the gamma ray spectrum across
RST spectra obtained in an oil tank and a water tank. The broad energy windows
the region of the predominant C or O peaks
used across the region of the predominant C and O peaks are indicated.
(Fig. 6.1). This method gives better statistical
precision but the interpretation is prone to
Figure 6.2
bias. The windows do not only represent C
and O, but are strongly influenced by other
VUOI-COR
ELAN effective porosity VUOI-WIN
elements present in the formation and by the
Depth –10 (p.u.) 40 VUOI-ALFA gamma radiation induced by the tool itself.
(ft) –20 (p.u.) 70
Consequently, the ratio from the C and O
windows is very dependent on environmental
effects, especially borehole effects such as
3650
washouts and cement integrity.
To improve the statistical precision with-
out losing accuracy, a method called “Alpha
3675 Processing” combines the windows and spec-
tral processing to obtain an accuracy com-
parable to the C/O yields ratio and a pre-
3700 cision comparable to the C/O windows ratio.
Figure 6.2 shows for one well the
formation porosity with the volume of oil
3725
computed from the yields (VUOI-COR) and
windows (VUOI-WIN) ratios, and the same
volume resulting from alpha processing
(VUOI-ALFA). VUOI-WIN exhibits sub-
Alpha processing results in an accurate volume of oil with low statistical variations. stantially fewer statistical variations than
6 4
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
6 5
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S AT U R AT I O N T H R O U G H C A S I N G
6 6
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
6 7
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S AT U R AT I O N T H R O U G H C A S I N G
at this well.
800
600
400
200
0
0 100 200 300 400
6 8
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,
,
E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
,,
@@
A
ÀÀ
Á
B
C
Â
Ã
,
B
Â
Figure 6.8 The interpretation of the RST survey RST
performed over the Naricual Inferior (Fig.
,
Water 6.8) shows a waterflood profile very
Moved oil
Oil
Water Water different from the previous example. The
Sand
water front does not uniformly progress in
,,
,
@
A
C
BB
À
Á
Ã
ÂÂ ,
@
À
Oil Oil
Sw RST Bound water
,
Perfs.
100 (p.u.) 0 Fluid analysis Fluid analysis Clay the reservoir. Some sandstones are almost
from RST from OH logs
Depth Permeability Sw OH Volume analysis completely invaded with injection water (7
(ft) 0 (md) 200 100 (p.u.) 0 25 (p.u.) 0 25 (p.u.) 0 0 (p.u.) 100
and 8), others are partially flooded (4, 6, and
,
10), and sandstones of lower porosity
A
Á
,,
@@
ÀÀ
1 exhibit the original reservoir oil saturation
,
(2, 3, 4, 12, and 13).
2
In track 1 of Fig. 6.8 is the average
15,300 permeability, computed from openhole logs,
for each perforated sandstone. It is clear that
BB
C
ÂÂ
Ã
A
Á
,,
@@
ÀÀ
the injected water has flushed the oil in
,
3
high-permeability sandstones (7 and 8)
,
without reaching those that were less
4 permeable.
BB
C
ÂÂ
Ã
A
Á
,,
@@
ÀÀ
15,400
These results led Lagoven to plan a work-
5
over on the well instead of simply shutting in
the long string. The workover consisted of
,
,
6 injecting a polymer in the flooded sandstones
to block the water migration.
Based on the findings in well FUL-29,
7 the perforation strategy was revised in both
15,500
new injector and producer wells. In the
,
injectors, the high-permeability sandstones
,
are now perforated with a lower shot density
,,
,
@
A
BB
C
À
Á
ÂÂ
à ,
@
À
8
,
15,600
Conclusion
10
ÁÂÀAB@,,,ÂÀB@,
ÃÂÂ
CBB
A crucial piece of information for
reservoir monitoring is water saturation.
11
By combining and improving two techniques
12 to obtain this information, the RST is a break-
through in cased-hole logging. Sigma logging
13
15,700 can quickly provide Sw in formations
with known and high water salinity.
C/O logging is the alternative in reservoirs
RST log interpretation in well FUL-29. with low formation water salinity or under
water injection.
6 9
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S AT U R AT I O N T H R O U G H C A S I N G
RST
Neutron
Inelastic scattering Excited
6.10a Mode for measuring marker Fig. 6.11
burst
nucleus
Counts
Fast neutrons from the
pulsed neutron generator C
6.10b Thermalization
collide inelastically with 60
Fast
neutron
Nucleus formation nuclei, losing Net inelastic =
B
some of their energy and A – bB
Counts
40
emitting gamma rays of Net inelastic
B
Counts
Primarily H (mass close to neutron mass) characteristic energy (6.10a).
C
The spectrum, or number 20 A
O
Neutron
Counts
Energy
Excited
nucleus A
rays, is measured by the
Slow Nucleus 0
neutron detectors during the neutron Energy
6.10d Activation
6 10
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
RST
Counts
precise time of arrival of a high S marker
can be measured.
Time
Short burst Long burst
Fig. 6.14
Counts
Fig. 6.13
6 11
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Various methods are used to obtain poros- Compressional and shear slownesses (Dtc
ity in old wells. If an adequate modern open- and Dts) can also be measured through casing
hole logging suite is available, it is usually and transformed into porosity. When cement-
sufficient to rely on the openhole porosity. ation is very good or when the formation is
However, in many cases the openhole logging faster than the casing, the first arrival can be
suite is insufficient or non-existent. In other used to determine Dtc. However, this is not
cases, the openhole porosity is no longer ac- generally reliable and it is recommended to
curate; for example, carbonates that have been record full waveforms and process accord-
acidized. Nuclear and acoustic measurements ingly (see the DSI box, page 4–33). The last
must then be used to determine the porosity. section describes how the DSI can be tuned
The most commonly used technique is a and processed to give optimum results in
neutron-type porosity measurement. Such these conditions, and shows one example.
measurements are relatively insensitive to the
casing and the cement, and can be charac- Porosity from RST
terized so as to remove these effects. The In the sigma mode, the RST makes a
most convenient is a through-tubing measure- pulsed neutron capture measurement that
ment, such as from the 111⁄16-in. or 21⁄2-in. RST . can be used to determine porosity. As
The next section describes the described in the RST box (page 6.10), the
characterization and processing of this neutron generator emits a short and a long
measurement and shows an example in a burst that are recorded at each detector.
complicated completion. Density tools are Figure 6.15a shows typical time decay spectra
also used. However, in general, the effects of for the short burst at the near detector, while
casing and cement are significant, and unless Fig. 6.15b shows spectra for the long burst at
the cement bond is excellent, the results are the far detector. It is clear that the slope of
considered unreliable. the short burst/near detector decay is strongly
dependent on borehole salinity, whereas the
long burst/far detector is not.
Figure 6.15
Borehole Borehole
salinity salinity
0 kppm
Count rate
Count rate
0 kppm
Short
burst
a.) Typical signal decay from the short burst of the RST near b.) Typical signal decay from the long burst of the RST far
detector for different borehole salinities. detector for different borehole salinities. Note the time scale.
The short burst decay is already completed before the start of
this figure.
6 12
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Figure 6.17 where CID is the casing inside diameter, Tcsg processed (see page 6–4) to improve pre-
is the casing thickness, Tcem is the cement cision, using SFFC as the accurate measure-
60
thickness, and Lith is the lithology. In the past, ment and SFFA as the more precise one.
50
6 14
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Figure 6.19
225
200
150
15,000
125
100
75
50
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (ms )
0
S / T line
150 3660
S / T Plane : P & S (Rec.)
(Depth = 15,109.8 ft)
225
200
15,100
150
125
100
75
50
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (ms )
0
S / T line
150 3660
S / T Plane : P & S (Rec.)
15,200 (Depth = 15,204.8 ft)
225
200
150
125
100
75
50
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (ms )
15,300
6 15
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6 16
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A DSI was run in a 7-in. casing lying The results of processing are shown in Fig. 6.20
within an 81⁄2-in. hole with washouts up to 15 alongside the openhole data recorded some
in. The shear was obtained from the upper years earlier. The compressional slowness
dipole mode, and the compressional from the P (DTCO)isdisplayedonascalethatiscompatible
and S mode, which was run using a 5-kHz with the density. The openhole density and the
doublet. The data shown in Fig. 6.19 is from the cased hole compressional overlay very well in
P and S mode. The waveform in track 3 shows the cleanest sand around 15,230 ft, and also
a strong constant arrival above 15,080 ft. This is follow each other opposite the zone of strong
the casing signal. Below 15,080 ft. the casing casing signal above 15,080 ft. The Vp/Vs ratio
signal is barely visible, while the formation (=Dts /Dtc) is in the range expected throughout
compressional and sometimes the shear are the log. These results confirm the quality of the
clearly seen. These results are also seen in the compressional and shear measurements. With
S/T planes in track 4 and the S/T projection in this data the operator was able to evaluate the
track 2. In the middle S/T plane at 15,109.8 ft. mechanical properties of his reservoir and the
peaks can be seen for all four arrivals. The shear surrounding formations.
is missing from the top S/T plane and the casing
from the bottom one.
The waveforms were first processed
through a waveform separation module
(WAVSEP), using a median filter to detect and
then remove the casing signal. Standard STC
processing was then applied to find Dtc and Dts.
6 17
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Clay wt%
The wide range in slope can be seen by
50
comparing Wells 1 and 2. An extrapolation
to pure clay would give a GR reading of
0
about 100 API units in Well 1, while it would
100
Well 5 Well 6 Well 7 Well 8 read about 500 API units in Well 2. The
Clay wt%
range in offsets, or zero clay readings, can
50
be seen by comparing Well 4 and Well 12.
The offset is 30 API units in Well 4, whereas
0
100
in Well 12 an extrapolation gives 70 API
Well 9 Well 10 Well 11 Well 12 untis. Such variations are well known and
Clay wt%
6 18
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Clay (wt%)
50 in Well 3. Of the three elements thorium,
uranium and potassium (Th, U and K) that
make up the natural GR signal, only K shows
0
0 10 20 0 5 10 0 2.5 5 a better correlation than the total GR.
Thorium (ppm) Uranium (ppm) Potassium (wt%) Aluminum (Al) correlates well, and silica (Si)
100
anti-correlates well except for a few points
Clay (wt%)
found:
50
Clay=1.67(100-SiO2 -CaCO3 -MgCO3 -1.99Fe) (5)
0 The result is shown in Fig. 6.23, where
100
Well 5 Well 6 Well 7 Well 8 the estimated clay from equation (5) is plotted
against the measured clay. The estimate has a
Clay wt%
50
correlation coefficient of 0.94 and a standard
error of 6.9 wt%, and is an improvement over
0 the GR estimate shown in Fig. 6.21. The
100
Well 9 Well 10 Well 11 Well 12 scatter is drastically reduced, particularly at
low clay concentrations where clay estimation
Clay wt%
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Figure 6.24 The remainder of the rock is divided into These observations provide the basis for
carbonate (calcite + dolomite) and quartz- a practical, convenient through-casing lith-
100
feldspar-mica. For the carbonate fraction, the ology measurement. Spectroscopy has been
6 20
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.26 The other elemental yield that normally Yields to elemental concentrations
needs a casing or cement correction is Ca. Unfortunately, because the total signal
350
The size of this signal is more variable, but depends on the environment, the yields are
300
an estimate can be made with knowledge of not measurements of the absolute concen-
250
the borehole and casing size. The correction trations of each element, but indicators of the
Frequency
200
ranges from 0 to about 0.10. This well has a relative concentrations. However, the two are
150
5.5-in. casing in an 8.5-in. hole, for which related by the equation:
100
the laboratory data indicates a cement
50 Wi = F Yi /Si (7)
contribution to the Ca of about 0.05.
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 The histogram correction technique is where Wi is the absolute weight fraction of
Fe yield also used to make the Ca cement correction, element i, Yi is the relative yield for element i
Histogram of the far detector but the correction is taken near the peak as measured by the tool, Si is the relative
capture Fe yield. instead of at the leading edge of the data sensitivity of the measurement to element i,
distribution. If significant formation Ca exists, and F is a normalization factor. The relative
Figure 6.27 it would show up as either an asymmetrical sensitivities, Si, are tool constants that can be
300 tail or a second peak in the histogram. measured in the laboratory. The normalization
250
The histogram of the Ca yields is shown in factor, F, is a complex function of nearly every
Fig. 6.27, from which a value of 0.045 was physical parameter of the borehole/formation
200
Frequency
selected. Note that these corrections are environment, and has to be derived at each
150
about an order of magnitude smaller than the level. As in earlier techniques, F is determined
100 Fe casing corrections. by an oxide closure model. This is based on
50 The corrected yields, after truncating at the principle that the sum of the weight
0 zero, are shown in Fig. 6.28. Note that the Ca percent of all oxides must be 1. The weight
–0.1 –0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
yields have dropped to nearly zero, but most percentage of an oxide can be determined
Ca yield
of the well still has significant Fe. from that of its element using an oxide
Histogram of the far detector
association factor. Then, using equation (7),
capture Ca yield.
the oxide closure model can be written as:
10,400
clay and hence to the amount of Fe.
Therefore, XFe is chosen to compensate for
10,500 these missing oxides such that the left-hand
side of the equation does sum to 1.
10,600
The value used is based on empirical
10,700 observation from a very large range of core
samples from different environments. XFe
10,800
–0.1 0 0.1 –0.1 0 0.1 0 0.2 0.4 –0.1 0 0.1 –0.1 0 0.1 0 0.2 0.4 also takes into account the contamination of
Silicon Calcium Iron + .14Al Sulfur Titanium Gadolinium the Fe yield by Al mentioned above.
Capture yields from the far detector, after casing and cement correction.
6 21
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Depth (ft)
tools, although recent work shows this can be
10,400
done. However, as discussed above, the sum
10,500 (Ca + 1.455Mg) is independent of whether
there is calcite or dolomite, which is the same
10,600 as saying that this sum equals the Ca
measured by logs. Therefore, the log Ca can
10,700 be used to estimate the total carbonate.
0 50 0 20 40 0 10 20 0 10 20 0 2 4 0 20 40
Silicon Calcium Iron + .14Al Sulfur Titanium Gadolinium Second, the optimization for clay percentage
(wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (ppm) needs to allow for the fact that the
Fe measurement is contaminated by Al.
Elemental Concentration Logs computed with SpectroLith are compared with cores.
Equations (5) and (6) are therefore modified
as follows:
Thus, while the normal oxide association
factor for Fe is 2.075, the one used in the Clay (log) =1.91 ( 100 - SiO2
above model is typically close to 6. - CaCO3 - 1.99Fe) (9)
The model as described is suitable for shaly
Carbonate (log) = -7.5 + 2.69Ca (10)
sandstone intervals. In carbonates and
evaporites, further refinements are made to Quartz - Feldspar - Mica = 1 - Clay
account properly for dolomite and anhydrite. - Carbonate (11)
The elemental concentration logs
In the case of sandstones rich in feld-
computed using this processing are presented
spar or mica, such as Wells 11 and 12, the
in Fig. 6.29 as solid blue curves. Core data are
alternative clay computation is as follows:
presented as red dots for comparison. In
general, the correlation between core and log Clay2(log)=
data is quite good. It is particularly good -18.5+3.34(100-SiO2 -CaCO3 -1.99Fe) (12)
considering that the data were obtained
The results for Well 3 are shown in Fig.
through casing with a 111⁄16-in. tool. Both the
6.30, and are compared with core data
core and log data distinguish the silica-rich
acquired with FT-IR measurements. For the
sandstones (Si > 40 wt%) from the shales.
sandstones and shaly sandstones, where the
Both data sets show the near-absence of Ca.
quartz-feldspar-mica component is greater
The Ca peak at 10,650 ft actually represents a
than 70 wt%, the core and log data agree
cement-filled washout that can be identified
very well. The absence of calcite and
on the openhole caliper. The Fe, Ti and Gd
dolomite is clear in both the core and log
logs all agree reasonably well with core.
data. The SpectroLith interpretation correctly
quantifies the clay content in the sandstones
and shaly sandstones where accurate
quantification is most critical. In the shales,
the SpectroLith clay quantity is somewhat
lower than the core data.
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
10,500
The SpectroLith processing was auto-
matic. As can be seen, the two log estimates
agree well between X855 ft and X885 ft.
10,600
Elsewhere, and in spite of the scaling factor,
the GR gives too high a clay percentage by
10,700
0 50 100 0 50 100 0 50 100 about 10 to 20 wt%. Furthermore, it shows
Clay (wt%) Carbonate (wt%) Quartz-Feld-Mica (wt%) excursions, such as at X760 ft and X815 ft,
Mineral weight percentage which would be interpreted as sealing shales,
The response of the GR log can be
computed with SpectroLith, but which are not shales at all. SpectroLith
judged from the core measurements, shown
and compared with cores. gives a better picture of the reservoir.
as Well 3 in Fig. 6.21. It can be seen both
from Fig. 6.21 and the SpectroLith results in
Summary
Fig. 6.30 that there are no entirely clean
In shaly sandstone intervals, it is impor-
zones. This will make an empirical pick of
tant to know the percentage of clay to estimate
GRmin very difficult without core data. Even
porosity, saturation and permeability. Very
with core data, it can be seen from Fig. 6.21
often the clay percentage is estimated from the
that the GR regularly overestimates the clay
GR. However, it has been shown that the GR
in the sandstones (clay wt% < 30%).
is unreliable as a quantitative estimator of clay.
Another example comparing the two
This is especially true in old wells where core
techniques is shown in Fig. 6.31. In this well,
and other logs are not often available to
from the Orinoco Belt, the large number of
calibrate and help interpret the response.
An alternative technique is to use
Figure 6.31
capture GR spectroscopy yields from an RST
100
GR
tool. Using the SpectroLith procedure, these
90 Spectrolith yields can be turned into elemental and
80
mineralogical concentrations. Based on
70
examples from Lake Maracaibo and the
Clay (wt%)
60
Orinoco Belt, it has been shown that more
50
40
accurate clay percentages can be obtained by
30 this technique. This improvement was
20 significant in enhancing the reservoir
10 evaluation, so that potentially good zones
0 were not falsely judged to be poor quality
X650 X700 X750 X800 X850 X900
Depth (ft) reservoir, and so that facies with high GR
were not treated as reservoir barriers.
Clay weight percentage in a Orinoco Belt well from SpectroLith, GR and cores.
The SpectroLith value clearly agrees more closely with the cores.
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In the last three sections we have seen After the direct methods described
how to obtain water saturation, porosity and above, the next-best solution is to use
lithology in old wells. Two important indirect methods; for example, estimating
components of the formation evaluation are permeability from logs and pressure from a
missing—the permeability and pressure. nearby new well. In new wells there are
These are also some of the hardest data to several ways of estimating permeability from
obtain. Both can be derived from a build-up logs—from the CMR tool and from the
test. This is straightforward in a single-layer Stoneley wave (Chapter 4) or from porosity
reservoir (e.g., Permanent Monitoring, page and mineralogy. Unfortunately, in many old
6–41). However, in a multilayer reservoir, wells adequate openhole logs are not
several different layers are usually open to available. However, with the methods
flow. Isolating and testing each zone is described above of determining porosity and
difficult and expensive. Special tests may be lithology through casing, it is now possible
made. In the Selective Inflow Performance to estimate permeability in old wells. These
(SIP) test, production logs measure the methods of estimating pressure and perme-
contribution of each layer at different ability are discussed with an example below.
surface flow rates. From this data, the in-
flow performance relationship and the Permeability
formation pressure of each layer can be The link between porosity, mineralogy
derived. In a Layered Reservoir Test (LRT) and permeability is provided by the so-
the pressure and flow rate of a layer are called L parameter, which relates perme-
recorded versus time while a step change in ability to L and Archie’s formation factor F
the flow rate is induced at the surface by as follows (Johnson et al., 1986):
changing choke size. After this is repeated
KL = L2 / 8F and 1/L = S / Vp (14)
for each layer, the permeability, skin and
reservoir pressure of each layer can be where S is the surface area and Vp the
estimated. The interpretation is complex. volume of the pores. The ratio S/Vp is
The zones must be isolated, and flow rates related to the total porosity, grain density
must be reasonably high to get sufficient and specific surface area of the rock (in units
accuracy. Clearly these types of tests cannot of m2/g) as:
give information about zones not open to
S/Vp = S0 rg f / (1-f) (15)
flow. However, many successful examples of
both SIP and LRT have been published. Furthermore, minerals have fairly
A cased-hole wireline formation test is a unique and constant specific surface areas,
possible solution for unperforated zones. S0i, which may be determined by laboratory
The tool is set opposite the zone to be tested analysis. Thus, the total specific surface area
and a hydraulically operated drill bit is used S0 can be computed from the mineral
to drill a hole through the casing to the zone abundances Mi, as:
to be tested. After the test, the hole is
S0 = S Mi S0i (16)
plugged with a Lee plug. As in the openhole,
such tests can measure formation pressure The above equations can be combined
and a permeability close to the borehole to give a direct expression for permeability:
wall. However, the zone tested must still
KL = A f (m+2) / (rg2 (1-f) 2 S Mi ni S0i ) (17)
be well isolated from other zones behind
the casing.
