Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309

A comparative study of the mechanical properties

of high-strength ␤-titanium alloys
O.M. Ivasishin a,∗ , P.E. Markovsky a , Yu.V. Matviychuk a ,
S.L. Semiatin b , C.H. Ward b , S. Fox c
a Institute for Metal Physics, 36 Vernadsky St., Kiev 03142, Ukraine
b Air Force Research Laboratory, Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433-7817, USA
c TIMET Henderson Laboratory, NV, USA

Received 11 January 2007; received in revised form 12 March 2007; accepted 14 March 2007
Available online 23 March 2007

Abstract
The mechanical properties of four commercial ␤-titanium alloys (TIMETAL-LCB, Ti-15-3, ␤-21S, and VT22) were compared in the solution-
treated-and-aged (STA) condition following thermomechanical processing comprising ␤ solid solutioning, cold deformation (CD), continuous rapid
heating, and final aging. The peak temperature during the rapid heating step was chosen to obtain either a recovered or recrystallized condition
and thereby to control the distribution of residual deformation defects, which in turn influenced the size and distribution of ␣ precipitates in the
final microstructure. It was established that a good balance of high strength (in excess of 1600 MPa) and reasonable ductility could be obtained if
a fine-grain microstructure with a ␤ grain size of ∼10 ␮m was formed by recrystallization. The development of such a fine-grain size enabled a
reduction in the aging temperature and thus increased the strength while maintaining ductility within the desired limits. In this respect, the properties
could be varied to a great extent by varying the rate of heating to the aging temperature. On the other hand, aging of the recovered condition also led
to a strength level of approximately 1600 MPa but with generally lower ductility than in the fine-grain, recrystallized condition. Another distinctive
feature of the recovered condition was that the properties were relatively insensitive to the rate of heating to the aging temperature.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Metals; Precipitation; Mechanical properties

1. Introduction ␤-titanium alloys may be realized without a substantial decrease

Metastable ␤-titanium alloys are attractive materials for
aerospace and automotive applications due to their high
strength-to-density ratio, good hardenability, excellent fatigue/
crack-propagation behavior, and corrosion resistance [1,2].
The superiority of ␤-titanium alloys is most pronounced in
the solution-treated-and-aged (STA) condition with a fully ␤-
transformed, precipitation-hardened microstructure in which the
volume fraction and morphology of the ␣ precipitates control the
strength level, while the ␤ grain size determines the ductility. For
example, strength levels above approximately 1500 MPa with
acceptable ductility require average ␤ grain sizes of not more
than 10 ␮m [3]. Therefore, further increases in the strength in
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +380 44 444 2210; fax: +380 44 444 0120.
E-mail address: ivas@imp.kiev.ua (O.M. Ivasishin).
in ductility if the ␤ grain size can be kept as fine as pos-
sible. The refinement of the ␤ grain microstructure can be
achieved using cold deformation and recrystallization anneal-
ing [4]. However, precise control of the final ␤ grain size is
rather difficult when the recrystallization treatment is done under
conventional furnace-heating conditions. This problem may be
solved by employing another approach [5,6] based on a pro-
cessing sequence comprising the following steps (Fig. 1): (i)
solid-solution heat treatment and quenching (to ensure 100%
metastable ␤-phase), (ii) heavy cold deformation (reduction up
to 90%), which leads to the formation of a high density of defects,
(iii) continuous heating (to a temperature lying within a broad
range), thereby ensuring controlled recovery or recrystallization
of the work-hardened material, followed by quenching, and (iv)
final aging. The details of microstructure evolution during the
different steps of such processes, namely, differences in the ini-
tial solid-solutioned-and-deformed conditions, the interaction

0925-8388/$ – see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2007.03.070
 O.M. Ivasishin et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309 297

recrystallized starting condition in each material, the as-received alloys were

␤ solution treated for 0.5 h at 950 ◦ C (VT22), 850 ◦ C (TIMETAL-LCB), or
900 ◦ C (Ti-15-3 and ␤-21S). Subsequent water quenching formed a single-phase
␤ microstructure with an average grain size of ∼200 ␮m in each alloy. The
alloys were then subjected to cold rolling (VT22 and Ti-15-3) or cold drawing
(TIMETAL-LCB and ␤-21S) with different reductions. After deformation, sam-
ples measuring 60 mm × 5 mm × 5 mm were cut and subjected to heat treatment,
i.e., rapid recrystallization/recovery and final aging. The specific reductions, as
well as the parameters for subsequent continuous heating (Table 2), were chosen
based on prior results [5,6]. The main heat-treatment variables employed in the
present work were as follows:

(i) The peak temperature during continuous, rapid heating, which determines
whether a recrystallized (T1 ) or recovered (T2 ) microstructure is formed,
(ii) the heating rate to peak aging temperature, which controls the intragranular
microstructure [5], and,
(iii) the duration of one- or two-step aging.

