sensorics

Table of contents

Sensorics Contents: page no:

1. Introduction to Sensorics technology

1

2. Basics and fundamentals of sensors.

3

3. Functions of Inductive, Capacitive, Magnetic, Ultrasonic & Optical types of Sensors

10

4. Behavior, operating ranges and response curves of different types sensors

5. Switching frequency

6. Reduction factor

7. Experiments on different types of sensors

PLC Content:
9. Introduction to Automation Technology

10. Introduction to PLC, history of PLC,advantages and disadvantages.

11. Basic electrical switches and switch gears

12. Programming languages STL, FBD, Ladder diagram, SFC, IL Advanced, Timers,
Counters
13. PLC special functions, Online & Offline monitoring.

14. Interface of I/O modules with PLC.

15. Relay and contactors working principles.

16. Power and control circuits, Logic development using relay contactor.

17. Programming of PLC.

18. VCP communication with PLC

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1. Introduction to Sensorics Technology:

There have been many developments in the science and the application of sensory
evaluation that directly or indirectly have had an impact. Today, just about all consumer
products companies in the food and beverage industry as well as other industries, for
example, home care and personal care industries, are aware of sensory evaluation and most
agree that it has a role within their company. Marketing research and brand management
professionals also are giving increased recognition to sensory information. Such recognition
has yielded benefits for the profession in the form of improved status(and increased
compensation), and for some, a bigger/louder voice in the product decision making process. It
is the latter which has the greater effect in the longer term. These developments have also
resulted in more support for research and more course offerings at the University level.
However, some fundamental, as well as some practical, issues remain to be considered or re-
considered. New professionals tend to rely on pre-packed software that provides not only
data capture capabilities, but also design and analyses options. While such capabilities are a
significant enhancement, many also provide designs that are neither balanced properly nor
relevant for anything other than a standard test. Reliance on such packages make for an easy
entry for the inexperienced professional but have the potential for misapplication when the
action taken is to modify the problem to fit the program. There has been a decline in
understanding and appreciation for the consequences of not using qualified subjects, a
tendency to limit replication (in sensory analytical tests) for cost savings purposes,
Joel-01.qxd 12/19/03 8:43 PM Page 1 and as already noted, use of statistical packages with
default systems that yield results that on the surface make sense but have no real basis or
there is no awareness of their weaknesses. We will explore these issues in more detail later
in this book. Using sensory information as a part of a marketing decision has given it
unprecedented attention; being able to identify and quantitatively model the key drivers for a
product’s acceptance is now generally recognized as a core resource for any sensory
program. It is acknowledged to be a powerful approach to optimizing product preference;
however, this has only been possible with use of descriptive analysis to identify the specific
sensory characteristics. The next logical step in this process has been to incorporate this
information with other cognitive measures such as imagery. Exploiting this information to the
fullest extent possible has enabled companies to grow their market share as well as
implement cost savings through better use of technology, etc. All this has been possible as a
direct result of use of sensory resources, better understanding about the measurement of
human behavior, combined with a more systematic and professional approach to the testing
process. Much of this progress has been achieved within the technical and marketing
structures of those organizations that recognized the unique contributions of sensory
evaluation. In the past, these activities were the exception, today it is a more common
occurrence, again reflecting the increased awareness of sensory evaluation by those in and
outside the field. For a summary of these developments, the reader is directed to Schutz
(1998). However, much more needs to be done, in part because the link between sensory,
marketing, and production is not strong, and in part because there is a lack of appreciation for
the principles on which the science is based. For some, sensory evaluation is not considered
as a science capable of providing reliable and valid information. This is a not so uncommon
“perception,” fostered in part by the seemingly simplistic notion that anyone can provide a
sensory judgment. We are born with our senses and barring some genetic defects, we are all
capable of seeing, smelling, tasting, etc. It certainly seems simple enough, so why should a
technologist or a brand manager believe results from a test that are inconsistent with their
expectations and their own evaluations? Alternatively, product experts and reporters such as
those responsible for wine and food reviews in the public press have a significant impact on
the success of products and businesses based on their reviews which purport to be based on
the senses and by default, sensory evaluation. Myths are created and perpetuated based on
hearsay simply by being in a position of authority. Suffice to say, not all of what one reads
should be believed. We will have more to say about this later in this chapter and in the
chapters on discrimination and descriptive analysis. As a result, demonstrating that there is a
scientific basis to the discipline continues to be a challenge because the basic principles of

