Mekelle University

Department of Chemical Engineering

Electrical Machine and Electronics

Submitted by:

1. Hideat G/slasie(Id No:122814/09)

2.Haregeweyni Berihu(Id No: 97005/08 )

3.Kbrom Teklu(Id No: 96023/08)

4Kibrom Asgele(Id No:96095/08 )

5Kbrom G/kidan(Id No: 96908/08)

Submitted to ins: Meron T, weldu

January 1, 2019
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Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Diode Equation ...................................................................................................................... 2
1.1.1 Reverse Bias ................................................................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Forward Bias................................................................................................................... 2
2. General Diode Specifications ..................................................................................................... 3
3. Types of Diodes .......................................................................................................................... 4
3.1 Rectifier Diodes ........................................................................................................................ 4
3.1.1 Half-Wave Rectifier ....................................................................................................... 5
3.1.2 Full-Wave Rectifier ........................................................................................................ 5
3.1.3 Rectifier Filters ............................................................................................................... 6
3.2 Switching Diodes .................................................................................................................. 8
3.2.1 Clipping .......................................................................................................................... 8
3.2.2 Clamping ........................................................................................................................ 9
3.3 Zener Diodes ......................................................................................................................... 9
3.4 Optical Diodes ..................................................................................................................... 10
3.4.1 LED (Light Emitting Diode) ........................................................................................ 10
3.4.2 Photodiode .................................................................................................................... 10
3.4.3 Optocoupler .................................................................................................................. 11
4.Working Principle and Characteristics of Diode ...................................................................... 12
5. Diode Construction .................................................................................................................. 17
6. Diodes Applications ................................................................................................................. 18
6.1 Signal Rectifier .................................................................................................................... 18
6.2 Diode Gates ......................................................................................................................... 18
6.3 Diode Clamps (stabilizatory poziomu) ............................................................................... 19
6.4 Limiter ................................................................................................................................. 20
References ..................................................................................................................................... 21

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1. Introduction
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve
and early diodes were actually called valves.

A diode is a dispositive made of a semiconductor material, which has two terminals or electrodes
(diode),that act like an on-off switch. When the diode is “on”, it acts as a short circuit and passes
all current. When it is “off”, it behaves like an open circuit and passes no current.

The two terminals are different and are marked as plus and minus in figure 1. If the polarity of the
applied voltage matches that of the diode (forward bias), then the diode turns “on”. When the
applied voltage polarity is opposite (reverse bias), it turns “off”. Of course, this is the theoretical
behavior of an ideal diode, but it can be seen as a good approximation for a real diode.

A diode is simply a p-n junction with the following characteristics:

• Under forward bias, it needs a small voltage to conduct. This voltage drop is maintained during
conduction.

• The maximum forward current is limited by heat-dissipation ability of the diode. Usually it is
around 1000 mA.

• There is a small reverse current.

Figure 1: (a) Diode symbol. (b) Current-voltage characteristics of an ideal diode. (c) IV curve for
a real diode.

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• Every diode has a maximum reverse voltage (breakdown voltage) that cannot be exceeded
without diode damage.

Figure 2: A p − n diode junction structure and the equivalent device schematics.

1.1 Diode Equation

1.1.1 Reverse Bias
When the diode is reverse-biased, a very small drift current due to thermal excitation flows across
the junction. This current (reverse saturation current, I0) is given, according to the Boltzmann
equation, by the formula:

Where K0 is a constant depending on the pn junction geometry and V0 is the built-in voltage of
the diode (see chapter “Semiconductor Materials: pn junction”).

1.1.2 Forward Bias

When the diode is forward-biased through a voltage V, small drift current flows again across the
junction. In that case, however, there is an additional component, the diffusion current Vd, given

by the formula:

These two currents have opposite directions; the total current is therefore given by:

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2. General Diode Specifications

Four diode ratings apply in one way or another to all types of diodes and applications:

1. Forward voltage drop VF: is the forward-conducting junction level (∼0.7 V for Si diodes and
0.3 V for Ge diodes)

2. Average forward current IF: is the maximum amount of forward current that the diode can carry
for an indefinite period. If the average current exceeds this value, the diode will overheat and,
eventually, will be destroyed.

3. Peak reverse voltage VR, or reverse breakdown voltage. This is the largest amount of reverse-
bias voltage the diodes’s junction can withstand for an indefinite period of time.