Fig. 1. Schematic description of thermomechanical processing routes used in
present work.
between decomposition and recrystallization of the deformed
␤-phase, special features of the subsequent aging of fine-grain,
recrystallized material for different ␤ alloys, etc. have been
described in previous papers [5–8]. The present work focuses
on the final aspect of the larger research program, i.e., a detailed
study of the mechanical properties of commercial ␤-titanium
alloys after aging of the fine-grain recrystallized or recovered
conditions and correlation with microstructures developed by
the above thermomechanical process.
2. Materials and experimental procedure
Four commercial ␤-titanium alloys, VT22, Ti-15-3, ␤-21S, and TIMETAL-
LCB, which cover a wide range of chemical composition (Table 1), were chosen
as program materials in this study. The alloys were received as rod (with diameter
≤25 mm) or as plate (30 mm thick), each having a different thermomechan-
ical history. In order to eliminate the influence of initial phase composition,
microstructure, and texture on final properties and to produce a completely
The microstructure and phase composition of the program alloys were deter-
mined using optical (light) metallography (LM), transmission and scanning
electron microscopy (TEM and SEM, respectively), and X-ray analysis. Tensile
tests were performed using cylindrical specimens with a gage diameter 2.5 mm.
At least three specimens of each condition were tested.
Typical recrystallized and recovered microstructures obtained in the program
alloys after continuous rapid heating to temperatures T1 or T2 (Table 2, Fig. 1)
are shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. The recrystallized conditions were
characterized by a single-phase ␤ microstructure having different average ␤ grain
sizes (Fig. 2). The recovered conditions exhibited non-uniform microstructures
containing slip bands in some areas (Fig. 3a), grains with well defined slip
bands (Fig. 3b), or subgrains/recovered structure in some grains, but not in all
(Fig. 3c).
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Recrystallized condition
Tensile data for the program alloys in the recrystallized con-
dition are listed in Table 3. Ti-15-3 was characterized by having
the lowest tensile strength among the program alloys; VT22 had
the lowest ductility because ␤-phase instability during room-

Table 1
Program alloys
Alloy Composition (wt.%) ␤ Transus (◦ C)

Al Nb Sn Mo V Fe Cr O

VT22 5.0 – – 4.8 4.7 0.97 0.71 0.11 850

Ti-15-3 2.8 – 2.9 – 15.5 3.15 0.12 760
␤-21S 2.9 2.8 – 15.0 – – – 0.16 805
TIMETAL-LCB 1.5 – – 6.8 – 4.50 – 0.20 790

Table 2
Heat-treatment parameters for recrystallized or recovered microstructures
Alloy Cold deformation (%) Continuous heating

Heating rate (K s−1 ) Peak temperature (◦ C)

Recovery (T2 ) Recrystallization (T1 )

VT22 30 20 820 950

Ti-15-3 70 10 700 860
␤-21S 80 10 800 880
TIMETAL-LCB 70 20 780 815
298 O.M. Ivasishin et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309

Fig. 2. Microstructure of program alloys in the initial recrystallized condition: (a) Ti-15-3, (b) TIMETAL-LCB, (c) ␤-21S, and (d) VT22.

temperature deformation led to the evolution of ␣ -martensite
[8].
Ti-15-3 and TIMETAL-LCB were also tested in a coarse-
grain condition (200 and 50 ␮m, respectively). A comparison
of the properties for the same alloy with different ␤ grain sizes
did not reveal a general relationship between grain size and ten-
sile properties. For instance, an increase of ␤ grain size from
15 to 200 ␮m in Ti-15-3 resulted in a strength increase and a
ductility decrease that is in a good agreement with the well-
known influence of grain size on the properties of ␤-titanium
alloys [3]. On the other hand, a smaller degree of coarsen-
ing of the ␤ grain structure in TIMETAL-LCB (from 10 to
50 ␮m) led to an opposite effect; i.e., a decrease in strength
and an increase in ductility. Such observations for TIMETAL-
LCB may be explained on the basis of the decrease in residual
internal defects and stresses associated with the growth of ␤
grains during solid-solution heat treatment [9]. Nevertheless,
the results for the solid-solutioned condition in Table 3 pro-

Table 3
Tensile properties of program alloys in recrystallized condition
Alloy ␤ Grain size (␮m) Properties

YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) El (%) RA (%)

