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Investment Casting

Chapter · December 2016

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-803581-8.04163-1

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Singh R., Singh S., and Hashmi M.S.J., Investment Casting. In: Saleem Hashmi (editor-in-chief), Reference Module
in Materials Science and Materials Engineering. Oxford: Elsevier; 2016. pp. 1-18.

ISBN: 978-0-12-803581-8
Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. unless otherwise stated. All rights reserved.
 Author's personal copy

Investment Casting
R Singh and S Singh, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India
MSJ Hashmi, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
r 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1 History 1
2 Procedural Steps and Innovations 2
2.1 Wax Injection 2
2.2 Pattern Ejection 4
2.3 Tree Assembly 4
2.4 Shell Building 5
2.5 De-Waxing 6
2.6 Baking 6
2.7 Metal Pouring 7
2.8 Knockout 8
3 Case Study 8
3.1 Surface Hardness 8
3.2 Surface Roughness 14
3.3 Dimensional Accuracy 15
3.4 Discussion 17
4 Conclusions and Trends of Future Research 17
References 17
Further Reading 18

1 History

The casting industry is a vital segment of the manufacturing sector that produces intricate parts, blends, internal features, and
varying thicknesses with an excellent surface finish and negligible metallurgical limitations.1–3 The investment casting (IC) process
is one that has the strength to produce the exact shapes and sizes of parts with minimum porosity or other defects. Over the course
of many decades, it has attained a key position in modern foundry.4–9 The IC process is not new; it is one of the oldest processes
commercially available today. This process is also referred to as lost-wax or precision casting.
In the time of Pharaohs, this technique was used by Egyptians to make gold-colored jewelry out of copper and bronze. IC has
the capability of producing intricate shapes and fine impressions with tight geometrical tolerance and high accuracy. This is an
alternative approach to producing parts that are difficult to machine. There is no evidence of its origin, no certainty of when it was
first used in metallurgy, and no certainty of its location of origin; but in Iran, Syria, Palestine, and Thailand, distinctive evidence
has been found.10 Principles of IC are evident in items created in 5000 BC, when early men produced rudimentary items (as
shown in Fig. 1a).11 Jewelry, idols, and art castings were made using IC for several centuries, and various examples of such castings
are still present in China, India, and the Harappan civilization.12 The wax model used is coated or rammed with refractory sand to

Fig. 1 Rudimentary tool (a) and statue made of gold (b).10,11

Reference Module in Materials Science and Materials Engineering doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803581-8.04163-1 1

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2 Investment Casting

made molds that are de-waxed to increase thermal strength; afterward, molten metal is poured into the molds.13 Complex shapes
such as turbine blades, airplane parts, and modern weapons are easy to produce with this method.14,15 Further, this method offers
benefits such as reliability, lower-cost tooling, environmental safety, and design and casting versatility. IC re-emerged in the late
19th century, when dentists began using it to make crowns and inlays, which led to the invention of investment material and the
air-pressure casting machine.
The IC technique contributed a lot to changing and modernizing the cultures of people of ancient civilizations (refer Fig. 1b).
IC brought about a technological evolution during World War II in the United States because traditional tooling processes were
unable to meet the increased demand for war equipment; IC was used to manufacture turbine blades and aircraft engines.16 The IC
process has developed from a small and specialized sector of casting activity into a distinctive industry.17 The following are major
advantages of the IC process:

• Reliability: The IC process provides reliable process control and repeatability that are maintained from casting to casting.
• Tolerances: IC routinely holds to a tolerance of 70.005 inches, which is not possible with other types of casting processes.
• Lower tooling cost: The IC process uses a wax injection tool and die, which are efficient in the long term.
• Better for the environment: The wax material can be re-used and the part produced attains near-net shapes, which significantly
reduces or eliminates the amount of secondary machining as well as resulting scrap.
• Design and casting versatility: Lost wax castings provide the maximum design flexibility for manufacturing complex and multi-
part products.
• Intricate design: Design engineers can easily incorporate features such as logos, product IDs, and numbers and letters onto their
components.

The following are major disadvantages of the IC process:

• The limitations of size and weight by physical and economic considerations render the process best applicable to castings
weighing from a few grams to 5 kg. Thus, its use is impractical for large objects because of the equipment size limits.
• Precise control is required at all stages of production. Special equipment is required for preparing patterns.
• The raw materials, special tooling, equipment, and technology required are expensive.
• The slower production cycle makes the process less applicable when the smooth surfaces and fine details are not essential.

