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Causes of variation and investigating variation

Within each subspecies there is a range of phenotypes. Explain the factors that give rise to this variation. (4)
Phenotype depends on genotype and environment
different local environments can produce variation;
different selection pressures;
mutations producing new alleles;
meiosis produces new combinations of alleles/example;
random fusion of gametes / sexual reproduction
Independent assortment in meiosis
Crossing over in meiosis

Explain why standard deviation is more useful than range as a measure of variation within a population.
Definition of range + SD / effect of outliers on range + SD;
Ranges are similar in both areas;
Suggests that variation within populations is similar;
SD smaller in area of high light intensity;
Shows that area of high light intensity is a more uniform population;

When comparing variation in size between two groups of organisms, it is often considered more
useful to compare standard deviations rather than ranges. Explain why.
Range influenced by single ‘outlier’ (accept anomaly) /
converse for S.D.;
S.D. shows dispersion/spread about mean;
Range only shows highest and lowest values/extremes;
S.D. allows statistical use;
Tests whether or not differences are significant;

Give the meaning and explain one possible cause of each of the following types of variation. Continuous
variation and discontinuous variation
Range between extremes/no discrete types;
strong environmental influence;
polygenic/many genes involved;
quantitative. 2
discrete types;
little/no environmental influence/only genetic;
(often alleles of) 1/2 gene;
qualitative.

Give the meaning and explain one possible cause of each of the following types of variation continuous and discontinuous.
Continuous:
Range between extremes/no discrete types;
strong environmental influence;
polygenic/many genes involved;
quantitative.

Discontinuous:
Discrete types;
little/no environmental influence/only genetic;
(often alleles of) 1/2 gene;
qualitative.

Explain how you would use a quadrat to estimate the number of dandelion plants in a field measuring 100 m
by 150 m. (3)
Principle of randomly placed quadrats;
Method of producing random quadrats; (Reject ‘throwing’)
Valid method of obtaining no. dandelions in given area (mean per
quadrat/ total no. in many quadrats);
Multiply to give estimate for total field area;
Randomly sample to avoid Bias
Use a large number of samples to be representative of the population, to calculate a more reliable
mean, to allow statistical analysis to be carried out and to identify anomalies

Intraspecific variation: difference between members of the same species


Interspecific variation: differences between members of different species

Standard deviation: shows the spread of the results around the mean. High standard deviation indicates
high variability in the data, low standard deviation indicates a low variability in the data (uniformity)
DNA

In eukaryotes, DNA is linear and associated with proteins.


In prokaryotes, DNA molecules are smaller, circular and are not associated
with proteins.

Describe two features of DNA which make it a stable molecule.


Two strands with specific base pairing;
large number of hydrogen bonds (between strands);
helix/coiling reduces chance of molecular damage /
protects H bonds;
strong sugar-phosphate backbone;

Describe the molecular structure of DNA


Long polymer of nucleotides;
composition of a nucleotide (pentose sugar, phosphate and N containing base)
4 bases named (A, T, C and G) (Uracil (U) is a
base in RNA that replaces T), A, G are purine
bases (2 ring structure) T, C and U are
pyrimidine bases (single ring structures)
sugar-phosphate ‘backbone’;
two (polynucleotide) strands;
specific base-pairing;
example e.g. A–T / C–G; there are 2 H bonds between A/t and three H
bonds between C/G
hydrogen bonding between bases

Explain how the structure of DNA is related to its function.(6)


sugar - phosphate backbone gives strength (phosphodiester bonds)
(coiling gives) compact shape;
sequence of bases allows information to be stored;
long molecule stores large amount of information;
information can be replicated / complementary base pairing;
(double helix protects) weak hydrogen bonds / double helix makes
molecule stable prevents code being corrupted;
chains held together by weak hydrogen bonds;
chains can split for replication / transcription
Complementary base pairing enables information to be replicated /
transcribed;
Many hydrogen bonds together give molecule stability;
Hydrogen bonding allows chains to split for replication / transcription OR molecule unzips easily for
replication / transcription.

Some definitions
Locus: Position of a gene on a strand of DNA.
Genes: are short sections of DNA that contain coded information as a specific sequence of bases. Genes code
for polypeptides that determine the nature and development of organisms.
Mutation: A change in the base sequence of a gene
Alleles: alternative forms of a gene (created through mutations).
Codon: A sequence of three bases (called a triplet) that codes for a specific amino acid.
The base sequence of a gene determines the amino acid sequence in a polypeptide.
Exons: sequences of bases in a gene that code for the polypeptide
Introns: (In eukaryotes), sequences of bases in a gene that do not code for polypeptides.
Differences in base sequences of alleles of a single gene may result in non-functional proteins, including non-
functional enzymes.
Non-overlapping: each base is part of only one codon
Degenerate genetic code: there are 20 amino acids and 64 codons, so most amino acids have more than one
codon. There are 3 stop codons and 1 start codon.

In eukaryotes, DNA is linear, associated with proteins and large compared to the smaller, circular DNA in
prokaryotic cells that also have no proteins associated with it.
Meiosis

Explain the importance of meiosis in the life cycle of a sexually reproducing organism.
Meiosis halves the number of chromosomes (formation of haploid gametes, eggs and sperm)
Restoration of diploid number at fertilisation;
Introduces variation;

Describe what happens to chromosomes in meiosis.(6)


1. Chromosomes condense;
2. Chromosomes associate in homologous pairs (bivalents)
3. Crossing-over (chiasma formation)
4. Join to spindle (fibres) / moved by spindle ;(*)
5. (Join via) centromere
6. (At) equator/middle of cell
7. Independent assortment”
8. (Homologous) chromosomes move to opposite poles /
chromosomes separate/move apart; (ALLOW ‘are pulled apart’)
nd
9. (Pairs of) chromatids separated in 2 division;

Describe how meiosis causes variation and explain the advantage of variation to the species.(5)
1. Crossing-over;
2. Independent/random assortment/orientation/segregation of (homologous) chromosomes in meiosis I;
3. Independent/random assortment/orientation/segregation of chromatids in meiosis II;
Advantages of variation, any three from:
4. Different adaptations / some better adapted;
5. Some survive / example described;
6. To reproduce;
7. Pass on gene/allele;
8. Allows for changing environment/different environment/example described;

Explain how crossing over can contribute to genetic variation.


Sections of chromatids exchanged;
sections have different alleles;
new combinations of (linked) alleles;

Give two processes, other than crossing over, which result in genetic variation. Explain how each process
contributes to genetic variation.
Mutation;
different/new allele formed / genes deleted or duplicated/ sequence of genes
changed (reject genetic information);
random fusion of gametes in fertilisation;
new combination of alleles;
independent assortment (of chromosomes) (accept random);
shuffling of maternal and paternal chromosomes/new combination
of alleles;

Explain the importance of genetic variation in the process of evolution.