If a reverse voltage exceeds this level, the voltage will punch through the depletion layer and allow
current to flow backwards through the diode, which is a destructive operation(except for the case
of a Zener diode).

4. Maximum power dissipation P. The actual diode power dissipation is calculated multiplying the
forward voltage drop and the forward current. Exceeding the maximum power dissipation will
result in thermal breakdown of the diode.

Excessive forward current and reverse breakdown voltage are the most common causes of diode
failure. In both cases the diode gets very hot, what destroys the pn junction. Occasional peaks of
voltage or current exceeding these rates for very short times (few milliseconds) may not overheat
the junction, but repeated peaks may fatigue the junction. By design, diodes are selected with
ratings that exceed two or three times the expected peaks in the circuit.

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3. Types of Diodes
We can distinguish the following types of diodes:

• Rectifier diodes are typically used for power supply applications. Within the power supply, you
will see diodes as elements that convert AC power to DC power;

• Switching diodes have lower power ratings than rectifier diodes, but can function better in high
frequency application and in clipping and clamping operations that deal with short-duration pulse
waveforms;

This is the case in the so-called “constant-voltage-drop” or “0.7-V” model. In that model, the
current is a step function of the voltage: if the forward voltage is less than 0.7 V, the current, which
flows through the junction, is zero, if the forward voltage is greater than 0.7, then the voltage drop
in the diode is always 0.7 V (in the case of silicon)

• Zener diodes, a special kind of diode that can recover from breakdown caused when the reverse-
bias voltage exceeds the diode breakdown voltage. These diodes are commonly used as voltage-
level regulators and protectors against high voltage surges;

• Optical diodes;

• Special diodes, such as varactors (diodes with variable capacity), tunnel diodes or Schottky
diodes.

3.1 Rectifier Diodes

A rectifier is a dispositive that ideally transforms the AC input voltage into a DC voltage

(voltage is always positive or zero). These diodes have the largest ratings and sometime

can be quite big in volume. As a rule of thumb, the bigger the diode (more pn surface

junction available for heat dissipation), the higher the ratings.

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3.1.1 Half-Wave Rectifier

A half-wave rectifier is composed of a single diode that connects an AC source to a load. In figure
3 a resistor represents the load. The diode conducts on AC voltage only when its anode is positive
with respect to the cathode (i.e. greater than 0.7 V for a silicon diode). The output has therefore
only a positive component with an average value:

The output peak voltage is the AC source minus the voltage drop of the diode, that in most cases
can be neglected.

Figure 3: Half wave rectifier. Note the effect of the 0.7 V diode voltage drop. If V

p >> 0.7V, it can be neglected.

3.1.2 Full-Wave Rectifier

In half-wave rectifiers, half of the power provided by the source is not used. To solve this problem,
we have to use full-wave rectifiers. The minimum full-wave rectifier is composed of two diodes,
but it requires a center tapped transformer. Figure 4 shows a bridge rectifier, composed of four
diodes, that can use a “normal” transformer.

The AC current, according to its direction, flows either in the top or in the bottom part of the bridge
in each half-cycle. In the output voltage we will have a component for both negative and positive
parts of the input voltage. In both cases the current passes through two forward-biased diodes in
series, what produces a voltage drop of 1.4 V. The average voltage of a full-wave rectifier is:

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Figure 4: Full wave rectifier. In this case the voltage drop, not shown in the graphic, will be 1.4 V
because two diodes are crossed.

3.1.3 Rectifier Filters

The waveforms generated directly by the rectifiers described above, are not very useful, but can
be smoothed to produce almost perfect DC. For that purpose, we can use the inertia properties of
capacitors and inductors. Although the capacitor does a good job producing DC, a significant
ripple voltage remains. During the discharging period, the capacitor voltage reduces exponentially.
At the end of the discharge, the output voltage is:

The discharging time is t2 − t1 ∼ T, so the ripple voltage is:

In case of a full-wave rectifier the ripple voltage is:

A significant problem for electrostatic accelerators is the production of sufficiently high

accelerating voltages. At the beginning of the 1930s, Cockroft and Walton developed a high

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Figure 5: Filters: (a) A capacitor in parallel with the load resistance will smoothen the DC output.
(b) The smoothed voltage. The circuit during (c) charging and (d) discharging of the capacitor.