Usually, the existence of some limitations of a manufacturing process highlights the scope for future work. Some promising
treatments applied at various steps of the IC process so far are presented in the following section.

2 Procedural Steps and Innovations

Conventionally, the IC process consists of a number of steps to be followed in a defined sequence to obtain required castings.
A typical scheme of these steps is shown in Fig. 2. The IC process starts with the injection of molten wax into a metal die with the
help of a wax injection machine (step a). The wax pattern is taken out of the die (step b) and assembled (step c). A slurry coating
(step d) and a stucco coating are simultaneously added (step e). The resulting ceramic shell (step f) is then de-waxed (step g) and
baked to increase its heat strength. Molten metal is poured into the cavity (step h), and after solidification the ceramic material is
chipped out (step i). Finally, the casted specimen is separated by cutting (step j). Each of these steps involves various processing
parameters, and numerous efforts have been made to improve them.

2.1 Wax Injection

The first step of the IC process is to produce a replica of the final casting using conventional wax (a mixture of different grades of
wax and additives) that is most suitable for this purpose. It can be recycled for a certain number of cycles until the level of dirt and
other contaminated particles reaches a certain limit. The most desirable properties of wax are low viscosity and shrinkage.
Generally, molten wax at a temperature of 551C is injected into a precisely machined die cavity with the help of a wax injection
tool. Properties of natural waxes can be examined by using the presence of crystallinity on the basis of time–temperature plot
discontinuities.18 The dimensional accuracy of wax patterns is the most important property because it directly affects the accuracy
of the cast part.19,20 Various researchers have studied the effects of process parameters, such as injection pressure, injection
temperature, and holding time.21–25 Shorter holding time resulted in more an accurate pattern, but there may be difficulties when
trying to safely remove the pattern from the die, thus resulting in distortion. However, the chances of dimensional errors are also
present with long holding times, so it is important to study the optimum holding time.24 Unique solutions may vary with the
variations in shapes and sizes of the pattern and also with the variations in the mixture components. In addition, factors related to
the pattern die must also be considered; the die must be made precisely, with smooth and clear geometrical shapes.
The complex mixture of wax comprises natural and synthetic compounds such as synthetic wax, solid fillers, and a small
amount of water. Contraction/shrinkage trends for wax can only be examined through thermo-physical properties.26 A new
methodology to predict wax injection factors as well as shrinkage involving the use of computer-aided heat transfer simulation was
proposed.27 Fig. 3 shows the pattern thickness–temperature distribution by numerical simulation whereby the threshold for the
beginning contraction of a particular shape was estimated by a simulation approach and heat tranfer during injection, and the
contraction of the wax pattern (ideal) was predicted by heat transfer simulation.
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Fig. 2 Scheme of the IC process.

Fig. 3 Pattern thickness–temperature distribution by numerical simulation.27

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4 Investment Casting

A wax blend made of paraffin wax, bee's wax, carnauba wax, and monton wax was subjected to an experimental investigation to
determine surface roughness and dimensional accuracy of replicas. The shrinkage of blends was found to be inconsistent in most
experiments; however, a blend of paraffin wax, bee's wax, and monton wax in a proportion of 50:30:20 offered less contraction.27
Wax blends with high tolerances attributable to mixing different blends into certain propotions may help to improve the surface
finish and reduce shrinkage.28–30

2.2 Pattern Ejection

After wax injection, the solid wax replica is ejected from the die with the help of ejector pins, which are provided as an integral part
of the die. After allowing for an optimum holding time, the wax replica should be removed safely; spit dies are widely used for this
step. Further, the use of some kind of oil coating on the internal surface of the die cavity, prior to wax injection, may be helpful for
safe ejection. Usually, patterns are ejected at 251C and are liable to distortion.31 During foundry practices, these ejected patterns are
dipped into water to harden them. Then, they are stored in an air-conditioned environment until the execution of the next step.