Causes variation in phenotype some organisms are better have more favourable characteristics for environment
Natural selection of better adapted organisms survive and reproduce passing on genes
selection is due to different phenotypes being better suited to different environments;
eventually leads to species change/change in gene pool/change in gene frequencies
Mitosis, replication of DNA and Cell Cycle

Mitosis is important in the life of an organism. Give two reasons why.


1. Growth / increase in cell number;
2. Replace cells / repair tissue / organs /body;
3. Genetically identical cells;
4. Asexual reproduction /cloning;

Describe the behaviour of chromosomes during mitosis and explain how this results in the production of
two genetically identical cells. (7)
1 chromosomes shorten/thicken/supercoiling;
2 chromosomes (each) two identical chromatids/strands/copies
(due to replication);
3 chromosomes/chromatids move to equator/middle of the spindle/cell;
4 attach to individual spindle fibres;
5 spindle fibres contract / centromeres divide / repel;
6 (sister) chromatids/chromosomes (separate)
move to opposite poles/ends of the spindle;
7 each pole/end receives all genetic information/
identical copies of each chromosome;
8 nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes/
chromatids/at each pole

Describe what happens to the chromosomes during each of the


following stages of mitosis. Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,
Telophase.
prophase – coil up/spiralise/condense;
(allow shorter/contract/become visible)
metaphase – move to equator or centre of cell / attach to spindle;
(reject if reference to pairing)
anaphase – chromatids separate/centromeres divide;
(reject chromosomes move to poles without further explanation)
telophase – uncoil; (allow lengthen/becomes less visible)

Describe two events which occur during interphase.


Increased in volume of cell / amount of cytoplasm / increase in mass
/cell bigger;
Increase in number of organelles;
Protein synthesis / specific example;
DNA replication / chromosomes become chromatids / chromosomes copy;
I references to G1, G2 and S phases)
Increase in volume of cell/volume of cytoplasm / increase in mass / cell bigger; increase in number of organelles;
synthesis of protein/named protein;
DNA replication/increase / chromosomes copied;
ATP synthesis / respiration;

Comparing mitosis and


meiosis
Cancer

Mutation is a change in the base sequence for a gene.


Mutations occur naturally, but the frequency can be increased by mutagens like, UV light, X-rays, Gamma
radiation, or other high energy ionising radiation.

Mutations in genes controlling the cell cycle may lead to the development of cancer. There are 2 key genes
involved in the cell cycle

1) Proto-oncogenes: encode proteins that are growth factors and stimulate cell division.
Mutate to form oncogenes and express proteins at all times and can lead to uncontrolled cell division

2) Tumour Suppressor genes: encode proteins that inhibit cell division

Cancer is caused by a mutation in several genes.

Cancer cells: high rate of division, ability to separate form adjacent cells and migrate to other tissues

If the DNA of the cell is damaged, a protein called p53 stops the cell cycle. Mutation in the gene for p53 could
cause cancer to develop. Explain how.
Cancer cells often have damaged DNA;
Mutation in gene for p53 means the p53 protein is faulty or not made;
Consequently, a cell (with faulty /DNA) divides/completes cell cycle;
Uncontrolled division produces cancer;

Explain what is meant by a malignant tumour and describe how exposure to cigarette smoke may result in the
formation of a malignant tumour. (6)
A malignant tumour is a mass of abnormal cells;
That can spread to other tissues (metastasis);
(Relative risk of) lung cancer decreases the longer it is since giving up smoking;
(Relative risk of) lung cancer increases with the number of cigarettes smoked per day;
Cigarette smoke contains carcinogens/ mutagens/cancer-causing chemicals;
Causes changes in DNA;
Of genes that control cell division;
Reference to oncogenes;
Reference to tumour suppresser genes;
Rapid rate of cell division/ uncontrolled cell division;

Describe how altered DNA may lead to cancer.


1 (DNA altered by) mutation;
2 (mutation) changes base sequence;
3 of gene controlling cell growth / oncogene / that monitors cell division;
4 of tumour suppressor gene;
5 change protein structure / non-functional protein / protein not formed;
6 (tumour suppressor genes) produce proteins that inhibit cell division;
7 mitosis;
8 uncontrolled / rapid / abnormal (cell division);
9 malignant tumour;
Genetic Diversity

The DNA of different species varies due to the different genes. More closely related species the more common
their DNA will be. Genetic diversity is important to help a population survive changing environments.

Factors that increase genetic diversity are…..


Mutations (producing new alleles)
Gene flow: alleles move between populations as individuals form one population reproduce with those form
another.

Factors that reduce genetic diversity are………

A genetic bottleneck happens when a population is drastically reduced in size due to a natural catastrophe or a
continual more gradual change in the environment. The few individuals left will only have a small range of
alleles between them, so if they reproduce and the population increases again there will be reduced genetic
diversity. Many of the original variety of alleles will have been lost in individuals who didn’t survive.

Large number of Reproduction


population dies

Original population: many Reduced population: many alleles


lost from original population New population: reduced
different alleles shown by
genetic diversity compared
different colours
to original

The founder effect occurs when a small number of individuals colonise a new habitat and start a new, isolated
population. Since the few individuals will only have a small range of alleles between them. Founder effects are
common throughout evolutionary history, and are readily seen in remote islands (such as the Galapagos
Islands), where colonisation is difficult and rare. These modern populations will have low genetic diversity,
reflecting the small range of alleles in the small founding population.

Original population:
retains high genetic
diversity

New population: Genetic


Original population: many
diversity is reduced
different alleles shown by
different colours

Founder population: isolated


from original population, reduced
variety of alleles
Selective breeding, or artificial selection, means the controlled breeding of animals or plants by humans so
that only individuals with certain characteristics are allowed to reproduce. Since these characteristics are (at
least partly) genetically controlled, this means selecting certain alleles and rejecting others, so the genetic
diversity of these animals and plants is reduced. The purpose of selective breeding is to change species so that
they are more useful to humans, resulting in new breeds of animals and varieties of plants.
These can be very different from the wild populations and are sometimes recognised as new species, since they
can no longer interbreed. Since domesticated animals and plants have such a low genetic diversity they are not
able to survive well in the wild, being out-competed by wild species with greater diversity. They are often highly
susceptible to changes in the environment, such as drought, predators or disease. In the case of domesticated
animals, the intense selection can lead to the development of physical problems with the animals, which would
normally disappear in the wild due to competition. This leads to ethical problems of whether we are causing
harm to the animals by selective breeding, and we must weigh the advantages to humans against the harm to
the animals. Some examples will illustrate the problems.