voltage generator based on a system of multiple rectifiers. At their first attempt, they achieved a
voltage around 400000 V. The operation of this generator, also known as Greinacher circuit, is
explained in figure 6. At point A a transformer produces a sinusoidally varying voltage

U (t) = U sin ωt of frequency ω. The first rectifying diode ensures that at point B the voltage never
goes negative. Thus the capacitor C1 charges up to a potential U . At point B the voltage now
oscillates between the values 0 and 2U . The capacitor C2 is then charged up via the second rectifier
to a potential of 2U . In the same way as before, the third diode ensures that the potential at point
C does not fall below 2U . Here it varies between 2U and 4U , and so with the help of the fourth
rectifier a voltage of 4U is generated. The pattern is repeated, with many such rectifier stages
arranged one after another. Without loading, the maximum achievable voltage is then 2nU , where
n is the number of rectifier stages.

During operation, a current I is always drawn from the generator. This discharges the capacitors
slightly when the diodes are in reverse bias, leading to a somewhat lower generated voltage than
the one simply expected from the number of rectifier stages. The current dependent voltage
generated by the cascade is given more exactly by the relation

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It is immediately apparent that a high capacitance C and a high operating frequency ω strongly

reduce the dependence on the current.

Figure 6: Schematic drawing explaining the operation of the Cockroft-Walton cascade generator.

3.2 Switching Diodes

3.2.1 Clipping
The function of a clipping circuit is to cut off part of an input waveform.

Figure 7: Clipping principle.

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3.2.2 Clamping
If the DC value of a signal needs to be changed, a capacitor can be charged with the appropriate
value. When connected in series with the signal source, it will then provide the desired DC level.

For positive values of the input signal, the diode immediately conducts, allowing the capacitor to
be charged. The RC time constant is small because the only resistor present is the small internal
resistor of the diode (less than 1 Ω). For negative values of the input signal, the diode is reverse-
biased, so the capacitor cannot be discharged, maintaining the potential. In general, if we use a
battery of voltage V , the output signal will be:

3.3 Zener Diodes

A conventional solid-state diode will not let current flow up to its breakdown voltage if
reversebiased. By exceeding the breakdown voltage, a conventional diode is destroyed during
breakdown due to excess current and overheating. In case of forward-bias (in the direction of the
arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop of roughly 0.7 V. The voltage drop depends on the type
of the diode.

A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is especially designed so as
to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. A Zener diode contains
a heavily doped pn junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type
material to the conduction band of the n-type material. A reversebiased Zener diode will exhibit a
controlled breakdown and let the current flow to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the
Zener voltage. For example, a 3.2 V Zener diode will exhibit a voltage drop of 3.2 V if reverse

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biased. However, the current is not unlimited, so the Zener diode is typically used to generate a
reference voltage for an amplifier stage. The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately
in the doping process. Tolerances up to 0.05% are achievable, though the most widely used
tolerances are 5% and 10%. The effect was discovered by the American physicist Clarence Melvin
Zener. In figure 9, the Zener behaviour is illustrated:

3.4 Optical Diodes

3.4.1 LED (Light Emitting Diode)
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent monochromatic.
when electrically biased in the forward direction. The colour depends on the semiconducting
material used, and can be near-ultraviolet, visible or infrared. The wavelength of the light emitted,
and therefore its colour, depends on the bandgap energy of the materials forming the pn junction.
A normal diode, typically made of silicon or germanium, emits invisible far-infrared light.
Currently used materials for LEDs are gallium arsenide (GaAs) for the infrared, gallium arsenide
phospate (GaAsP) for yellow and red light, and gallium phosphate (GaP) for red and green light.
The intensity of the light depends on the current that passes through the LED.

3.4.2 Photodiode
A photodiode is a diode working in reverse polarization and having a window where the light can
enter and hit directly the pn junction. As in the case of the LED, the energy level of the impurities
has been chosen in order to allow electrons to jump from valence to conduction

Figure 9: (a) A voltage regulator is inserted between the input voltage and the load.

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(b) The Zener current Iz varies between I max and I min in response to the varying input voltage
so as to keep the load current and the load voltage constant (c). band. In the absence of light the
leakage current is negligible, but when light is present, the leakage current increases to measurable
values.

3.4.3 Optocoupler
An optocoupler is a device that combines a LED and a photodiode in such a way that the light
emitted by the LED hits the photodiode. LED and photodiode can be connected to different
circuits, so this device allows to send a signal between two isolated networks coupled just through
light emission and reception.