2.3 Tree Assembly

Every casting process needs pathways for the flow of liquid metal into the cavities. These pathways may be runner, riser, gate, or
pouring cup, depending on the type of casting process.31 In the case of IC, the cost of casting can be minimized by making a tree of
wax, as shown in Fig. 4. Generally, it is not always necessary to produce a complete wax pattern or pattern tree because of the presence
of die design liabilities. Usually, the number of wax replicas produced separately are attached together with a common pouring sprue,
riser, and individual gating. The quantity of wax replicas in a single tree depends on the size, weight, and metal to be poured.

Fig. 4 Casting tree.

Fig. 5 Slurry coating.38

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2.4 Shell Building

Shell building is often referred to as shell molding or ceramic shell molding, and it is one of the elementary steps involved in IC. It
involves building a ceramic shell of a specified thickness that is decided based on the size, weight, and density of the metal to be
poured. Strength of the ceramic shell is a critical requirement.30 Other refractory properties that must be considered before
selecting the molding material are: (1) adequate green strength, (2) sufficient baked strength, (3) refractory permeability, (4) light
weight, (5) collapsible after casting, (6) good surface finish of the shell, (7) adequate tensile strength, (8) flowability, (9)
collapsibility, and (10) reusability.31
The process of shell building starts with a slurry coating (see Fig. 5), which acts as a binder. It consists of zircon flour, colloidal
silica, ethanol, triton, and distilled water mixed in a drum. Some researchers showed that the use of more than one binder during
molding significantly improved the mold properties.32 In addition, some of researchers have suggested replacing expensive and
environmentally harmful organic ethyl silicate with inflammable ethanol.33 Generally, the very first coating of the pattern is made
of zircon flour with the finest grain size, with increasing grain sizes in successive coatings. Each coat needs to be dried under
controlled conditions for a sufficient time before the next coating is applied. A ceramic slurry and other molding ingredients affect
the output properties of casting, and optimization of such process variables should be made to satisfy industrial demands globally.
A good slurry composition does not guarantee a defect-free product with smooth casting.34 Materials used in ceramic shells consist
of binder, refractory fillers, and additives; ethyl silicate-based slurries have a short life and are time-dependent, whereas colloidal
silica is a water-based binder in an aqueous suspension of silica.35 Parameters such as viscosity and plate weight of slurries have
been discussed, and the SEM technique was used to study surface morphology of shells prepared using different levels of zircon
flour and fused silica, filler/sol ratios, and catalysts.36
Process parameters such as shape factors, slurry layers (mold thickness), and pouring temperatures were studied to identify the
main factors controlling surface hardness, dimensional accuracy (Dd), and surface roughness (Ra) of castings produced using
aluminum (Al), mild steel (MS), and stainless steel (SS).37,38
Various chemical reactions occurred during the casting process. Reseachers found that, in one study, the interface reactions
occurred during casting between Ti–46Al and the ceramic shell mold made of ZrO2, and Al2O3 resulted in a reaction layer of 230
mm in the case of a zirconia mold, but there was no visible reaction layer for the alumina mold. Electron probe microanalysis
indicated that elements of the two kinds of shell molds diffused into the alloy melted during casting, but to different extents.39
A water-soluble calcia-based ceramic core fabricated by aqueous gel casting using epoxy resin was able to overcome the poor
leachability of the common ceramic core and enhanced the production efficiency of the complex castings with many interior
channels.40 Although the IC process serves global needs by producing parts with a variety of metals and alloys, there are certain
limitations that need the immediate attention of researchers. Problems associated with shell cracking and permeability during
metal pouring include surface defects such as blow holes and porosity during the casting of high-temperature metals. These water-
based shells are not always set and need moisture removal. The range of alloys cast, size, complexity, and requirements of the cast
components lead to the use of special materials to create shell molds.41 The addition of nano-fused silica and its effect on
mechanical and chemical behaviors of injection-molded silica-based ceramic cores have been investigated. It was found that nano-
fused silica was favorable for cristobalite transformation and that the samples had good leachability for the micro-cracks intro-
duced by crystallization.42 A ceramic shell using poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) and nylon fiber has been developed for use with the
primary slurry layer, and the green and baked strengths have been compared.43,44 Green and baked strengths of the shells were
improved; using the nylon fiber, the shell thickness increased by 15% compared to polymer shells and permeability tripled. Yttria
is an important primary coating material in investment shells used for casting extremely reactive Ti-Al alloys and polymers usually