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perception are being lost in favor of quick solutions or a lack of time to do a test correctly. In
the case of the latter, the authors have experienced the situation in which time restrictions
take precedence over using an appropriate method even though there was a high risk of
obtaining inadequate information using a method incorrectly! It is no longer a surprise to hear
statements such as, “We don’t have the time or money to do it right, but we will be able to do
it over again later.” It takes a lot of effort to overcome this kind of thinking. Since the previous
editions of this book, advances continue to be made, albeit at a slow pace.

Not because test procedures are inadequate, but as noted previously, the science is not
readily acknowledged as such. In all fairness, it should be mentioned that sensory
professionals have not been effective spokespersons for their work or for the science. In one
company, sensory evaluation will be used successfully, but in another it will be misused or the
information will be ignored because it is inconsistent with expectation. Unfortunately, this
latter situation has encouraged use of other information sources or to develop competing test
capabilities in the hope of obtaining acceptable information without fully appreciating the
consequences. Over the years, numerous efforts have been made and continue to be made
to develop a more permanent role for sensory evaluation within a company. Reviewing the
technical and trade literature shows that progress in the development and use of sensory
resources continues. There has been a noticeable increase, and much of the impetus
continues to come from selected sectors of the economy, notably foods and beverages and
their suppliers (Piggot, 1988; Meiselman and MacFie, 1996; Lawless and Heymann, 1999;
Jackson, 2002). In their seminal textbook on sensory evaluation published almost four
decades ago, Amerine et al. (1965) correctly called attention to three key issues: the
importance of flavor to the acceptance of foods and other products, the use of flavor-related
words in advertising, and the extent to which everyday use of the senses was largely
unappreciated, at that time. Perhaps a secondary benefit of today’s concerns about food
safety has been awareness by consumers of the sensory aspects of the foods they purchase.
It is apparent that current interest in sensory evaluation reflects a more basic concern than
simply being able to claim use of sound sensory evaluation methodologies. In a paper
published in 1977, Brandt and Arnold described the results of a survey on the uses of sensory
tests by food product development groups. Their survey provided insight into some of the
basic issues facing sensory evaluation. While the survey is dated, the information remains
relevant and much of it continues to be confirmed based on more recent surveys fielded by
the Sensory Evaluation Division of the Institute of Food Technologists (see below). The
results were especially notable for the extent (or lack of) of the awareness of sensory
evaluation by the respondents. Of the sixty-two companies contacted, fifty-six responded that
they were utilizing sensory evaluation. However, descriptions of tests being used revealed
that confusion existed about the various methods; for example, it was found that the triangle
test (a type of discrimination test) was the most popular, followed by hedonic scaling (a type
of acceptance test) and paired comparison (either an acceptance test or a discrimination
test).
2.Basics and fundamentals of sensors:

Sensitivity:
The sensitivity of the sensor is defined as the slope of the output characteristic curve (DY/DX
in Figure 1) or, more generally, the minimum input of physical parameter that will create a
detectable output change. In some sensors, the sensitivity is defined as the input parameter
change required to produce a standardized output change. In others, it is defined as an output
voltage change for a given change in input parameter. For example, a typical blood pressure
transducer may have a sensitivity rating of 10 mV/V/mm Hg; that is, there will be a 10-mV
output voltage for each volt of excitation potential and each mm Hg of applied pressure.

Sensitivity Error:
The sensitivity error (shown as a dotted curve in Figure 1) is a departure from the ideal slope
of the characteristic curve. For example, the pressure transducer discussed above may have
an actual sensitivity of 7.8 mV/V/mm Hg instead of 10 mV/V/mm Hg.