Arguments for selective breeding


Produce high yielding plants and animals
Use to produce animals and plants with high resistance to disease, so less drugs and pesticides needed
Animals and plants could be bred to increase tolerance to extreme environments

Arguments against selective breeding


Cause health problems, rapid growth or high milk loads put strain on animals reducing life expectancy.
Reduces genetic diversity, increasing genetic diseases and vulnerability to disease and changes in environment
Do animals have value or are they solely for human usefulness
What features do we select for?
Should humans decide what is appealing in animals?
Animal welfare must be considered, for example, humans select animals that grow quickly (leads to high
infection risk and joint problems) and that are better suited to living in sheds than open fields which is their
natural habitat
Loss of alleles that may be beneficial to humans in the future
Lower resistance to disease
Decreased fertility
Development of physical problems in animals that would normally be selected against in the wild

Scientists’ analysis of blood proteins has indicated a lack of genetic diversity in populations of some
organisms. Describe the processes that lead to a reduction in the genetic diversity of populations of
organisms.
1. Mark principle of - reduced variety/number of different alleles/DNA / reduced gene pool (in new population);
2. Founder effect;
3. A few individuals from a population become isolated/form colonies:
4. (Genetic) bottlenecks;
5. (Significant) fall in size of population
6. Selective breeding / artificial selection;
7. Using organisms with particular alleles/traits/phenotypes/characteristics;

What is meant by a genetic bottleneck?


Genetic bottleneck linked to low genetic diversity/smaller gene pool;
Reference to very low seal population/population in 1910/under 100 seals/caused by hunting;

How you would expect the founder effect to have influenced the genetic diversity
New colonies formed by small number (of seals)/ small number of founders;
Founders have different/fewer alleles/genes / have smaller gene pool;

The conifers used in plantations are the result of a long period of selection for desirable characteristics.
Explain how a programme of selection might affect the variety of alleles in a population.
Reduces (the variety of alleles) / genetic diversity;
only certain phenotypes allowed / selected to breed;
(phenotypic) character controlled by allele;
some/non-selected alleles eliminated/frequency decreased;
others/selected alleles increase in frequency;
Haemoglobin

Describe how haemoglobin normally loads oxygen in the lungs and unloads it in a tissue cell.
Oxygen combines (reversibly) to produce oxyhaemoglobin;
each haemoglobin molecule/ one haemoglobin may transport 4 molecules of oxygen;
high partial pressure of oxygen / oxygen tension / concentration in lungs;
haemoglobin (almost) 95% / 100% saturated;
unloads at low oxygen tension(in tissues);
presence of carbon dioxide displaces curve further to right / increases oxygen
dissociation;
allows more O2 to be unloaded;
increase temp/ acidity allows more O2 to be unloaded;
low pO2 / increase CO2 / increase term / increase acid occur in vicinity of
respiring tissue;

Describe how haemoglobin is involved in absorbing oxygen in the lungs and transporting it to respiring
tissues.
1. Diffusion of oxygen into red cell / haemoglobin in red cells;
2. High affinity of haemoglobin in high oxygen concentration;
3. (Therefore) loads / becomes saturated in lungs / where oxygen abundant;
4. oxyhaemoglobin formed;
2+
5. Reference to role of haem e.g. energy changes /role of Fe ions /Hb molecule combines with fewer oxygen
molecules;
6. Unloads / low affinity in low concentration;
7. Explanation in terms of dissociation curve i.e. small changes in concentration gives large changes in saturation;
+
8. Respiration in tissues gives high CO2 concentration / high temperature / high H concentration / low pH
9. Dissociation curve shifts to right / oxyhaemoglobin dissociation at higher partial pressure

The blood leaving a muscle has a lower pH than the blood entering it. During vigorous exercise, the
fall in pH is even greater. Explain what causes this greater fall in pH.
(in exercise) - faster respiration rate;
more CO2 production;
CO2 is acidic / forms carbonic acid;
lactic acid production;
+
release of H ions;

During exercise, the rate of respiration of muscle cells


increases. Explain what causes human haemoglobin to
unload more oxygen to these cells.
Partial pressure on oxygen in muscle falls more;
high / more carbon dioxide produced;
lowers PH;
increase in temperature;
percentage saturation of Hb falls / lowers affinity /
increase dissociation;
displaces curve to right / results in Bohr shift;

There is an advantage to the shrew in having haemoglobin with a


dissociation curve shifted to the right. Explain this advantage.
(at the tissues at low pp oxygen) the shrew’s haemoglobin is less
saturated with oxygen / has reduced affinity;
oxyhaemoglobin dissociates more readily / haemoglobin releases
oxygen more readily / more oxygen released;
allowing greater demand / respiration rate;
Suggest the advantage to a ground squirrel of having
haemoglobin that has an oxygen dissociation curve to the left
of the curve for human haemoglobin.
In ground squirrel lower partial pressure of oxygen in lungs;
Haemoglobin can be saturated/load more oxygen;
at lower partial pressure of oxygen;

Explain how the foetal haemoglobin makes it possible for the


foetus to take oxygen from the mother’s blood.
Foetal haemoglobin has greater affinity for/binds more readily to
oxygen;
at same ppO2/concentration of oxygen, foetal has higher saturation;
correct use of figures from graph (% and pp);
maintains diffusion gradient across placenta.

Differentiation

Cells specialise to carry out special functions.


Squamous epithelial cells, thin, little cytoplasm, provide a short diffusion pathway
Palisade cells are packed with chloroplasts

Tissues: similar cells grouped together to perform a common function


Organs: groups of different tissues working together for a particular function
Organ systems
Structure of chloroplast for function
Q. Describe how the structure of a chloroplast is Membranes / (disc) shape provides large surface for
adapted to its function in photosynthesis. light absorption;
Membrane is permeable to gases layering of membrane allows a lot of pigment;
Disc shape gives a large surface area for absorption of light (permeable) membrane allows diffusion of gases /
and gas carbon dioxide;
Contains chlorophyll to absorb light membranes provide surface for attachment of
Contains a range of pigments to increase the range of electron / hydrogen
wavelengths that can be absorbed acceptors;
Stacking of the thylakoids (grana) maximises light absorption stroma / matrix containing enzymes for Calvin cycle /
Stroma contains enzymes for the reactions of photosynthesis light–independent reactions;
Stroma contains ribosomes (70s) and DNA for making
enzymes needed in photosynthesis

Q. Palisade cells are the main site of


photosynthesis. Explain one way in which a
palisade cell is adapted for photosynthesis.
Q. Photosynthesis generally takes place in a leaf.
Describe how the leaf is adapted to allow this process Contains many chloroplasts thus lots of chlorophyll:
to occur effectively. To trap or absorb light (energy);
Large surface area to collect solar energy;
transparent nature of cuticle to allow light penetration; Elongated cells with long axis perpendicular to the
position of chlorophyll to trap light; surface:
stomata to allow exchange of gases;
Light has a longer pathway allowing maximum light
thin / max. surface area to volume ratio for diffusion of
gases; absorption / light penetration;
spongy mesophyll / air spaces for carbon dioxide store;
xylem for input of water; Chloroplasts move;
phloem for removal of end products; To trap or absorb light (energy)

Range of pigments;
Can absorb a range of wavelengths / colours / for
Describe how the structure of xylem is related to max light absorption;
its function.
Vessels;
Large S.A. or cell wall feature e.g. thin / permeable;
Have no end walls / hollow / no cytoplasm;
Allows unrestricted flow of water. For (rapid) CO2 absorption;
Lignification;
Provides support / strength / impermeability;
Pits allow lateral transport;
Tracheids with porous end walls.
Cellulose structure and function Basic structure of glycogen

Is a polymer of beta glucose. Glycogen is similar to amylopectin.