VT22 50 1160 1160 4.2 18

15 770 780 24 81
Ti-15-3
200 830 840 21 69
␤-21S 10 1015 1015 17 80
10 1130 1130 12 62
TIMETAL-LCB
50 1090 1095 17 64
 O.M. Ivasishin et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309
Fig. 3. Typical recovered microstructures in Ti-15-3: (a) LM, (b) SEM, and (c)
TEM.
vide a baseline for the relative strengthening developed during
aging.
3.2. Recrystallized-and-aged condition
Examples of the microstructures developed in recrystallized-
and-aged alloys are given in Figs. 4–8. The corresponding tensile
data are summarized in Tables 4–7.
299
3.2.1. TIMETAL-LCB
As can be seen from Table 4, the best combination of strength
and ductility in TIMETAL-LCB was obtained after aging at
520 ◦ C with ␤ grain size of 10 ␮m. An increase in the peak aging
temperature from 520 to 560 ◦ C led to a substantial decrease
in strength and some increase in ductility. This trend can be
explained in terms of the microstructures developed during aging
at different temperatures (Fig. 4). As the aging temperature
was increased, there was a noticeable coarsening of intragran-
ular ␣ laths (Fig. 4b, e and f). In addition, the precipitation of
grain-boundary ␣ (␣b ) was avoided only at the lowest aging
temperature. However, the formation of grain-boundary ␣ at
538 and 560 ◦ C did not cause a decrease in the ductility in this
material because of its fine-grain (∼10 ␮m) ␤ microstructure
(Table 4).
The tensile property results for TIMETAL-LCB also revealed
a significant dependence on the heating rate to the peak aging
peak temperature (Table 4). The higher heating rate resulted in
a decrease in tensile strength and a small reduction in ductility
for aging temperatures of 520 and 538 ◦ C. This trend can be
explained in the context of earlier work [5] which established
the occurrence of two different mechanisms for the decom-
position of metastable ␤ during heating at different rates. For
slow heating rates, isothermal ␻-phase precipitates first, pro-
viding a high density of nucleation sites for formation of the
␣-phase. For high heating rates, the formation of isothermal ␻ is
avoided. As a result, two different types of final microstructures
are formed. In the first case, a fine, uniform ␣ + ␤ microstructure
is developed (e.g., Fig. 4a, b, e and f). By contrast, comparatively
coarse ␣ lamellae, which are non-uniformly distributed in the
␤ matrix, and precipitate-free zones are formed at high heating
rates (Fig. 4c and d).
3.2.2. Ti-15-3
The tensile results for Ti-15-3 with a ␤ grain size of 15 ␮m are
summarized in Table 5. Direct aging after the recrystallization
heat treatment, even with a 16 h exposure, did not lead to attrac-
tive strength levels. The low strengths may be explained on the
basis of the relatively coarse lamellar-␣-phase non-uniformly
distributed within ␤ grains and precipitate-free zones developed
during direct aging (Fig. 5) [5]. By decreasing the heating rate to
the peak aging temperature, again the formation of an interme-
diate phase during ␤-phase decomposition led to a significant
increase in strength (e.g., aging treatments 3 and 4 in Table 5).
The corresponding difference in microstructures formed via
these two mechanisms is evident in Fig. 5a and c. Previous stud-
ies have indicated decomposition in this alloy proceeds either by
␤-phase separation into lean and rich regions, or by formation
of an isothermal ␻-phase [5,10]. In either case, the decomposi-
tion product appears to provide the same effect of providing a
preferential nucleation site for ␣.
Better tensile properties were obtained in Ti-15-3 by using an
additional increment of cold deformation before final aging. By
this means, the strength was increased by ∼500 MPa for aging at
450 ◦ C, 16 h or by 225 MPa for aging 538 ◦ C, 16 h; however, the
ductility dropped noticeably (e.g., aging treatments 5 versus 2).
The increase in strength is a result of deformation defects serving
300 O.M. Ivasishin et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309

Table 4
Tensile properties of TIMETAL-LCB in recrystallized condition, 10 ␮m ␤ grain size
Aging treatment Properties

Temperature and duration Heating rate (K s−1 ) YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) El (%) RA (%)

0.25 1600 1640 9.4 36.5

520 ◦ C, 8 h
20 1445 1510 7.0 28
0.25 1480 1510 10.5 43
538 ◦ C, 8 h
20 1340 1405 9.9 42
0.25 1435 1460 11.7 50
560 ◦ C, 8 h
20 1360 1400 12.3 60

Table 5
Tensile properties of Ti-15-3 in recrystallized condition, 15 ␮m ␤ grain size
ID Aging treatment Properties

Temperature and duration Heating rate (K s−1 ) YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) El (%) RA (%)

Direct aging
1 450 ◦ C, 8 h 0.25 1180 1310 11.1 39
2 450 ◦ C, 16 h 0.25 1270 1370 8.3 37
3 538 ◦ C, 0.01 1255 1312 6.7 21
4 16 h 0.25 975 1085 14.5 69
20% cold deformation + aging
5 450 ◦ C, 16 h 0.25 1730 1840 1.5 19
6 500 ◦ C, 16 h 0.25 1317 1405 8 32
7 538 ◦ C, 16 h 0.25 1210 1310 10.5 50
Two-step aging
8 300 ◦ C, 8 h + 450 ◦ C, 16 h 0.25 1330 1430 10.4 46
9 300 ◦ C, 8 h + 538 ◦ C, 8 h 0.25 995 1095 16.2 68
10 300 ◦ C, 8 h + 538 ◦ C, 16 h 0.25 1030 1120 17.6 71

Table 6
Tensile properties of ␤-21S in recrystallized condition, 10 ␮m ␤ grain size
ID Aging treatment Properties

Temperature and duration Heating rate (K s−1 ) YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) El (%) RA (%)