Fig. 6 SEM image of silicate fiber.47

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added to the slurry to improve the strength of the shell. Silica from the backing coat was seen to travel through the primary coat
and diffused into the alloy regardless of the shell system. Higher mold permeability was observed in the mold containing a higher
polymer level, and this was found to be advantageous for complete mold filling.42,45 Ti powder in the mullite backup coat
oxidized and interacted with silica during mold firing and casting, which reduced the silicon and oxygen concentrations at the
metal/shell interface area.46 Crack resistance of the ceramic shell, which is initiated by introducing Al silicate fiber with a diameter
of 5–25 mm and length of 1 mm (as shown in Fig. 6), can be improved by dispersing the fiber uniformly throughout the ceramic
shell.47 Generally, the addition of such fibers results in an increase in the brittleness at the expense of elongation and ductility of
the mold, so there is a chance that the mold may fail or crack due to thermal shock.
In one study, thin sections of shell thickness that were increased helped to increase the feeding distance, thus avoiding
interdendritic shrinkage. A slower cooling rate due to the added insulation and steeper thermal gradient of the metal mold
interface induced by the thicker shell helped to avoid shrinkage porosity.48 The rate of heat transfer plays a prominent role in the
hardness of castings, and with simulation modeling it is now possible to predict heat transfer trends of IC.49

2.5 De-Waxing
After preparing the ceramic mold, the wax material is melted out to create a cavity. De-waxing, often called autoclaving, is
performed in a controlled way to prevent contamination of the wax so that it may be recycled further. In small-scale casting
industries, the ceramic molds are placed in a wax container at temperature of 180–2001C for approximately 15 min. This method
has one major disadvantage: the wax melt cannot be recycled due to incorporation of refractory particles. Further, rough handling
of the ceramic mold during this process increases the chances of shell cracking. The wax traces retained on the inner-most surface of
the mold did not allow for complete wax removal.50 To tackle these problems, various researchers have suggested alternative
approaches for de-waxing. One of these alternatives is microwave de-waxing, which is widely used in industries to help to recover
wax melt safely. Research in the area of autoclaving is not vast because only a few efforts have been made. One study tested and
compared the refractory index, volumetric expansion, and shore hardness of autoclaved and microwaved de-waxed samples.51
Fig. 7 shows characteristic peaks using infrared spectra in 12-cycled microwave wax and 12-cycled autoclave wax strikes at 2922,
1459, and 724 cm
1 related to paraffin fraction and at 2922, 1936, and 1282 cm
1 related to acid fraction. It has been found that
increasing the activated charcoal content in the mold improves microwave absorption and decreases de-waxing time with no
preheating required.52 Further, porosity and collapsibility of the mold improved, but mold strength and density decreased. The de-
waxing approach should be performed so that the recovered wax contains no impurities and can be recycled the maximum
number of times.

2.6 Baking
Baking or preheating is a process whereby sand molds are baked at a temperature of approximately 950 to 11001C in a diesel/
electric furnace for 25–40 min to improve the hot strength of ceramic molds. Baking is a process used for increasing the strength of
the mold; it also helps to evaporate residual traces of wax and unwanted moisture particles. Baking reduces the chance of shell

Fig. 7 Infrared spectra of virgin, 12-cycled microwave wax, and 12-cycled autoclave wax.42
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Investment Casting 7

cracking that can occur due to thermal shock while pouring the metal. The effects of the preheating temperature and time have
been investigated in mechanical properties of A713 alloy, such as hardness, impact strength, and tensile strength. It was found that
hardness of castings increased by increasing the preheating temperature; however, uneven trends were observed in case of
preheating time. Further, impact strength was decreased by incresing the preheating temperature and showed a mixed response for
increased preheating time. Tensile strength decreased with increasing preheating temperature, and increased preheating time
resulted in a mixed response for tensile strength.53

2.7 Metal Pouring

Immediately after baking of the ceramic mold, molten metal is poured inside the cavity (see Fig. 8) and allowed to solidify. The
pouring temperature of the metal should be sufficient to over-rule the viscosity and to fill fine details of the cavity. The pouring
temperature should not be too high because it might crack the ceramic shell; it should not be too low because unsound castings
will result. Few investigations have been performed to study the effect of the pouring temperature on mechanical properties such
as hardness, impact strength, and tensile strength. It has been found that the pouring temperature contributed approximately
99.28% to hardness, 49.66% to surface roughness, and 68.38% to dimensional accuracy.41
Simulation of heat transfer time in IC to reduce the cracking rate of the mold was also performed.54 It was determined that the
casting surface was damaged due to reactions of the metal with its atmosphere during the early stages of cooling. It has been
claimed that casting surfaces can be secured for ferrous objects by filling a gas-permeable refractory shell mold with molten ferrous
metal; that molten ferrous metal was immersed in the filled mold in a bath of molten aluminum below the melting point of the
poured ferrous metal.55

Fig. 8 Metal pouring.41

Fig. 9 Ball valve assembly.

