FARADAY’S LAW

1. INTRODUCTION
Faraday’s Law was proposed by great experimental physicist and chemist Michael Faraday.
The Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction are the results of Faraday’s experiments.

Faraday's law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic

field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF)—a
phenomenon called electromagnetic induction. It is the fundamental operating principle
of transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical motors, generators and solenoids.

Faraday performed three main experiments to discover the phenomenon of electromagnetic

induction.

2.Faraday’s Law:
The most widespread version of Faraday's law states:

The induced electromotive force in any closed circuit is equal to the negative of the time rate
of change of the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit.
This version of Faraday's law strictly holds only when the closed circuit is a loop of
infinitely thin wire, and is invalid in other circumstances as discussed below. A different
version, the Maxwell–Faraday equation is valid in all circumstances.

Figure 1(Left Hand Rule)

The sign of ΔΦB, the change in flux, is found based on the relationship between the
magnetic field B, the area of the loop A, and the normal n to that area, as represented by the
fingers of the left hand. If ΔΦB is positive, the direction of the EMF is the same as that of the

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curved fingers (yellow arrowheads). If ΔΦB is negative, the direction of the EMF is against
the arrowheads.

It is possible to find out the direction of the electromotive force (EMF) directly from
Faraday’s law, without invoking Lenz's law. A left hand rule helps doing that, as follows:

 Align the curved fingers of the left hand with the loop (yellow line).
 Stretch your thumb. The stretched thumb indicates the direction of n (brown), the
normal to the area enclosed by the loop.
 Find the sign of ΔΦB, the change in flux. Determine the initial and final fluxes (whose
difference is ΔΦB) with respect to the normal n, as indicated by the stretched thumb.
 If the change in flux, ΔΦB, is positive, the curved fingers show the direction of the
electromotive force (yellow arrowheads).

If ΔΦB is negative, the direction of the electromotive force is opposite to the direction of the
curved fingers (opposite to the yellow arrowheads).

3.Faraday’s First Law:

Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction states that whenever a conductor is placed
in varying magnetic field emf are induced which is known as induced emf if the conductor
circuit is closed current are also induced which are called induced current.
Ways of changing magnetic field:
1. By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.
2. By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.
3. By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field.
4. By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil.

4.Faraday’s Second Law:

Faraday’s Second Law of Electromagnetic Induction states that the induced emf is equal to
the rate of change of flux linkage where flux linkage is nothing but the product of number of
turns in the coil and flux associated with the coil.

5.Faraday’s Law of Induction :

An induced electromotive force produces a current which moves in a particular direction
such that the changed field can be replaced by the magnetic field. Current can also be
produced in the circuit without a battery. Faraday’s Law describes the induced electromotive
force and the way to find the induced electromotive force by inducing a current.

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6.Faraday’s Experiment:

Relationship between Induced EMF and Flux:

In the first experiment, he proved that when the strength of the magnetic field is varied
then only the induced current is produced. An ammeter is connected to a loop of wire; the
ammeter deflects when a magnet is moved towards the wire.
In the second experiment he proved that when the current is passed through the iron rod, it
becomes an electromagnet. He noticed that when there is a relative motion between the
magnet and the coil, induced electromagnetic force is produced. When the magnet is rotated
about its axis, no electromotive force is observed and if the magnet is rotated about its own
axis then the induced electromotive force is produced. Thus, there is no deflection in the
ammeter when the magnet is held stationary.
In the third experiment, he noticed that galvanometer does not show any deflection and no
induced current is produced in the coil when the coil is moved in a stationary magnetic field.
The ammeter deflects in the opposite direction when the magnet is moved away from the
loop.

Position of Magnet Deflection in Galvanometer

Magnet at Rest No deflection in the galvanometer

Magnet moves towards the coil Deflection in the galvanometer in one

direction

Magnet is held stationary at same No deflection galvanometer

position( near the coil)

Magnet moves away from the coil Deflection in galvanometer but in opposite
direction

Magnet held stationary at same No deflection in galvanometer

position(away from the coil )

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7.Proof of Faraday’s Law:

The four Maxwell's equations (including the Maxwell–Faraday equation), along with
the Lorentz force law, are a sufficient foundation to derive everything in classical
electromagnetism. Therefore, it is possible to "prove" Faraday's law starting with these
equations.