1 500 ◦ C, 8h 0.25 1340 1400 4.8 25

2 520 ◦ C, 8 h 0.25 1435 1489 8.5 39
3 520 ◦ C, 8 h 0.03 1547 1560 3.8 27
4 520 ◦ C, 16 h 0.25 1481 1533 10 48
5 538 ◦ C, 8 h 0.25 1334 1388 11.2 46
6 300 ◦ C, 8 h + 520 ◦ C, 8 h 0.25 1570 1620 9.8 38

Table 7
Tensile properties of VT22 in recrystallized condition, 50 ␮m ␤ grain size
ID Aging treatment Properties

Temperature and duration Heating rate (K s−1 ) YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) El (%) RA (%)

1 538 ◦ C, 8h 0.25 1755 1755 0.3 2.5

2 0.25 1680 1730 2.5 12
560 ◦ C, 8 h
3 20 1560 1590 0.66 1
4 0.25 1240 1355 2.2 11
600 ◦ C, 8 h
5 20 1350 1420 2.1 4.2
6 0.25 1330 1410 7.5 12
640 ◦ C, 8 h
7 20 1360 1380 3.1 7
 O.M. Ivasishin et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309 301

Fig. 4. TEM micrographs of the structures developed in TIMETAL-LCB via recrystallization and aging for 8 h at: (a–d) 520 ◦ C, (e) 538 ◦ C, or (f) 560 ◦ C. The heating
rate to the peak aging temperature was: (a, b, e, f) 0.25 K s−1 or (c, d) 20 K s−1 .

as sites for the nucleation of ␣, thus increasing the extent and
uniformity of the decomposition of ␤ to produce the final ␣ + ␤
microstructure (Fig. 6c). One drawback of sequences consisting
of cold deformation prior to aging, however, relates to the fact
that slip bands may be decorated by the ␣-phase, and therefore
microstructure/property anisotropy could develop [11,12].
The most attractive properties in Ti-15-3 were obtained after
double aging (aging treatments 8–10 in Table 5). For instance,
a particularly good blend of strength and ductility was obtained
by aging at 300 ◦ C for 8 h followed by aging at 450 ◦ C for 16 h
(aging treatment 8). In this case, the effect of the first aging
step at 300 ◦ C on microstructure evolution is similar to that of
very slow heating. In other words, it promotes the formation of
the isothermal ␻-phase, without the requirement of very slow
continuous heating that would be difficult to implement in com-
mercial practice. As a result, the two-step aging sequences gave
302 O.M. Ivasishin et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309
Fig. 5. Microstructures developed in Ti-15-3 via recrystallization and aging
at 538 ◦ C for 16 h. The heating rate to the peak aging temperature was: (a)
0.01 K s−1 or (b, c) 0.25 K s−1 ; (a, c) TEM and (b) SEM.
rise to much finer and more uniform ␣ + ␤ microstructures (e.g.,
Fig. 6b and c).
3.2.3. β-21S
The mechanical behavior of ␤-21S (Table 6) was intermedi-
ate between that of TIMETAL-LCB (fastest aging response) and
Ti-15-3 (slowest aging response). A comparison of the proper-
ties for aging treatments 2 and 5 revealed that an increase in
aging temperature (with an 8 h exposure) led to a decrease in
strength and an increase in ductility similar to the observations
Fig. 6. Microstructures developed in Ti-15-3 via recrystallization and aging: (a,
b) aged in two steps at 300 ◦ C/8 h + 450 ◦ C/16 h and (c) aged as in (a, b) but
given an additional 20% cold deformation before the second aging step; (a) LM
and (b, c) TEM.
for TIMETAL-LCB. However, an increase in the exposure time
at 520 ◦ C from 8 to 16 h (aging treatments 2 and 4) resulted in an
increase in both strength and ductility that may be explained by a
more sluggish decomposition of metastable ␤ in this alloy com-
pared to TIMETAL-LCB. This conclusion was corroborated by
results for two-step aging (aging treatment 6), which resulted
in an excellent combination of high strength (UTS = 1620 MPa)
 O.M. Ivasishin et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309
Fig. 7. Microstructures developed in ␤-21S via recrystallization and aging at 520 ◦ C for 8 h. The heating rate to the peak aging temperature was: (a, b) 0.03 K s−1 or
(c, d) 0.25 K s−1 ; (a, c) LM and (b, d) TEM.
and ductility (El = 9.8%, RA = 38%). This result was achieved
with a second-step aging time that was one half of that for Ti-15-3
(Table 5, aging treatment 8).
An attempt to increase the aged strength by means of the
application of slower continuous heating to peak temperature
(0.03 K s−1 , aging treatment 3, Table 6) caused a noticeable (and
unacceptable) decrease in ductility. Initially, it was thought that
this was a result of the formation of much finer ␣ precipitates
than those developed during heating at a rate 0.25 K s−1 . How-
ever, microstructure observations did not reveal any differences
(Fig. 7b and d). Microstructure observations at lower (optical)
magnification did indicate that the slower heating rate appeared
to give rise to unusual, thin grain-boundary zones (Fig. 7a and
c) that may be the cause of the ductility decrease. However, such
a hypothesis requires further research.
3.2.4. VT22
VT22 was characterized by a comparatively poorer balance of
strength and ductility in the recrystallized condition in compar-
ison with the other program alloys (Table 7), probably because
of the coarser ␤ grain size (∼50 ␮m) that was developed in this
material. Reasonable ductility was obtained only by aging at
640 ◦ C for 8 h and may be explained on the basis of the coarsen-
ing of intragranular ␣ with increasing aging temperature (Fig. 8a,
303
b and d). Unfortunately, such coarsening also led to a decrease
in strength. The necessity to raise the aging temperature to such
comparatively high levels is apparently related to the coarse ␤
grain size and the relatively higher content of aluminum in this
alloy (Table 1), which shifts the ␤-phase decomposition curves to
higher temperatures on the TTT-diagram. Nevertheless, the qual-
itative influence of heating rate on microstructure in VT22 was
the same as for the other alloys. That is to say, fast heating to the
peak aging temperature led to an absence of isothermal ␻-phase
formation and thus the development of comparatively coarse ␣
lamellae non-uniformly distributed in ␤ matrix (Fig. 8c), result-
ing in poor tensile properties (Table 7, aging treatments 5 and 7).
3.3. Recovered-and-aged conditions
3.3.1. TIMETAL-LCB
The mechanical properties obtained for TIMETAL-LCB via
aging of the recovered condition (i.e., continuous heating to
temperature T2 in Fig. 1, Table 2) are listed in Table 8. In the
recovered condition, the alloy properties were not very sensitive
to aging temperature nor to the rate of heating to the peak aging
temperature. The strength varied between approximately 1580
and 1600 MPa, and the ductility remained approximately the
same for all combinations of heating rate and aging temperature.
304 O.M. Ivasishin et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309