Range:

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The range of the sensor is the maximum and minimum values of applied parameter
that can be measured. For example, a given pressure sensor may have a range of -400 to
+400 mm Hg. Alternatively, the positive and negative ranges often are unequal. For example,
a certain medical blood pressure transducer is specified to have a minimum (vacuum) limit of
-50 mm Hg (Ymin in Figure 1) and a maximum (pressure) limit of +450 mm Hg (Y max in Figure
1). This specification is common, incidentally, and is one reason doctors and nurses
sometimes destroy blood pressure sensors when attempting to draw blood through an arterial
line without being mindful of the position of the fluid stopcocks in the system. A small syringe
can exert a tremendous vacuum on a closed system.

Figure 1. Ideal curve and sensitivity error. Source: J.J. Carr, Sensors and Circuits
Prentice Hall.
Dynamic Range:
The dynamic range is the total range of the sensor from minimum to maximum. That is in
terms of Figure 1, Rdyn = Ymax - l -Yminl.

Precision:

The concept of precision refers to the degree of reproducibility of a measurement. In

other words, if exactly the same value were measured a number of times, an ideal sensor
would output exactly the same value every time. But real sensors output a range of values
distributed in some manner relative to the actual correct value. For example, suppose a
pressure of exactly 150 mm Hg is applied to a sensor. Even if the applied pressure never
changes, the output values from the sensor will vary considerably. Some subtle problems
arise in the matter of precision when the true value and the sensor's mean value are not
within a certain distance of each other
(e.g., the 1-s range of the normal distribution curve).

Resolution:

This specification is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter

that can be detected in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion
of the reading (or the full-scale reading) or in absolute terms.

Accuracy:

The accuracy of the sensor is the maximum difference that will exist between the
actual value (which must be measured by a primary or good secondary standard) and the

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indicated value at the output of the sensor. Again, the accuracy can be expressed either as a
percentage of full scale or in absolute terms.

Offset:

The offset error of a transducer is defined as the output that will exist when it should
be zero or, alternatively, the difference between the actual output value and the specified
output value under some particular set of conditions. An example of the first situation in terms
of Figure 1 would exist if the characteristic curve had the same sensitivity slope as the ideal
but crossed the Y-axis (output) at b instead of zero. An example of the other form of offset is
seen in the characteristic curve of a pH electrode shown in Figure 2. The ideal curve will exist
only at one temperature (usually 25°C), while the actual curve will be between the minimum
temperature and maximum temperature limits depending on the temperature of the sample
and electrode.

Figure 2. Typical pH electrode characteristic curve showing temperature sensitivity.

Source: J.J. Carr, Sensors and Circuits Prentice Hall.

Linearity:

The linearity of the transducer is an expression of the extent to which the actual
measured curve of a sensor departs from the ideal curve. Figure 3 shows a somewhat
exaggerated relationship between the ideal, or least squares fit, line and the actual measured
or calibration line (Note in most cases, the static curve is used to determine linearity, and this
may deviate somewhat from a dynamic linearity) Linearity is often specified in terms of

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percentage of nonlinearity, which is defined as:

where

Nonlinearity (%) is the percentage of nonlinearity

Din(max) is the maximum input deviation
INf.s. is the maximum, full-scale input

The static nonlinearity defined by Equation 6-1 is often subject to environmental factors,
including temperature, vibration, acoustic noise level, and humidity. It is important to know
under what conditions the specification is valid and departures from those conditions may not
yield linear changes of linearity.

Hysteresis:

A transducer should be capable of following the changes of the input parameter

regardless of which direction the change is made; hysteresis is the measure of this property.
Figure 4 shows a typical hysteresis curve. Note that it matters from which direction the
change is made. Approaching a fixed input value (point B in Figure 4) from a higher value
(point P) will result in a different indication than approaching the same value from a lesser
value (point Q or zero). Note that input value B can be represented by F(X)1, F(X)2, or F(X)3
depending on the immediate previous value—clearly an error due to hysteresis.

Figure 3. Ideal versus measured curve showing linearity error. Source: J J Carr,
Sensors and Circuits Prentice Hall

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Figure 4. Hysteresis curve. Source: J.J. Carr, Sensors and Circuits Prentice Hall.