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Fig. 10 3D view of the spherical disk.2

2.8 Knockout
The last step of the IC process is to knockout or chip-out the ceramic material from the casting. Layers of refractory ceramics can be
chipped-out manually or by using a pneumatic vibration machine. Collapsibility of the refractory ceramics should be high, but
impurities and lack of refractory properties lead to obstacles in shell removal. However, it was realized that adding alkali salts to earth
metals facilitates easy removal of the shell.56,57 Some types of additives, such as sea coal ash and wooden flour, are also helpful.

3 Case Study

A case study of the spherical disk of a ball valve has been performed to study the effects of process variables such as volume/surface
area (V/A) ratio, layer combination (LC), and type of metal (MT) on output mechanical properties, namely hardness, surface
roughness, and dimensional accuracy of the castings. The ball valve is a flow control valve with a spherical disk, which is the part of
the valve that controls the flow through it. The sphere has a port or hole through the middle so that when the port is in line with
the ends of the valve, the flow will occur. Fig. 9 shows the ball valve assembly and Fig. 10 shows the three-dimensional (3D) view
of the spherical disk. Fig. 11 shows the various sizes (2-inch, 3-inch, and 4-inch spherical disks).
The present case study was performed at Saini Precision Casting in Ludhiana. The spherical disk was a new component for the
company and was developed by conducting pilot experimentation. The primary objectives of the present case study were:

• To investigate the effects of V/A ratio, LC, and MT in IC applications.

• To develop a macro-model for surface hardness, surface finish, and dimensional accuracy in investment casting.

Both these objectives were accomplished using the Taguchi method, which is a systematic approach to revealing the complex
cause-and-effect relationship between design parameters and performance. It leads to quality performance in processes and
products before actual production begins. The Taguchi method has rapidly attained prominence because whenever they have been
applied, they lead to major reductions in processes and products before actual production begins. A systematic arrangement of L9
OA is shown in Table 1.
Input parameters with different levels are given in Table 2.
The spherical disk of the ball valve was manufactured by proceeding through the established steps as shown in Fig. 12. In this
work, the total number of layers is fixed at eight, but their further combinations have been changed as per Table 3. Table 4 shows
the control log of experimentation. In the control log, three input parameters and their levels are defined. Fig. 13 shows the
spherical disks that were produced.

3.1 Surface Hardness

The Vickers hardness test method, also referred to as a micro-hardness test method, is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or
case depth work. The Vickers method is based on an optical measurement system. The micro-hardness test procedure, ASTME-384,
specifies a load range using a diamond indenter to make an indentation that is measured and converted into a hardness value. It is
very useful for testing a wide variety of materials as long as the test samples are carefully prepared. A square-base pyramid-shaped
diamond is used for testing on the Vickers scale. Typically, loads are very light, ranging from a few grams to several kilograms,
although “macro” Vickers loads can range up to 30 kg or more.
The effect of the input variable has been studied in terms of surface hardness of the obtained castings. Table 5 shows the
observation of hardness (H1, H2, and H3) and the S/N ratio based on Taguchi’s L9 OA.
The S/N ratio is used to represent a response or quality characteristics, and the largest S/N ratio is required. Fig. 14a–c shows the
peak values of the S/N ratio and hardness with respect to the V/A ratio, LC, and MT, respectively, and gives the best setting of the
surface hardness.
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Fig. 11 Spherical disks: 2-inch (a), 3-inch (b), and 4-inch (c).