Fig. 8. Microstructures developed in VT22 via recrystallization and aging 8 h at: (a–c) 560 ◦ C or (d) 640 ◦ C. The heating rate to the peak aging temperature was: (a,
b, d) 0.25 K s−1 or (c) 20 K s−1 (TEM).

Additionally, the ductilities were noticeably lower (El 3-6%, RA
25–35%) compared to the recrystallized conditions after similar
aging sequences. The reason for this behavior was deduced from
microstructural observations (Fig. 9). Micrographs suggested
that residual deformation defects served as the key nucleation
sites for ␣ precipitation, thus leading to a non-uniform and rel-
atively coarse ␣ + ␤ microstructure (e.g., Fig. 9 versus Fig. 4a
and b). Despite the coarse ␣-phase, a relatively high level of
strength was achieved, most likely as a result of work harden-
ing introduced by cold deformation that was partially retained
during subsequent continuous rapid heating.
3.3.2. β-21S and Ti-15-3
␤-21S in the recovered condition showed similar behavior
with respect to a limited dependence of strength and ductil-
ity on aging temperature and the rate of heating to peak aging
temperature (Table 9). Furthermore, the mechanical property
data did not support an expectation that residual deformation
defects (i.e., cells, subgrains) would accelerate precipitation
by providing nucleation sites for ␣ (Fig. 10a). For example,
aging treatments 1 and 3 in Table 9 indicated that 8 h was not
long enough to complete ␤-phase decomposition in the recov-
ered material in comparison with the recrystallized condition

Table 8
Tensile properties of TIMETAL-LCB in recovered condition
Aging treatment Properties

Temperature and duration Heating rate (K s−1 ) YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) El (%) RA (%)
520 ◦ C, 8 h 0.25 1685 1685 5.4 28
20 1580 1600 6.7 31
538 ◦ C, 8 h 0.25 1580 1580 2.6 25
20 1590 1590 5.1 32
560 ◦ C, 8 h 0.25 1600 1600 4.6 35
20 1605 1605 4.9 29
 O.M. Ivasishin et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309 305

Fig. 9. Microstructures developed in TIMETAL-LCB via recovery and aging at
520 ◦ C for 8 h. The heating rate to the peak aging temperature was: (a) 0.25 K s−1
or (b) 20 K s−1 (TEM).
(Table 6, aging treatments 3 and 4). In some cases (e.g., aging
treatment 3, Table 9), a reasonably good combination of strength
and ductility was obtained. The most attractive tensile properties
(UTS = 1615 MPa, El = 8.6%, RA = 42%) were obtained after a
two-step aging process (aging treatment 5) and were similar to
those developed in the recrystallized condition (Table 6, aging
treatment 6).
In the recovered-and-aged condition Ti-15-3 was character-
ized by slightly higher strength and noticeably lower ductility in
Fig. 10. Microstructures developed in: (a) ␤-21S and (b) Ti-15-3 via recovery
and aging at (a) 520 ◦ C/8 h or (b) 538 ◦ C/16 h. The heating rate to the peak aging
temperature was: (a) 0.03 K s−1 or (b) 0.25 K s−1 ; (a) SEM and (b) TEM.
comparison with properties obtained for the recrystallized plus
cold-deformed condition (e.g., Table 9, aging treatment 6 ver-
sus Table 5, aging treatment 7). Similar to the observations for
TIMETAL-LCB, this may be a result of the formation of ␣ pre-
cipitation on cells/subgrains that form the recovered substructure
(Fig. 10b).
3.3.3. VT22
For all aging treatments, the mechanical properties of VT22 in
the recovered condition were characterized by a comparatively