Condensation polymerisation occurs
It is polymer of (1-4) alpha glucose with 9%
The monomers are held by1,4 glycosidic bonds.
(1-6) branches, though more than starch.
Alternate beta glucose molecules are inverted Because it is so highly branched, it can be
The chain is long and straight mobilised (broken down by glycogen
Difference between the glucose molecules is the
Adjacent chains can be held together by H-bonds phosphorylase to produce glucose for energy)
orientation of the OH group at C1.
very quickly, reflects the grater metabolic
This forms micro-fibrils which are rigid and can link to demands of animal over plant
form cellulose fibres
Cellulose is a component of the cell wall Animal’s storage polysaccharide
Its strength means it can resist osmotic pressure Found mainly in muscle and liver.

Starch/Glycogen vs Cellulose
Starch/Glycogen
(1,4 and) 1,6 bonds branches
Celluose
2. All glucose same way up
1. 1,4 bonds no 1,6 bonds
3. Helix/coiled/compact
2. Alternate glucoses upside
4. Alpha glucose
down;
5. No (micro/macro) Fibrils/fibres
3. Straight;
4. Beta glucose;
5. Micro/macro fibrils/fibres;
Basic structure of starch
Storage polysaccharide
Insoluble (no effect on water potential and thus
osmotically inactive)
Not a pure substance but a mixture of 2 Starch: structure for function
polysaccharides Role = storage
Amylose: a chain of alpha glucose held by 1,4 Features: Insoluble  stays in cell
glycosidic bonds. It forms a helix, held by H Features: Osmotically inactive  cell does not absorb
bonds within the chain water
Feature: good respiratory substrate  provides many
Amylopectin: a polymer of alpha glucose with glucose molecules on hydrolysis
1,4 glycosidic bonds and a small number of 1,6 Feature: Amylose is Coiled  lots of glucose in a small
branches. This gives it an open structure and space
the branches are quickly hydrolysed Feature: amylopectin branched  is rapidly hydrolysed to
glucose because enzymes can begin to operate on all
brnaches
Surface area to volume ratio

Explain the link between the size of an organism and the way in
which its cells are supplied with oxygen.(6)
Small organisms have large surface/volume ratio;
as, for example, single-celled organisms;
diffusion/exchange over body surface/skin;
(the need for) specialised respiratory/gas-exchange surfaces in larger
animals;
diffusion is a slow process;
cells of larger organisms are a long way from gas exchange surface;
must be supplied by transport system/circulatory system/blood;

Many large animals have blood systems. Explain why these animals need blood systems to supply their cells
with oxygen.
Gas exchange surface long distance from (some) respiring tissues;
Blood system allows rapid transport/faster supply;
Diffusion is slow;

The graph shows there is a


decrease in oxygen uptake
with an increase in body
mass

Heat from respiration helps mammals to maintain a constant body temperature. Use this information to
explain the relationship between body mass and oxygen uptake shown in the graph.
Smaller animals have a large surface area to volume ratio
Lose more heat per gram of tissue
Respire faster to maintain body temperature
Oxygen demand increases

Many of the mammals found in cold parts of Finland have a larger size and body mass than related species
found in warmer regions. Explain the importance of this to their survival.(4)
Large animals have small surface area to volume ratio;
Large mammals are homoiothermic;
Lose less heat to environment;
By radiation/convection/conduction;
Fat;
For insulation;
Gas Exchange

Describe and explain how the structure of the mammalian breathing system enables efficient uptake of
oxygen into the blood.(6)
1. Alveoli provide a large surface area;
2. Walls of alveoli thin to provide a short
diffusion pathway;
3. Walls of capillary thin/close to alveoli
provides
a short diffusion pathway;
4. Walls (of capillaries/alveoli) have flattened
cells;
5. Cell membrane permeable to gases;
6. Many blood capillaries provide a large
surface area;
7. Intercostal/chest muscles/diaphragm
muscles / to ventilate lungs / maintain a
diffusion/concentration gradient;
8. Wide trachea / branching of
bronchi/bronchioles for efficient flow of air;
9. Cartilage rings keep airways open;

A fish uses its gills to absorb oxygen from water. Explain how the gills of a fish are adapted for efficient gas
exchange.
1 Large surface area provided by lamellae/filaments;
2 Increases diffusion/makes diffusion efficient;
3 Thin epithelium/distance between water and blood;
4 Water and blood flow in opposite
directions/countercurrent;
5 maintains concentration gradient (along
gill)/equilibrium
not reached;
5 Not enough to say gives steep concentration
gradient
6 As water always next to blood with lower
concentration of oxygen;
7 Circulation replaces blood saturated with oxygen;
8 Ventilation replaces water (as oxygen removed);

Describe and explain how fish maintain a flow of water over their gills.
1. mouth opens, operculum/opercular valve shuts;
2. floor of mouth lowered;
3. water enters due to decreased pressure / increased volume;
4. mouth closes, operculum/opercular valve opens;
5. floor raised results in increased pressure / decreased volume;
6. high/increased pressure forces/pushes water over gills;

Explain how the countercurrent principle helps fish to extract oxygen from water.
Water flows in opposite direction to blood;
across (gill) lamellae;
so difference in concentration maintained;
diffusion gradient maintained / diffusion over full length.
Insect have more than 1.5 million
tracheoles. The distance between
the ends of the tracheoles in the
muscle is approximately 4 µm.
Explain how these features allow
efficient oxygen supply.
Large number gives large (total) surface
area;
For diffusion;
Short distance between tracheoles gives
short pathway;
Movement/diffusion through muscle is
slow;

An insect lives in air. Describe how the insect is able to obtain


oxygen and limit water loss.
1 Air enters through (open) spiracles;
2 Through tracheae;
3 Diffusion gradient in trachea
4 Tracheae associated with all cells/closely associated with cells;
5 Oxygen diffuses into cells;
6 Ventilation replacing air in tracheae;
7 Body covered with (waterproof) waxy layer/cuticle;
8 Spiracles are able to close open in response to carbon dioxide at a
critical level;

Fluid filled tracheoles allow some control over gas exchange. When
the insect is at rest the fluid is in the tracheoles. This slows down the diffusion of oxygen to the muscles,
this slows down respiration and thus the production of CO2. It means CO2 levels will rise slowly and
limit the number of times the spiracles open, thus reducing water loss. When the insect starts to move,
the muscles produce lactic acid, this lowers the water potential of the muscles, which draws the fluid
out of the tracheoles (by osmosis) and now diffusion of oxygen will be faster through the air filled
tracheoles.