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
11,000 Example
The example shown in Fig. 6.33 is from
Bloque IV in the Maracaibo Basin. VLD-1112
is a new well and VLD-775 is an old well in
11,100 Shell
core data the same block. An extensive study of cores
Maraven
core data
and logs in this area led to a new definition
of layers for the reservoir, shown as layers I
11,200
0 50 100 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10,000 to XII on the left. This layering was strongly
Clay (wt %) Permeability (md) confirmed by the MDT* Modular Formation
Dynamics Tester pressures recorded in VLD-
Comparison of core and
The factor n was introduced to account 1112. Some layers are clearly much more
K-L permeability for a
for low predictions in shalier sandstones. It depleted than others. The permeabilities
Lower Lagunillas well
has been suggested that in these sandstones were estimated with the K-L method using
(Herron, 1995).
not all the specific area participates in the the openhole mineral volumes.
flow. Much better fits to core data are The old well, VLD-775, is about 1 km
achieved if the specific area is reduced by SE of VLD-1112 and was drilled in 1978.
n, which is between 0.1 and 0.2 for clays After producing about 5 MMBbl of oil it
and 1 for non-clays. Figure 6.32 shows a recently showed a large increase in gas cut.
comparison of the K-L prediction and core The fluids in the different layers at the time of
for a Lower Lagunillas well. the original openhole and a recent RST are
summarized on the right of Fig 6.33. In this
case, the openhole logging suite was
sufficient to make a reasonable estimate of
porosity and lithology. The permeability in
track 2 was derived from the mineralogy and
the K-L model. The correlation between the
two wells is based on the new layer model,
6 25
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Figure 6.33
VLD – 775
Openhole 12 ⁄ 78
Hist + RST 4 ⁄ 94
VLD – 1112
6 ⁄ 94 2 ⁄ 79
12 ⁄ 91
Member
Layer
2 ⁄ 79
Layer
Sand
Layer SP
MDT Pressure (psig)
Average -80 -20
GR 1050 1300
Porosity and md
K (md) GR KINT (md)
0 (gAPI) 120 Depth Permeability
(ft) 1.00 10000. 0 120 ft 1 10000
Laguna
10,400
f =19% XII
XII
k =31 md
f =18% 10600 XI
XI k = 4 md
L X
f =19%
X k =152 md
10,500 IX
IX f =23%
k = 306 md
VIII
Lagunillas I nferior
VIII
10700
f =16% VII
VII
k= 3 md
f= 16% VI
,
M VI
k = 2 md
10,600
V
V f= 22%
k =1498 md
IV IV
III 10800
III
f 24%
10,700 k 1585 md II
N II
I
I
Open perforations Closed perforations
Sequence boundary Oil Gas Water
Flooding surface
Other marker
Indirect estimates of dynamic properties in an old well (VLD-775). Permeability is from openhole measurements and pressure by correlation
with the new well VLD-1112, (after Bryant, et al, 1996).
using the layer VIII shale as a datum horizon. All the formation characteristics needed
The tops were refined and made consistent to make a sound decision about VLD-775
with flow units using the permeability. are now known: porosity, lithology,
Note that if the correlation had been based permeability, current fluid saturations and
on GR alone, layers II to VI would have layer pressures.
been harder to define. With this correlation
we can take the layer pressures from VLD-
1112 as our best estimate of the layer
pressures in VLD-775.
6 26
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Figure 6.35 The tools could not descend below 5423 ft,
probably because of sand or an obstruction.
Water Thus, the lowest perforated interval could not
Moved oil be logged. After the well had stabilized,
Average BUB count Perforated Oil
zones
several passes and stations were recorded.
0 (cps) 500 Sand
Depth
Fluid density Spinner velocity Water phase Clay Figure 6.35, track 5 shows the inter-
(ft)
.5 (g / cm3) 1.5 0 (rps) 20 Oil phase Bound water preted results based on the RST and the
Hold up Average holdup Fluid temperature Flow rate Combined model
image 0
original openhole logs (Induction, Density,
(%) 1 177 (oF) 183 0 (B / D) 750 1 (V / V) 0
Neutron and GR). They show partial drain-
A
age of oil in most sandstones, with some-
what less in the upper sandstones and in the
upper part of the sandstone from 5292 ft to
B 5346 ft. No gas was detected. However, on
the basis of the RST alone, it is difficult to
C
decide what action to take.
Figure 6.35 also shows the production
logs while the well was flowing. Track 1
contains the FloView hold-up image and
track 2 contains the average hold-up and
D bubble count from the FloView, together with
the fluid density from the gradiomanometer.
Track 3 contains the spinner, the temperature
and the perforated intervals. Track 4 shows
the oil and water flow rates based principally
on the FloView hold-up and the spinner. The
FloView hold-up in track 2 reads slightly less
E than 1 from the bottom, suggesting an influx
of water with a small amount of oil from the
F lower, obstructed interval. The bubble count
curve and image also show that there is a
G small flow of oil, while the gradiomanometer
shows no variation. The perforated interval
labeled E contributes some water, as does
most of interval D. At the very top of this
An example of a DEFT log Before planning how to enhance pro-
interval, the FloView clearly identifies the first
run in a well in western duction, it was decided to determine the
major entry of oil that is also detected by the
Venezuela. remaining oil saturation in the different
gradiomanometer. Interval C produces mainly
sandstones and the source of the high water
water. The interval B produces some water
cut (80%). Therefore, the well was shut in
and oil. This oil influx is not detected by the
and a combined production logging string
gradiomanometer, as the density shows
(Manometer-Thermometer-Gradiomano-
no significant reduction. The oil entry at A
meter-Spinner) and RST were run over the
also has no perceivable effect on the
perforated interval. The well was then put
measured density.
back on production and a production logging
string with FloView was run in the well.
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
GR
neling downward from the upper sandstone.
0 (gAPI) 200 The five stations clearly show downward flow
Perforations Depth Water velocity up Water velocity down originating from between 11,739 and 11,824 ft,
(ft) 0 (ft ⁄ min) 20 0 (ft ⁄ min) 20
presumably from the sandstone at 11,770 ft. or
at 11,790 ft (track 4, Fig 6.37). Only the WFL
technique could have determined the source
of water in such a case.
12,200
and flow may enter and leave the liner as a
function of the openhole geometry, which
Time (sec) may easily be confused with production or
12,300
cross-flow. Furthermore, as discussed above,
the traditional gradiomanometer cannot be
used to measure hold-up.
An example of a WFL
Figure 6.37 shows an example of a WFL Therefore, a new production logging
showing water flowing down
acquired in a well in Western Venezuela. The tool string was designed specifically for
from an upper zone, and not
well was producing 258 B/D of water and 172 horizontal well logging. First, the mechanics
up from a lower zone.
B/D of oil from an interval that was not of fluid flow in a horizontal well were
expected to have such a large water cut. studied. This involved making experiments
with oil and water mixtures in a flow-loop.
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Flow rate (B ⁄ D)
processed into an image that leads to a
1500 direct measurement of phase hold-up.
0.5
The FloView measurements corres-
0.74 0.63 0.48 0.40
ponding to the flow-loop conditions of
Fig. 6.38 are shown in Fig. 6.40. It can
600
be seen that the percentage of the pipe
1
0.87 0.68 0.34 0.21
cross-section occupied by the segre-
80¡ 89¡ 90¡ 91¡
gated oil and water phases agrees well
Deviation from vertical (deg) with the visual estimation of Fig. 6.38.
• The RST measures the neutron capture
The cross-sectional hold-up image maps are shown that were acquired with the
cross section of the borehole fluid (page
Dual-DEFT of the Flagship string during the same flow-loop experiment that is
6–13). This cross section is a linear
shown in Fig. 6.38.
combination of each phase hold-up and
capture cross section. Thus, in a two-
Figure 6.41 phase mixture, provided that there is
enough contrast between the fluids’
capture cross sections, then the hold-ups
Marker signal Near detector borehole sigma indicator
can be calculated knowing the capture
cross section of the oil and the water
• The RST also determines the COR of the
borehole fluid (page 6–4), and the ratio
of total inelastic counts from the near
and far detectors. The former is sensitive
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 to the relative volumes of water and oil,
Time (sec) while the latter is sensitive to the volume
of gas, so that by combining both it is
Oil-miscible marker possible to measure a three-phase hold-
up (oil, water and gas).
Casing
Oil
Flagship phase velocity measurements are
made as follows:
• The WFL for the water, as described
Water above.
• Phase Velocity Log (PVL). A tracer ejector
PVS Phase Velocity Sonde RST
tool (PVS) uses two miscible markers
to independently measure the oil and
An oil-soluble gadolinium-based marker is injected into the oil phase. The arrival of water velocities. The tool contains
the marker at the RST is detected by a perturbation of the capture cross section of two chambers, one that carries an
the borehole fluid. Time of flight is used to compute phase velocity. A water-soluble oil-soluble gadolinium-based com-
marker can be ejected downward for water velocity. pound, and the other that carries a water-
soluble gadolinium-based compound.
6 33
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
The study of fluid mechanics in a flow- (This assumption can be verified by using the
loop also enabled a two-phase model to be RST C/O measurement to determine the hold-
constructed for horizontal wells. This model, up of the three phases, but software was not
called Strat-Flow, enables the flow of one of yet available at the time of processing.) Figure
the phases to be estimated if the flow of the 6.43 shows the calculated oil and water flow
other phase, the fluid properties and hold- rate profiles. It can be seen that most of the
up of both phases, and the well trajectory water enters the well between 9500 and 9950 ft.
are known. The oil enters between 10,000 and 10,250 ft and
9500 to 9700 ft.
Example of a horizontal well The gas hold-up changes quite signifi-
production log cantly from flowing to shut-in. When shut-in,
The following example is from a well in the gas accumulates in the high points of the
Trinidad. The well is a horizontal producer that trajectory. During flow, the gas is distributed
is completed with 61⁄4-in. prepacked screens. A along the wellbore as an equilibrium is set up
Flagship string was run in the well without a between the frictional forces and the gravity
PVL measurement, as a tool was not available forces. Figure 6.43 also shows the cross-
at the time of the operation. This well presented sectional hold-up image maps at 9200 ft and
a real challenge for production flow profile 9000 ft. There is no change in the oil and water
determination as the well was producing oil, flow rates between these two stations, but it can
water and gas. Figure 6.43 shows the shut-in be seen that the water hold-up is 0.37 at 9200
and flowing hold-up images from the Dual- ft where the well trajectory is going downhill
DEFT tools. The presence of gas is indicated by and 0.65 at 9000 ft where the well is going
the flag that is turned on when the ratio of uphill. The water velocity increases in the
inelastic counts from the near and far detectors downhill section and decreases in the uphill
of the RST is above a certain threshold. The section, and vice-versa for the oil velocity. The
RST-WFL was used to determine the water phase flow rate, being the product of the hold-
velocity which, when combined with the water up, the velocity and the pipe cross-sectional
hold-up from the Dual-DEFT, gave the water area, remains unchanged at these two stations.
flow rate. As the PVL was not available, an These hold-up changes are exactly what has
independent oil velocity was not possible. The been observed in the flow-loop experiments
spinners were erratic, probably because of gas, discussed above. Without Flagship measure-
but in places agreed with the WFL velocity. ments, where hold-up and velocity of each
Therefore, the spinners were of little help in phase are measured, the changes in hold-up
determining the oil velocity. As the gas would have led to the erroneous interpretation
production was small, it was safe to ignore the of fluid influx.
gas and use the Strat-Flow model to determine This example demonstrates that flow
the oil flow rate. The total oil rate calculated profiles of oil and water can be obtained with
from the model agreed very well with the oil the Flagship string even in a complex three-
rate measured on the surface when converted phase environment. A standard production
to downhole conditions. This gave confidence logging string with only conventional sensors
in the assumption that the gas hold-up was would have been uninterpretable. When the
small and could be ignored in the modeling. model for interpreting RST C/O measurements
for three-phase hold-up and the gas velocity
measurement are available, wells such as this
one can be logged for full quantitative
evaluation of the oil, water and gas flow profile.
6 35
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Figure 6.43
Oil 2000
Water
Flow profile Normalized flow rate
(B ⁄ D)
Q ⁄ T ratio
Computed oil flow rate
(B ⁄ D)
7378.0ft
Phase hold-up (well flowing)
Hold-up image
(DFH)
Above 0.94
0.88 - 0.94
0.82 - 0.88
0.76 - 0.82
0.71 - 0.76
0.65 - 0.71
0.59 - 0.65
7383.0ft 0.53 - 0.59
0.47 - 0.53
10200
10300
10400
10000
8700
8800
8900
9000
9100
9200
9300
9400
9500
9600
9700
9800
9900
0.41 - 0.47
0.35 - 0.41
0.29 - 0.35
0.24 - 0.29
0.18 - 0.24
0.12 - 0.18
0.06 - 0.12
Borehole gas Below 0.06
7378.0ft
Phase hold-up (well shut-in)
Hold-up image
(DFH)
Above 0.94
0.88 - 0.94
0.82 - 0.88
0.76 - 0.82
0.71 - 0.76
0.65 - 0.71
0.59 - 0.65
0.53 - 0.59
0.47 - 0.53
0.41 - 0.47
0.35 - 0.41
0.29 - 0.35
0.24 - 0.29
0.18 - 0.24
0.12 - 0.18
0.06 - 0.12
Borehole gas Below 0.06
7383.0ft
A Flagship log run in a horizontal well in Trinidad. The hold-up images of water and oil for flow and shut-in conditions are shown
together with gas hold-up indication. The interpreted flow profile of water and oil is shown. The cross-sectional hold-up images at
9200 ft and 9000 ft indicate a difference in oil and water hold-up due to deviation changes only.
6 36
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HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
The evaluation of an old well is not the casing, we still may not be able to shut off
complete without a check of hydraulic the water production. It then becomes
integrity. For example, measurements of important to evaluate the quality of the
saturation behind casing and flow within the cement and the casing before designing a
well may tell us exactly which zones have workover program.
been charged by injection water and which Cement evaluation logs are often run
still have producible oil. However, if there is after the primary cement job to check that it
,,,
communication behind the pipe or a leak in was successful and to provide an input into
ÃÃÃ
CCC
BBB
ÂÂÂ
AAA
ÁÁÁ
,,,
@@@
ÀÀÀ
the better design of future jobs. It is
Figure 6.44 generally accepted that a good primary
cement job is the single most important
Formation
factor in ensuring hydraulic integrity, since
CCC
ÃÃÃ
BBB
ÂÂÂ
AAA
ÁÁÁ
,,,
@@@
ÀÀÀ
,,,
Cement Casing
remedial cement jobs are difficult, expensive
and not always successful. However, cement
The principle of the
can deteriorate, particularly when it was not
USIT: a) a rotating
Acoustic well set in the first place, and when it
beam transducer,
CCC
ÃÃÃ
BBB
ÂÂÂ
AAA
ÁÁÁ
,,,
@@@
ÀÀÀ
contains channels or microfractures that
,,,
,
Transducer b) casing resonance
allow acids and damaging fluids to act on it.
Rotation and reflections,
Metal
Regular mud acid has been used in many
c) received signal
a)
plate Venezuelan sandstone reservoirs to remove
with large first
drilling mud residues and formation fines
,,
@@
A
BB
C
ÀÀ
Á
ÂÂ
Ã
echo and cement-
(Chapter 7–31). Alternatively, pressure
,
dependent signals.
cycles during injectivity tests and stimulation
can break down a cement bond.
In old wells there is very often no
,,
@@
A
BB
C
ÀÀ
Á
ÂÂ
Ã
information on the quality of the original
Zsteel cement. Even if there is, it is not safe to
Zmud Zcem
Vsteel
Vmud
a
assume that the quality is still good. In
addition, the casing can be corroded and
have holes. Corrosive formation fluids are
not common in Venezuela, but the arrival of
b) injection water or the use of a well for
Transducer Mud Casing Cement Formation injection can cause problems. Cement
quality can be checked by the traditional
Cement sonic technique and by the more recent
Water
ultrasonic methods. Ultrasonics can also be
used to check casing quality, as can a variety
of other techniques. The following sections
tc
describe sonic and ultrasonic techniques
Amplitude
c)
with examples.
50 60 70 80 90
Time (µsec)
6 37
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HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
t
3
en
and less sensitivity to environmental effects. It
em
tc
uses a rotating transducer that fires an
gh
y
Slurr
Li
Impedance (MRAY)
ultrasonic pulse at the casing, causing it to
resonate at a frequency between 200 and 700
2
max kHz (Fig. 6.44a). The main echo is from the
WBM
inner casing wall (Fig. 6.44b and c). The time
Fluids of arrival, tc, is used to measure the internal
casing radius. It is also used to normalize the
1 Diesel signal for environmental effects such as
temperature, pressure and mud attenuation.
The shape of the resonance depends mainly
Gas 200 bar on the acoustic impedances and velocities of
0 the mud (Zmud and Vmud), the casing (Zsteel
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
and Vsteel), and Zcemf. The mud properties are
Slurry density (g ⁄ cm3)
measured while running in the hole by turn-
Acoustic impedance versus
Cement and corrosion ing the transducer to face a metal plate and
density for typical materials
evaluation techniques analyzing the reflection. Then, knowing the
found in the casing-formation
Two main techniques are used for steel properties, a model of the resonance is
annulus.
evaluating the casing-cement bond: the built with casing thickness (d) and Zcemf, and
Cement Bond Log (CBL), which measures the iterated on with d and Zcemf as variables until
attenuation of sonic waves along the casing a good fit to the data is established. Finally,
and is sensitive to shear coupling between Zcemf is corrected for non-planar effects.
casing and cement; and pulse echo ultrasonic Figure 6.45 shows the impedance of
tools that measure the damping of a thickness materials likely to be encountered behind the
mode resonance and hence the acoustic casing. Thresholds are used to distinguish
impedance of the casing-cement bond different materials, which are then displayed
(Hayman et al., 1991). In addition, it is in different colors on the USIT image—usually
common to look at the amplitude of the red for gas, blue for liquid, and yellow to
formation arrival in the sonic wave train as an black for solids in 0.5 MRayl increments. The
indicator of the cement-formation bond. interpretation can never be entirely unambi-
The traditional sonic CBL is all-directional guous, since mud/cement mixtures (i.e.,
and so cannot detect a cement channel, which contaminated cements) can be solid but have
may appear as a relatively good bond. A more lower impedance than cement slurries. A
recent directional tool is described in the next microannulus also reduces the impedance. If
section. The CBL is sensitive to the properties it is liquid-filled, the effect is less than with a
of the fluid in the well, but this can be CBL, and it is possible to distinguish solid from
corrected by using the difference of amplitude liquid with a microannulus up to 100 mm.
between two receivers. Other factors that can
make the measurement misleading are fast
formation signals, poor centralization and a
microannulus.
6 38
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
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HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
6 40
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
17,800
6 41
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Extended Well Testing, borehole imaging, The industry’s desire to achieve optimal
horizontal well drilling and logging, etc., in reservoir management can be aided by the
an effort to understand the reservoir charac- real-time monitoring of downhole data, as
teristics early in the exploitation cycle. Once opposed to periodic acquisition. This desire,
the reservoir is put on production, it is neces- coupled with improvements in reliability and
sary to monitor the reservoir performance so cost, have led to a rapid increase in the instal-
that additional information can be obtained lation of permanent monitoring systems in
about the reservoir dynamics, and changes to recent years.
the exploitation strategy can be made in a The new Well Watcher* concept (Fig. 6.49)
timely fashion, if required. integrates surface and downhole measure-
In the past, monitoring of producing ments and gives the operator immediate access
wells has been limited mainly to periodic to key production parameters of the well.
pressure gauge surveys. Permanently in- These systems can play a major role in
stalled monitoring systems have been avail- reaching the goal of real-time monitoring and
able for more than 25 years, but the lack of control of reservoir processes.
reliability and high system cost have limited Current permanent sensors can deliver
their widespread application. Recent develop- measurements of pressure, temperature,
ments in technology have improved the flow rate and fluid density, while other
reliability to the point where a system can be sensors are under active development.
expected to last as long as the completion,
while its cost has been reduced.
Figure 6.49
Surface sensors
and controls
• Single-phase flow rate
• Valve and chok e control
• Pressure measurements
• Sand detection
Field office
• Production reports
• Alarms
• Problem identification
Head office
The Well Watcher concept.
• Field performance
6 42
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
Digital
During the entire procedure, both flow rate and downhole pressure, it is
permanent
gauge pressure integrity and gauge possible to establish the Inflow Production
operation are checked to ensure a Rate (IPR) for the upper reservoir. When the
working system. Once connected flapper valve is open, it is in contact with
Packer
and running, permanent moni- both reservoirs and the composite IPR can be
Lower toring systems begin paying back measured. In both cases, a long time
their cost in many different ways, (approximately 20 hr) is needed at each
as the following examples show. pump rate to achieve stabilized flow.