Table 9
Tensile properties of ␤-21S and Ti-15-3 in recovered condition
ID Aging treatment Properties

Temperature and duration Heating rate (K s−1 ) YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) El (%) RA (%)

␤-21S
1 520 ◦ C, 8 h 0.25 1506 1550 6.2 18
2 520 ◦ C, 8 h 0.03 1560 1585 4.5 27
3 520 ◦ C, 16 h 0.25 1532 1590 8.8 45
4 538 ◦ C, 8 h 0.25 1330 1400 9.6 25
5 300 ◦ C, 8 h + 520 ◦ C, 8 h 0.25 1564 1615 8.6 42
Ti-15-3
6 538 ◦ C, 16 h 0.25 1260 1285 6.7 19
306 O.M. Ivasishin et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309
Table 10
Tensile properties of VT22 in recovered condition
ID Aging treatment
Temperature and duration Heating rate
1 600 ◦ C, 8h 0.25
2 20
3 640 ◦ C, 8 h 0.25
4 20
high strength, which decreased slightly with increasing aging
temperature, but unacceptably low ductility (Table 10). In con-
trast to the recrystallized condition, recovered VT22 exhibited
almost no influence of heating rate to peak aging temperature on
properties. The microstructure after aging was characterized by
coarser ␣ precipitates in comparison to recrystallized material
given the same treatment (e.g., Fig. 11 versus Fig. 8). The ␣
precipitates decorated residual deformation defects thus giving
rise to high measured strength levels, but (in concert with the
coarse ␤ grain size) also dramatically lower ductility even after
aging at 640 ◦ C.
Fig. 11. Microstructures developed in VT22 via recovery and aging at 640 ◦ C,
8 h (TEM).
Properties
(K s−1 ) YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) El (%) RA (%)
1450 1480 0.52 1
1480 1520 1.72 2.5
1380 1427 3.2 16
1395 1450 3.7 14
3.4. Comparison of mechanical properties
The results in the previous subsections demonstrate the
broad application of the proposed thermomechanical processing
approach to control the mechanical properties of commercial
␤-titanium alloys. However, the strengthening characteristics
are very different for different alloys and are dependent of
course on chemical composition. The best combination of high
strength (UTS ≥ 1500 MPa) and good ductility (total elonga-
tion ≥ 8%) is achieved for the recrystallized condition of ␤-21S
and TIMETAL-LCB. In contrast, it is not possible to develop
such an attractive balance of properties in Ti-15-3 and VT22. The
best combination for these two alloys, which may be acceptable
for a number of applications, is obtained in recrystallized con-
dition, viz., UTS ≈ 1400 MPa, and elongation ≈ 7.5–10%. For
VT22, such relatively low properties are a result of the relatively
coarse ␤ grain size and perhaps its comparatively high aluminum
content. Low strength in the solid-solutioned condition and very
sluggish ␣ precipitation limit the properties of Ti-15-3.
For all of the alloys investigated in the present work, the devel-
opment of good mechanical properties relies on the formation
of a fine-grain ␤ microstructure with well dispersed, fine, and
uniform intragranular ␣ precipitates. Such precipitates can be
formed as a result of metastable ␤-phase decomposition via the
transformation route ␤ → ␤ + ␻ → ␣ + ␤. The important differ-
ence between the various ␤-titanium alloys is the specific heating
rate required to realize this phase-transformation mechanism.
It decreases from 0.25 K s−1 for VT22 and TIMETAL-LCB
to 0.01 K s−1 for Ti-15-3. There is no discernible correlation
between the critical heating rate and the total content of ␤-
stabilizing elements (expressed via the molybdenum equivalent
CMo , Table 1) because of the very distinct influence of different
alloying elements (especially iron) on precipitation behavior.
An increase of the heating rate above these specific values
leads to a change in the precipitation mechanism to a direct
␤ → ␣ + ␤ reaction that results in the formation of coarser and
non-uniformly distributed ␣ precipitates and, hence, to notice-
ably poorer mechanical properties.
The efficiency of the proposed thermomechanical processes
for different alloys may be evaluated using tensile-property
comparisons such as that shown in Fig. 12. For recrystallized
material, it is readily found that the most frequently used aging
treatment (538 ◦ C, 8 h) does not lead to the best combination of
strength and ductility (Fig. 12a). For example, VT22 exhibits
very high strength and almost zero ductility because of a rela-
 O.M. Ivasishin et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309
, elongation; , UTS.
Fig. 12. Property comparisons for the program alloys in the recrystallized-
and-aged condition: (a) UTS and total elongation for aging at 538 ◦ C; heating
rate = 0.25 K s−1 , (b) UTS and total elongation after optimized heat treatment,
and (c) relative increase in UTS for (i) same elongation level (8–9%) or (ii) same
aging condition (538 ◦ C).
tively coarse ␤ grain size (∼50 ␮m). On the other hand, Ti-15-3
after such an aging treatment has a very low strength and high
ductility because metastable ␤-phase decomposition is far from
completion. ␤-21S and TIMETAL-LCB have a better balance
of tensile strength and ductility with the standard aging treat-
ment. However, because of their very fine recrystallized ␤ grain
sizes, it is possible to introduce a greater degree of age harden-
ing (at 520 ◦ C) to obtain higher strength (>1600 MPa) without
307
Fig. 13. Influence of aging temperature on tensile properties of TIMETAL-
LCB following recrystallization and aging for 8 h conditions. The heating rate
to the peak aging temperature was 20 K s−1 (open symbols) or 0.25 K s−1 (closed
symbols);
a substantial decrease in ductility (Fig. 12b). Similarly, after
aging with optimal parameters, VT22 and Ti-15-3 are also
characterized by a rather good balance of tensile properties
(Fig. 12b). In the case of VT22 though, it is not possible to
achieve an elongation greater than 7.5%, which is often less than
the minimum ductility required for a number of practical appli-
cations. Therefore, despite its attractive mechanical properties
for some specific products (e.g., large forgings with guaranteed
UTS ≥ 1200 MPa), VT22 is not the best alloy for the application
of the processing approach discussed here.
It is also interesting to compare the increase in strength for
the various alloys relative to that in the initial recrystallized
condition (Table 3) (Fig. 12c). Despite its comparatively low
achievable strength, the largest increase in UTS was observed
for Ti-15-3 after aging to the same level of elongation (8–9%)
or after aging at 538 ◦ C.
The influence of aging temperature on the tensile properties of
material in the recrystallized condition may be illustrated using
TIMETAL-LCB as an example (Fig. 13). Typically, an increase
in the peak aging temperature leads to a monotonic decrease in
strength and an increase in ductility. Low heating rates to peak
aging temperature to ensure the sequential decomposition of
metastable ␤, however, results in higher strength and ductility for
all aging temperatures used in the present work. By specifying
a certain level of a desired property (e.g., 8% elongation), it is
possible to choose the required aging treatment. For TIMETAL-
LCB, any aging temperature between 520 and 560 ◦ C is suitable
when using a heating rate of 0.25 K s−1 , or temperatures between
530 and 560 ◦ C for faster heating rate. The final choice of specific
aging conditions can then be made on the basis of the required
level of strength.
For Ti-15-3 and ␤-21S, the influence of two-step aging on
tensile strength and elongation is illustrated in Fig. 14. For both
alloys, the balance of properties is noticeably better after two-
step aging compared to one-step aging.
The influence of aging temperature on the balance of strength
and ductility for the recovered condition is illustrated in Fig. 15
308 O.M. Ivasishin et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309