Response Time:

Sensors do not change output state immediately when an input parameter change
occurs. Rather, it will change to the new state over a period of time, called the response time
(Tr in Figure 5). The response time can be defined as the time required for a sensor output to
change from its previous state to a final settled value within a tolerance band of the correct
new value. This concept is somewhat different from the notion of the time constant (T) of the
system. This term can be defined in a manner similar to that for a capacitor charging through
a resistance and is usually less than the response time.
The curves in Figure 5 show two types of response time. In Figure 5a the curve represents
the response time following an abrupt positive going step-function change of the input
parameter. The form shown in Figure 5b is a decay time (Td to distinguish from Tr, for they are
not always the same) in response to a negative going step-function change of the input
parameter.

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Figure 5. (a) Rise-time definition; (b) fall-time definition. Source: J.J. Carr, Sensors and
Circuits Prentice Hall.

Dynamic Linearity:

The dynamic linearity of the sensor is a measure of its ability to follow rapid changes
in the input parameter. Amplitude distortion characteristics, phase distortion characteristics,
and response time are important in determining dynamic linearity. Given a system of low
hysteresis (always desirable), the amplitude response is represented by:

F(X) = aX + bX2 + cX3

+ dX4 + ••• + K (6-2)

In Equation 6-2, the term F(X) is the output signal, while the X terms represent the input
parameter and its harmonics, and K is an offset constant (if any). The harmonics become
especially important when the error harmonics generated by the sensor action fall into the
same frequency bands as the natural harmonics produced by the dynamic action of the input
parameter. All continuous waveforms are represented by a Fourier series of a fundamental
sinewave and its harmonics. In any nonsinusoidal waveform (including time-varying changes
of a physical parameter). Harmonics present will be that can be affected by the action of the
sensor.

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Figure 6. Output versus input signal curves showing (a) quadratic error; (b) cubic error.
Source: J.J. Carr, Sensors and Circuits Prentice Hall.

The nature of the nonlinearity of the calibration curve (Figure 6) tell something about which
harmonics are present. In Figure 6a, the calibration curve (shown as a dotted line) is
asymmetrical, so only odd harmonic terms exist. Assuming a form for the ideal curve of F(x) =
mx + K, Equation 6-2 becomes for the symmetrical case:

F(X) = aX + bX2 + cX4 + ••• + K (6-3)

In the other type of calibration curve (Figure 6b), the indicated values are symmetrical about
the ideal mx + K curve. In this case, F(X) = -F(-X), and the form of Equation 6-2 is:

F(X) = aX + bX3 + cX5 + ••• + K (6-4)

Now we will take a look at some of the tactics and signals processing criteria that can be

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adapted to biomedical applications to improve the nature of the data collected from the
sensor.

4. Functions of Inductive, Capacitive, Magnetic, Ultrasonic & Optical

types of Sensors:
Operating Principles For Inductive Proximity Sensors :

Inductive proximity sensors are used for non-contact detection of metallic objects.
Their operating principle is based on a coil and oscillator that creates an electromagnetic field
in the close surroundings of the sensing surface. The presence of a metallic object (actuator)
in the operating area causes a dampening of the oscillation amplitude. The rise or fall of such
oscillation is identified by a threshold circuit that changes the output of the sensor. The
operating distance of the sensor depends on the actuator's shape and size and is strictly
linked to the nature of the material in table 1.

Table 1. Sensitivity when different metals are

present. Sn = operating distance.
Fe37 (Iron) 1 x Sn
Stainless steel 0.9 x Sn
Brass - Bronze 0.5 x Sn
Aluminum 0.4 x Sn
Copper 0.4 x Sn

Outputs:

DC Voltage

2 wire DC: These sensors contain an output amplifier with the function N.O. or N.C. that can
pilot a load connected in series. In this system a residual current flows through the load even
when in the open state and a voltage drop occurs to the sensor when it is in the closed state.
Attention must be paid to these restrictions when selecting relays or electronic controls to be
used with these sensors. They are compatible with P.L.C. units.

3 & 4 wire DC: These amplified D.C. sensors contain an output amplifier. They are supplied
as 3 wire with function N.O. or NC and as 4 wire with complementary outputs (NO + NC) in
the types NPN and PNP. Standard version include protected against short circuit, protected

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against polarity and peaks created by the disconnection of inductive loads. They are
compatible with P.L.C. Units

Analog & Linear: In these 3 wire amplified sensors a current or voltage output varies in
proportion to the distance between the sensor and a metallic object.