These reservoirs are under independent
The permanent gauge and Difficult field or well conditions water injection, so it is important to measure
the flapper valve allow the There are many cases in Venezuela the IPR at regular intervals. It is also
IPRs of the two reservoirs to where it is difficult or expensive to obtain important to measure pressure downhole so
be measured independently downhole data in producing wells. These as to separate the effect of the two reservoirs
and regularly. include highly deviated wells such as in the and to avoid uncertainties in the tubing
Bolivar District Coast; locations with difficult pressure drop (e.g., due to foam). The
access such as in the south of Lake permanent monitoring system solves this
Maracaibo, the south Apure area, or problem by providing a non-intrusive data-
Pedernales; and horizontal wells and gathering system that is continuously
pumping wells. available. In Venezuela, most of the extra-
In highly deviated and horizontal wells, heavy, heavy and medium oil producers
the alternative is to convey wireline or slickline have mechanical pumps.
gauges using coiled tubing. The relative costs
of the two alternatives must be considered.
In wells equipped with electrical submersible
6 44
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
4800
Pressure pulses measure the degree of communication be-
4700 tween the fault blocks. Data are used in both
4600 fields to ensure single-phase oil flow in each
Pressure (psi)
4500 fault block, to monitor and optimize well per-
4400 formance with time, to conduct transient well
4300 test analyses, and to match numerical models.
4200 Interference testing is recognized as
4100 a very useful reservoir management tool
4000 for determining reservoir compartments.
However, it is not often carried out because
Well B of the difficulty and total cost of devoting two
or more wells to the experiment for many
5060
days. Permanent systems solve much of this
Pressure (psi)
5040
problem. The data in Fig. 6.52 is from a North
5020 Effect of
short pulses
Sea field. Pressure changes of less than 5 psi
5000
are detected in a well approximately 600 m
4980 Effect of
long pulses (2000 ft) away from one being pulsed. These
4960
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 data show that although the reservoir is
June mapped as being compartmentalized, there is
generally pressure communication between
Interference test. Pressure Reservoir management
compartments.
pulses recorded in well A Complex fields require careful reservoir
Permanent pressure data have been
(top) are seen as small management. Two North Sea fields, Gullfaks
used to model the interaction between the
changes in pressure and Veslefrikk, illustrate how permanent
three oil accumulations of the Scapa Field
recorded by the permanent monitoring can help.
directly through extensive interference
gauge in well B (bottom). In Veslefrikk, commingled production
testing, and indirectly through use of the data
and injection was planned from the Brent and
in material balance and simulation studies.
Intra Dunlin Sand reservoirs to reduce total
This has resulted in a more thorough
investment. Here gauges are used in dedi-
understanding of field behavior, leading to
cated wells to monitor the two reservoirs
optimized recovery of reserves and con-
independently. Control is obtained by selec-
tinued development drilling.
tive perforation in producers and downhole
Venezuela has its fair share of complex
chokes in injectors. A carefully planned data
fields. In addition, apparently simple fields
acquisition program during the initial
can become complex once secondary
production phase provided information about
recovery projects are started. Well locations
reservoir properties, production potential and
and injection strategy can all be improved
well behavior. In addition, two of the largest
with the understanding gained from
uncertainties were partially resolved: the
continuous downhole data.
degree of communication across the main
arcuate fault, and the vertical transmissibility
between the Lower and Middle Brent through
the low-quality Rannoch sandstone.
6 45
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Pressure (kPa)
28,000 systems, bottomhole flowing pressure (BHFP)
is maintained slightly above saturation
pressure by adjusting the flow rate (Fig. 6.53).
27,000
This results in a potential increase in the
individual well production rate of 630 to 3150
3000
BOPD. In wells without permanent moni-
toring, calibrated curves based on empirical
Flow rate (m3 ⁄ d)
The state-of-the-art
Permanent monitoring systems are an
2500 important factor in a long-term effort to
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
improve recovery factors by continuous
Time (hr)
monitoring and control of the key processes
Adjusting bottomhole flowing
Production optimization in the reservoir. At the present time, most
pressure (BHFP) to maximize
Careful optimization of the producing systems allow continuous real-time measure-
oil production. As BHFP is
conditions is essential in reservoirs with oil ments of pressure and temperature at the
decreased to slightly above
near the bubble point, and with near-critical bottom of the tubing. These measurements
saturation pressure (top),
fluids. More generally in high producing alone offer significant advantages in three
daily oil production rate
wells, small improvements in the operating areas: reservoir management, production
increases (bottom).
point can significantly increase the pro- optimization, and where well conditions or
duction rate. These conditions exist in the logistics make normal wireline interventions
deep Oligocene fields of North Monagas, and too difficult or expensive.
in the Center Lake area. Permanent pressure
data makes it easier to regularly monitor and Future directions
adjust the producing conditions. For example, Current research is directed at extending
in the reservoir shown in Fig. 6.52, the bubble permanent in-situ installations to include
point of the oil in one of the zones is 3700 psi arrays with a large number of diverse
and the initial formation pressure is 4600 psi. sensors (Fig. 6.54). Arrays of sensors
So drawdown had to be less than 900 psi to distributed at many points in the reservoir
sustain gas-free production. High skin factor will allow time-varying distributions of
in the first well meant that as large a draw- reservoir properties, such as saturation and
down as possible would be needed for ade- pressure, to be continuously monitored.
quate production, introducing a further com- These measurements can eventually be used
plication. However, the pressure could be to continuously update the reservoir model
carefully monitored and production opti- for optimum reservoir management. Figure
mized to maintain reservoir pressure at 6.54 is a conceptual idea of how this might
around 40 psi above bubble point. eventually be done.
One direction is the development of
sensors in direct contact with the formation.
6 46
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E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
CONCLUSION
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REFERENCES
Saturation Permeability and Pressure
Roscoe, B.A., Stoller, C., Adolph, R.A., Cheeseborough, J.C., Hall, J.S., Bryant, I.D., Baygun, B., Coll, C., Cordova, P., Gamero de Villaroel, H.,
McKeon, D.C., Pittman, D., Seeman, B., Thomas, S.R., 1991, A new through- Hernandez, L., Herron, M.M., Jimenez, Z., Leon, K., Matteson, A.,
tubing oil saturation measurement system, Paper SPE 21413, presented at Ramamoorthy, R., Rondon, L., Stewart, L., and Tariq, S.M., 1996, Integration
the International Arctic Technology Conference, Anchorage, May 29-31, and of old and new measurements to optimize redevelopment of the Lower
the Middle East Oil Show and Conference, Bahrain, November 1991. Lagunillas reservoir of Bloque IV, Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, SPE 36096,
Presented at the Fourth Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum
Schlumberger Log Interpretation Charts, 1997, p. 7-1 to 7-17.
Conference, Port-0f-Spain, Trinidad, April.
Scott, H. D., Stoller, C., Roscoe, B. A., Plasek, R. E., and Adolph, R. A., 1991,
Johnson, D.L., Koplik, J., Schwartz, L.M., 1986, New pore-size parameter
A new compensated through-tubing carbon/oxygen tool for use in flowing
characterizing transport in porous media, Phys. Rev. Let, 57, p 2564-2567.
wells, Paper MM, Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log
Analysts 32nd Annual Logging Symposium, Midland, Texas, June 16-19. Advances in Production Logging
Stoller, C., Scott, H. D., Plasek, R. E., Lucas, A. J., and Adolph, R. A., 1993, Halford, F. R., MacKay, S., Barnett, S., and Petler, J. S., 1996, Production log-
Field tests of a slim carbon/oxygen tool for reservoir saturation monitoring, ging measurement of distributed local phase holdup, SPE Paper 35556 A,
SPE Paper 25375, Presented at the Asia Pacific Oil & Gas Conference & Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition
Exhibition, Singapore, February 8-10. held in Denver, Colorado, U.S.A., October 6-9.
Porosity through casing Roscoe, B., Lenn, C., Jones, T. G. J., and Whittaker, C., 1996, Measurement
of the oil and water flow rates in a horizontal well using chemical markers and
Locke, J. and Butler, J., 1993, Characterization of rock formations for the
a pulsed-neutron tool, SPE Paper 36563, Society of Petroleum Engineers
improved calibration of nuclear logging tools, Paper R, Transactions of the
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.,
15th European Formation Evaluation Symposium, Stavanger, Norway, May.
October 6-9.
Plasek, R. E., Adolph, R. A., Stoller, C., Willis, D. J., Bordon, E. E., and Portal,
Schlumberger, 1989, Cased Hole Log Interpretation Principles/Applications.
M. G., 1995, Improved pulsed neutron capture logging with slim carbon-oxy-
gen tools, SPE Paper 30598, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Théron, B. E. and Unwin, T., 1996, Stratified flow model and interpretation in
Conference and Exhibition held in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., October 22-25. horizontal wells, SPE Paper 36560, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.,
Lithology through casing
October 6-9.
Bhuyan, K., and Passey, Q.R., 1994, Clay estimation from GR and Neutron-
Hydraulic Integrity
Density porosity logs, Paper DDD, in Transactions of the Society of
Professional Well Log Analysts 35th Annual Logging Symposium. Hayman, A. J., Hutin, R., and Wright, P. V., 1991, High resolution cementation
and corrosion imaging by ultrasound 1191, Paper KK, Transactions of the
Herron, S.L., 1995, Method and Apparatus for determining elemental con-
Society of Professional Well Log Analysts 32nd Annual Symposium, Midland,
centrations for GR spectroscopy tools, U.S.Patent 5,471,057, November 30.
Texas, U.S.A., October.
Herron, S.L., and Herron, M.M., 1996, Quantitative lithology: An application
Hayman, A. J., Parent, P., Rouault, G., Zurquiyah, S., Verges, P., Liang, K.,
for open and cased hole spectroscopy, Paper E, Society of Professional Well
Stanke, F. E., and Herve, P., 1995, Developments in corrosion logging using
Log Analysts 37th Annual Logging Symposium Transactions.
ultrasonic imaging, Paper W, Transactions of the Society of Professional Well
Hertzog, R. C., Colson, L., Seeman, B., O’Brien, M., Scott, H., McKeon, D., Log Analysts 36th Annual Logging Symposium, Paris, France, June.
Wraight, P., Grau, J., Ellis, D., Schweitzer, J., and Herron, M., 1987,
Silva, M. G. P., Miranda, C. R., and Vincente, R., 1996, Optimization of
Geochemical logging with spectrometry tools, Paper SPE 16792, Society of
cementing and acidizing operations is the key to minimize acid damage to the
Petroleum Engineers 62nd Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition
cemented annulus, SPE Paper 36112, Presented at the 4th Latin American
Proceedings.
Petroleum Engineering Conference, Port of Spain, April.
Matteson, A., and Herron, M.M., 1993, Quantitative mineral analysis by
Permanent monitoring
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Paper SCA 9308, Society of Core
Analysts Technical Conference. Oilfield Review, Winter 1995, p. 32-47.
Roscoe, B.A., Grau, J., Cao Minh, C., and Freeman, D., 1995, Non-conven- The Search for Oil and Gas in Latin America & the Caribbean, No. 5, 1997,
tional applications of through-tubing carbon-oxygen logging tools, Paper QQ, p. 28-41.
in 34th Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log Analysts Annual
Logging Symposium.
6 48
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Chapter 7
Production Enhancement
Chapter overview
Production Enhancement Groups:
Methodology and practices
Identification of bypassed zones
Controlling water production
Maximizing fracture conductivity
Fracture optimization
Controlling fines migration
Customized perforating
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Production from an oil field can be The first section describes the methodology
enhanced by many different actions involving and practices of a PEG.
technologies from reservoir management Subsequent sections discuss specific
through well completion to surface facilities. techniques that have proved particularly suc-
This chapter focuses on single-well production cessful in improving production in Venezuela.
enhancement, and will show a variety of The first is a classic case of reviving a well by
techniques that have been successful in opening up zones that still contained oil, and
Venezuela. Single-well production enhance- closing zones that were producing water.
ment is concerned with improving the produc- While the basic techniques were described in
tion of individual wells, although the effect of Chapter 6, here we concentrate on how they
or on neighboring wells must always be con- were used together in a PEG approach.
sidered. However, surface facilities and overall Excess water production is a major
reservoir management are not discussed. source of poor well performance. However,
some water is often needed to sweep the
Figure 7.1 reservoir. Water control diagnostic plots can
4500 make a quick initial distinction between good
water and bad water. Two examples show
Reservoir
completion the diagnosis of bad water and its reduction
4000 by gel treatments.
Two cases of fracture optimization are
shown. The first is in high-permeability, rela-
tively unconsolidated rock where carefully
3500
Pressure (psia)
7 1
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
flowing pressure
Actual
a larger interval to reduce partial penetration
Bottomhole
• Gas lift design/
Artificial lift pump operating
performance conditions
skin. A gravel pack may be needed to
Potential
prevent sanding. A cement squeeze or gel
treatment may be needed if some zones are
Flow rate
producing unwanted water or gas, or taking
fluid. For the same reasons, poor cement-
flowing pressure
Bottomhole
Actual • Scale removal with coil ation may be enabling communication
Flow conduit tubing/acidizing
performance • Coil tubing completion behind the casing.
Production gap
• Reperforate
Actual
Completion • Gravel pack
• Squeeze cementing
lift efficiency affects the flowing well
performance 12 spf
• Acidizing
pressure and well performance. Gas lift
Potential systems and pumps may need to be replaced
Flow rate
or their operation optimized.
Potential
NODAL techniques are used to analyze
flowing pressure
Reservoir • Perforate other zones and optimize the production system. NODAL
• Drill laterals
performance • Water control analysis couples the reservoir’s capability to
Actual • Fines control
produce fluids into the wellbore with the
Flow rate capacity of tubulars to conduct fluids to the
surface, including surface piping if
The production gaps for Figure 7.3 graphically illustrates the applicable. The name reflects the discrete
different components of the production gaps for the different well locations, or nodes, at which independent
system, and typical solutions. performance components and lists some of equations can be used to describe fluid
the solutions. For example, a production gap inflow and outflow. This procedure helps
exists if the reservoir deliverability can be determine the rate that the system is capable
increased. The result is less than optimal of delivering, and shows the effect on
flow rates even with high drawdowns. production of changing parameters such as
Deliverability can be improved by increasing wellhead or separator pressure, tubing and
the effective radius of the borehole through choke sizes, perforation shot density and
hydraulic fracturing, acidizing or high- stimulation. Production can also be
performance perforators, or by damage estimated based on future reservoir condi-
removal. Identifying and opening up new tions. NODAL analysis is often used as a
zones, and drilling laterals are other ways to diagnostic tool to identify system
achieve significant production enhancement. bottlenecks—e.g., formation damage or
Fluids flow from the reservoir into completion limitations—that cause produc-
the borehole through the completion. It tivity or injectivity losses and to quantify the
includes the perforations or liner slots, expected production increase if the
the cement/borehole annulus, gravel packs restrictions are removed.
and any zone of formation damage.
7 3
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
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I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F B Y PA S S E D Z O N E S
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
shut - in
500 (high water cut)
400 sanded up
300
200
100
'81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 '89 '90 '91 '92 '93
Year
Production history of well TJ-886.
7 7
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I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F B Y PA S S E D Z O N E S
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figures 7.10 and 7.11 These intervals with near-initial oil satura-
tions are clear examples of bypassed oil
caused by an irregular water front.
–500
The Sigma passes found the sandstone
Contaminated body at 2400 to 2430 ft to be invaded with gas
Liquid
Gaseous Acoustic impedance (see the count rate indicator, CRRA, in the
Gas with thresholds (AIKB)
Bonded
depth track). This is not surprising consid-
ering the pressure history of the reservoir,
10,000 and that this lens is not influenced by water
Depth Before cement squeeze After cement squeeze injection. The original perforated intervals
(ft)
were in the middle or bottom of the
sandstone for this reason.
Well repair
These excellent results enabled the
team to quickly establish a procedure to
reactivate the well. The integrity of the
2450 cement sheath is crucial when producing
zones close to an active aquifer, especially in
older wells (TJ-886 was drilled in 1981).
Therefore, the first priority after recovering
the completion and gravel pack was to
monitor the cement integrity, and squeeze
more cement if necessary. Following this,
new intervals would be perforated and the
completion reinstalled.
2500
The USIT/CBL Ultra Sonic Imaging
Tool/Cement Bond Log showed poor
cement quality in the entire interval to be
completed (Fig. 7.10). Squeeze perforations
were opened from 2520 to 2525 ft and a
packer set at 2600 ft. 12 bbl of cement were
forced into the old open perforations and
circulated up to the squeeze perforations. A
2550
second USIT-CBL was run 18 hours after the
cement squeeze. It showed a successful
USIT log before the cement squeeze, USIT log after the cement squeeze, cement repair (Fig. 7.11) with a bond index
showing poor cementation throughout showing good cementation except for a of almost 1.
the interval. small zone at 2450 ft. Experience shows that these formations
need stimulation to produce properly.
In this case, the team decided to avoid
hydraulic stimulation to avoid the risk of
opening communication between the
aquifers and the open perforating intervals.
Instead, it was decided to use deep pene-
trating guns to go beyond the damaged zone.
7 9
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I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F B Y PA S S E D Z O N E S
Figure 7.12 SPAN* Schlumberger Perfo- conditions.) The Inflow Performance Relation-
ration Analysis software ship (IPR) and outflow curves indicated a
Cross section showing charge penetration depth
showed that the best option minimum of 190 BOPD of oil (Fig. 7.13).
28
was a 31⁄2-in. tubing-con- However, after the well was put back on
21
veyed deep penetrator gun, production, productivity tests showed a total
14 using 37J charges at 4 shots production of 530 BOPD with 7% water cut
per ft and 60° phasing. without choke.
7
Simulation showed that in The pay-out time of the RST log and
–28 28
this case formation pene- workover is estimated to be 35 days. The
–21 –14 –7 7 14 21
tration would be 21.4 in., cumulative recovery, taking into account
–7
which is normally enough to reservoir decline, is predicted as 500,000 bbl
–14 get past the damaged zone over three years.
(see Fig. 7.12).
–21
Underbalance is essential Conclusions
–28
Formation
Cement
to clean up perforations, TJ-886 was rejuvenated by applying new
Perforator characteristics particularly in this case, so a technology for reservoir monitoring in the dif-
Gun/Charge type : 3.5 HPG 4spf 37JUJ HMX
Gun position : Centralized
pressure differential of ficult environment of a gravel pack comple-
Shot phasing DEG : 60 450 psi from formation to tion, and by taking a new, integrated ap-
Gun offset DEG : 0
wellbore was applied while proach to customizing solutions for workover.
Perforation characteristics (at all orientations)
Total penetration IN : 23.227 shooting. Afterward, the The following conclusions can be drawn:
Formation penetration IN : 21.423
Entrance hole dia. 1st csg IN : 0.4319
guns were left on the tubing 1. The RST is a reliable tool to be used in
(for alternative methods of gravel pack completions at least in
The results of SPAN showing perforating underbalanced, page 7–41). formations with porosities greater than
the penetration of the 31⁄2-in. The minimum expected production from 20%, as was the case with the LGINF-04
tubing-conveyed perforator. the workover was simulated with a NODAL reservoir.
analysis prior to the work approval, using an 2. There are still significant recoverable
estimated (not measured) permeability of 100 reserves that have been bypassed in
md and a skin of 10. (This is an average value secondary recovery schemes such as
measured by well tests in non-stimulated water or gas injection. These need to be
wells with similar formation and completion addressed in the near future.
3. An integrated, multidisciplinary team,
such as Lagoven and Schlumberger
Figure 7.13 Oilfield Services, makes use of best-
value technology and gives the best
1000
inflow as modeled chance of success in procedures such as
900
ideal inflow (e.g., no skin)
outflow (tubing intake)
workover.
800
700
Pressure (psia)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Oil rate (BOPD)
7 10
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C O N T R O L L I N G WAT E R P R O D U C T I O N
,,
Six typical reservoir conditions leading to bad water production.
Bad water can be caused by conditions
in the reservoir or near the wellbore.
Figure 7.15
Typical reservoir conditions are illustrated in
Fig. 7.14. They include coning, fissures and
,,
,,
high-permeability layers, all of which
bring water to the well without sweeping
Poor cement bond a significant volume of oil with them.
Not all high-permeability layers are bad.
Some can help sweep nearby layers,
Formation damage
particularly when the permeability contrast
is moderate. Water injection wells create
more potential sources of bad water, also
shown in Fig. 7.14.
Near-wellbore flow is often the most
critical, but since it is linked to the
completion, it also offers more opportunity
for treatment. It may be caused by a wide
variety of factors; for example (Fig. 7.15):
Cavern
poor cement bond, caverns formed by sand
production, reduced oil flow due to
formation damage, and frequent stimulation.