Describe how carbon dioxide in the air


outside a leaf reaches mesophyll cells inside
the leaf.
1. (Carbon dioxide enters) via stomata;
2. (Stomata opened by) guard cells;
3. Diffuses through air spaces;
4. Down diffusion gradient;
Xerophytic adaptations in plants

Using Fick’s law describe and explain structural adaptations of the leaves of xerophytes that reduce water loss
Reduced number of stomata; reduced surface area;
Thick waxy cuticle; increases diffusion distance;
Leaves reduced to spines; reduced surface area ;
(epidermal) hairs; reduce diffusion gradient;
Sunken stomata; reduced concentration gradient;
curled leaves; reduce concentration ; difference
Statement of Fick’s law:
Rate of diffusion SA exchange surface ´ conc difference
Thickness of exchange surface;
Low surface area, low concentration difference and high thickness/equivalent reduce loss / candidate clearly
relates features to equation to show how rate is reduced;
Explain how the presence of “hairs” and rolled leaves reduce water loss in xerophytic plants.
Trap moist air / increase humidity;
Reduce air flow (around leaf surface / stomata);
Lower WP / water vapour concentration gradient (between inside and outside of leaf);
Shield stomata from high temperature / high light intensity / wind; ignore ‘sun’
Reduce transpiration / evaporation / diffusion of water (vapour);

Describe and explain how features you would expect in the leaves of a tree adapted to a dry environment helps
the tree’s survival. (6)
Sunken stomata;
water evaporation into pit creates local humidity;
increased humidity reduces gradient for water evaporation;
Close arrangement of stomata;
diffusion shells of individual stomata overlap;
interferes with water diffusion and slows evaporation;
restriction of stomata to lower side of leaf;
rate of air movement below leaf less/ heating effect of sun less;
gradient for water evaporation reduced/ water molecules have less kinetic energy;
Thick cuticle/wax/suberin (on upper surface);
(wax/suberin )waterproof;
water unable to diffuse onto surface to evaporate,
Presence of trichomes/ hairs;
surface traps water close to leaf surface;
increased humidity reduces gradient for water evaporation;
Reduced leaves/spines/small surface area to volume;
less surface area for evaporation;
more distance across leaf for water to diffuse;
Rolled leaves;
stomata enclosed in localised humidity;
increased humidity reduces gradient for water evaporation;

Describe ways in which the leaves of plants may be adapted for reducing water loss in hot, dry conditions.
Curled leaves;
Thick cuticle;
Sunken stomata;
Hairs;
stomata sunken in pits creates local humidity/ decreases exposure to air currents;
presence of hairs creates local humidity next to leaf/ decreases exposure to air currents;
stomata mainly located on underside of leaf so less exposed to air currents/ heat from sun;
stomata close midrib so more sheltered from air currents;
stomata close together so diffusion shells overlap;
thick waxy cuticle makes more waterproof impermeable to water;
double palisade layer increases diffusion distance;
stomata on inside of rolled leaf creates local humidity/ decreases exposure to air currents;
The Blood Vessels

Names are require only of the coronary arteries, blood vessels entering an leaving the heart, liver and
kidneys

The structure of arteries, veins and capillaries in relation to their function

Artery (away from the heart) Vein (into the heart) Capillary
Thickest wall, enabling it to carry blood Thin wall does not have to withstand Thin wall, allowing diffusion/exchange;
at high pressure / withstand high pressure; so they have less only endothelium present, allowing short
pressure surges; elastic tissue and muscle tissue, but diffusion pathway;
most elastic tissue, which smoothes have a larger lumen to reduce friction Fenestrations to allow materials to be
out flow / maintains pressure; as blood is under lower pressure exchange
most muscle which maintains Presence of valves to reduce back Narrow lumen slows down red blood cells
pressure; flow and
muscle in wall to control blood flow; Blood flow is a result of muscle Presses them against the walls of the
Endothelium that reduces friction; contraction, squeezing it along vessels capillary allowing more time and
Endothelium that reduces friction; increasing the surface area for exchange
Endothelium that reduces friction;
Arteries and arterioles take blood away from the heart. Explain how the structures of the walls of arteries
and arterioles are related to their
functions.
Elastic tissue
1 Elastic tissue stretches under pressure/when heart beats;
2 Recoils/springs back;
3 Evens out pressure/flow;
Muscle
4 Muscle contracts;
5 Reduces diameter of lumen/vasoconstriction/constricts vessel;
6 Changes flow/pressure;
Epithelium Artery  arterioles: elastic fibres decrease and muscle
7 Epithelium smooth;
fibres increase.
8 Reduces friction/blood clots/less resistance;

The thickness of the aorta wall changes all the time during each cardiac cycle. Explain why.
1. (Aorta wall) stretches;
2. Because ventricle/heart contracts / systole / pressure increases;
3. (Aorta wall) recoils;
4. Because ventricle relaxes / heart relaxes /diastole / pressure falls;
5. Maintain smooth flow / pressure

Explain the difference in thickness between the pulmonary artery (thicker) and the pulmonary vein
(thinner).
High pressure / smooth out blood flow / artery wall contains more collagen / muscle / elastic (fibres) /
connective tissue;

Describe two ways by which blood flow in the veins is maintained.


Valves prevent backflow;
effect of (skeletal) muscle contraction
Residual blood pressure from heart;
negative pressure from thorax;
‘suction effect’ from heart;

Describe and explain ways in which a capillary adapts for exchange


1. Permeable capillary wall/membrane;
2. Single cell thick/thin walls, reduces diffusion distance;
3. Flattened (endothelial) cells, reduces diffusion distance;
4. Fenestrations, allows large molecules through;
5. Small diameter/ narrow, gives a large surface area to volume/ short diffusion distance;
6. Narrow lumen, reduces flow rate giving more time for diffusion;
7. Red blood cells in contact with wall/ pass singly, gives short diffusion distance / more time for diffusion;
(allow 1 mark for 2 features with no explanation)

Explain two ways in which the small diameter of the capillaries results in the efficient transfer of
oxygen from the alveoli to the red blood cells.
Red blood cells close to capillary wall/ thin capillary wall;
Short diffusion path/ distance for oxygen to diffuse;
Longer time for diffusion to take place/ diffusion is slow;
Tissue Fluid Formation

Explain how tissue fluid is formed and how it may be returned to the circulatory system.
1. (Hydrostatic) pressure of blood high at arterial end;
2. Fluid/water/soluble molecules pass out (reject plasma);
3. Proteins/large molecules remain;
4. This lowers the water potential / water potential becomes more negative;
5. Water moves back into venous end of capillary (reject tissue fluid);
6. By osmosis / diffusion;
7. Lymph system collects any excess tissue fluid;
8. (Lymph) returns to blood / circulatory system / link with vena cava/returns tissue fluid to vein;

Describe how tissue fluid is formed and how it is returned to the circulatory system.
Formation
1. High blood / hydrostatic pressure / pressure filtration;
2. Forces water / fluid out;
3. Large proteins remain in capillary;