Table 6 shows the ANOVA for surface hardness of the castings. It can be seen that only MT parameters significantly affect the
surface hardness of the castings (95% confidence level). This may be due to the intrinsic property of the materials.
It can be seen that MT contributes the maximum percentage to hardness of the castings and is the only parameter with a
significant effect on the hardness of the casting (95% confidence level). Further, the ranges of re-crystallization temperatures and
dTr/dt (re-crystallization temperature/time for re-crystallization) ratios for all three metals are shown in Table 7. Figs. 15–17 show a
graphical representation of dTr/dt for Al, MS, and SS, respectively.
Hardness results were supported by microstructures (obtained at  200). In the case of SS, the maximum value of hardness was
obtained in experiment 9 (ie, 251 HV) due to the formation of longer grains, as shown in Fig. 18a. Dendrites were also formed in
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Table 1 Standard L9 orthogonal array

Sr. No. Parameter 1 Parameter 2 Parameter 3

1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2
3 1 3 3
4 2 1 2
5 2 2 3
6 2 3 1
7 3 1 3
8 3 2 1
9 3 3 2

Table 2 Inputs to the IC process

Parameter 1 Parameter 2 Parameter 3

V/A ratio (mm) LC MT

L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3

2.74 3.78 4.09 1þ1þ2þ4 1þ1þ3þ3 1þ1þ4þ2 Al SS MS

Fig. 12 IC of spherical disk.32

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Table 3 Coating description

Experiment Zircone sand 50–80 grit sand 30–80 grit sand 16–30 grit sand

1 1 1 3 3
2 1 1 2 4
3 1 1 4 2
4 1 1 3 3
5 1 1 2 4
6 1 1 4 2
7 1 1 3 3
8 1 1 2 4
9 1 1 4 2

Table 4 Control log of experimentation

Experiment Variable 1 (V/A ratio) (mm) Variable 2 (LC) Variable 3 (MT) (1C)

1 2.74 1þ1þ3þ3 Aluminum, 600

2 2.74 1þ1þ2þ4 Stainless steel, 1550
3 2.74 1þ1þ4þ2 Mild steel, 1600
4 3.78 1þ1þ3þ3 Stainless steel, 1550
5 3.78 1þ1þ2þ4 Mild steel, 1600
6 3.78 1þ1þ4þ2 Aluminum, 600
7 4.09 1þ1þ3þ3 Mild steel, 1600
8 4.09 1þ1þ2þ4 Aluminum, 600
9 4.09 1þ1þ4þ2 Stainless steel, 1550

Fig. 13 Casted spherical disks.32

Table 5 Results of surface hardness

Experiment H1 H2 H3 S/N ratio Average

1 42 43 41 32.46006 42
2 239 237 237 47.51916 237.6667
3 185 184 182 45.28 183.6667
4 246 248 247 47.8538 247
5 163 167 160 44.2575 163.3333
6 50 54 51 34.25042 51.66667
7 180 183 178 45.11983 180.3333
8 42 42.5 45 32.69123 43.16667
9 248 250 251 47.94689 249.6667
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Fig. 14 S/N ratio and hardness variations with respect to: V/A ratio (a), LC (b), and MT (c).

Table 6 ANOVA for surface hardness

Sum square Variance Fisher’s value % Contribution

V/A ratio 0.203193 0.101597 0.246116 0.055921

LC 1.57398 0.78699 1.906468 0.433175
MT 360.7557 180.3778 436.962 99.28369
Error 0.8256 0.4128 0.227214

experiment 4, but with smaller grains (see Fig. 18b) as compared to experiment 9. Further, in experiment 2, micro-uniform
distribution of alloy carbides with interdendrite segregation resulted in small grains (see Fig. 18c) and lower hardness value.
In the case of MS, surface hardness is at maximum in experiment 3 (ie, 185 HV) due to the uniform distribution of pearlitic-
ferritic phases, resulting in larger grains (see Fig. 19a). In experiment 7, the obtained hardness value is slightly less (ie, 183 HV) as
compared to that of experiment 3. The main reason for this may be the nonuniform distribution of pearlitic-ferritic phases. In
experiment 5, the hardness value was at minimum due to smaller grains.
Fig. 20 shows the microstructures for Al samples, which revealed that the maximum hardness was obtained in experiment 6 (ie,
54 HV) because of the larger grains. However, experiment 1 and experiment 8 have quite similar hardness values (ie, 43 HV and 45
HV, respectively).
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Table 7 Results for dTr/dt of castings

Sr. No. dTr (1C) t1 (min) t2 (min) dt (min) dTr/dt (1C/min)

1 120 35.5 18.5 17 6.31

2 285 21 12.5 8.5 22.8
3 320 15 5.5 9.5 37.64
4 285 20.8 8 12.8 24.78
5 320 27 13.5 13.5 23.70
6 120 30.5 17.5 13 8.88
7 320 32.5 13.5 19 37.60
8 120 21 12 9 7.05
9 285 18 6.5 11.5 30

Fig. 15 dTr/dt curves of Al.