Some observations can be made about these
Previously
different factors:
sealed
fracture
Poor cement bond
There are several reasons for the deterior-
ation of the cement bond, such as exposure
to adverse conditions of temperature,
pressure, and perhaps sulfate waters.
Typical causes of bad water production from near the wellbore.
7 11
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C O N T R O L L I N G WAT E R P R O D U C T I O N
1
tion, and poor design of another zone. Hence, water production may
0.1 washers and spacers were be reduced by stimulating the producing
encountered. interval and reducing the pressure differential
WOR'
0.01
at the perforations. Clearly, the stimulation
Caverns formed by sand
0.001
must be successfully diverted from the water
1 10 100 1000 10000 production
Time (days) zone, or else the result will be unfavorable.
100
Poorly consolidated, friable
WOR
Thief layer
WOR' sandstones may collapse,
WOR Diagnosis of water problems
10
producing sand and
Various techniques may be used to
creating caverns behind
WOR or WOR'
1
diagnose the origin of produced water. Plots
the casing. These caverns
of production history are very useful in
0.1
WOR'
may eventually communi-
making a quick initial analysis of many wells.
cate with a water zone.
0.01 It has been shown by reservoir simulation of
Frequent stimulation in different conditions that plots of the (WOR)
0.001
1 10 100
Time (days)
1000 10000
the vicinity of and its derivative (WOR’) versus production
100 the well time on a log-log plot are particularly helpful
WOR
Near wellbore
WOR' Frequent matrix stimula- in determining the cause of water production
10
tion of carbonates can (Chan, 1995). Figure 7.16a shows the modeled
WOR or WOR'
1
create caverns in the for- response of three common cases of bad water
WOR mation and establish com- and how they can be distinguished. A
0.1
munication with a water decrease in WOR’ with time suggests coning;
0.01
WOR'
zone. Frequent stimulation a sudden increase followed by a flattening out
of either sandstones or car- is typical of a high-permeability thief zone
0.001
1 10 100 1000 10000
bonates can also dissolve from an injector; and a sharp increase in WOR
Time (days)
the cementing material in and WOR’ indicates near-wellbore flow. Figure
Schematic of water diagnostic plots showing the fractures or affect the 7.16b shows two cases that are often typical of
response of the water-oil ratio (WOR) and its cement bond, and likewise good water. The first is the normal sweeping
derivative (WOR’) as a function of time in (a) for establish communication of a reservoir by water, albeit at high water
three typical cases of bad water, and (b) for two with water. volume (water cut is always > 60%). The
typical cases of good water. second is multilayer channeling, with each
layer being successively swept.
Figure 7.16b
100 100
Normal displacement Multilayer channeling
with high water cut WOR
WOR
WOR WOR'
10 10
WOR'
WOR
WOR or WOR'
WOR or WOR'
1 1
0.1 0.1
WOR' WOR'
0.01 0.01
0.001 0.001
1 10 100 1000 10000 1 10 100 1000 1000
Time (days) Time (days)
7 12
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
0.00001
1 10 100 1000
Cumulative production time (days)
7 13
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C O N T R O L L I N G WAT E R P R O D U C T I O N
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C O N T R O L L I N G WAT E R P R O D U C T I O N
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
700
Oil
Gel Water The ability to enhance production
injection
600
without a workover rig is very attractive,
Choke change
both economically and logistically. Snub-
500
bing units, coiled tubing, wireline and slick-
Flow rate (bbl/D)
400
line all offer rigless solutions, in approxi-
mately that order of logistical complexity.
300 One interesting possibility is the through-
tubing bridge plug, or PosiSet plug. This
200 plug can be set in casings from 41⁄2-in. to 95⁄8-
in. well without pulling the tubing and
100
without shutting in the well.
The principle is shown in Fig. 7.25.
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 After reaching the setting depth the tool is
Elapsed time (months) fired, causing the seal elements to be
Production history of VLA-36. squeezed and expanded until they seal
In January, the well production became
The effect of gel injection is against the casing wall. At the same time
steady, oil production was higher than water
clearly seen after production anchors are set above and below to hold
production, and both continue to increase
has stabilized. the seal in position. This plug can hold 500
and decline, respectively. The destabilization
psi of differential pressure, which is
observed during the first production period
normally sufficient to plug the well while
may be because the sandstones were still
cement is dumped above it. In a 7-in.
water-saturated, whereas in January the well
casing it is normal to dump a minimum 10
had a uniform sweep, thus increasing oil
ft of cement. This can withstand 400 psi of
production.
differential pressure. The plug itself is only
21 in. long when set, so that, if necessary,
Conclusions
very short intervals can be plugged, but
The production of unwanted water can
with lower pressure rating.
be controlled. However, we first must
The well shown in Fig. 7.26 was pro-
recognize whether the water is good water,
ducing 505 B/D at 86% water cut from the
which helps to drain the oil, or bad water,
perforations in the Eocene C-6 reservoir
which inhibits the oil production. The
shown on the right of track 1. An RST was
source of the water must also be known.
run using a mast unit to identify the depleted
Diagnostic plots of the production history
zone. From the interpretation of the RST and
can be of great use in scanning a large
of the openhole logs in track 2, depletion
number of wells. Production logs can then
can be clearly seen opposite the
confirm or clarify different hypotheses.
perforations and above. It was decided that
Once diagnosed, various actions can be
in order to achieve a production of at least
taken. Two examples showed the successful
400 BOPD of oil, it was necessary to open
use of polymer gel in controlling the water.
up the top intervals in the C-4 and C-5, and
In one example, the estimated gain from the
shut off the existing perforations. These
treatment is 150,000 bbl of oil.
reservoirs were known to be at nearly the
same pressure potential and hence could be
opened together.
7 17
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C O N T R O L L I N G WAT E R P R O D U C T I O N
Before
Setting
After
25 ft Depth Combined model
tool Petal (ft) 0 (p.u.) 100
111⁄16 in. backups
Seal
12,400
elements
12,500
12,600
7 ft
12,700
Lower
anchor
12,800
Cement
21 ⁄ 8 in.
PosiSet
plug
12,900
The most efficient method to repair the
well was to shut off the bottom zone with a
PosiSet plug and perforate the top intervals
13,000
through tubing. This could be done quickly,
without the need for a workover rig, be-
cause no other operations were needed on 13,100
the well. For example, it was considered
unlikely that there were any cement
channels that needed to be squeezed off
because the original cement bond was The well came in at 600 BOPD with only 1%
good. Experience also showed that through- water and sediments.
tubing charges, shot underbalanced, gave Thus, in this example a rigless work-
good productivity. Therefore, with the well over, using a PosiSet bridge plug and
shut-in, but with a tubing head pressure of through-tubing perforation guns, was able
100 psi, the PosiSet was run in the hole and to enhance production by 450 BOPD with-
set at 12,850 ft. A 15-ft long cement plug in 15 days of diagnosing the problem.
was set on top of it. The upper intervals Using a workover rig would have taken
shown in Fig. 7.26 were perforated with longer, leading to more lost production and
21⁄8-in. enerjet EJ III at 4 shots per ft. greater expense.
7 18
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Since the early 1950s, the Miocene oil- The production increase after an SOS is not
bearing formations of Lake Maracaibo have substantial and very often declines to nothing
been stimulated using a technique developed in the span of a few months. The SOS is nor-
by Exxon called Sand Oil Squeeze (SOS). mally performed over several perforated
This technology proved fairly successful in intervals, each of which range from 20 to 100
the past when reservoirs had their original ft, but can span several hundred feet between
pressures, but now that pressures are low, it upper and lower perforations. In the standard
has been unsuccessful in providing good treatment, large volumes of crude oil (100 to
productivity from the wells. 300 bbl) are pumped (sometimes with ball
What is needed to improve the pro- sealers to ensure every perforation is open-
ductivity is a high-conductivity path from the ed), followed by a sand-oil slurry up to 5 PPA
undamaged formation to the wellbore. This (pound proppant added) in concentration, for
article describes how the introduction of a a total of 15,000 to 30,000 lb of proppant. The
new high-permeability stimulation tech- first weak point of such treatments is that the
nique, HyPerSTIM*, has solved this problem, large volumes of oil preflush, or pad, give the
leading to significantly improved production slurry a high penetration into the formation,
performance and revised expectations from but the low sand concentrations do not allow
the reservoir. We first describe the previous any significant fracture thickness to develop.
technology, then the HyPerSTIM technique, Since embedment will absorb a good 2 lb/ft
its introduction and case histories. in this type of soft, unconsolidated form-
ation, propped fractures disappear in a short
amount of time (hence the quick decline of
Figure 7.27
production after a few months). The second
weak point is the choice of proppant. In the
Sand oil slurry
past this consisted of 16/25 local sand,
Frac width whose sphericity is very poor compared to
API standards. The lack of sphericity
facilitates crushing and causes deterioration
Effective fracture length into a very low-permeability proppant pack.
Coupled with the poor fracture width
Schematic of a TSO fracture.
Previous technology achieved by SOS (0.1–0.2 in.), this contributes
The SOS technique was developed by to a very low conductivity in the propped
Exxon as a low-cost, quick stimulation for channel and hence poor production
damaged high-permeability formations performance. More recently, this practice has
(200–1000 md) by creating high-conductivity been eliminated as it became evident that
channels driven from each perforation productivity was being sacrificed for a small
through the damaged zone and into the additional cost.
undamaged formation. These treatments are After understanding the weaknesses of
usually followed by the conventional SOS, we can make appropriate modifications:
gravel packing of a slotted liner, essential using the same crude oil as a base fluid and
in containing the sand production from the same amount of proppant, we can try to
these highly unconsolidated sandstones. shorten the fracture (the damaged matrix is
only a few feet in radius), increase the
fracture width and maximize the fracture
conductivity, which is, in effect, a HyPerSTIM.
7 19
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Rate (BPM)
3000 6
2. Low Concentration Stage—A low con-
centration of proppant is necessary to
2000 4
create the tip screen-out and stop the
growth of the frac.
1000 2 3. Main Stage—Ramp proppant to the
point of packing the frac.
0 0 In order for the TSO to occur when the
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56
design length has been reached, it is neces-
Elapsed time (min)
sary to have a very well defined value for the
Step-Rate and Calibration
Tip screen-out fracturing fluid leak-off. The only possible way to get an
tests prior to treatment in
HyPerSTIM uses the methodology devel- adequate value for the fluid leak-off
well LL-1671.
oped for tip screen-out (TSO) fracturing coefficient is by doing a DataFRAC* Fracture
where, once the fracture has reached its Data Determination Service. A DataFRAC is a
designed length, we create an artificial barrier calibration treatment done prior to the main
close to the tip and along the entire perimeter treatment, similar to a “dress rehearsal,” to
(Fig. 7.27). At the moment of screen-out the determine various factors that are used to
fracture stops growing, leading to an increase fine-tune the final design and to ensure that
in pressure within the fracture that translates the objectives of the treatment are met.
automatically into a greater hydraulic width. The DataFRAC uses the same fluid base
This greater hydraulic width allows us to (crude oil) for the main treatment and it is
achieve much higher proppant concen- pumped at the same rate as planned for the
trations within the fracture and hence coun- main treatment. It consists of an initial step
terbalances the effect of proppant embed- rate and a main pumping period (Fig. 7.28).
ment in soft unconsolidated formations.
2800 500
Closure pressure
Min
2800
Derivative (psi)
Pressure (psia)
2400 400
2400
2000 200
Interpreting the DataFRAC in LL-1671: determining fracture Interpreting the DataFRAC in LL-1671: determining fluid
closure pressure. efficiency and leak-off coefficient.
7 20
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
600
The introduction of HyPerSTIM
400 on Lake Maracaibo
On the first three wells, a partial
200
HyPerSTIM treatment was performed, with
0 no DataFRAC or ball sealers, but with the
LL-2558 TJ-855 LL-484 TJ-254 LL-3094 LL-686 TJ-1110 LL-3422 LL-1671
maximum proppant concentration taken to 8
Well name
Summary of production PPA. Some evidence of TSO was observed.
results after HyPerSTIM The latter is as long as is necessary to ensure While the maximum expected production
treatments in LGINF-04 that the length of the fracture is sufficient to rates ranged from 120 to 150 B/D, one well
and LGINF-05 wells. give a fracture area that is representative for stabilized after a few days at 700 B/D, and
fluid loss. the other two at 164 and 300 B/D. The
Analysis of the step rate portion helps to results were sufficiently good, showing
determine the closure pressure of the form- considerable improvement over the SOS
ation. Analysis of the main pumping period is technique, so that full HyPerSTIM treatments
similar to a flow test in a well. During the were started in other Miocene wells.
pumping period, there are diagnostic plots Ideally, the treatment terminates with a
that enable the growth pattern of the fracture total screen-out at the wellbore. This signifies
to be recognized. Then after pumping is that the fracture has been completely packed
stopped the pressure falloff is used to from the tip to the perforations, ensuring
determine the fluid efficiency and fluid leak- maximum propped width and hence
off coefficient. For this, specialized plots of maximum conductivity. The first treatments
pressure and a function of time are used (Figs. had not achieved total screen-out, and a
7.29a and 7.29b, previous page). In Fig. 7.29a, few more were needed to improve our
Figure 7.31
the change in slope identifies the closure knowledge of the reservoir properties and
400 pressure as 2800 psi. This can also be seen in fine-tune through each job’s DataFRAC.
Production (BOPD)
7 21
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100 but with a high percentage of water, hence sealers. DataFRACs were performed for TJ-
81 $ ⁄ bbl
50
responding successfully to the TSO 254 onward. In most cases, the leak-off
technique but contributing poorly to the net coefficient is lower than expected, so that the
0
oil production figures. volumes of pad traditionally pumped in an
SOS HyPerSTIM
A direct comparison can be made by SOS are too large. Smaller volumes are
Treatment cost per barrel of only considering wells in the same reservoir necessary to induce a TSO at around 40 to 80
increased daily oil production, and with similar completions. Table 7.1 and ft of fracture half-length. This was implement-
SOS versus HyPerSTIM. Fig. 7.31 summarize the results of SOS and ed in LL3094 and later wells.
HyPerSTIM treatments in the LGINF-04 and
LGINF-05 reservoirs between 1995 and 1997.
It can be seen that on average the SOS treat-
ments only gave 80% of the expected pro-
duction, whereas the HyPerSTIM treatments
gave 229%. Figure 7.30 shows the expected,
actual and net oil production for the nine
HyPerSTIM wells.
7 22
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
7 23
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FRACTURE OPTIMIZATION
DSI log data have been used successfully Three-dimensional (3-D) or P3D models
to characterize the mechanical properties of have been available for use by the industry
the formations penetrated by wells in the giant for some time. These models are generally
fields of North Monagas. This information was considered to be more accurate since they
used in Pseudo 3-Dimensional (P3D) fracture more rigorously model the fracture’s growth.
stimulation model studies to determine why They require accurate mechanical property
some propped fracture treatments were more data (Poisson’s ratio and Young’s Modulus of
successful than others in achieving increased Elasticity) as input. The contrast in Poisson’s
productivity and reduced asphaltine floccu- ratio among the various zones (segments of
lation, and eliminating formation sand produc- the formation) influences the height growth
tion. The results of this investigation indicate of the fracture. The value of Young’s
that the surface pressure predictions of these Modulus of Elasticity influences the width
P3D simulations more closely match those growth of the fracture.
recorded during the course of the pumping Until recently, the industry experienced
operations than those generally predicted by some difficulty in using the mechanical
two-dimensional (2-D) modeling. property information derived from DSI log
data for use in its fracture simulation
Fracture Stimulation Design models programs. Because of this the industry has
2-D models have been used to help generally relied upon mechanical properties
design fracture stimulation treatments for data obtained from the analysis of whole
many years. The 2-D models most frequently core data in the same or offset well(s) (e.g.,
used are those of Khristianovic and Zeltov, Roegiers and Neda, 1993). Obtaining
with later contributions by Geertsma and de mechanical properties from core data is
Klerk (1969) (KGD model) and Perkins and expensive and requires a great deal of time.
Kern (1961), and later Nordgren (1972) DSI log data, on the other hand, are
(PKN). These models are satisfactory for relatively inexpensive to acquire and are
many applications, but sometimes do not applicable to the specific well. Generally,
adequately predict the surface pressure DSI log data are processed to compute
response observed during the course of the dynamic values of Poisson’s ratio and
fracturing treatment. When this occurs, it is Young’s Modulus of elasticity. The dynamic
usually inferred that the fracture geometry values can be converted to static ones using
generated was not as planned. This may be the transform suggested by Morales (1993).
the reason that some stimulation treatments The P3D model used in this study
do not perform as we had hoped. allows height growth through multiple layers
2-D models differ somewhat in how the or zones. In this P3D model, the fracture
fracture growth and volume are calculated. In height depends on the position along the
the KGD model, the geometry has a constant fracture and time. This model is generally
and uniform height and a rectangular cross considered applicable when the fracture
section. This model is generally used when length is greater than the height.
the length-to-height ratio is less than 1.5.
Generally, this model predicts shorter fracture
lengths and greater wellbore widths than the
PKN model. These and similar 2-D models do
not require a rigorous definition of the forma-
tion’s mechanical properties.
7 24
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figure 7.33
Depth
(ft) Well 4 8 13A 15 16 22E 26 27 28 30 31 32 33 37E 49 50
= No improvement
14,000
= Loss of production
= Prop flowback
NAR-3
= Propnet
14,500
14,800
NAR-3
17000 NAR-3
7 25
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FRACTURE OPTIMIZATION
The subsea position of the 22 completions zone is more successful than another.
reviewed in these zones are shown in Fig. Therefore, it was decided to review some
7.33. Above 15,800 ft ss, production is completions in more detail, using 3-D fracture
considered to be wet gas and gas conden- design models and DSI data.
sate; below that depth, the production is
considered to be volatile oil and black oil. Mechanical properties
From the 22 completions reviewed, the from DSI log analysis
following observations were made: Seven completions that also had DSI logs
• Seventeen completions are identified as over the producing interval were selected for
gas condensate completions. further review. The DSI logs had been proces-
• Twelve completions have recorded a sed to provide dynamic values for Poisson’s
total sustained production increase of ratio (n) and Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (E).
15,400 BOPD and 112 MMscf/D. Ten of The logs were reviewed, zones selected, and
these are above 15,800 ft ss. average values of porosity, n and E estimated
• Six of the completions were new and per zone. These dynamic values were
did not produce at the anticipated rates. converted to static values using the transform
Four of these completions are above suggested by Morales (1993). Static values
15,800 ft ss. were then used along with other log and
• Three completions recorded a total sus- completion data to calculate the minimum in-
tained decrease of 1800 BOPD and 500 situ stress of the formation. The contrast in
MMscf/D. Three of these are above minimum in-situ stress is an important input in
15,800 ft ss. designing a fracture stimulation treatment that
• The nine disappointing production will remain within the zone of interest and
results which were less than expected obtain the desired fracture height, width and
occurred in these formations: length for optimum production response from
the well completion. The actual fracture
Nº Formation Remarks
of wells simulation was done with the FracCADE
3 K-C, D, E avg. ss depth less than 15,330 ft program using the P3D and P3D_LAT models.
3 KP avg. ss depth less than 15,450 ft Three of the well completions reviewed
2 NAR-3 avg. ss depth less than 15,270 ft will be discussed in detail:
1 NAR-3 avg. ss depth greater than 16,800 ft
SBC 27 SC NAR-3 New Completion gas well
No Improvement (zone 1)
These observations indicate no pattern SBC 50 SL KP Increase only oil well
3.5 MMscf/D (zone 6+)
that would suggest that one formation or
SBC 27 SL K-D 2500 BOPD and gas well
19 MMscf/D increase (zone 2)
7 26
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
15,000
(Ib ⁄ ft3) 1.0 – 1.5
15,050 0.5 – 1.0
0.0 – 0.5
-0.5 – 0.0
not appear to be stimulated according to the
15,100
P3D model. Furthermore, the model indicates
15,150
15,200 that the width of the fracture, after closure,
14,000–0.1 0.0 0.1 0 100 200 300 400 500 would be on the order of 0.2 in. There was a
Stress ACL width Fracture half–length (ft)
(psi) at wellbore (in.)
minimal (5%) production increase after the
fracture stimulation treatment. A greater than
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for SBC 27 SC as predicted by the P3D
normal amount of proppant was reported as
model and the stress profile on the left. Perforated intervals are shown in blue.
being returned to the surface after the stimu-
lation treatment. The production response
Figure 7.36 can be modeled using NODAL analysis with
12,000 the fracture characteristics reported by
Treating pressure (P3D simulation)
FracCADE, a frac half-length of 350 ft, a
11,000 Treating pressure (job data)
height of 60 ft, and an average width of 0.07
10,000 in. (adjusted to compensate for proppant
Pressure (psia)
0.0 – 0.5
-0.5 – 0.0
MD, while the total fracture grew upward
17,800
(out of the zone of interest) to a height of
17,850 approximately 17,800 ft MD. The model
17,900
predicts that the lower perforated interval in
this well was not stimulated. Furthermore,
17,950
the average width of the fracture after
12,000 14,000 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0 25 50 75 100 closure is predicted to be rather large. The
ACL width Stress Fracture half-length increase in production after the stimulation
at wellbore (psi) (ft)
(in.) treatment was 3500 Mscf/D.