NAMUR: These are 2 wire non-amplified sensors whose current varies in the presence of a
metallic object. The difference between these sensors and traditional sensors is the absence
of amplifier trigger stages. Their current and voltage limits allow them to be used in hazardous
(explosive) environments when used with approved amplifiers. In standard applications
(normal atmospheres) the sensor must be used with amplifier units ALNC, ALN2 or similar.

AC Voltage

2 wire AC: These are two-wire sensors that contain a thyristor output amplifier. In this system
a residual current flows through the load even when in the open state and a voltage drop
occurs to the sensor when it is in the closed state. Attention must be paid to the minimum
switching current, residual current and voltage drop when selecting low consumption relays or
high impedance electronic controls to be used with these sensors. They are compatible with
P.L.C. Units

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Definitions:

NO (normally open): A switch output that is open

prohibiting current flow when an actuator is notFig. 1
present and closes allowing current flow when an
actuator is present.

NC (normally closed): A switch output that is closed

allowing current flow when no actuator is present and
opens prohibiting current flow when an actuator is
present.

NPN Output: Transistor output that switches the

common or negative voltage to the load. The load is
connected between the positive supply and the
output. Current flows from the load through the
output to ground when the switch output is on. Also
known as current sinking or negative switching.

PNP Output: Transistor output that switches the

positive voltage to the load. The load is connected
between output and common. Current flows from the
device's output, through the load to ground when the
switch output is on. Also known as current sourcing Fig. 2
or positive switching.

Operating Distance (Sn): The maximum distance

from the sensor to a square piece of Iron (Fe 37),
1mm thick with side's = to the diameter of the
sensing face, that will trigger a change in the output
of the sensor. Distance will decrease for other
materials and shapes. Tests are performed at 20ºC
with a constant voltage supply. This distance does
include a ± 10% manufacturing tolerance.

Power Supply: The supply voltage range that sensor

will operate at.

Max Switching Current: The amount of continuous

current allowed to flow through the sensor without
causing damage to the sensor. It is given as a
maximum value.

Min Switching Current: It is the minimum current

value, which should flow through the sensor in order
to guarantee operation.

Max Peak Current: The Max peak current indicates

the maximum current value that the sensor can bear
in a limited period of time.

Residual Current: The current, which flows through

the sensor when it is in the open state.

Power Drain: The amount of current required to

operate a sensor.

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Fig.3

Voltage Drop: The voltage drop across a sensor

when driving the maximum load.

Short Circuit Protection: Protection against

damage to a sensor if the load becomes shorted.

Operating Frequency: The maximum number of

on/off cycles that the device is capable of in one
second. According to EN 50010, this parameter is
measured by the dynamic method shown in fig. 1
with the sensor in position (a) and (b). S is the
operating distance and m is the diameter of the
sensor. The frequency is given by the formula in fig.
2.

Repeatability (%Sn): The variation between any

values of operating distance measured in an 8 hour
period at a temperature between is 15 to 30ºC and a
supply voltage with a <= 5% deviation.

Hysteresis (%Sn): The distance between the

"switching on" point of the actuator approach and the
"switching off" point of the actuator retreat. This
distance reduces false triggering. Its value is given as
a percent of the operating distance or a distance.
See Fig. 3

Flush Mounting: For side by side mounting of flush

mount models refer to Fig. 4a. Non-flush mount
models can be embedded in metal according to Fig.
4b. for side by side refer to fig. 4c. Sn = operating
distance.

Protection Degree: Enclosure degree of protection

according to IEC (International Electrotechnical
Commission) is as follows:
IP 65: Dust tight. Protection against water jets.
IP 67: Dust tight. Protection against the effects of
immersion

Operating Principles For Capacitive Proximity Sensors :

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Capacitive proximity sensors are used for non-contact detection of metallic objects &
nonmetallic objects (liquid, plastic, wooden materials and so on). Capacitive proximity sensors
use the variation of capacitance between the sensor and the object being detected. When the
object is at a preset distance from the sensitive side of the sensor, an electronic circuit inside
the sensor begins to oscillate. The rise or the fall of such oscillation is identified by a threshold
circuit that drives an amplifier for the operation of an external load. A screw placed on the
backside of the sensor allows regulation of the operating distance. This sensitivity regulation
is useful in applications, such as detection of full containers and non-detection of empty
containers. The operating distance of the sensor depends on the actuator shape and size and
is strictly linked to the nature of the material (Table 1).