Fig. 16 dTr/dt curves of MS.

Fig. 17 dTr/dt curves of SS.

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Fig. 18 Microstructures of SS.

Fig. 19 Microstructures of MS.

Fig. 20 Microstructures of Al.

Table 8 Results of surface roughness (Ra)

Experiment R1 R2 R3 S/N ratio Average

1 1.62 1.65 1.58
4.17378 1.616666

2 2.42 2.5 2.4
7.74916 2.4444
3 2.03 2.09 2.12
6.36267 2.08877
4 2.03 1.95 1.99
5.97823 1.9999
5 2.7 2.74 2.69
8.65966 2.71100
6 1.55 1.57 1.59
3.91846 1.57
7 2.42 2.5 2.4
7.74916 2.444
8 2.3 2.23 2.27
7.10845 2.26666
9 2.32 2.35 2.38
7.42183 2.35

3.2 Surface Roughness

A diamond stylus whose tip dimension is such that it can penetrate the detailed geometry of the surface may be used for measuring
the surface roughness of the castings. The effect of the input variable has been studied in terms of surface hardness of the obtained
castings. Table 8 shows the surface roughness (R1, R2, and R3) and S/N ratios based on Taguchi’s L9 OA.
Similarly, Fig. 21a–c shows the peak values of the S/N ratio and surface roughness with respect to the V/A ratio, LC, and MT,
respectively, and gives the best setting of the surface roughness.
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Investment Casting 15

Fig. 21 S/N ratio and surface roughness variations with respect to: V/A ratio (a), LC (b), and MT (c).

Table 9 ANOVA for surface roughness

Sum square Variance Fisher’s value % Contribution

V/A ratio 3.320589 1.660294 22.07802 15.5686

LC 7.265114 3.632557 48.30448 34.06253
MT 10.59265 5.296327 70.42872 49.66371
Error 0.150402 0.075201 0.705163

Similarly, Table 9 shows the ANOVA for surface roughness of the castings. It can be seen that all the process parameters
significantly affect the surface roughness of the castings (95% confidence level).

3.3 Dimensional Accuracy

Dimensional accuracy of the castings has been calculated in terms of percentage deviation, which is the difference between the die
cavity dimensions and the dimensions produced after casting. For the present case study, the outer diameter of the spherical disk
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16 Investment Casting

Table 10 Results of Dd

Experiment DD1 DD2 DD3 S/N ratio Average

1 0.00882 0.0088 0.0087
41.1372 0.008773

2 0.0147 0.015 0.0146
36.6161 0.014767
3 0.0141 0.0143 0.0139
37.0174 0.0141
4 0.026 0.03 0.025
31.4513 0.027
5 0.0183 0.0185 0.018
34.7685 0.018267
6 0.0104 0.01 0.0103
39.8033 0.010233
7 0.0122 0.012 0.0123
38.2979 0.012167
8 0.0045 0.0048 0.0045
46.7568 0.0046
9 0.0171 0.0172 0.0175
35.2571 0.017033

Fig. 22 S/N ratio and Dd variation with respect to V/A ratio (a), LC (b), and MT (c).

was the most critical; therefore, it was considered for calculating dimensional deviations (Dd). A coordinate measuring machine
was used for dimensional measurements. Table 10 shows the surface roughness (DD1, DD2, and DD3) and S/N ratio based on
Taguchi’s L9 OA.
Figs. 21c and 22a,b show the peak values of the S/N ratio and Dd with respect to the V/A ratio, LC, and MT, respectively, and
provide the best setting of the Dd.
Similarly, Table 11 shows the ANOVA for Dd of the castings. It can be seen that only the MT parameter significantly affects the
Dd (95% confidence level).
This may be due the significant differences among the thermal shrinkage properties of Al, MS, and SS.
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Investment Casting 17