Return
4. Lower water potential in capillary / blood;
5. Due to (plasma) proteins;
6. Water enters capillary / blood;
7. (By) osmosis;
8. Correct reference to lymph collecting excess fluid returning blood to main circulation

Describe the part played by proteins in the plasma in returning tissue fluid to the capillary.
Produces lower water potential; Water moves into capillary; By osmosis/diffusion;
Describe and explain one way in which the composition of tissue fluid differs from that of plasma.
Contains little/no protein;
Molecules too large (to pass through capillary wall);
Contains less glucose;
some will have entered tissue cells;

The tissues of people who are starving often swell because of the accumulation of tissue fluid. Explain what
causes this accumulation of tissue fluid.
Starvation linked to low protein content of diet/Low protein concentration
in plasma/blood;
Water potential of blood higher/smaller water potential gradient;
Tissue fluid formed faster than returned/less tissue fluid returned to blood;

Histamine increases the permeability of capillary walls so that large molecules can pass through. Explain how this
change in permeability results in swelling round the bite.
Proteins can move into tissue fluid;
Lowers water potential of tissue fluid;
Increases tendency to draw water/fluid out/
Reduces tendency to reabsorb water;

Suggest an explanation for the link between high blood pressure and the accumulation of tissue fluid.
High blood pressure increases rate of filtration / forces more fluid out;
Lymph system cannot cope / higher pressure reduces reabsorption;
Movement
of water
through
plants

Explain how water enters a plant root from the soil and travels through to the endodermis.
Water enters root hair cells;
by osmosis;
because active uptake of mineral ions has created a WP gradient;
water moves through the cortex;
(by osmosis) down a WP gradient;
through cell vacuoles and cytoplasms / symplastic pathway;
through cell walls / apoplastic pathway;

Not required here but remember that all water is forced into the symplastic pathway at the endodermis
because of the casparian strip

Describe and explain how water moves via the apoplastic and symplastic pathways from the soil to the
xylem in a root.
Apoplastic – Via cell walls / spaces external to cell membrane / external to
cytoplasm / between cells;
As far as endodermis / Casparian strip / layer of wax;
Caused by transpiration pull;
Cohesion / hydrogen-bonding between water molecules;
Symplastic – Through cell surface membrane (of epidermis / root hair cell) / ref.
vacuoles membrane;
High to low  / s;
Diffusion / osmosis;
Cell-to-cell via plasmodesmata / via strands of cytoplasm;
Secretion / active transport of ions into xylem by endodermis;
OR
Active uptake of ions from soil at epidemis;
Lowers  / s in xylem / increases osmosis into xylem;

Explain how the structure of the endodermis affects the passage of water by this apoplastic pathway.
Casparian bands; (accept ref to suberin)
which are impermeable/waterproof;
lower water potential in the cytoplasm of endodermis cell;
enters symplastic pathway / cytoplasm of cell;
by osmosis;
Root pressure is a force that is partly responsible for the movement of water through xylem in stems. Explain
how the active transport of mineral ions into xylem vessels in the roots results in water entering these
vessels and then being moved up the xylem tissue.
Water potential in xylem reduced (by entry of ions);
Water potential gradient established between xylem and surrounding cells;
Plasma membranes of surrounding cells are partially permeable;
Water enters xylem by osmosis;
Volume of water in xylem increases;
Cannot move back due to gradient;
Pressure in xylem increases (and forces water upwards);

Describe one piece of evidence that supports the root pressure theory and explain how it supports
this theory.
Suitable accepted evidence, 1 mark for evidence and 1 mark for explanation –
EITHER e.g.guttation
(only) upward pressure could force liquid water out of leaves;
OR
Sap exuding from a cut, rooted stem;
(only) upward force could make this happen;

Explain how water enters xylem from the endodermis in the root and is then transported to the leaves.
(In the root)
1. Casparian strip blocks apoplast pathway / only allows symplast pathway;
2. Active transport by endodermis;
3. (Of) ions/salts into xylem;
4. Lower water potential in xylem / water enters xylem by osmosis /down a water potential gradient;

(Xylem to leaf)
5. Evaporation / transpiration (from leaves);
6. (Creates) cohesion / tension / H-bonding between water molecules / negative pressure;
7. Adhesion / water molecules bind to xylem;
8. (Creates continuous) water column;
Describe the roles of root pressure and
cohesion-tension in moving water through
the xylem.

Root pressure
Involves active transport of ions into xylem;
Water potential in xylem reduced
Water potential gradient established between
xylem and surrounding cells Water enters
xylem by osmosis
Volume of water in xylem increases;
Pressure in xylem increases (and forces water
upwards);

Cohesion tension
Solar energy source;
Evaporation of water from leaves through
stomata
Water potential gradient created across leaf /
mesophyll cells;
therefore water moves out of xylem (into
surrounding tissues) by osmosis this creates a
pull/tension on the water in xylem
Which is in a continuous column
Cohesion (or description) of water molecules
maintains column;
Due to H-bonding / polarity / charges of water
molecules ;
Column doesn’t break because of adhesion
with xylem walls;
Lignified walls keep xylem (vessels) open;

capillarity due to narrow lumen of xylem


(vessels);

Evidence to support supports cohesion

Evidence that supports the root pressure theory The diameter of a tree is less during the day, when the tree is transpiring, than it is at night. Evaporation from leaves
Guttation: (only) upward pressure could force during daytime; tension/negative pressure (on water) in xylem creates inward pull (on walls of xylem vessel);
liquid water out of leaves;
xylem vessels become narrower; due to adhesion of water molecules (to walls of xylem vessels);
OR
If air enters the xylem the transpiration stream can cease as cohesion is disrupted between the water molecules.
Sap exuding from a cut, rooted stem: (only) If the xylem breaks air is sucked into the vessel suggesting a negative pressure inside
upward force could make this happen;

The argument against is that rot pressure would force the xylem wider and thus increase the diameter of the tree
The potometer

This is a bubble potometer:


measuring the rate of water uptake
by a plant by timing how long it
R e s e rv o ir fo r p u s h in g a ir b u b b le b a c k takes for a bubble to move a certain
R u b b e r s to p p e r to rig h t-h a n d e n d o f c a p illa ry tu b e distance along a capillary tube of
known diameter
C a p illa r y tu b e w ith s c a le
A mass photometer exists
measuring the water loss from the
A ir b u b b le
plant by the change in mass over a
given time; accuracy limited by
accuracy of balance used (does
assume all the loss in mass is water
loss)

Potometer above assumes that all the water taken up is lost in transpiration but some will be used in….
Photosynthesis, maintaining turgidity of cell, hydrolysis reactions

Volume of water up taken by shoot = πr2 × distance travelled (r = radius of capillary tube)
Rate of transpiration = distance moved by bubble ÷ time taken
Rate of water uptake (mm3s-1) = Speed of movement of air bubble (mm s-1) x cross-sectional area of capillary tube (mm2)

The theory behind this is that as water evaporates from the leaves of the shoot water is moved up the shoot due to cohesive
forces and the air bubble is drawn along the capillary tube at the same rate thus giving a measure of the transpiration rate.
However, it is actually the rate of water uptake being measured this is not the same as transpiration because….