Table 1. Sensitivity when different materials are

present. Sn = operating distance.
Metal ~ 1 x Sn
Water ~ 1 x Sn
Plastic ~ 0.5 x Sn
Glass ~ 0.5 x Sn
Wood ~ 0.4 x Sn

Outputs:

DC Voltage

4 wire DC: These amplified D.C. sensors contain an output amplifier. They are supplied as 4
wire with complementary outputs (NO + NC) in the types NPN and PNP. Standard version
include protected against short circuit, protected against polarity and peaks created by the
disconnection of inductive loads. They are compatible with P.L.C. Units

AC/DC Voltage

These are two-wire sensors that contain a mosfet output amplifier that functions in both A.C.
and D.C. In this system a residual current flows through the load even when in the open state
and a voltage drop occurs to the sensor when it is in the closed state. Attention must be paid
to the minimum switching current, residual current and voltage drop when selecting low
consumption relays or high impedance electronic controls to be used with these sensors. All
AC/DC capacitive sensors are short circuit protected (up to 50 Vdc and 250 Vac). They are

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also protected against transient voltage coming from the power supply or generated by the
load. They are compatible with P.L.C. units.

AC Voltage

2 wire AC: These are two-wire sensors that contain a thyristor output amplifier. In this system
a residual current flows through the load even when in the open state and a voltage drop
occurs to the sensor when it is in the closed state. Attention must be paid to the minimum
switching current, residual current and voltage drop when selecting low consumption relays or
high impedance electronic controls to be used with these sensors. They are compatible with
P.L.C. Units

Definitions:

NO (normally open): A switch output that is open

prohibiting current flow when an actuator is notFig. 1
present and closes allowing current flow when an
actuator is present.

NC (normally closed): A switch output that is closed

allowing current flow when no actuator is present and
opens prohibiting current flow when an actuator is
present.

NPN Output: Transistor output that switches the

common or negative voltage to the load. The load is
connected between the positive supply and the
output. Current flows from the load through the output
to ground when the switch output is on. Also known as
current sinking or negative switching.

PNP Output: Transistor output that switches the

positive voltage to the load. The load is connected
between output and common. Current flows from the
device's output, through the load to ground when the
switch output is on. Also known as current sourcing orFig. 2
positive switching.

Operating Distance (Sn): The maximum distance

from the sensor to a square piece of Iron (Fe 37),
1mm thick with side's = to the diameter of the sensing
face, that will trigger a change in the output of the
sensor. Distance will decrease for other materials and
shapes. Tests are performed at 20ºC with a constant
voltage supply. This distance does include a ± 10%
manufacturing tolerance.

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Power Supply: The supply voltage range that sensor

will operate at.

Max Switching Current: The amount of continuous

current allowed to flow through the sensor without
causing damage to the sensor. It is given as a
maximum value.

Min Switching Current: It is the minimum current

value, which should flow through the sensor in order
to guarantee operation.

Max Peak Current: The Max peak current indicates

the maximum current value that the sensor can bear
in a limited period of time.

Fig.3
Residual Current: The current, which flows through
the sensor when it is in the open state.

Power Drain: The amount of current required to

operate a sensor.

Voltage Drop: The voltage drop across a sensor

when driving the maximum load.

Short Circuit Protection: Protection against damage

to a sensor if the load becomes shorted.

Operating Frequency: The maximum number of

on/off cycles that the device is capable of in one
second. According to EN 50010, this parameter is
measured by the dynamic method shown in fig. 1 with
the sensor in position (a) and (b). S is the operating
distance and m is the diameter of the sensor. The
frequency is given by the formula in fig. 2.

Repeatability (%Sn): The variation between any

values of operating distance measured in an 8 hour
period at a temperature between is 15ºC -30ºC and a
supply voltage with a <= 5% deviation.