for TIMETAL-LCB. In contrast to the recrystallized condition

in Fig. 13, there is not a marked effect of aging temperature on
the tensile properties of recovered material; for all aging temper-
atures, the elongation was lower than 8%. Among three ␤ alloys
investigated in the recovered-and-aged (at 538 ◦ C) condition,
TIMETAL-LCB was characterized by the highest strength and
lowest ductility (Fig. 16a). The best ductility was exhibited by
␤-21S, even after optimized aging (Fig. 16b); the combination
of UTS > 1600 MPa and elongation > 8% looks very attractive
even when compared to the recrystallized condition. Hence, for
some specific applications, recovered-and-aged properties may
be as attractive as those for recrystallized-and-aged conditions.
A property map was constructed to summarize the large num-
ber of results obtained in present work (Fig. 17). Such a map
delineates the various combinations of tensile strength and duc-
tility that can be produced in different ␤-titanium alloys via the
present processing approach. The map can also be used to choose
an alloy and a processing treatment to meet specific design
requirements. For instance, the dashed lines on the map demar-
cate the region with UTS ≥ 1500 MPa and elongation ≥ 8%
achievable with recrystallized or recovered conditions, via one-
or two-step aging, etc.
In general, it is possible to formulate the following require-
ments for the proposed processing approach to ensure the

Fig. 14. Influence of two-step aging on the tensile properties of Ti-15-3 and
␤-21S.