1. The cross sectional area of the shoot is not as large as the area of the root hairs that normally absorb water to supply
the leaves so rate of uptake is less than transpiration.

The potometer can be used to investigate how various environmental factors affect the rate of transpiration.
 Light. Light stimulates the stomata to open allowing gas exchange for photosynthesis, and as a side effect this also
increases transpiration. This is a problem for some plants as they may lose water during the day and wilt.
 Temperature. High temperature increases the rate of evaporation of water from the spongy cells, and reduces air
humidity, so transpiration increases.
 Humidity. High humidity means a higher water potential in the air, so a lower water potential gradient between the
leaf and the air, so less evaporation.
 Air movements. Wind blows away saturated air from around stomata, replacing it with drier air, so increasing the
water potential gradient and increasing transpiration.

Setting up the potometer


1) Cut a leafy shoot from the plant and immediately put it under water then cut a small section from the stem again
while it is under water, this prevents air getting into the xylem and breaking the column of water. Do not get the
leaves wet as this will affect the transpiration rate.
2) Put the potometer under the water (freshly boiled and cooled water minimises air bubbles)and move it from side to
side to remove the air from the system then attach the leafy shoot into the potometer under water also.
3) Seal all joints with water proofing substance like petroleum jelly so that any water loss is from the leafs only
4) Ensure the environmental conditions don’t change around the leaves as this will heavily influence the transpiration
rate
5) The air bubble introduce into the capillary tube can be timed as it moves across a set distance, thus the rate of water
loss can be measured.
Classification/taxonomy

Taxonomy: arranging organisms into groups based on similarities and differences.

The most common system of classification uses………………….


7 groups (taxonomic groups).
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
(Remember this pneumonic: King, Philip, Came, Over, from, Germany, Swimming)
The groups are organised into a hierarchy
(As you move down the hierarchy there are more groups at each level, but fewer organisms in each group)
The smaller the group the more similarities between the organisms in that group
There is no overlap between the groups
The hierarchy ends with species
A species is a group of similar organisms able to reproduce and give fertile offspring.
Each species is assigned a binomial name Genus and Species.

Q. Describe the principles on which the system of classification of living organisms is based. (4)
Hierarchy of 7 taxonomic groups (KPCOFGS);
no overlap between groups;
organisms placed in groups due to common structures / similar characteristics;
reflecting evolutionary history (phylogeny) of organisms within a group;
binominal nomenclature / example;
definition of a species;

Phylogenetics
The study of the evolutionary history of groups of organisms, telling us who is related to whom and how close this
relationship is compared to a common evolutionary ancestor.
It is closely related to classification because grouping needs to reflect evolutionary relationship
Members of one genus must be more closely related to each other than they are to organisms in a different genus.

Q. How does a phylogenic system differ to a simple hierarchy?


Hierarchical classification, large groups are divided into smaller groups
Process starts with species grouped into genus then grouped into family, order, class, phylum. As the groups get
larger there is a more distant common ancestory
Initially this was based on shared easily observable characteristics
(phylogenetic) based on evolutionary history;
shows ancestry of groups / points of divergence;
members of a group have features in common; based on anatomy/fossils/embryology/DNA/specific aspect of
cell biology or homologous structures, reflecting evolutionary history; phylogeny.

Q. Explain the principles biologists use to classify organisms into groups compared to older models.
Consider phylogeny
Look at evolutionary lineage/history
Find the point of divergence from a common ancestor
Consider, genetic, biochemical, embryology, homology of anatomy
Organisms are arranged in a hierarchy where large taxa (groups) are subdivided into smaller taxa
(K, P, C, O, F, G,S)
As groups get smaller the similarities between the species increase
Each species is given a binomial name using the genus and species
Older models of classification used observable features to group organisms

Problems with classification


Defining a species is difficult when, reproductive behaviour cannot be observed because….
They organisms are extinct
Reproduce asexually
Practical and ethical issues involved when trying to cross breed certain different species
Genetic comparisons as a means of classification

Originally classification was limited to things we could observe (looks and behaviour (courtship as an example)),
today we can use DNA and proteins.

Species can be classified into the different taxonomic groups based on similarities/differences in their genes. This
can be achieved by comparing their DNA and proteins (coded for by DNA). More closely related = more similar DNA
and proteins.

Comparing DNA: 2 possible methods, DNA sequencing or DNA hybridisation

DNA sequencing
Directly compare DNA by looking at the order of bases (A, T, C and G). Closely related species will have a higher
percentage of similarity

DNA Hybridisation
DNA from 2 species is collected, heated and separated into single strands (heating breaks H-bonds between the
DNA bases)
The 2 separates species DNA is mixed and allowed to cool, this allows H-bonds to reform between complementary
base pairs. The more similar the base sequences the more H-bonds that will form.
The similarity is measure by heating the hybrid strands and recording the temperature required to separate the
strands. The higher the temperature required the more H-bonds that existed and the more closely related the DNA.

Comparing proteins can be done in 2 ways, comparing amino acid sequences, immunological comparisons.

Comparing amino acids sequences


Proteins are made up of amino acids. The sequence of amino acids is coded for by DNA. The closer the DNA
sequences the more closely related the proteins.

Immunological comparisons
Uses antibody specificity to see how similar proteins are

Scientists studied two species of North American seahorse. They thought that these two species are closely related.
Describe how comparisons of biological molecules in these two species could be used to find out if they are closely
related.
(Compare) DNA;
Sequence of bases/nucleotides;

DNA hybridisation;
Heat and Separate DNA strands / break hydrogen bonds;
Mix DNA/strands (of different species);
Measure Temperature/heat required to separate (hybrid) strands indicates relationship;
Higher temp more closely related

Compare same/named protein;


Sequence of amino acids /primary structure;

Immunological evidence – not a mark


Inject (seahorse) protein/serum into animal
(Obtain) antibodies/serum;
Add protein/serum/plasma from other (seahorse) species;
Amount of precipitate indicates relationship

Biologists can also use protein structure to investigate the relationship between different species of crane.
Explain why.
1. More closely related (species) have more similarities in amino acid sequence/primary structure;
2. In same protein / named protein e.g. albumin;
3. Amino acid sequence is related to (DNA) base/triplet sequence;
OR
4. Similar species have a similar immune response to a protein/named protein;
5. More closely related (species) produce more ‘precipitate’ / antibody-antigen (complexes) / agglutination;

Courtship

Courtship behaviour allows animals to:


Recognise members of their own species. This is particularly important where many very similar species live in
the same habitat. Reproduction between members of different species may be possible, but won’t lead to
fertile offspring, so should be avoided.
Attract a mate of the opposite sex.
Identify a mate that is capable of breeding. Both partners need to be sexually mature, fertile and receptive to
mating. Many females only produce eggs at specific times, often just once a year.
Synchronise the production of eggs and sperm.
Form a pair bond and help raise the offspring.