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for SBC 50 SL as predicted by the P3D
model and the stress profile on the left. Perforated intervals are shown in blue.
7 27
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FRACTURE OPTIMIZATION
10,000
Application to a newly designed well.
These and other analyses indicated that
Pressure (psia)
8000
there may have been a significant difference
between the desired (2-D modeled) and
6000
actual fracture geometry as indicated by the
P3D model. It was therefore decided to
compare the results of a 2-D and a P3D
4000
model fracture geometry on a well requiring
Treating Pressure (P3D simulation)
Treating Pressure (Job data) stimulation with a large producing interval
2000
0 10 20 30 40 50 (greater than 150 feet) with multiple sets of
Time (min)
perforations, and which also had an open
Surface pressures from P3D
Well SBC 27 SL K-D. hole DSI log available. The well selected
simulation and actual job
The surface pressure measured during the (MUC 34 KP) was drilled and completed in
data on SBC 27 SL.
pumping operation closely agrees with the sur- 1993. The archived DSI and triple combo log
face pressure simulated using the P3D model, data were obtained and re-processed using
as seen in Fig. 7.38. The P3D model (Fig. 7.39) software (FracCADE Advisor) to calculate
predicts that the hydraulic fracture also grew automatically the requisite mechanical
above the perforated interval circa 16,495 to properties. These properties must be
16,540 ft MD. As might be expected, there was averaged over zones before inputting to
a significant increase in production after FracCADE. The selection and manipulation of
stimulation of 2200 BOPD and 8.7 MMscf/D, zones is usually done by the fracture design
with an accompanying increase in flowing engineer with the ZoneAid software after a
preliminary pass in the processing center.
Figure 7.39
16,480
Prop. conc.
(Ib ⁄ ft3)
16,500
3.0 – 3.5
2.5 – 3.0
2.0 – 2.5
16,520 1.5 – 2.0
1.0 – 1.5
0.5 – 1.0
Depth (ft)
0.0 – 0.5
16,540 -0.5 – 0.0
16,560
16,580
16,600
16,620
12,000 15,000 0 100 200
-0.2 -0.1 0.1 0.2 Fracture half-length (ft)
Stress ACL width
(psia) at wellbore
(in.)
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for SBC 27 SL as predicted by the P3D
model and the stress profile on the left. Perforated intervals are shown in blue.
7 28
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
15,900
16,000
16,100
FracCADE advisor results for MUC 34. Results of zoning with ZoneAid in MUC 34.
7 29
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FRACTURE OPTIMIZATION
ss = sandstone
7 30
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
15,950
dicted after-closure fracture geometry of
Prop. conc. (Ib ⁄ ft3)
16,000
3.0 – 3.5 P3D modeling.
2.5 – 3.0
16,050
2.0 – 2.5
1.5 – 2.0 5. Thick intervals can be evaluated for un-
1.0 – 1.5
0.5 – 1.0
0.0 – 0.5
restricted fracture growth or possible sec-
16,100 -0.5 – 0.0
10,000 13,000 –0.2 0.0 0.2 0 50 100
tions that will remain unstimulated by
Stress ACL width Fracture half–length (ft) using DSI log-derived mechanical pro-
(psi) at wellbore (in.) perties in a P3D model fracture simulator.
Fracture profile and proppant Conclusions 6. The methodology presented here pre-
concentration for MUC 34 as 1. Useful and accurate formation mechan- sents a better method of designing frac-
predicted by the P3D_LAT ical properties data can be obtained turing treatment pumping schedules by:
model and the stress profile from analysis of DSI log data. • providing a more precise prediction
on the left. Perforated 2. When accurate formation mechanical of pad requirement
intervals are shown in blue. property data are used in a P3D fracture • providing a better indication of un-
treatment design, the surface pressures desired screen-outs due to increased
recorded during the treatment are surface pressure
accurately matched by the simulation. • providing an improved fracture geo-
3. The FracCADE ADVISOR and Zone Aid metry definition.
logs provide convenient and accurate
The Ceuta Field is located in the south- potential has been affected by formation
eastern part of Lake Maracaibo (Chapter 2–20). damage associated with deposition of sand,
The field has a large production potential from scales and asphaltenes, which were detected
reservoirs belonging to the Misoa Formation, after noticing a production decline in wells
Upper and Lower Eocene B and C. This and subsequently analyzing a number of
bottomhole samples. Consequently, to solve
Table 7.6
the existing formation damage, matrix
Fluids Additives Concentration
treatments with solvents and acids were
Solvent Kerosene 60%
Xylene 30% designed (Table 7.6). After applying these
Butyl 10%
Demulsifier 0.5% treatments, the production potential was
HCL - 15% HCL restored. However, after some time the
Water
Demulsifier production rate declined again. This decline is
Inhibitor
EDTA caused by fines migration, as discussed below.
RMA (12% HCL - 3% HF) HCL Figures 7.45 to 7.47 illustrate the production
Water
Ammonium bifloride performance on some wells in the field.
Demulsifier
Inhibitor
EDTA
7 31
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4000
4000
Matrix voirs. These minerals are extremely small,
RMA
have a layer microstructure, and large surface
areas. Therefore, they tend to react very quick-
2000 ly with the fluid entering the porous medium.
If the fluid is not compatible with the type of
clay in the reservoir, a 2% clay content will be
0 enough to plug or damage the formation.
’86 ’87 ’88 ’89 ’90 ’91 ’92 ’93 ’94
Year
Production decline caused by fines migration in well VLG-3728.
7 32
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
a b
SEM photograph of kaolinite plugging a pore space. SEM photograph of mixed-layer illite/smectite
plugging a pore space.
Therefore, injected fluids should have the clays fill part of the porous volume. The result
same concentration and composition as the is reduced permeability.
original formation water or, if this is not The physical effect takes place when the
possible, they should contain cations that will loosened particles are carried away by the
stabilize the fines. dragging force of flowing fluids. In this situa-
Generally, fines migration takes place in tion, the most significant influence is exerted
two consecutive stages (Thomas and Crowe, by hydrodynamic forces, which become
1978). During the first stage, particles become increasingly stronger as particle size increases.
detached because of their sensitivity to fluids The physical effect is influenced by flow rate
(chemical effect) and, during the second and the viscosity of the flowing fluid. Regard-
stage, they are carried away by the fluid less of the type of mechanism taking place,
(physical effect). the result is the reduction of formation perme-
The chemical effect takes place when an ability caused by plugging of pore throats.
incompatible fluid enters the formation,
usually introduced during drilling operations. Flow testing and core analysis
The loose particles are set into motion and/or To examine the production decline men-
clays swell. Swelling occurs when water is tioned above, mineralogical analyses and flow
absorbed between the clay layers due to the tests were performed on cores taken from
cation exchange capability, and the swollen three Ceuta wells (VLG-3727, VLG-3730, and
VLG-3716). X-ray diffraction results (Table
Table 7.7 7.7) and SEM photographs clearly identify
Average (%) Range (%) kaolinite (Fig. 7.48a) and illite with smectite
Mineralogical analysis Quartz 86 65–100 layers—a mixed-layer illite (Fig. 7.48b)—
of 10 samples from Feldspar 0.7 0–5 blocking the pore space.
Ceuta Field. Calcite 0.4 0–2
7 33
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d i
200 d
m radius. Borate (H3BO3) results from the final
u
d reaction and it bonds and stabilizes clays in
150
the formation.
100 To prove the effectiveness of this treatment
in the Ceuta Field, flow tests were performed on
50 some cores from the area. Figure 7.50 shows a
plot of permeability versus injected volume,
0 where we can see how the core permeability
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
decreases because of the damage induced
Produced volume (cm3)
when brine is injected at high flow rates.
Simulation of the damage and treatment processes on Ceuta cores.
7 34
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
When the HCl injection starts, there is a slight 4. Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) Spacer.
recovery that increases with the HCl-HF flow, It displaces the residue from the RMA reaction
and then increases again because of the HBF4 out of the 3- to 5-ft critical zone near the well-
injection. We can see the effectiveness of this bore. It prevents the precipitation of dissolved
Clay Acid, which restores 95% of the original compounds and also prevents contact of the
sample permeability. When distilled water is RMA with the Clay Acid.
displaced, there is an almost linear increase in 5. Main fluid. Clay Acid: Normally, 100 to 150
permeability, due to the effect of the Clay Acid. gal/ft of treated sand is used. This provides a
The acid prevents dispersion of clay particles 3- to 5-ft penetration radius.
because a product of the secondary reaction To ensure that the necessary chemical
(borate) acts as a medium that helps adhere the reactions will take place in the formation,
clays to the rock framework and prevent their two other factors are taken into account: 1)
destabilization and migration. the residence time of Clay Acid in the
formation. This time is calculated taking into
Design of the matrix account the lower temperatures resulting
treatment for fines control from the injection of solvent preflush, HCl
A typical treatment applied by Maraven, and 1⁄2 RMA, and 2) well opening. Chokes
S.A. for matrix acidizing with Clay Acid is are used to control the movement of treat-
described below. This treatment was ment fluids, so that there will be enough
designed taking into account the different time for the necessary chemical reactions to
types of formation damage detected in the take place and ensure the stability of
Ceuta Field, such as deposition of scales and migratory clays.
asphaltenes, as well as fines migration.
1. Solvent. Injected at a volume of 25 to 30 Case history: VLG-3715 well
gal/ft of treated sand to dissolve any organic The matrix treatment described above
residue, such as paraffins and asphaltenes. has yielded good results in several
This solvent prepares the formation for contact stimulated wells in the Ceuta Field. These
with the acid, since it can change the results are evident from the small decline in
wettability to water wet, and it also helps to the months following stimulation.
break down emulsions. The first well where this treatment was
2.Preflush. 10% HCl injected at a volume of 25 applied was VLG-3715 in 1988. This well pro-
to 30 gal/ft of treated sand. HCl dissolves any duces from the Lower Eocene B reservoir,
calcareous material in the formation and pre- B-6.0/B-6.3 sands. Figure 7.51 shows that,
vents precipitation of calcium fluoride (CaF2). prior to the matrix treatment with Clay Acid,
Furthermore, it separates the hydrofluoric acid well production was around 2500 BOPD of
from salt water in the reservoir, thus net oil. This potential was maintained by
preventing the formation of harmful preci- means of two matrix treatments with the 12%
pitates, such as sodium or potassium fluo- HCl–3% HF (RMA) formulation, performed in
silicates (H2SiF6). June 1987 and November 1987. The
3. Half Strength Mud Acid. (6% HCl + application of this treatment was not
1.5% HF) injected at a volume of 100 effective, since production declined to 200
to 150 gal/ft of treated sand. The Regular Mud BOPD in six months. Subsequently, in
Acid (RMA) dissolves the aluminum silicates November 1988, after a workover, a matrix
near the wellbore, thus decreasing the treatment with Clay Acid was scheduled.
damage caused by drilling mud residues or
formation clays.
7 35
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Clean-up
Eocene B reservoir. Its production perfor-
2000
mance record shows that production was
Matrix stable from 1984 to 1986, and its average
clay acid
Matrix production rate was 1000 BOPD. From that
RMA
1000 year forward, production started to decline
and, in early 1989, it stabilized at 250 BOPD,
as shown in Fig. 7.53 (following page). A
0
’80 ’82 ’84 ’86 ’88 ’90 ’92 ’94 pressure build-up test performed in May 1989
Year indicated that the well had 76% formation
Production decline caused by fines migration and subsequent damage. This damage was thought to be
control by Clay Acid in VLG-3693. related to fines migration. A matrix treatment
with Clay Acid was scheduled in July 1990,
after which production potential was restored
to 800 BOPD, and it has remained stable since
then.
7 36
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
CUSTOMIZED PERFORATING
Before the oil price crash of 1986, the As a result, the variety of perforating charges
main focus of perforating technology was to and systems is very large. This chapter will
develop perforating charges with superior look at some of the customized solutions
penetration and entrance hole size, as that have been developed and the benefits
determined by the American Petroleum that they have yielded.
Institute (API) Section I specifications. While
this undoubtedly enhanced well produc- Customized solutions
tivity, it failed to recognize the significant In a cased and cemented well, holes
improvements in well performance and cost must penetrate the formation beyond the
effectiveness that can be achieved by damaged zone. Many factors affect the well
looking at the overall design of the per- productivity, and are related to the forma-
forating system (for example, the way it is tion, the perforator and the completion (see
conveyed and the operational constraints). Table 7.8). The pressure differential between
A very different approach to perforating the borehole and the formation during and
technology has been adopted in recent after perforating is considered part of the
years. This approach focuses on developing completion. It is an important consideration
customized solutions to address specific in deciding how the guns are deployed.
problems by working with customers. All reservoirs and even individual wells
present a unique set of conditions that, if
Table 7.8
taken into consideration when engineering a
Formation-related Perforator-related Completion-related gun system, can make a difference in the well
Compressive strength Penetration Borehole fluid productivity or generate significant savings
Stress distribution Entrance hole Casing wt. and grade
Presence of fractures Shot density Cement properties from operational efficiency. A special depart-
Heterogeneity Shot phasing Cement thickness
Anisotropy pb–pf while perforating ment at the Schlumberger Perforating Centre
Tendency to sand pb–pf after perforating
is dedicated to engineering customized solu-
Factors affecting well productivity in perforated completions, tions to improve performance or efficiency.
7 37
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CUSTOMIZED PERFORATING
Figure 7.54 This customization has been greatly aided by jobs were run with 21⁄8-in. guns in Venezuela.
information technology. ClientLink is a data- Phased Retrievable Enerjets have also been
base of customer problems into which a cus- run with SAFE.
Mono adapter
tomer’s specific problems can be entered The detonator of a conventional gun
from anywhere in the world. With the help of system is replaced by two main components
Upper wireline head this database, development projects can be in the SAFE system. They are the Electronic
properly focused and prioritized. Secondary Initiating Cartridge (ESIC) and the
Exploding Foil Initiator (EFI) (Fig. 7.55, next
Perforating safely in the page). The ESIC performs three functions
presence of stray voltages through a series of filters, transformers and
One of the operational requirements of capacitors. It filters RF signals, blocks voltages
HSD gun
standard perforating systems has been that less than 160 volts, and transforms voltages
radio silence is maintained during perfor- greater than 160 VDC to approximately 3000
ating. The voltages generated by radio trans- volts, leading into the EFI.
missions could trigger standard detonation The EFI is a sophisticated electronic
HSD SAFE gun adapter
devices. This standard practice creates a detonator. A chain reaction must occur for the
severe operational disruption to the rig or EFI to properly detonate and to fire the
Safety pin
platform because any operation that requires booster of the gun. The ESIC must deliver a
EFI
radio communication and is being perform- precise burst of power to vaporize the bridge
ed while perforating is in progress must be element. The time period over which this
shut down. This was a case where clients energy is sent is measured in fractions of one
ESIC
were clearly inconvenienced by the neces- second. If the time is too long, only a slow
sary safety requirements, and were also burn will occur and detonation of the guns
incurring additional costs in their operations. will not be initiated. Because the bridge has a
A project was initiated to address this pro- geometry that restricts the current flowing
blem. The result was the Slapper Actuated through it, the bridge vaporizes, creating a
Firing Equipment (SAFE) perforating system. plasma beneath a polyamide foil.
The SAFE System is designed to be The vaporizing bridge causes the foil to
immune from the sources of stray voltage expand extremely fast and, after traveling
that prevent the use of conventional electric through the barrel of the spacer, “slaps” a
Short lower head
detonators. Therefore, SAFE eliminates the secondary explosive pellet (HNS explosive)
The SAFE as deployed need for radio silence and shut-down of with sufficient energy to initiate detonation.
in a gun. other vital rig equipment during perforating The pressure wave from the detonating pellet
operations. SAFE has been used successfully impacts an aluminum disk adjacent to a
to perforate a well in the Orinoco Straits. sharp-edged hole and shears a small flyer out
It was necessary to use SAFE because this of the disk. The aluminum flyer must then
strait is used by commercial shipping traffic traverse an air gap and impact the closed end
whose ships have high-power radio trans- of a special secondary-explosive booster. The
mitters. Eleven runs of 21⁄2-in. High Shot secondary explosive booster then initiates the
Density (HSD) guns were run without any conventional detonating cord and the normal
problems. SAFE has also been used in detonation train through the gun commences.
perforating jobs in Lake Maracaibo, again
because of the danger of having stray radio
frequency (RF) radiation. In 1996, 13 jobs
were run with 21⁄2-in. HSD hardware and six
7 38
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
7 39
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CUSTOMIZED PERFORATING
Figure 7.56 This releases the guns as soon as they that the valve opens at exactly the right time
are fired (Fig. 7.56), and, by to have the optimum underbalance and,
eliminating any time delay, prevents furthermore, the valve will only open if the
them from getting stuck. gun detonation has been initiated. The SXPV
Release X-Tools ensure efficient operation has an important role to play in the new
housing
because activation can only be initia- technique of Extreme Over-balanced
ted once the guns have started to fire. Perforating (EOP). In this technique, a well is
Another device is the Schlumberger perforated with a small fluid column in the
Explosion-activated Production Valve tubing string above which is a nitrogen
Release
(SXPV). This tool is a production valve cushion at high pressure. Before perforating,
pin
that allows underbalanced perforating the average effective pressure gradient of the
in wells that have existing open column will be more than 1.2 to 1.4 psi/ft.
Support
sleeve perforations. To do so, the TCP guns This high pressure column must be contained
Release
are run on a temporary completion in the tubing until the guns are fired. This is
mandrel
string that is kept closed by a very effectively achieved by the SXPV, which
Release production valve below the packer. only opens as the guns fire. At this point the
piston
The string contains a cushion of fluid nitrogen expands rapidly, forcing the fluid
Break that has a hydrostatic pressure that is column into the perforations at such high
plug
less than formation pressure. Once instantaneous rates that microfractures are
the string is in place, with the packer generated in the formation. This treatment is
set, the production valve must be being used to stimulate low-productivity
opened at the same time as the guns wells or as a prefrac treatment to reduce the
fire. If the production valve is opened treating pressures required in the fracing
too soon, the existing perforations will operation. The SXPV and the SXAR have both
As assembled surge and reduce the underbalance, been used in Venezuela.
The SXAR as thereby diminishing the productivity
assembled (left) of the new perforations. The previous Perforating in high compressive
Drop off
and ready to drop technique was to open the production strength formations
off (right). valve with the drop-bar that was dropped to The standard procedures developed for
activate the firing head. The disadvantage was evaluating the performance of perforating
that there was always a short time (a fraction charges are those defined by the API in the
of a second) in which the production valve RP-43 specifications, now in their fifth
was open before the guns were fired that edition. These procedures involve shooting
would effectively reduce the underbalance. charges into a concrete target of defined
This time depended on the distance between characteristics. As a result, the industry has
the valve and the firing head. On the other developed charges that are optimized when
hand, if the valve did not open, the guns fired into concrete. In terms of penetration,
would be fired overbalanced and impair the concrete is comparable to weak rocks, but
perforation performance. penetration in hard rocks is significantly less.
The SXPV is activated by the explosion In rocks having a compressive strength of
of the primacord breaking a frangible ceramic 25,000 psi, the total penetration of a shaped
sleeve that holds the production valve’s charged can be up to 75% less than the API
locking mechanism in place. Once the sleeve RP-43 Section I performance (Blosser, 1995).
is shattered, the valve can open (Fig. 7.57,
next page). The advantage of this system is
7 40
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Operating
on the specially built Nugget sandstone
piston targets. After final optimization, the average
Shifting
piston penetration was increased to 15.9 in., which
Cushion represents a 26% improvement over the stan-
Release dard charge, despite the explosive load being
housing
Release reduced to 30 g in the optimization. These
pins
Support optimized charges were used to perforate a
sleeve
Break plug
gas injector well at 4 shots per foot (SPF). The
support
well is out-performing the majority of gas
Mandrel
release injectors in the field that were shot at higher
Break
plug
shot densities (up to 12 SPF). Quantitative
data in the field has yet to be collected to
verify that the superior well injectivity is attri-
butable to perforation performance, but the
The SXPV as assembled (left) Hard sandstone reservoirs are common in qualitative results certainly seem to indicate
and open to flow (right). South America. The quartzarenite sandstones this. This project serves as a very good exam-
can exhibit compressive strengths of around ple of the type of development work that is
25,000 psi. In addition, they can have high being undertaken in an effort to bring cus-
permeability and good porosity that allows tomized solutions to perforating problems
fairly deep drilling fluid invasion. Unless the (Smith, 1997).
perforation penetrates beyond this damaged
zone, well productivity is severely compro- Special gun deployment techniques
mised. One operator in South America was to prevent formation damage
experiencing disappointing well productivity Even if charge performance is optimized
in a hard sandstone reservoir, and asked if the so that the shaped charge can shoot beyond
performance of shaped charges could be opti- the damage created by drilling and com-
mized for rocks with high compressive pletion, it is important that no further
strength. The first task was to identify a con- damage is made after the well has been
venient test target that could simulate, as perforated. For example, if the well is
closely as possible, the actual reservoir rock perforated before the final well completion is
properties. After trying different materials, put in place, then it must be controlled by a
including solid steel, it was decided that the potentially damaging kill fluid while the guns
most appropriate material was Nugget are retrieved and the completion is installed.