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4. Working Principle and Characteristics of Diode

A p-n junction diode is formed by placing p and n type semiconductor materials in intimate contact
on an atomic scale. This may be achieved by diffusing acceptor impurities in to an n type silicon
crystal or by the opposite sequence.

A junction is characterized by the doping level (impurity atom density). In a step junction accepter
atom density has a high constant value in the p region and a very low value in the n region. The
opposite holds true for the donor atom density. In a graded junction impurity density changes more
gradually across the junction. Fig.1 shows a typical plot of impurity densities for both types of
junction.

Fig. 10: Schematic diagram and impurity atom densities in a p-n junction (a) Schematic diagram,
(b) Impurity density in a step junction, (c) Impurity density in a graded junction.

For the rest of the discussion a step p-n junction will be assumed. In an open circuit p-n junction
majority carriers from either side with defuse across the junction to the opposite side where they
are in minority. These diffusing carriers will leave behind a region of ionized atoms at the

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immediate vicinity of the metallurgical junction. This region of immobile ionized atoms is called
the “space charge region”. Accumulated space charges give rise to an electric field and potential
barrier at the junction which opposes the diffusion of carriers. Once the electric field and the
potential barrier develop to sufficient level, migration of carriers across the junction stops. At this
point the p-n junction is said to have attained “thermal equilibrium”. A some what idealized plot
of the variation of the space charge density, the electric field and the electric potential along the
device is shown in Fig 2.

Fig. 11: Space charge density, electric field and electric potential inside a p-n junction in thermal
equilibrium; (a) schematic diagram; (b) space charge density; (c) electric field; (d) electric
potential.

The space charge densities in this idealized representation are assumed to be step functions of
magnitudes –Na and Nd on the p are n sides respectively over the space charge regions (-Wpo in
the p side and Wno in the n side).

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Under this assumption the electric field strength is obtained by solving the one dimensional
Poisson’s equation.

dE  x  -qNa (a)
= - Wpo < x  0
dx 
E  -w ro  = 0

-qNa  x + Wpo 
E  x  = , - Wpo < x  0 (b)


dE  x  qNd
= 0 < x  Wno
dx  (c)
E  Wno  = 0

qNd  x - Wno 
Ex = 0 < x  Wno (d)


-qN a Wpo (e)

From (b) Emax = E(0) = 

-qN d Wno (f)

From (d) Emax = E(0) = 

Since E(x) is continuous at x=0, from (5) and (6)

(g)

Na Wpo = Nd Wno

q  N a Wpo 2 + N d Wno 2  (h)

Now c = - -Wpo E  x  dx =
Wno

2

Using (g) in (h)

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qN a Wpo  Wpo + Wno  qN d Wno  Wpo + Wno  (i)

c = =
2 2

Substituting Wpo + Wno = Wo = Zero bias space charge layer width

2  c 1 2  c 1 (j)
Wpo = ; Wno =
qWo Na qWo Nd

2  c N a + N d
 Wpo + Wno = Wo =
qWo Na Nd

2  c  N a + N d  (k)
 Wo =
qN a N d

2c (l)
From (g) & (j) E max =
Wo

In all these equations q is the charge of an electron and  is the dielectric constant of the
semiconductor material.

When an external voltage V is applied across the p and n sides, it adds or subtracts with the contact
potential c . If the p side is made more positive with respect to the n side (assumed positive

convention of V) it subtracts from c . Since the potential barrier reduces, the width of the space
charge layer and the maximum electric field strength at the junction also reduce. The p-n junction
is said to be forward biased under this condition. Reversing the polarity of V (i.e reverse biasing
the p-n junction) has the opposite effect.

Application of an external voltage does not qualitatively change the shapes of the space charge
density, electric field or the electric potential distribution. Therefore, all the relationships given so
far hold good with suitable modifications. In particular

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W(v) = Width of the space charge region with applied external voltage V

2   Na + Nd  2  c  N a + N d   V
  c - V  = 1 - 
qN a N d qN a N d  c 

or W(v) = Wo 1-  v  (m)
 c 

2c 
 1- V 
2  c - V   c 

Similarly E max  v = =
W  v Wo 1- V
c

2c
or E Max  V  = 1- V (n)
Wo c

Characteristics of Diode
 Severe over voltage / over current may be caused by a diode switching at different points
in the circuit using the diode.
 Voltage and current exist simultaneously during switching operation of a diode.
 reverse voltage and current
 peak current and voltage
 capacitance
 recovery time
 sensitivity to temperature

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5. Diode Construction
A diode is a two terminal device made by a P type and n type materials or between a semiconductor
and a metal. If the junction is made between a metal and semiconductor then it is called a Schottky
diode whose application is in rectifying and non-rectifying contacts and Schottky devices.