Many birds have complex courtship displays involving bright colours and stereotyped movements. For example, the
peacock attracts females by displaying its massive, brightly-coloured tail and at the same time vibrating its tail feathers.
Explain the benefits to the species of such elaborate courtship displays, and suggest how they may have evolved. (6)
Acts as (sign) stimulus for mating behaviour /activity by female;
Assists species recognition;
Indicates fittest / healthy male;
Male with ‘best’ display more likely to mate;
(More likely) to pass on genes;
Genes for features of display passed on;
More young from these males likely to survive;
Process repeated through many generations;
Good display linked with other features favouring survival.

Give two ways in which courtship is important in species such as sticklebacks.


enables male / female to recognise opposite sex;
enables recognition of own species;
synchronises mating behaviour;

Behaviour in the males of a species of cichlid fish. In this some males are territorial while others are not. Territorial
males have flashy eyebars and reddish- orange patches on their flanks, while the drab non-territorial males look rather
like females. The territory holders aggressively dominate males without territories and only the territorial males can
breed. Should a territory holder die, a drab male will quickly become colourful and behave as aggressively as the
previous owner. Being an underling in this species has dire physiological consequences. Not only is reproductive
behaviour suppressed, but so is the entire system that links the brain to the testes. The results are shrunken testes and a
low concentration of androgens. Dominant territorial fish, on the other hand, have large testes and a high concentration
of androgens.
Suggest how the appearance and behaviour of male cichlids are likely to lead to success in reproduction.(6)
territorial signal / territory holder linked to colour aggressiveness;
sex recognition;
species recognition;
sexual maturity;
courtship signal;
reduces conflict / warm off other males;
territorial / dominant males have larger testes / more sperm;
Antibiotic resistance

Suggest three ways in which antibiotics may act on bacteria.


Prevent DNA replication;
prevent protein synthesis/transcription/translation/ribosome function;
damage/inhibit formation of cell wall;

Describe ways in which antibiotics can act against bacteria. Explain why this mode of action is effective
against the bacteria.
Prevent DNA replication
Prevent m-RNA synthesis (transcription)
Prevent transfer of amino acids to ribosomes (translation)
Prevent cell wall synthesis

Preventing DNA replication:


Bacterial cell will be unable to divide;
Prevent reproduction population of bacteria will not increase;

Preventing m-RNA synthesis


No m-RNA means code not passed to ribosomes form transcription;; no protein synthesis means no new
enzymes;

Preventing transfer of amino acid


No proteins made at ribosomes
No translation means no enzymes / no proteins structures;

Prevent cell wall synthesis


Water potential of bacterial cell lower than surrounding solution
Water enters by osmosis
Osmotic lysis occurs

Bacteriostatic antibiotics do not kill bacteria but allow patients to recover from a bacterial infection.
Explain why they allow patients to recover.
Prevent further growth/multiplication of bacteria;
allow time for immune response (to bacteria);

Explain how resistance to an antibiotic could become widespread in a bacterial population following a gene
mutation conferring resistance in just one bacterium.
Bacteria with natural mutation develop resistant allele and have (selective) advantage over others / described;
Frequent use of antibiotic creates selection pressure/ antibiotic kills non resistant bacteria;
Resistant bacteria (Survive to) reproduce more than other types;
Pass on advantageous allele/ mutated allele in greater numbers;
Frequency of (advantageous) allele increases in subsequent generations;
(penalise use of “gene” instead of allele once only)
Frequency of resistant types increases in subsequent generations;

Resistance is passed on from one generation to


another as bacteria reproduce asexually. Vertical
gene transmission

Resistance may be passed on from one speices to


another through conjugation, horizontal gene
transmission.
Biodiversity

All the organisms living in a habitat are collectively called its community, and species diversity means the
variety of species in a community. Species diversity is useful because it tell us about the complexity, quality and
stability of an ecosystem.

The best measure of Species diversity considers the number of different species (species richness) and the
abundance (number) of each species within a community.
The higher the species diversity of plants and trees, the more habitats, the more varied the food sources and
the more food available which consequently means a higher diversity of insects and birds and animals.

We can calculate species diversity using the Simpson Index of Diversity

N = total number of all organisms


n = Total number of organisms in one species
∑ = sum of

Agricultural practices (intensive farming) why things are done and the consequences of these processes
Agriculture
Selective breeding: done to select for certain favourable characteristics reduces genetic diversity.
Destruction of hedgerows: Makes large farms with large fields are cheaper and more efficient to run by easing
the moving machinery and harvesting. Hedgerows provide habitats for at least 30 species of trees and shrubs,
65 species of nesting birds, 1500 species of insects and 600 species of wildflowers. These in turn provide food
for small mammals. Hedgerows also act as wildlife corridors, allowing animals to move safely between
woodlands.
Monoculture: increases the productivity by growing the best crops, which can be sowed and harvested quickly
using dedicated machinery. This increases yield and reduces labour costs. It reduces genetic diversity and
renders all crops in a region susceptible to disease. Reduces animal species diversity, because there are few
niches.
Fertilisers: maintain soil fertility, but they can pollute surrounding groundwater causing eutrophication and
killing aquatic animals.
Pesticides: are sprayed on crops to prevent attack by insects and other invertebrate animals, but many
pesticides have a broad spectrum, killing a wide range of animals and so reducing diversity.
Herbicides: kill competing plants (“weeds”) that might reduce crop yield.
Deforestation
The Two main reasons humans clear forests are:
To use the land for agriculture, housing, mining or reservoirs
To use the timber for fuel, charcoal, paper or building materials.

Forests have a high biodiversity because a mature forest has many different species of plants in several layers;
each adapted to their own conditions of light and nutrient availability. The different plants have different
animals feeding on them and living in them; and the different primary consumers have different secondary
consumers feeding on the. So forests contain complex food webs with high diversity.

By contrast, a field of crops has very low diversity with very few plants (often just the crop and a few weeds)
and so few animals. Deforestation therefore reduces biodiversity.
As the diagram shows, forests have a deeper and more extensive root system, so binding the soil together.
Without this root system, soils can be eroded, leading to desertification (fertile land becomes desert). Forests
also have a high productivity: i.e. there is a lot of plant material produced per square meter of land, and a lot of
photosynthesis takes place. So deforestation reduces the rate at which carbon dioxide is removed from the
atmosphere and so increases the greenhouse effect and global warming.
Deforestation

benefits Wood and land for homes


Local areas developed by attracting business

Risks Diversity reduced


Less carbon dioxide stored: leading to climate change
Possible sources of medicines (often found in rain forest) are lost
Natural beauty lost
Agriculture

benefits More food can be produced


Food is cheaper to produce and so cheaper to buy
Attraction of local business
Risks Diversity is reduced due to monoculture, loss hedgerows, use of herbicides and pesticide
Natural beauty lost

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