Fig. 15. Influence of aging temperature on the tensile properties of TIMETAL-

LCB following recovery and aging for 8 h. The heating rate to the peak aging Fig. 16. Comparison of the tensile properties of the program alloys in the
temperature was 20 K s−1 (open symbols) or 0.25 K s−1 (closed symbols);
, recovered-and-aged condition: (a) aged at 538 ◦ C, heating rate to peak aging
elongation; , UTS. temperature of 0.25 K s−1 and (b) after optimized treatment.
 O.M. Ivasishin et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 457 (2008) 296–309
Fig. 17. Tensile properties map for program alloys: (, 夽) TIMETAL-LCB; (,
♦, , ) Ti-15-3; (䊉, , , ) ␤-21S; (, ) VT22. Closed symbols,
recrystallized conditions; open symbols, recovered; both, one-step aging; ( )
and ( ) two-step aging; ( ) 20% CD + aging.
best balance of tensile strength and ductility in commercial
␤-titanium alloys.
3.4.1. For the recrystallized condition
- A fine-grain ␤ microstructure should be developed dur-
ing the step comprising continuous rapid heating to the
recrystallization-completion temperature.
- Final aging conditions should incorporate the formation of
intermediate ␻-phase by slow heating to peak aging tempera-
ture or by means of two-step aging.
- The aging temperature should be low enough to produce fine ␣
precipitates. On the other hand, the aging temperature should
be sufficiently high to eliminate interphase stresses. As a first
approximation, the aging temperature should be selected rel-
ative to the ␤ transus.
3.4.2. For the recovered condition
- Cold deformation should ensure maximum homogeneity of
the dislocation substructure.
- The aging regime should be selected for each individual case
because there exists no clear dependence of achievable prop-
erties on heating rate and peak aging temperature for the
recovered condition.
4. Conclusions
(1) An approach based on solid-solution heat treatment, heavy
cold deformation of metastable ␤, continuous rapid heat-
ing for recrystallization (to develop a uniform ␤ grain
size of approximately 10 ␮m), and final aging can be used
to obtain an excellent balance of high strength (above
1500–1600 MPa) and sufficient ductility in metastable ␤-
titanium alloys.
(2) The exact balance between tensile strength and ductility in
fine-grain recrystallized ␤-titanium alloys is strongly depen-
309
dent on the rate of heating to the peak aging temperature. The
heating rate controls the mechanism by which the metastable
␤ decomposes and hence the dispersion uniformity and size
of the ␣ precipitates which provide strength. A low heating
rate, whose exact value is alloy dependent, ensures the devel-
opment of a fine and uniform ␣ + ␤ aged microstructure and,
consequently, the best combination of strength and ductil-
ity. Higher heating rates lead to non-uniform and coarser
microstructures characterized by a substantially poorer bal-
ance of properties.
(3) Ti-15-3, which is characterized by the slowest precipitation
kinetics, should be processed using an additional cold-
working step or two-step aging in order to develop high
strength levels in reasonable times for commercial produc-
tion.
(4) The formation of a recovered, rather than a recrystallized,
structure via continuous heating of ␤-titanium alloys intro-
duces a residual defect structure that influences precipitation
in such a way as to lead to relatively high strength, but low
ductility. Thus, a more detailed investigation is needed to
determine how the ductility can be improved for recovered
microstructures.
Acknowledgements
The present work was supported by the Air Force Office of
Scientific Research (AFOSR) and the AFOSR European Office
of Aerospace Research and Development (AFOSR/EOARD)
within the framework of STCU partner project P-057.
References
[1] P.J. Bania, in: D. Eylon, R.R. Boyer, D.A. Koss (Eds.), Beta Titanium
Alloys in the 90s, TMS, Warrendale, PA, 1993, pp. 3–14.
[2] D. Eylon, in: T. Kishi, N. Tanaka, Y. Kagawa (Eds.), Proceedings of
Third Japan International SAMPE Symposium, SAMPE, Tokyo, 1993, pp.
1588–1595.
[3] O.M. Ivasishin, R.V. Teliovich, Mater. Sci. Eng. A A263 (1999) 142–154.
[4] C. Ouchi, H. Suenaga, Y. Kohsaka, in: P. Lacombe, et al. (Eds.), Proceedings
of Sixth World Conference on Titanium, Les Editions de Physique, Paris,
1989, pp. 819–824.
[5] O.M. Ivasishin, P.E. Markovsky, S.L. Semiatin, C.H. Ward, Mater. Sci.
Eng. A A405 (2005) 296–305.
[6] O.M. Ivasishin, P.E. Markovsky, Yu.V. Matviychuk, S.L. Semiatin, Metall.
Mater. Trans. A 34A (2003) 147–158.
[7] O.M. Ivasishin, P.E. Markovsky, Yu.V. Matviychuk, S.L. Semiatin, C.H.
Ward, Titanium (2) (2004) 24–38.
[8] O.P. Karasevska, O.M. Ivasishin, S.L. Semiatin, Yu.V. Matviychuk, Mater.
Sci. Eng. A A354 (2003) 121–132.
[9] O.M. Ivasishin, P.E. Markovsky, S.L. Semiatin, Yu.V. Matviychuk, O.P.
Karasevska, in: G. Luetjering, J. Albrecht (Eds.), Proceedings 10th World
Conference on Titanium, ‘Ti-2003’, vol. 2, WILEY-VCH, 2004, pp.
1227–1234.
[10] T. Makino, T. Furuhara, T. Maki, in: S. Fujishiro, D. Eylon, T. Kishi
(Eds.), Metallurgy and Technology of Practical Titanium Alloys, TMS,
Warrendale, PA, 1994, pp. 63–70.
[11] T. Furuhara, H. Nakamori, S. Takagi, T. Maki, in: S. Fujishiro, D. Eylon,
T. Kishi (Eds.), Metallurgy and Technology of Practical Titanium Alloys,
TMS, Warrendale, PA, 1994, pp. 173–180.
[12] O.M. Ivasishin, P.E. Markovsky, S.O. Kotrechko, V.I. Bondarchuk, Phys.
Met. Mod. Technol. 28 (6) (2006) 1001–1013.