7 41
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CUSTOMIZED PERFORATING
Figure 7.58 One way to avoid this damage The development of monobore comple-
is to perforate after the final tions has presented new opportunities to
completion is installed with solve these problems. Monobore completions
Lower end of gun wireline-conveyed, through- are designed to have a uniform internal
or firing head
tubing perforating guns. The diameter such that the tubing is no longer a
well pressure is controlled by restriction to running tools into the well.
the pressure integrity of the While the choice of gun size no longer has to
completion, which eliminates be compromised, the problem still remains of
the need for a kill fluid. The how to perforate long intervals without
disadvantage is that the guns multiple runs and without killing the well to
must pass through the retrieve the guns. The trend toward highly
Stinger adapter production tubing, which gen- deviated and horizontal wells with monobore
erally limits the size of the gun completions has made this problem
and shaped charges such particularly important. The solution lies in
that the achievable penetra- new deployment techniques, of which two
tion is severely compromised. have been developed to date. The first is the
Sealed ballistic Furthermore, if long intervals Completion Insertion and Retrieval under
transfer donor
must be perforated, then mul- Pressure (CIRP) system and the second is the
tiple gun runs will have to be use of a Formation Isolation Valve (FIV) or
made due to operational limit- Liner Top Isolation Valve (LTIV) in the
Breech ations. This can be very time completion itself.
lock sleeve consuming and, in addition, The CIRP deployment system enables
only the first run can be shot long gun strings to be run on wireline or
under optimum underbal- coiled tubing under pressure. Individual gun
anced conditions. In view of lengths are limited to the available lubricator
these limitations, some oper- length; however, an unlimited number of
Sealed ballistic ators have preferred to use guns can be connected together under pres-
transfer receptor larger-diameter guns with sure. Connections or disconnections are
bigger charges before running made using specially designed snap-lock
No-go ram lock the completion, thereby connectors and a locking mechanism and
groove
trading off the advantage of actuator arm built into a BOP-like deploy-
superior penetration from ment stack. Figure 7.58 shows the snap-lock
Slick joint
larger guns against the risk of connector in its connected and disconnected
formation damage from the state. A sealed ballistic transfer is used on
Upper end of well kill fluid. Other operators both sides of the connection to prevent fluid
next gun down have chosen to run TCP guns entering the guns during assembly under
on the completion tubing. pressure. The lower half of the snap-lock
This allows the use of optimal gun size and connector has a breach lock sleeve that has
The CIRP snaplock connector avoids having to kill the well after perforating, circumferential grooves machined into it
disconnected (left) and but has the disadvantage that the gun system with vertical slots cut through the grooves.
connected (right). must remain in the well after firing. This incurs The upper half of the snap-lock connector
extra cost, either because the TCP equipment also has circumferential grooves, but vertical
left in the well must be purchased, or if the milling of 50% of the grooved surface leaves
guns are released after firing to allow future vertical grooved fingers. The upper half,
access for logging and maintenance, then extra when properly aligned vertically and
rat hole must be drilled to accommodate them. rotationally, will slot into the lower half.
7 42
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PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Figure 7.59 A 15° rotation will then lock the two halves
Cable
together. The locking mechanism is very
Stuffing box similar to a key being fitted into a door lock.
Pick-up and
lay-down
If the key is properly aligned, it slides into the
assembly
lock. Once inserted, if the key is rotated it
Snaplock
connector cannot be removed from the lock. The
1 2 3
Snaplock rotation of the breach lock sleeve is achieved
connector
Guns–
first lift
upper half
by a robotic arm that is incorporated in the
BOP stack. A No-Go profile on the snap-lock
body allows positive positioning of the
Lubricator
Master Master
connector in the BOP so that the robotic arm
Master valves
valves open valves
closed mates correctly with the connector.
Robot ram
unlocks
BOP stack-
snaplock
connector
To deploy a complete gun string, each
combi style
(shown) Snaplock
connector gun is connected, in turn, under pressure. The
lower half
locked in
Wellhead
no-go ram initial step is to install the special CIRP BOP
stack on the well with a master valve above it.
Even if the guns are to be run in the well on
coiled tubing, it is preferable to deploy the
guns into the wellhead on wireline as this is
Nine steps in running
much quicker, but if necessary it can be done
the CIRP system
4 5 6 with coiled tubing. The first gun is placed in a
in the hole. Steps 4
lubricator and connected above the master
to 7 are repeated
valve (see Fig. 7.59 for the following
until the entire
Snaplock explanation). The lubricator pressure is raised
connector string is deployed.
upper half
Master
to the same pressure as the well and then the
valves
opens master valve is opened and the gun lowered
Robot ram unlocks until the snap-lock is in the BOP. The BOP is
snaplocks
Connectors breech closed and the robotic arm in the BOP is used
lock sleeve
to rotate the snap-lock connector to release
the cable head. The cable head is pulled into
the lubricator, the master valve closed, and the
pressure bled down. The next gun section is
then introduced into the lubricator and the
Coiled tubing
pressure raised to the wellhead pressure. The
master valve is then opened and the gun
7 8 9 lowered to connect into the snap-lock con-
nector of the previous gun. The robotic arm
Firing head
again makes the appropriate rotation to
ensure the locking of the connector. The BOP
Snaplock is then opened and the gun lowered to the
connector
upper half top snap-lock connector. The BOP is closed to
Master
valves
closed
Master valves
open support the gun-string weight and the robotic
arm disconnects the snap-lock to release the
cable head. The process continues in this way
until all the guns have been deployed and the
After opening the robot
ram and the no-go rams the
string can be run in the well.
firing head has been connected. Then, either
the guns are run in hole on wireline or the
7 43
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CUSTOMIZED PERFORATING
Figure 7.60 wireline is rigged down and down to retrieve the guns. For extra safety, kill
replaced by coiled tubing. fluid can be circulated above the valve. After
An entire gun string can be the guns have been retrieved, coiled tubing
deployed in this way and run in can be used to circulate the tubing to a lighter
hole and fired underbalanced. The fluid, such as water or diesel, before opening
Nitrogen gun string can then be retrieved the Isolation Valve for production. The valve
spring from the well under pressure, in the is reopened by applying cycles of tubing
reverse of the operation required to pressure that reciprocrate an indexed sleeve
deploy it, without killing the well. If against a nitrogen cushion. The valve opens
the well has not been previously after a preset number of pressure and bleed-
perforated, then the guns can be off cycles. The valve is a multicycling valve
Counter Centralizer deployed without pressure control, that can be opened or closed at any time by a
using the CIRP technique only to shifting tool run on slickline or coiled tubing.
retrieve them under pressure.
Detent The CIRP system can be run in Conclusions
Latch Knuckle any well. An alternative system, the Recent developments in perforating have
profile joint Formation Isolation Valve (FIV) or focused on customized solutions for the full
Ball Liner-Top Isolation Valve (LTIV), range of factors that affect well productivity
valve
Shifting requires installation in the com- from perforations. This includes much more
collet pletion, so it can only be run in new than the shaped charge penetration and en-
wells or at the time of workover. trance hole, which were the main focus in the
The FIV is a monobore multicycle past. We have shown examples of solutions
Centralizer completion valve normally run for a variety of customer problems, such as
Closed Shifting below a permanent packer (Fig. perforating without shutting down radios and
position tool
7.60). The LTIV is the liner-top other electrical devices; how to release gun
The FIV is run in the closed version. Both valves operate in the same way strings or activate production valves at the
position and can be opened and act as a downhole lubricator valve that instant of firing; designing shaped charges for
with a special shifting tool. can be closed or opened by a shifting tool run particularly high compressive strength rocks;
below long gun strings or on slick-line. and designing deployment systems that allow
Long gun strings can be run in the hole very long gun strings to be run in and
on wireline or coiled tubing and fired under- retrieved under pressure.
balanced. The gun string can then be pulled The focus on customized solutions has
back through the Isolation Valve that is closed resulted in many new and innovative
by a special shifting tool run on the bottom of techniques being developed to greatly
the guns. This isolates the newly perforated improve the performance and efficiency of
formation and allows the tubing to be bled perforating systems.
This chapter was written by F.Paz (Intevep), S.López, F.Portillo, M.Martínez, J.Mayol, A.
Sánchez (Maraven), L.Ortega, (Corpoven), F.J.Colmenares (Maraven), T. Ceccarelli,
E.Nordmeyer, J.Haskell, K.Bennaceur, J.J.Gutiérrez, F.Montoya.
and the permission of Lagoven, Maraven and Corpoven to publish data from their wells.
7 44
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REFERENCES
PEG Methodology and practices Ortega, L., Brito, L. and Ben-Naceur, K., 1996, Hydraulic fracturing for control
of sand production and asphaltine deposition in deep hot wells, SPE Paper
Bennaceur, K. et al, 1996, Boosting hydrocarbon production from existing
36461, Presented at the 71st Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of
fields. The SEARCH for Oil and Gas in Latin America, Volume 3, pp 29-45.
the Society of Petroleum Engineers, Denver, Colorado, 6-9 October.
Identification of bypassed zones
Perkins, T.K. and Kern, L.R., 1961, Widths of hydraulic fractures, Journal of
Roscoe, B.A., Stoller, C., Adolph, R.A., Boutemy, Y., Cheeseborough, J.C., Petroleum Technology, pp 937-949.
Hall, J.S., McKeon, D.C., Pittman, D., Seeman, B., and Thomas, S.R., 1991,
Roegiers, J.C. and Neda, J., 1993, Summary of Joint Geomechanical Study—
A new through-tubing oil-saturation measurement system. SPE 21413.
North of Monagas Field, U. Oklahoma-Intevep Report.
Newey, J.J., Meadows, D., and Baumbach, T., 1996, Applications of the
Controlling fines migration
Reservoir Saturation Tool in the Poui Field, Offshore Trinidad. SPE 36152.
Latin American Petroleum Engineering Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad, Gabriel, G.A. and Inamdar, G.R., 1983, An experimental investigation of fines
April. migration in porous media. Paper SPE 12168, 58th Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Schlumberger Log Interpretation Charts, 1995, pp 7-1 to 7-3.
Krueger , R.F., Vogel, L.C., and Fischer, P.W., 1967, Effect of pressure draw-
Controlling water production
down on clean-up clay or silt blocked sandstone. Journal of Petroleum
F. Paz, E. Anez, 1996, Evaluaci¤n de Sistemas Gelificantes para Control de Technology, pp 397-403.
Agua en Maraven, S.A. Enero.
Muecke, T.W., 1979, Formation fines and factors controlling their movement
Chan, K.S., 1995, Water control diagnostic plots, SPE 30775 presented at the in porous media. Journal of Petroleum Technology 31, pp 114-150.
70th Annual Technical Conference.
Neasham, J.W., 1977, The morphology of dispersed clay in sandstone reser-
Perez, O., Fragachan, F.E., Ramirez, A., Feraud, J.P., 1997, Applications of voirs and its effect on sandstone shaliness, pore space and fluid flow prop-
polymer gel for establishment of zonal isolations and water shut-off in car- erties. Paper SPE 6858, 52th Annual Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition
bonate formations, SPE/IADC 37622, presented at the SPE/IADC drilling con- of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, Denver, CO.
ference, March.
Olivares, M., Chang, E., Alvarez, G., 1988, Modelo geológico y de yacimien-
Maximizing fracture conductivity to del Campo Ceuta, Lago de Maracaibo.
Martins, J.P. et al, 1989, Tip Screen-Out fracturing applied to the Ravenspurn Laboratorios Dowell, Estudio de Acidificación Matricial. Pozo VLG-3727,
South Gas Field Development, SPE 19766, San Antonio, TX. Campo Ceuta, Maraven, S.A.
Morales, R.H., Norman, W.D. and Park, E.I., 1996, Why fracture unconsoli- Sharma, M.M., Yortsos, Y.C. and Handy, L.L., 1985, Release and deposition
dated high permeability formations, SPE 35031, Lafayette, LA. of clays in sandstone. Paper SPE 13562, International Symposium on Oilfield
and Geothermal Chemistry, Phoenix, Arizona. April 9-11.
Nolte, K.G., 1986, Determination of proppant and fluid schedules from frac-
turing pressure declines, SPE Production Engineering, pp 255-265. Thomas, R.L. and Crowe C.W., 1978, Matrix Treatment Employs New Acid
System for Stimulation and Control of Fines Migration in Sandstone
Boggio, C. E., Montoya, F.F., 1996, Técnica de arenamiento controlado, INGP-
Formations, Dowell Division, Journal of Petroleum Technology, August, pp
2-22, Ingepet, Perú.
1491-1500.
Mathur, A.K., Ning, X., Marcinew, R.B., Economides, C.E., and Economides,
Inteverp, 1989, Estimulación del Pozo VLG-3715, Campo Ceuta. August.
M.J., 1995, Hydraulic fracture stimulation of highly permeable formations:
the effect of critical fracture parameters on oilwell production and pressure, Customized perforating
SPE 30652, Dallas, TX.
American Petroleum Institute, 1991, RP-43 Fifth Edition Procedures.
Economides, M.J. and Nolte, K.G., 1987, Post-treatment evaluation and frac-
Halleck, P. M. and Behrman, L. A., 1990, Penetration of shaped charges in
tured well performance, Reservoir Stimulation, Schlumberger Educational
stressed rock, Rock Mechanics Contributions and Challenges, p.629-636,
Services, p 11–01.
Proceedings of the 31st U. S. Symposium held in Rotterdam, The
Cinco Ley, H. and Samaniego, F., 1981, Transient pressure analysis, Finite Netherlands,
conductivity fracture case versus damaged fracture case, SPE 10179, San
Blosser, W.R., 1995, An assessment of perforating performance of high com-
Antonio, TX.
pressive strength non-homogeneous sandstones, SPE 30082, presented at
Fracture optimization the European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague, May 15-16.
Geertsma, J. and de Klerk, F., 1969, A rapid method of predicting width and Smith, P.S., Behrmann, L.A., Wenbo Yang, 1997, Improvements in perforat-
extent of hydraulically induced fractures, Journal of Petroleum Technology, ing performance in high compressive strength rocks, SPE 38141, presented
December, pp 1571-1581. at the 1997 SPE European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague, June
2-3.
Morales, R.H. and Marcinew, R.P., 1993, Fracturing of high-permeability for-
mations: Mechanical properties correlations, SPE Paper 26561, Presented at Pelling, R., Scott, P., Huber, K., and Edwards, G., 1995, TCP perforating on
the 68th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the Society of coiled tubing utilising a deployment system, 3rd World Oil Coiled Tubing con-
Petroleum Engineers, Houston, Texas, 3-6 October. ference held in Houston, Texas, March 13-16.
Nordgren, R.P., 1972, Propagation of a vertical hydraulic fracture, Journal of Schlumberger Oilfield Services, 1995, Perforating Services.
the Society of Petroleum Engineers, August, p. 306.
7 45
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Chapter overview
Sedimentary analysis of sandstone reservoirs
Evaluation of fractured carbonates
A multioffset seismic profile in an old well
Complementing a poor surface seismic
A multiazimuth walkaway seismic profile
Reservoir description around a horizontal well
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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
8 1
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S E D I M E N TA R Y A N A LY S I S O F S A N D S T O N E R E S E R V O I R S
8 2
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significant conceptual step forward from the Beach ridges are composed mainly of
machine-processed conventional dipmeter sandstones, gravels and shell debris and
processing, where some of the dips may be form parallel to coastlines. Beach ridges that
spurious or of unknown origin. The data are deposited under storm influences
ensemble has been a great help in contain the coarsest sands on the beach
recognizing the various types of depositional (Reineck and Singh, 1980). Sediments near
environments. the base of beach ridges are mainly
laminated and separated from the
The coastal marine setting: underlying tidal flats by an erosional surface
An overview (Psuty, 1966). The subsequent section
After a delta is abandoned, the seaward contains cross-laminations of moderate to
edge of the delta is subjected to marine high dipping magnitude in a landward
processes that result in reworking and direction. The width of beach ridges is
redepositing the sediments landward at a determined by the duration of flood seasons
relatively slow rate. Sands are normally and the magnitude of marine processes.
deposited within the coastal area and fine- Cheniers may form over prograding
grained sediments are dispersed further shores. These are sandy, linear ridges that
offshore. This area contains numerous, stand above high-water line and are
related sandstones that were deposited by separated from the shore by mud flats that
,,,,,
a complex interplay of tides, waves, long- accumulated on their seaward side. These
shore currents and wind-driven currents. sands are rich in fossil shells and may form
Beach ridge, barrier island, tidal inlet, and distinct layers.
tidal delta sandstones are the main reservoirs Barrier islands are elongated sand
within this setting (see Fig. 8.1). bodies parallel to the shoreline. Conditions
,,,,,,,
,,,,,,
,,,,,
Figure 8.1
Mainland
Marsh
,,,,,,,
,
,,,,,,
Marsh
Washover fan
Lagoon
Flood-tidal
delta
,,,,,,,
Grassflat and
l
nne marsh
cha
et
Inl
Beach-dunes
ridges Storm
channel
Beach
Shoreface
Ebb-tidal
delta
Offshore
or shelf
8 3
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S E D I M E N TA R Y A N A LY S I S O F S A N D S T O N E R E S E R V O I R S
that favor the development of these direction of lateral drift (Elliott, 1978). The
sediment bodies include a: 1) steady supply upstream side of the inlet relative to the
of sands to the shoreline, 2) hydrodynamic longshore current acts as depositional bank
setting that is dominated by wave energy, 3) and merges with the tidal flats and spits,
limited tidal range, and 4) low-gradient whereas the opposite side of the inlet
coastal plain (Reinson, 1984). develops an erosive margin against the
Theories regarding the origin of barrier barrier. In a mesotidal setting, tidal inlets are
islands are numerous. However, they are numerous and repeatedly cut the barrier
normally formed by: 1) the building-up of islands into small segments in which the
submarine bars, 2) spit progradation parallel thicker portion is composed of beach spits.
to the coast and segmentation by inlets, and Tidal channel sand bodies are elongated
3) submergence of coastal beach ridges perpendicular to the barrier complex and
(Reinson, 1984). their thickness is mainly related to the depth
Barrier islands that were deposited of the channel.
under a microtidal range are long and linear. The deepest parts of most inlets are
Tidal inlets and deltas are of minor dominated by ebb currents that flowed over
importance. Mesotidal barriers are short and deeply eroded channel floors where
characterized by large tidal inlets and deltas relatively coarser sands, patches of gravel
(Elliott, 1978). Barrier islands are normally and shell debris accumulated. Seaward-
subdivided into lower, middle and upper oriented, large-scale cross-laminations are
shoreface. Boundaries between these units commonly produced by the migration of
are not often sharply defined. From the sand waves (transitional bed forms between
bottom upward, the lower shoreface consists ripples and dunes). Some inlets are
mainly of highly bioturbated fine sandstones completely characterized by ebb-dominated
and siltstones. The middle shoreface sand- unimodal cross-laminations (Oomkens,
stones contain different cross-lamination 1974). At slackwater phase, suspension silts
sets, including hummocky cross-laminations. and clays settle out and drape the cross-
The upper shoreface sandstones are com- lamination sets. During the following current
posed of several units of multidirectional stage, clay drapes may be partly eroded to
cross-laminations. They produce a typical produce gently erosive reactivation surfaces
coarsening-upward pattern on GR and SP (Reading and Collinson, 1996). These low-
logs. A barrier grows seaward by a beach- angle erosion surfaces provide internal
shoreface accretion process to produce a evidence of water stage fluctuation and are
typical coarsening-upward sequence. common in tidal settings.