Hysteresis (%Sn): The distance between the

"switching on" point of the actuator approach and the
"switching off" point of the actuator retreat. This
distance reduces false triggering. Its value is given as
a percent of the operating distance or a distance. See
Fig. 3

Flush Mounting: For side by side mounting of flush

mount models refer to Fig. 4a. Non-flush mount
models can be embedded in metal according to Fig.
4b. for side by side refer to fig. 4c. Sn = operating
distance.

Protection Degree: Enclosure degree of protection

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according to IEC (International Electrotechnical

Commission) is as follows:
IP 65: Dust tight. Protection against water jets.
IP 67: Dust tight. Protection against the effects of
immersion

SWITCHING POWER DIAGRAM

Voltage (V), switching current (I) and max. power (P) mean the max. switching
istantaneous value in presence of loads. When choosing a type of contact it is
recommended that the following formula be applied: P = V x I.

Optical Sensors:

Optical sensors are used for point level sensing of sediments, liquids with

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suspended solids, and liquid-liquid interfaces. These sensors sense the decrease or
change in transmission of infrared light emitted from an infrared diode (LED). With
the proper choice of construction materials and mounting location, these sensors
can be used with aqueous, organic, and corrosive liquids.

A common application of economical infrared-based optical interface point level

sensors is detecting the sludge/water interface in settling ponds. By using pulse
modulation techniques and a high power infrared diode, one can eliminate
interference from ambient light, operate the LED at a higher gain, and lessen the
effects of build-up on the probe.

An alternate approach for continuous optical level sensing involves the use of a
laser. Laser light is more concentrated and therefore is more capable of penetrating
dusty or steamy environments. Laser light will reflect off most solid, liquid surfaces.
The time of flight can be measured with precise timing circuitry, to determine the
range or distance of the surface from the sensor. Lasers remain limited in use in
industrial applications due to cost, and concern for maintenance. The optics must be
frequently cleaned to maintain performance.

Ultrasonic Sensors:

Ultrasonic level sensors are used for non-contact level sensing of highly viscous
liquids, as well as bulk solids. They are also widely used in water treatment
applications for pump control and open channel flow measurement. The sensors
emit high frequency (20 kHz to 200 kHz) acoustic waves that are reflected back to
and detected by the emitting transducer.

Ultrasonic level sensors are also affected by the changing speed of sound due to
moisture, temperature, and pressures. Correction factors can be applied to the level
measurement to improve the accuracy of measurement.

Turbulence, foam, steam, chemical mists (vapors), and changes in the concentration
of the process material also affect the ultrasonic sensor’s response. Turbulence and
foam prevent the sound wave from being properly reflected to the sensor; steam and
chemical mists and vapors distort or absorb the sound wave; and variations in
concentration cause changes in the amount of energy in the sound wave that is
reflected back to the sensor. Stilling wells and wave guides are used to prevent
errors caused by these factors.

Proper mounting of the transducer is required to ensure best response to reflected

sound. In addition, the hopper, bin, or tank should be relatively free of obstacles
such as weldments, brackets, or ladders to minimise false returns and the resulting
erroneous response, although most modern systems have sufficiently "intelligent"
echo processing to make engineering changes largely unnecessary except where an
intrusion blocks the "line of sight" of the transducer to the target. Since the ultrasonic
transducer is used both for transmitting and receiving the acoustic energy, it is
subject to a period of mechanical vibration known as “ringing”. This vibration must
attenuate (stop) before the echoed signal can be processed. The net result is a
distance from the face of the transducer that is blind and cannot detect an object. It
is known as the “blanking zone”, typically 150mm - 1m, depending on the range of
the transducer.

The requirement for electronic signal processing circuitry can be used to make the
ultrasonic sensor an intelligent device. Ultrasonic sensors can be designed to
provide point level control, continuous monitoring or both. Due to the presence of a
microprocessor and relatively low power consumption, there is also capability for

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 sensorics

serial communication from to other computing devices making this a good technique
for adjusting calibration and filtering of the sensor signal, remote wireless monitoring
or plant network communications. The ultrasonic sensor enjoys wide popularity due
to the powerful mix of low price and high functionality.

SJCE, Mysore. Page 19