The starting point is the time-derivative of flux through an arbitrary, possibly moving

surface in space Σ:

This total time derivative can be evaluated and simplified with the help of the Maxwell–
Faraday equation, Gauss's law for magnetism, and some vector calculus; the details are in
the box below:

Consider the time-derivative of flux through a possibly moving loop, with

area Σ (t):

The integral can change over time for two reasons: The integrand can change, or the
integration region can change. These add linearly, therefore

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Where t0 is any given fixed time. We will show that the first term on the right-hand side
corresponds to transformer EMF, the second to motional EMF (see above). The first term on
the right-hand side can be rewritten using the integral form of the Maxwell–Faraday
equation:

Next, we analyze the second term on the right-hand side:

Figure 2

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This is the most difficult part of the proof; more details and alternate approaches can be
found in references as the loop moves and deforms, it sweeps out a surface .The magnetic
flux through this swept out surface corresponds to the magnetic flux i.e either entering or
exiting the loop and therefore this is the magnetic flux that contributes to the time derivative.
As small part of the loop dl moves with velocity dl moves with velocity vl for a short
time dt, it sweeps out a vector area vector dA = vl dt × dl. Therefore, the change in magnetic
flux through the loop here is

Therefore:

Where vl is the velocity of the curve ∂Σ.

Putting these together,

The result is

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Where ∂Σ is the boundary of the surface Σ, and vl is the velocity of that boundary.

While this equation is true for any arbitrary moving surface Σ in space, it can be simplified
further in the special case that ∂Σ is a loop of wire. In this case, we can relate the right-hand-
side to EMF. Specifically, EMF is defined as the energy available per unit charge that
travels once around the loop. Therefore, by the Lorentz force law,

Where € is EMF and v material velocity, i.e. the velocity

Hence

8.Application of Faraday’s Law:-

Faraday’s law gives rise to countless technological applications too. The law has far-
reaching consequences that have revolutionized the living of mankind after its discovery.
Faraday’s discovery of electromagnetic induction has numerous industrial, technological,
medical and other applications. Some of them are briefed as follows.

8.1.Transformers
Transformer can transform the levels of A.C. voltage and current very easily. They are
useful to transmit A.C. electricity over long distances without much loss of power. At the
generating station, voltage is increased to hundreds of kV by using step-up transformers.
The distribution system of power line has to carry proportionately reduced current over long
distances and power loss in transmission lines is minimized. Afterwards, at the user end the
voltage is decreased to the 230 V (A.C. Mains) by using step-down transformers for
operating the household appliances, industrial machines etc.

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8.2.Electrical Generators
A coil of wire spun in a magnetic field at a constant rate produces electromotive force.
Mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy. In hydro-electric power plant the
energy of falling water is used to spin permanent magnets around a stationary loop of wire,
to produce electrical power from hydrolic power. Induction Welding

When an electrically conductive or a ferromagnetic sample is placed in a high-frequency

electromagnetic field of a coil carrying radio-frequency electric current, the sample gets
heated due to combination of heat by magnetically induced currents called eddy currents and
hysteresis. This heat is useful for welding samples – even of nonmagnetic materials by
implanting metallic or ferromagnetic compounds in them.

8.3.Induction Cookers
A.C. flowing through the coil of copper wire - placed below a cooking container - produces
an alternating magnetic field. That magnetic field induces a current in the electrically
conductive container, produces heat in it by Joule (I2R) heating effect. In addition there is
some amount of heat due to magnetic hysteresis in the ferromagnetic container also.
Induction cookers are faster, have better thermal efficiency and offer instantaneous control
of cooking energy.

8.4.Electromagnetic Flow Meters

A magnetic field is applied to electrically conducting fluids flowing in electrically insulated
pipes; an electromotive force proportional to velocity is induced according to the principle
of electromagnetic induction. Used to measure velocity of blood, slurries etc.

8.5.Musical Instruments
Musical instruments like electric guitar, electric violin etc have a pick-up device attached to
them. It consists of a fine enameled copper wire wound on a magnet. When the metal strings
of the guitar are strung, the vibrating string cuts the magnetic flux of magnet linking the coil
due to which electric current is induced in the pick-up’s coil. It is modulated by the
mechanical vibrations of the strings. This electrical signal is then amplified and recorded by
suitable devices. In addition the phenomena of electromagnetic induction is also used in
instruments and machines like Induction motors, Induction Sealing, Audio video tapes, Hall
effect meters, Faraday Disk etc.

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9.CONCLUSION

From this experiment, Faraday concluded that whenever there is relative motion
between conductor and a magnetic field, the flux linkage with a coil changes and this
change in flux induces a voltage across a coil.

Michael Faraday formulated two laws on the basis of above experiments. These laws are
called Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction. Faraday law states that” when the
magnetic flux or the magnetic field changes with time, the electromotive force is produced”.
The concept of electricity cannot be complete without Faraday’s Law of induction. It
describes how changing magnetic fields can cause electric current to flow in a conductor.

The working principles of electric motors, transformers, generators, are all based on
Faraday’s Law of Induction.

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10.REFERENCES

1.Mthew N.O.Sadiku, Elements of electromagnetic, oxford press ,Fourth Edition 2004.

2. Kraus, F.”Electromagnetic” Tata Mc.Graw Hill Fifth Edition

3. Jordon E.C. and Balmain K.G.,”Electromagnetic Wave and Radiating systems”

Prentice Hall International, Second Edition.

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