The foreshore is the zone of the wave Because they migrate laterally, tidal
swash and backswash mechanism that inlets fill by complex lateral accretion. The
generates the distinct subparallel to low- sediments dip toward the channel thalweg
angle, seaward-dipping cross-lamination and reflect the former position of the
sets. The backshore area is characterized by depositional bank. Smaller, flood-oriented
subaerial wind processes. The sediments bed forms are present over the shallower
encompass subhorizontal to landward- margins of the inlet. Bidirectional flow
dipping beds. orientations may exist at intermediate depths
Tidal inlets cut the barrier and act as a (Galloway and Hobday, 1996).
passageway for tidal waters in and out of the
lagoon. They are asymmetrical in cross
section as they migrate laterally in the
8 4
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,,,,,
RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
,,,,,
Figure 8.2 The lagoon is a low-energy zone that is
located behind the barrier on the landward
side. The silty shale sediments of the lagoon
are highly bioturbated and rich in organic con-
tent. However, the lagoon may contain highly
,,,,,
laminated sandstones deposited by washover
fans. Dominant sedimentary structures are
Dips toward channel
subhorizontal stratification and small-scale
foresets where the fan enters the lagoon
(McCubbin, 1982). Tidal flood deltas are devel-
oped in the lagoon as the tidal flow loses its
velocity. On the seaward side of the barrier
another tidal-related delta is developed by ebb
processes.
Lateral accretion bedding, showing dips towards channel (from Elliot, 1987). In addition to lagoons, tides move great
volumes of sea water landward through
rivers, estuaries and delta distributary
Figure 8.3
channels. Tidal currents dominate the lower
reach of channels and estuaries and form
RXOZ
AHF90
tidal flats within interdistributary areas.
AHF60 Ebb currents, when associated with flu-
CALI
6 (in.)10 AHF30 vial discharge, develop unidirectional cross-
SP BS RHOZ
–100 (mV) 0 6 (in.)10
AHF20
1.95 (g / cm3) 2.95
laminations dipping seaward. Sedimentary
GR Depth AHF10 NPHI sequences that were deposited under these
0 (gAPI) 200 (ft) 0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 0.45 (V ⁄ V) –0.15
conditions might only be distinguished from
fluvial deposits by the associated facies and
Sand 1 the presence of marine fauna and fossil shells
(Van Beek and Koster, 1972).
In mesotidal coasts, tidally influenced flu-
vial channels are sinuous and their point bars
are characterized by lateral accretion surfaces
X200
that dip steeply toward the channel thalweg
(Smith, 1987; Woodroffe et al., 1989), (Fig 8.2).
Bidirectional cross-lamination sets or herring-
bone stratification reflect the complex interplay
of tidal and fluvial processes. The thickness of
a point bar is related to the channel scour, and
stacked sand bodies are common. Sedimentary
sequences consist of coarse- to medium-
X250
grained sandstones at the base that grade
upward to finer-grained, horizontally
Sand 2 laminated sandstones at the top (Pettijohn et
al., 1990). The migratory nature of the channel
produces numerous erosional and truncation
surfaces and increases the magnitude of the
heterogeneity within sandstone units. These
Openhole logs over Sands 1 and 2.
depositional processes produce a fining-
8 5
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S E D I M E N TA R Y A N A LY S I S O F S A N D S T O N E R E S E R V O I R S
8 6
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X279.0 ft
8 7
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S E D I M E N TA R Y A N A LY S I S O F S A N D S T O N E R E S E R V O I R S
8 8
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Figure 8.8 This interval is interpreted to be deposit- The underlying sediments from 9610.5
ed by a NNE-SSW-oriented channel that has to 9630 ft are highly laminated tidal flats that
N E S W N been influenced by a complex interplay of were subjected to only limited biogenic
9486.0 ft
fluvial and tidal systems (Fig. 8.5). The activity, which has been confirmed on the
provenance of these sandstones was possibly core (Fig. 8.9e).
located to the SSW of this well. The top part
B-6 sandstones (9630-9680 ft)
of the facies consists of laminated sediments.
The GR over the interval displays
B-6 sandstones (9567.8 to 9610.5 ft) stacked, fining-upward sediments. The inter-
The GR over this interval shows several val has a highly dipping erosional base and
stacked, fining-upward units with a sharp an associated cemented lag. At the base of
erosional base and gradational top. The the channel, sediments are rich in clay clasts.
E
individual units are separated by levee and The facies contains accretion surfaces
floodplain/tidal flat deposits. and cross-lamination sets that indicate the
The facies contains lateral accretion complex interplay of fluvial and tidal
surfaces that dip to the SE systems. Point bars contain accretion surfaces
and NW, which reflect that dip toward the NW and SE. The
E the sinuosity of the variability in the dip directions reflects the
channel (Fig.8.9d). The migratory nature of the channel. This
dip directions of these meandering channel is trending in a NE-SW
accretion surfaces suggest orientation, as suggested by the dip direction
D
that the channel has a NE- of the accretion surfaces.
SW orientation (i.e., they Cross-laminations dip to the NE and
are oriented perpen- SSE. The dominant NE-dipping cross-
dicular to the channel laminations at 9649 ft possibly reflect the
orientation). migration of sand waves under fluvial
Large-scale cross-lami- influences (Fig. 8.9f). The sets that dip to the
B
nation sets mainly dip to SW at 9631 ft (Fig. 8.9e) and SSE at 9658 ft
the SSW, which reflect (Fig. 8.9f) reflects a limited tidal influence.
A
the migration of sand waves under tidal The sandstone can be subdivided into
influences (Fig. 8.9a). However, minor several stacked depositional and flow units
cross-lamination sets at 9600 ft dip to the that are separated by channel levee and tidal
NE, which is related to limited fluvial flat deposits. These units are bounded by
influence (Fig. 8.9c). Possible compactional erosional and truncation surfaces. The image
effects have oversteepened the dipping data show clay clasts within the sediments
9504.0 ft magnitude of a cross-lamination set at 9603 (e.g., Fig 8.9f). These sandstones are
ft (Fig. 8.9c). These units are bounded by interpreted to be deposited by a fluvial
FMI image over the B-52
truncation surfaces and clay drapes (e.g., channel with a NE-SW orientation that was
sand showing:
9605, 9599.2, 9584, 9581 ft). Soft-sediment locally subjected to limited tidal influence
A= Chaotic sediments
deformation and clay clasts are locally (Fig. 8.5).
B= Truncation surfaces
present within channel lag deposits (e.g.,
C= Accretion surfaces
9592.5 ft), (Fig.8.9b).
D= Cross-lamination sets on
This facies appears to be deposited as
image and core
stacked point bars within a NE-SW-oriented
E= Patchy cementation.
channel under a dominating tidal influence
and a minor fluvial influence (Fig. 8.5).
8 9
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S E D I M E N TA R Y A N A LY S I S O F S A N D S T O N E R E S E R V O I R S
Figure 8.9a-f
a N
9581.0 ft
E S W N
FMI images over
N E S W N e
9625.0 ft
A= Truncation surfaces
B= Large scale cross-
A lamination sets.
9586.0 ft
9590.5 ft
b
Soft sediment
deformation and A
clay drapes. 9632.0 ft
FMI image and core photograph of the sediments underlying the B-6
9593.0 ft
sand showing dense laminations. A=cross-laminations.
c 9598.5 ft
f
C
A= Truncation surfaces
A
and clay drapes
C= Minor cross-
lamination sets
D= Oversteeped cross-
laminations.
D
FMI image of the
sediments underlying
9604.0 ft the B-6 sand.
9605.0 ft
d
A=cross-laminations
B=truncation surfaces
Lateral accretion
C=clay clasts.
surfaces dipping to
9648.0ft
the SE (above) and
NW (below).
9611.0 ft
8 10
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E VA L U AT I O N O F F R A C T U R E D C A R B O N AT E S
8 11
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E VA L U AT I O N O F F R A C T U R E D C A R B O N AT E S
Fracturing processes
Planar features, which are
Brittle rocks contain more fractures than Different sources of stress often create
not vertical or horizontal, and
ductile rocks. There are a number of proper- different types and distributions of fractures.
which are intersected by bore-
ties that may affect rock brittleness, which Fold-related fractures are different from fault-
holes, are expressed by ellip-
include rock type, grain size, type of related fractures regarding their relation to the
ses on the borehole walls.
cementing mineral, porosity, temperature, original structural setting, orientation, and dis-
clay percentage, effective confining pressure, tribution. Fault and wrench-fault related-
and strain rate (Stearns and Friedman, 1972). fractures are discussed in more detail below,
Increasing effective confining pressure and since they are of concern in the West Mara
Figure 8.11 temperature or reducing strain rate tend to Field.
increase rock ductility. Ductile and thicker Fractures have been classified into several
s1
Conjugated shear
fracture planes
layers have relatively larger and wider genetic types (Stearns, 1967; Stearns and
fractures with greater spacing under the same Friedman, 1972; and Nelson, 1985). These
structural situation. classifications are based on two main
30˚ The proper study of fractured reservoirs assumptions: 1) natural fracture patterns faith-
q q begins with a thorough analysis of the frac- fully reflect the local state of stress at the time
s3 s3 tures in terms of geometry, origin, morpho- of fracturing, and 2) subsurface rocks fracture
s2 logy, density, width, and porosity. The Image in a manner qualitatively similar to equivalent
Examiner has enhanced our capability of rocks in the lab under analogous conditions.
tackling these areas. Generally, for any triaxial stress state in
which s1>s2>s3, there are two shear-fracture
Geometrical analysis orientations and one extensional-fracture
3-D View Sedimentary and structural features that orientation (Fig. 8.11). The two shear fractures
(Planes of rupture)
are not strictly vertical or horizontal, when form a dihedral angle of about 60°. The axis
For triaxial stress in which s1 are intersected by the borehole, appear as an of s1 is the bisector of the acute angle, while
> s2 > s3, two shear frac- ellipse on the borehole walls (Fig. 8.10). The s3 bisects the obtuse angle. s2 acts in a plane
tures and one extensional steepness of ellipses in vertical wells reflect perpendicular to the plane that contains s1
fracture (// to s1 and perp. to the dip magnitude and orientation of these and s3. The extension fracture orientation is
s3) tend to develop. features. When the images are presented in parallel to s1 and perpendicular to s3.
8 12
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N
se
or
8.12). The converse is also true: fracture
r
ve
m
al
on
Re
ul
es
ts
orientation reveals the strike of a fault and its
pr
m
ts
au
0
st
ax
-7
ru
60
Fo
8 13
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E VA L U AT I O N O F F R A C T U R E D C A R B O N AT E S
0'
U D
0'
10
10
–8
90
–6
–8
D
–6
N
'
U
D
U normally spaced far apart. The numerous
0 D U
10
–8900
–7300
U
D
–4 smaller fractures that exhibit the same
'
'
D
0
10
'
0'
–2900 0' U
–6
0'
' 0
–770
D
1 D – U
–4 U
156 '
00
' 30
0 (Nelson, 1985).
0'
1 –5
90
–1 0'
–4
D U
90
–6
0'
116
70
0'
–890
–5
0'
0'
70
D D 30 0'
50
–5
U
' U –7 D
00'
00 0 ' U –8 D
49 50 U
–41
– D U
U –6
0'
0'
D
0'
70
0' 10 90
–5
–730 –8 –8
0'
Structural
50
0'
50
–4
D U D
–6
Fault
0'
90
U U
–4
U D Well
D
0 0.5 1.0 km
8 14
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8 15
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E VA L U AT I O N O F F R A C T U R E D C A R B O N AT E S
Depth (ft)
Mito Juan/Colón
5000
8 16
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8 17
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E VA L U AT I O N O F F R A C T U R E D C A R B O N AT E S
N E S W N
5889.0 ft N E S W N N E S W N
5988.0 ft 6064.0 ft
5997.0 ft
8 18
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8 19
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A M U LT I O F F S E T S E I S M I C P R O F I L E I N A N O L D W E L L
09
97
39
'
3
0'
8
7
'
75
N
t
en ion Gross sand thickness
im ect
'
50
8 20
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Depth (ft)
1000
VSP data acquisition
Dynamite was chosen as the source.
1500
This type of source allows the highest-
2000
frequency content with the highest signal-to-
1 2 3 4 noise ratio possible. Also, this source is
2500 easily operated in adverse or irregular
–500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
surface conditions (marsh and lagoon
Offset (ft)
topography). However, for each VSP offset,
However, at this last offset the subsurface
Results of ray-trace a proper cluster source array has to be
fold at each reflector is poor in areas near the
modeling, showing the designed. One dynamite charge (1 Kg each)
wellsite because of refraction; therefore, two
coverage from each offset is located 18 ft deep in each shot hole. There
more intermediate-offset VSPs are recom-
at different levels. are 30 holes, 3 m apart, in a regular 5 x 6
mended to improve the subsurface fold, such
grid, allowing 30 shots for each offset.
as at 750 ft and 1500 ft. The final lateral
The well conditions did not allow the
coverage and subsurface fold provided by
downhole seismic tool go deeper than 1010
the recommended acquisition geometry is
ft, so the actual VSP stations range from 1010
displayed in Fig. 8.31.
ft up to 200 ft at 40-ft sampling intervals.
Figure 8.32
Downhole tool
Processing
The downhole seismic tool
Field Field A standard VSP processing chain for
tape tape used in this acquisition is the
non-zero offset VSP geometry was applied
CSAT* Combinable Seismic
Demultiplex to each source offset location VSP data. (Fig.
and editing
Sonic log Acquisition Tool that digital-
8.32). During data acquisition, the downhole
ly transmits the signal
SEG-Y Stack
tool rotates and, therefore, randomly orients
tape recorded at the geophone to
the horizontal components at each station.
Signal based
the surface. This tool has a
polarization
Because of this and for further processing,
modular architecture, which
the first step after data loading should be to
allows the use of a small,
True amplitude properly orient these horizontal components
recovery and
light-weight sensor that
bandpass filter
to a fixed reference coordinate system by
Velocity makes the tool (seismically
Model using a signal-based polarization method.
speaking) more sensitive to
Median velocity The coordinate system of the vertical and
filter the wanted signal and less
horizontal planes is shown in Fig. 8.33. After
sensitive to unwanted sig-
Predictive and reorienting to the reference coordinate
waveshape
nals, such as the tube wave.
deconvolution
system, the data from source position 2 are
This sensor module is
shown in Fig. 8.34.
decoupled from the tool
SEG-Y Kirchoff Compressional P waves are the
tape migration body and strongly coupled
dominant seismic events in the VSP total
against the wellbore.
Standard processing chain for wavefield. The first 500 msec after the first
non-zero-offset VSP. compressional arrival are not contaminated
by mode conversion. This allows at least 1.0
8 21
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A M U LT I O F F S E T S E I S M I C P R O F I L E I N A N O L D W E L L
HMX
a Predictive and waveshape
deconvolutions
a
Sensor X It is assumed that the downgoing
wavetrain recorded at the geophone, at a
certain depth in the well, is the seismic
source that generates the upgoing wavetrain.
Once the upgoing energy is separated from
Reorientation of the sec of data (two-way time index) free of any the downgoing energy, a Wiener-Levinson
measured signals (X and Y) mode conversion. This means at least 3000 ft deconvolution filter can be designed to
to the reference coordinate of VSP data that are free from any mode- remove any multiples generated between
system (HMX and HMN). converted event. Therefore, P to S wave the seismic source and the geophone
separation, which might distort the data, is located in the well. Thus, the deconvolution
not needed. filter is designed trace by trace from the
Velocity filtering, the next step in the downgoing wavetrain and is later applied to
VSP processing chain, is dedicated to both the traces containing the upgoing and
separating the upgoing waves from the the downgoing wavetrain. In the same way,
downgoing waves. This separation is a Wiener-Levinson deconvolution filter is
performed in the time domain, taking into designed to reshape the remaining trace into
a symmetric zero phase wavelet.
Figure 8.34 After the deconvolution processing, the
upgoing wavetrain contains the effective
reflections caused by a deconvolved signal
260.0
propagating down through the formation
(Fig. 8.36, next page).
Vertical axis
650.5
Migration
Measured depth (ft)
8 22
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Vertical axis
significant coherent energy. If there was no
650.5 reflector at the imaged point, the sum should
be zero. The migrated image in real
Results
650.5 Each offset VSP data set shows good
frequency content and signal-to-noise ratio.
These two factors are a result of the high
970.5 quality of the seismic source used in data ac-
0.000 0.500 1.000 quisition and the relatively shallow depth of
Time (sec) the sandstone-shale sequence being studied.
Data from source location 2 after velocity separation. Compared to the ray-trace modeling,
refraction from the far source offset location
This ray propagates down through the
was not as large as expected, because of a
velocity model, applying Snell’s law and
high velocity layer found near the surface.
Huygen’s principle. The trajectory of the
The first 1500 ft of formation (Fig. 8.37)
actual ray, going from the source point to
can be characterized as a relatively parallel
the receiver point, besides being computed
stratigraphic sequence, divided into two
for the actual velocity model, is also
blocks by a reverse fault (almost vertical)
computed for a wide range of dip values.
located approximately 300 ft away from the
well. The fault throw is relatively small, so at
Figure 8.36
the reservoir level (1300 ft) this fault might not
interrupt the lateral continuity of the
260.0 sandstone body.
Vertical axis
260.0
ing there may be more sandstone-shale
sequences in this direction.
650.5
970.5
8 23
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A M U LT I O F F S E T S E I S M I C P R O F I L E I N A N O L D W E L L
2000
(ft)
8 24
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2250
because of the presence of strongly
overpressured zones.
2500
This well presented a good opportunity
2750 for recording a VSP to help clarify inter-
pretation in the collapsed zone. However,
3000 because of the surface topography, careful
planning was required. First, the area was
3250
thoroughly scouted to find accessible loca-
tions for a vibrator of 25 tons. Then, for each
3500
possible source location and downhole
3750 geophone station, the target illumination was
4000
23 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Trace number
Surface seismic line through the well location.
8 25
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Trace number
Vertical data for offset C showing effects of refraction at wide angle.
8 26
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Figure 8.42 2000 ft and 5000 ft (0.9 to 1.5 secs) and shows
their lateral extent. Therefore, the objectives
of the VSP were
Time
Mesa
sec
Acoustic impedance Time achieved. This
4000 (ft/ sec•g/ cm ) 9000 (secs)
3
Las Piedras
1.4
will help select the
1.5
location of any
5260 ft future deep explo-
1.6 5349 ft
ration well.
5700 ft
1.8
2.0
Overpressured zones
Determining the
Carapita
overpressured zones
As an added and unexpected bonus, the
2.5 VSP helped determine the extent of a highly
overpressured zone. Before setting the
133⁄8-in. casing, the well had been drilled
through the Carapita to 5301 ft with a 81⁄2-in.
pilot hole. Drilling was very difficult over the
last 20 ft because of a high-pressure zone that
3.0
produced asphalt. The asphalt acted similarly
to salt, closing in each time a few hours after
s
ta
Fault plane
ra
8 27
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The zero-offset VSP data were inverted cemented. Since problems continued, a liner
using the Grivelet method of iterative model- was run to 5349 ft. Note that the interval
ing. This method detects the major events in covered by the liner corresponds to the first
the corridor stack of the zero-offset VSP, and overpressured zone, and that the bottom of
makes a first estimate of the time and ampli- the cemented zone corresponds approxi-
tude of reflections. The reflection series is mately to the bottom of the second over-
convolved with the downgoing wavelet to pressured zone. Having closed these off, the
give a modeled trace that is compared with well was drilled through the rest of the
the actual trace. From the difference, a Carapita without much difficulty. Thus, know-
gradient method is used to refine the reflec- ledge of the pressure zone length and the fault
tion series in successive iterations until there plane geometry from the VSP helped prepare
is a satisfactory match with the actual trace. a good plan for setting the liner and covering
To avoid instabilities, it is important to limit the high-pressure, asphalt-producing interval.
the number of reflections and to use reason-
able geophysical constraints. Conclusions
The result (Fig. 8.42, right) is a log of A multioffset VSP showed reflectors,
acoustic impedance versus time from the top faults and sandstone bodies in an area where
of the VSP to approximately 0.4 sec below the the surface seismic was very unclear because
well at the time of recording (5260 ft). There of surface topography and a large, faulted,
is a strong drop in impedance between 1.53 collapsed zone at the reservoir level and
sec (estimated to be at 5200 ft) and 1.59 sec above. The results will help determine
(5340 ft) with another drop until 1.75 sec (5700 locations for further development wells, and
ft). These are interpreted as overpressured also help plan future deep exploration wells.
zones. A further drop is observed at 1.90 sec. As an added bonus, the extent of an
This could indicate another high-pressure zone overpressured asphalt zone was predicted by
(very common within the Carapita). However, calculating the acoustic impedance below the
it could also be because the limit of reliable well from the zero-offset VSP. This information
inversion of the VSP has been reached. was essential in deciding the proper intervals
With the confidence given by these pre- over which to place a cement plug and an
dictions, drilling continued, with difficulty, to intermediate liner. Once this was done, the
5623 ft and the entire openhole section well was drilled without major difficulty.