Table 11 ANOVA for surface roughness

Sum square Variance Fisher’s value % Contribution

V/A ratio 35.11783 17.55891 11.43318 22.96769

LC 9.967414 4.983707 3.245054 6.518868
MT 104.7442 52.37209 34.10118 68.50458
Error 3.071571 1.535786 2.008863

3.4 Discussion
Regarding surface hardness of Al samples, the best parametric conditions suggested by Taguchi L9 OA were V/A ratio B3.78 mm
and LC B1 þ 1 þ 4 þ 2. Similarly, for SS, the best parametric conditions were V/A ratio B4.09 mm and LC B1 þ 1 þ 4 þ 2.
Further, for MS, the best parametric conditions were V/A ratio B2.74 mm and LC B1 þ 1 þ 4 þ 2. Regarding surface roughness,
the best parametric setting for Al was V/A ratio B3.78 mm and LC B1 þ 1 þ 4 þ 2. For SS, the best setting was V/A ratio B3.78
mm and LC B1 þ 1 þ 3 þ 3. Similarly, for MS, the best setting was V/A ratio B2.74 mm and LC B1 þ 1 þ 4 þ 2. Regarding Dd, the
best parametric conditions were V/A ratio B4.09 mm and LC B1 þ 1 þ 2 þ 4. For SS, the best conditions were V/A ratio B2.74
mm and LC B1 þ 1 þ 2 þ 4. Finally for MS, the optimum conditions were V/A ratio B4.09 mm and LC B1 þ 1 þ 3 þ 3. The
percentage contributions of the V/A ratio, LC, and MT for surface hardness were 0.05, 0.43, and 99.28%, respectively. Similarly, in
the case of surface finish, the V/A ratio, LC, and MT contributed 15.56, 34.06, and 49.66%, respectively. For dimensional accuracy,
the contributions of the V/A ratio, LC, and MT were 23.12, 6.57, and 68.38%, respectively. At the suggested optimized settings,
confirmatory experiments were conducted and re-recorded; the improvements in surface hardness of the Al, SS, and MS disks were
25.5, 5.6, and 13.5%, respectively. Similarly, improvements in surface roughness of Al, SS, and MS disks after conducting a
confirmatory experiment at the optimized setting were 32, 22, and 25.9%, respectively. Regarding Dd, improvements in Al, SS, and
MS disks were recorded as 55, 51.33, and 35.13%, respectively.

4 Conclusions and Trends of Future Research

The content presented in this chapter highlights that the IC process is capable of fabricating intricate shapes with high accuracy,
fine impressions, and tight geometrical tolerance. However, it research is still necessary to resolve the high tooling costs, long
production cycles, ceramic waste generation, treatments for recycling wax materials, and other issues. Wax is a natural resource that
is being consumed at a high rate. However, wax can be recycled, but the traditional de-waxing process introduces dirt particles that
contaminate it. Microwave de-waxing, an alternative route that has reduced the incorporation of dirt contents but has the
capability of microwave de-waxing and its impact on service life, chemical structure, and mechanical properties of wax, is still an
unexplored method. Incorporation of organic and inorganic fibers is helpful in improving the ceramic mold characteristics.
In the past two decades, rapid prototyping (RP) techniques have been introduced to solve some of the problems relevant to the
cost and time of casting. Although it has been established that RP techniques such as stereolithography and fused deposition
modeling in terms of producing acceptable dimensional features of castings, these techniques are only beneficial for product
development and low-volume production runs. Further, patterns developed with such techniques have critical limitations in terms
of surface roughness and dimensional accuracy that are still unresolved. Some of the research has highlighted an indirect method
of silicon molding for producing sacrificial wax patterns for IC, but few efforts has been made in this area, which seems to be
promising for the future.

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Further Reading
Aleksandrov, V.M., Kulakov, B.A., Solodyankin, A.A., 1988. Increasing the strength and reducing the chemical activity of ceramic moulds. Soviet Casting Technology 4, 41–45.
Jia, Q., Cui, Y.Y., Yang, R., 2006. A study of two refractories as mould materials for investment casting TiAl based alloys. Journal of Materials Science 41, 3045–3049.
Jiang, W., Fan, Z., Liao, D., Dong, X., Zhao, Z., 2010. A new shell casting process based on expendable pattern with vacuum and low-pressure casting for aluminum and
magnesium alloys. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 51 (1), 25–34.

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