A M U LT I A Z I M U T H W A L K A W AY S E I S M I C P R O F I L E
8 28
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8 29
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A M U LT I A Z I M U T H W A L K A W AY S E I S M I C P R O F I L E
Trace number
frequency in some places. This effect has
60
been related to obstacles (well locations,
80 boats) located on the walkaway lines. The
change in boat trajectory changed the air gun
100
array lobe directivity and the global
120
interaction of the air guns. All the lines were
affected by this phenomenon. A late
140 conversion shear arrival can also be seen on
the raw stack data of all the lines.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Time (sec)
Processing
Typical stack of raw data (vertical component, line 1).
The processing of this very large VSP
mode,” the airguns being shot by the vessel data set was executed on a Ultra Sparc II Sun
and the Schlumberger Maxis unit acting in station, using the latest GeoFrame VSP
“Slave mode.” The navigation system was a D- processing software. The following steps
GPS Sercel system. The source was fired every were involved:
50 m along each line out to a maximum offset a) Data editing. An inventory of bad shots
of 6502 m on lines 6 and 8. was made and, as noted above, only two were
Five lines, numbers 1, 3, 4, 7 and 8, were discarded. In line 6 at 12,500 ft, the vertical
acquired four times. Lines 2 and 5 were axis data were sometimes affected by power
discarded due to lack of time. The source was supply multiples (120 Hz and 180 Hz). The
shifted 25 m between runs so as to obtain a low-frequency shots mentioned above were
final spacing of 25 m on each line. Each line not discarded as they had good coherency.
was acquired twice with the ASI set at two b) Navigation data. The UTM navigation
depths 22.5 ft apart so as to have a final data were recorded using the WSG-84 coor-
geophone interval of 22.5 ft. This geophone dinate protocol, and subsequently shifted to
interval was designed to prevent aliasing at be in agreement with the La Canoa reference.
high frequencies during the downgoing and Various shot line discontinuities were
upgoing wavefield separation. Line 6 was observed, especially in line 1 (due to the
acquired four times at the same ASI depths as obstacles as noted above).
the other lines, and in addition, two times c) Sorting. The data were preprocessed to
with the source shifted 25 m and with the ASI obtain a walkaway configuration; i.e., they
at 12,500 ft. These last two settings were were sorted using first the trace header with
intended to provide a deconvolution operator geophone depth and then with shot offset.
for the shallower lines. Shots located within 1 m of each other are
A total of 2450 shots were acquired along stacked together. The Sercel Telemetry allowed
a combined total of 125 km of walkaway a maximum error of 5 m in the in-line direction
lines. A vertical VSP was also acquired with and 20 m perpendicular to the line, far above
two Sodera air guns in a parallel cluster array, the precision required for the sorting.
shot at 3000 psi, which has a frequency band
8 30
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Frequency (Hz)
40 required vertical and horizontal rotation
angle. The polarity of the vertical and HMX
40
Amplitude
data has been compared and matched
40
manually. A change of polarity was observed
on lines 6 and 8 at large offsets. This effect is
40 believed to be caused by refraction within the
shallow formations.
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 f) P and S decomposition. The P/S para-
Trace number meter decomposition was executed in VSP
configuration, offset by offset, using a six-
Frequency spectrum d) Signal preprocessing. As suggested by parameter model fitting the acquisition geo-
before predictive Kramer (1994), the ringing in the first 200 metry and the local geology. In this method,
deconvolution. msec, caused by the shallow formations, has the P and S wave fields are separated by look-
been controlled by a short predictive operator ing for coherent amplitude trends and their
(200 msec window on the second zero angles of propagation down and up (Leaney
crossing that produced a working window of and Esmersoy, 1989). To take care of large
approximately 18 msec). As a bonus, the fre- offsets, the data have been split into two
quency content has been enhanced and there windows of 2 seconds each, vertically and
is now significant 10 to 80 Hz at 6 dB out to horizontally. The results were considered suc-
trace number 200. Figures 8.45 and 8.46 show cessful in spite of large refraction effects at
the frequency spectrum before and after this large offsets.
deconvolution. The results were evaluated to g) Signal shaping. The resulting compres-
make sure there was no amplitude distortion sional downgoing and upgoing wave fields
by examining the main reflections after have been zero phase wave-shaped by a short
applying an AGC with a 500-msec window. deconvolution operator (200 msec window on
Figure 8.46 a second zero crossing that produced a work-
ing window of approximately 18 msec, start-
ing 10 msec before the first arrival). This pro-
cedure is intended to overcome the changing
20
signal shape versus offset. Then, the data
Frequency (Hz)
8 31
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A M U LT I A Z I M U T H W A L K A W AY S E I S M I C P R O F I L E
Results
The comparison between the walkaway
lines 3 and 4 and the corresponding line in
the 3-D surface seismic data (Figs. 8.47, and
8.48, next page) can be summarized as
follows:
• enhanced frequency content in the VSP
for shorter offsets, with bandwidth
decreasing with offset
• good correspondence of events at
Cogollo, Colón, and Misoa levels
• confirmation of the known fault planes.
A pseudo 3-D image was built with the
Charisma seismic interpretation software to
help visualize the results (Fig. 8.49, page
8–34). A good correlation in time is observed
between the three lines in the foreground.
Some tectonic events such as faults are easily
seen on line 3 (in front) and on line 4 (on
Comparison of the walkaway line 3 and the corresponding 3-D seismic
the right).
tie line (both after migration).
8 32
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8 33
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A M U LT I A Z I M U T H W A L K A W AY S E I S M I C P R O F I L E
When the first horizontal wells were which the well is entering the shale, while
drilled, there was a general expectation that the sharp changes in gamma ray (GR) and
the logs would be quite featureless and neutron porosity (NPHI) at B suggest the
would look like railroad tracks. Most of the well is crossing a fault. The separation in
early horizontal wells were drilled in thick, resistivity from different measurements in
vertically fractured carbonates far from any the shale at C indicates the presence of an
fluid contact, so that away from the underlying or overlying sandstone and/or
fractures, the logs were indeed quite flat. anisotropy. At the time, all these factors
However, in sandstone channels and other were combined with resistivity modeling to
reservoirs, many unexpected variations can produce one of the first cross sections
be observed. The wireline logs in Fig. 8.50, around a horizontal well (Fig. 8.51, page
next page, are from the first horizontal well 8–36).
drilled in the Maracaibo Basin in 1989, and Today, these procedures are signifi-
look very similar to logs in a vertical well. cantly refined. Resistivity measurements still
These logs illustrate many of the features provide most of the information. Their
seen when a horizontal well moves in and response has been analyzed extensively and
out of a sandstone-shale sequence, and is modeled routinely with the INFORM
show how these features can be used to software (Chapter 3–23). Currently only 2-D
describe the reservoir around the well. For models are supported, but 3-D models
example, the crossover from sandstone to
shale at A allows us to calculate the angle at
8 34
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8 35
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,,,
,,,,
Figure 8.51 horizontal bedding, the induction-type
logs—LWD phase shift and attenuation
6200 7060 Computed distance from borehole to boundary.
resistivity, wireline induction—read Rh,
Presumed extensions of other boundaries.
while the resistivity logs—LWD RAB and
6210 7110 wireline laterolog—respond principally to
Sand 1 25 ½
7160 Shale 1 10 ½ Rh, but with a component of up to 20% from
6220
Sand 2 40 ½
8 36
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Measured
100 2.22
2.89
2.99
10 3.33
10.20
can be used to iteratively manipulate the
17.01
1 19.29
118.79
geologic layers until a good match is
122.91
1000 900.00 obtained between modeled and measured
Trajectory
Modeled
100 PS 10" logs. Figures 8.53, 8.54 and 8.55 show
Modeled
PS 22"
PS 16"
10 Measured modeled log responses compared to actual
PS 16"
1 PS 22"
PS 10" logs. A good fit is a good indication that the
3575
geological model is accurate.
3579
The polarization horn at -1600 ft drift is
TVD (ft)
90
GR
60
30
A similar polarization effect is seen on
0 the measured logs at -3000 ft drift. The
1000
15.00
modeled logs in Fig. 8.54 show that these
PS28
100 45.00
50.00
62.00
horns would not occur if we were actually
10 67.00
1
75.00 passing through the top of the objective,
94.00
Polarization horns 120.00
135.00
assuming the geological model is consistent.
Trajectory
1000 GR Modeled
Measured
The best explanation for the horns is that we
100 PS-28 Modeled
Measured are again scraping along the lower
PS10
10 PS-10 Modeled
1
Measured
sandstone-shale boundary, which is
3500
continuing to rise at about 10° dip in the
direction of the well (Fig. 8.55). This is
3530
consistent with regional trends and with the
3560
U1 top
pre-well modeling (Chapter 3–22), which
TVD (ft)
U1
also showed that significant polarization
3590
objective
effects would only be produced by the lower
3620 sandstone-shale boundary.
3650
–3250 –2850 –2450 –2050 –1650 –1250
Measured logs, modeled logs and model with GR assuming the well leaves the
sandstone by the top at -3000 ft drift. The GR scale is indicated by the color code.
8 37
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(gAPI)
90
GR
60 geology, they can be very useful in
30
0
eliminating some possibilities and reinf-
orcing others. In this case, resistivity
100 GR
PS 10"
PS 22"
10 PS 34"
Measured
1 GR
PS 34"
PS 22"
3500 PS 10"
3530
TVD (ft)
3560
U1 top
3590
U1
3620
objective
3650
–3250 –2860 –2470 –2080 –1690 –1300
Drift along the section (ft)
Measured logs, modeled logs and model with resistivity (scale in color) assuming
the well approaches the bottom of the sandstone at -3000 ft drift.
CONCLUSIONS
8 38
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BOUNDARY MODELING
resistivity (ohm-m)
1000 1.67
2.20 These diagrams show the effects on ARC5 phase mea-
Modeled
100 2.22
2.89
10
2.99
3.33 surements of varying depths of investigation, as a boundary
10.20
17.01
1 19.29
118.79
of high resistivity is approached by a curving well
3570 122.91
800.00
Well
trajectory. The 34-in. ARC5 curve is the first to react to the
3576 Trajectory
Modeled
PS-10" boundary. At a distance of 2 ft (left) the shallower 10-in.
Modeled
TVD (ft)
3582 PS-22"
Modeled
PS-34"
and 22-in. curves are dropping in resistivity because of the
3588
2 ft
U1 Sand approach of the conductive shale, but the 34-in. curve is
3594
Shale
already starting to show some polarization effects.
3600
–1800 –1700 –1600 –1500 –1400 –1300
Drift along the section (ft)
resistivity (ohm-m)
1000
1.67
2.20
the polarization effect on
Modeled
100 2.22
2.89
2.99
the 34-in. and 22-in. 10 3.33
10.20
17.01
curves is quite pro- 1
19.29
118.79
3570 122.91
nounced (right). 800.00
Trajectory
3576 Modeled
PS-10"
Modeled
TVD (ft)
3582 PS-22"
Modeled
PS-34"
3588 1 ft
U1 Sand
3594
Shale
3600
–1800 –1700 –1600 –1500 –1400 –1300
Drift along the section (ft)
1000 1.67
2.20
the 10-in. curve is apparent
Modeled
100 2.22
2.89
10 2.99
3.33
when the borehole is at the
1 10.20
17.01
19.29
boundary (left).
3570
118.79
122.91
3576 800.00
Well
Trajectory
TVD (ft)
3582
Modeled
PS-10"
3588 U1 Sand Modeled
PS-22"
Modeled
3594 PS-34"
Shale
3600
–1800 –1700 –1600 –1500 –1400 –1300
Drift along the section (ft)
2.20
shows the effect only 100 2.22
2.89
10 2.99
appears once the borehole 1
3.33
10.20
17.01
is within 6 in. of the 3570 19.29
118.79
boundary. If the boundary 3576 122.91
800.00
TVD (ft)
Well
is crossed, split polari- 3582 Trajectory
Modeled
PS-10"
3588
zation horns are observed U1 Sand Modeled
PS-22"
3594 Modeled
PS-34"
(right). Shale
3600
–1800 –1700 –1600 –1500 –1400 –1300
8 39
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The authors of this chapter are H.Acuna (Lagoven), J. Gil, D. Riegstra (Shell Venezuela), M.Taha,
C.Barrientos, M.Menier, S.Low and J.Singer
with contributions from T.Takimoto (Teikoku), J.García (Maraven), M.Bhimull (Premier Consolidated
Oilfield), V.Carneiro (Lagoven), L.Gaetano (Corpoven), C.Contreras, H.Gamero, E.Rodríguez and
A.Sánchez
and the permission of Teikoku Oil de Venezuela, Corpoven, Maraven, Lagoven, Premier
Consolidated and Shell Venezuela to publish data from their wells.
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and Davydycheva, S., 1996, The response of multiarray induction tools in high-
Luthi, S.M., and Souhaite, P., 1990, Fracture aperture from electrical borehole ly dipping formations with invasion and in arbitrary 3-D geometries, paper A,
scans, Geophysics, v. 55, no. 7, pp.1-13. Transactions of the SPWLA annual meeting, New Orleans, June.
Nelson, R.A., 1985, Geologic analysis of naturally fractured reservoirs, Klein, J.D., Martin, P.R., and Allen, D.F., 1995, The petrophysics of electrically
Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, p. 320. anisotropic reservoirs, paper HH, Transactions of the SPWLA annual meeting,
June.
Stearns, D.W., 1967, Certain aspects of fracture in naturally deformed rocks,
in NSF Advanced Science Seminar in Rock Mechanics, pp. 97-118. Singer, J.M., 1992, An example of log interpretation in horizontal wells,
The Log Analyst, March-April 1992.
Stearns, D.W., and Friedman, M., 1972, Reservoirs in fractured rocks, in Robert
King, ed., Stratiraphic Oil and Gas fields, AAPG Memoir 16, Tulsa, pp. 82-118.
8 40
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U N I T S A N D A B B R E V I AT I O N S
A 1
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A 2
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APPENDIX
RBit Resistivity from the Bit SPAN Schlumberger Perforation Analysis software
RBM Resistivity from the Button, Medium SPF shots per foot
RBS Resistivity from the Button, Shallow SRS* Single Phase Reservoir Sampler
3
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4
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INDEX
5
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INDEX
Gravel pack, 6.6, 7.3, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8 Low-resistivity sand, 5.38–5.44 Oil/water contact, 6.6–6.8
Greater Anaco Area, 1.1, 2.4 Lower Lagunillas-04, 7.6, 7.7, 7.10, 7.21, 7.22 Oligocene, 1.13, 1.14, Chapter 2, 5.8, 6.46
Greater Las Mercedes Area, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5 Lower Lagunillas-05, 6.6, 7.21, 7.22 Orimulsión, 2.5, 2.43
Greater Oficina Area, 1.1, 2.3 Lower Lagunillas-07 reservoir, 2.11 Orinoco Belt, 2.5, 2.43, 5.18, 6.19
GST, 3.20, 4.5, 4.10 LQC, 4.14 Orinoco Belt evaluation, 5.28–5.36
Guafita Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3 LRT, 6.24 Oritupano Field, 1.1, 2.1
Guárico Sub-Basin, 1.1, 1.32, 2.5 LTIV, 7.42, 7.44 Orocual Field, 8.24
LWD, 3.20, 3.22, 4.1–4.10, 4.15, 8.35, 8.36 Orthoclase, 5.41
H Oveja Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3, 2.28
HALS, 4.12, 4.14 M Overpressured zone, 8.27, 8.28
Hamaca , 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.43 Machete, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.43
HGNS, 4.13 Mara Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.22 P
HI, 5.5, 5.6, 5.12, 5.17 Maracaibo Basin, 1.23, 1.24, 2.1, 6.5, 8.8, 8.34, P & S mode, 4.33, 6.15
HNS pellet, 7.38, 7.39 8.35 P1/2 sand reservoir, 2.25, see Silvestre
Hold-up, 6.27, 6.28, 6.30, 6.32, 6.34, 6.35 Center Lake, 2.2 P2 sand reservoir, 2.40, see Pedernales
Hombre Pintado Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3 Eastern Coast, 2.2 Paez-Mingo Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
Horizontal well (see also Geosteering) Western Coast, 2.2 PAL, 6.39
production logging of, 6.32–6.36 Mata Field, 1.1, 2.1 Paleocene, 1.10–1.12, Chapter 2
reservoir description around, 8.34–8.40 Maturín Sub-Basin, 1.37, 1.38, 2.3, 8.24 Paleogene, 1.10, 1.42
target selection of, 3.14 Greater Anaco Area , 2.4 Paleozoic, 1.5, 1.42
HSD, 7.38 Greater Oficina Area, 2.3 Pedernales Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.40, 6.44
Hydrocarbon classification, 5.8 North Monagas, 2.4 PEF, 4.7, 4.13, 4.14, 5.48
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in Venezuela, Chapter 2 Orinoco Belt, 2.5 PEG, 6.6, 7.1, 7.6
HyPerSTIM, 7.19–7.23 South Monagas, 2.5 Perforating, 7.1, 7.37–7.44
MCFL, 4.13, 4.14, 5.32–5.34, 5.48, 5.49 standard procedures, 7.40, 7.41
MDT Permeability
I pressure profile, 3.15, 5.15, 5.30, 5.36, 6.25 build-up, 4.20–4.22
Image Examiner Workstation technique, 8.12 sampling, 5.20–5.24 evaluation, Chapter 6
IMPACT, 3.17, 3.18 Melones Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3, 4.13 K-L method, 6.24, 6.25
Inelastic Capture Mode, 6.10, 6.20 Mesozoic, 1.6, 1.42 NMR, 5.4, 5.5, 5.42
INFORM, 3.20, 3.23, 3.24, 3.25, 4.10, 8.34, METT, 6.39 SDR, 5.4
8.35, 8.38 Mineralogy, 5.39, 6.24, 6.25, Timur/Coates, 5.4, 5.13
Injection Miocene, Chapter 1 and 2, 7.4, 7.21, 7.23 with gas, 5.6
gas, 2.5, 2.16, 2.29, 2.32, 2.36, 7.6, 7.10 Monitoring with oil and water, 5.5
polymer gel, 6.9, 6.30, 7.13, 7.14, 7.16, 7.17 existing wells, Chapter 6 Petroleum Geology, Chapter 1
steam, 2.9 permanent, 6.41 Petrophysical properties by reservoir, see
water, 2.5, 2.16, 2.39, 6.6, 6.8, 6.37, 7.6, Morichal Member reservoir, 2.43 Reservoir
7.10, 7.11 Mud weight prediction, 3.17, 3.18 Pilón Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.43
water effluent, 2.13 MWD/LWD, 3.23, 3.25, 4.5 Plagioclase, 5.41
IPR, 6.44 Planning
IS, 6.2, 6.3, 6.10 N CMR job, 4.27
“Naricual Sands” reservoir, 2.33, DSI job, 4.31–4.32
J see Carito Central geosteering, 3.22
J-3 (OM-100) reservoir, 2.28 “Naricual Sands” reservoir, 2.37, RST job, 6.5
Jobo Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.45 see El Furrial, 6.8 VSP job, 8.26
Jurassic, 1.6 NBS, 4.5 well, Chapter 3
Jusepín Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4 Neogene, 1.42, 2.14 well evaluation, 4.32, 4.34
NGS, 5.41 wireline job, 4.28–4.35
K
NMR (see also CMR) with INFORM, 3.24
Kaki Field, 1.1, 2.3 laboratory measurements, 5.3–5.6, 5.41 PLATFORM EXPRESS, 4.1, 4.11–4.18, 4.27, 4.30,
Kirchoff integral, 8.22, 8.26, 8.31 principles and petrophysics, 5.2–5.6 4.32, 5.36, 5.47, 5.48
NODAL, 6.7, 6.8, 7.1–7.4, 7.10, 7.27, 7.31 Pleistocene, Chapter 1 and 2
L
North Monagas, 2.4, 5.8, 5.12, 5.18, 5.26, 5.27, Pliocene, Chapter 1 and 2, 8.20, 8.24
La Concepción Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
6.46, 7.5, 7.25 PNC, 6.2, 6.3, 6.12
La Ensenada Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
NRS, 5.26 Polarization horn, 3.26
La Paz Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
La Vela Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3 Porosity
O
La Victoria Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2 buoyancy, 5.3, 5.43
OBM, 3.11, 3.12, 4.28, 5.5, 5.8, 5.15, 5.17, 5.20,
Lagunillas Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.11 CMR, 5.12–5.14, 5.32, 5.37, 5.42, 5.48
5.44, 6.40
Lama Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2 Neutron, 4.2, 4.7, 4.13, 5.41, 6.12
OFA, 5.21, 5.22, 5.23, 5.47
Lamar Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2 NMR, 5.3, 5.36, 5.42, 5.43
Oficina Central Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
Lithology through casing, 6.12, 6.17
Oil field
independent porosity, 5.36–5.38 PosiSet plug, 7.17, 7.18
geographical location, 2.1
through casing, 6.17–6.23 Precambrian, 1.4, 1.42, 5.28
map of, 1.2
Oil saturation behind casing, 7.8–7.10
6
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INDEX
7
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