There are various methods of fabrication of a junction depending on the application of the diode.

Table 1 gives selected a few techniques and applications.

S.N. Fabrication Technique Application

o
1 Alloy Junction: A small dot of In is kept on n type Si and heated to 150 C. High
It melts and dissolves. The temperature is then lowered.
PIV diode
2. Point Contact: The junction area is kept very small so that the High
capacitance value is low.
Frequency
(10Ghz)
3. Epitaxial Growth: Junction is fabricated on an epitaxial layer. Low

Resistance
4. Grown Junction: Czochralski technique where a single semiconductor High current
seed which is immersed in molten semiconductor material is gradually application
with drawn with the help of a rod which holds the seed. pn junction is because of
fabricated by first adding p type and then n type impurity. high area of
contact.

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6. Diodes Applications
6.1 Signal Rectifier
If the input is not a sine wave, we usually do not think of it as a rectification in the sense as it was
for power supply. For instance, we might want to have a series of pulses corresponding to the
rising edge of a square wave (see Fig. 10, left hand side and right hand side of the capacitor C).
While both, the rising and the falling, pulses are in the output after differentiation performed by
CR circuit. The simplest way is to rectify the differentiated wave.

Fig.12. A series of pulses' rectifier.

We should remember about forward drop voltage of the diode: This circuit gives no output for
signal for input smaller then, forward drop voltage, let us say 0.5 V pp (peak to peak). If this is a
problem, there are various tricks that help to combat this limitation. For instance:
1. use Schottky diodes with smaller forward drop voltage (approximately 0.2V),
2. use so called circuit solution, which means modifying the circuit structure and compensating
the drop,
3. use matched-pair compensation, use transistors, FETs.

6.2 Diode Gates

Another application of diode is to pass the higher of two voltages without affecting the lower. A
good example is battery backup, a method of keeping s device running (for instance a precision
electronic clock) in case of power failure. Figure 11 shows a circuit that does the job.

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Fig.13. Diode OR gate, battery backup.

[OR gate: The output of OR gate is HIGH if either input (or both) is HIGH. In general, gates can
have any number of inputs. The output is LOW only if all inputs are LOW].

1. The battery does nothing until the power fails.

2. Then the battery takes over the control, without interruption.

6.3 Diode Clamps (stabilizatory poziomu)

Sometimes it is necessary to limit the range of signal (for instance not to exceed certain voltage
limit and not to destroy a device). The circuit in Fig. 12 will accomplish this.

Fig.14. Diode voltage clamp.

The diode prevents the output from exceeding  5.6V, with no effect on voltages smaller than this,
including negative voltages. The only limitation is that the input must not be so negative that the
reverse breakdown voltage is exceeded. Diode clamps are the standard equipment on all inputs in
the CMOS family of digital logic (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor). Without them,
the delicate input circuits are easily destroyed by static electricity.

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6.4 Limiter
The circuit in Fig.13 limits the output swing to one diode drop, roughly 0.6V.

Fig.15. Diode limiter.

It might seem very small, but if the next device is an amplifier with large voltage amplification, its
input has to be always near zero voltage. Otherwise the output is in state of saturation. For instance
we have an op amp with a gain of 1000. The amplifier operates with supply voltage 15V.
Sometimes it can be 12V or 18V or something in between. It will never give output voltage
bigger than the supply voltage, i.e. 15V. It means that the input signal 15mV (15V/1000) or
bigger will saturate the output. This particular amplifier gives the output proportional to the input
(proportionality factor is 1000) only for input signals from the interval (-15mV,+15mV).
This diode limiter is often used as input protection for high-gain amplifiers.

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References
1. A E. Fitzgerald and C. Kingsley,Electric Machinery.
2. D. Zorbas, Electric Machines-Principles, Applications, and Control Schematics.
3. http://en.wikipedia.org
4. M. Liwschitz-Garik and C. C. Whipple,Electric Machinery.
5. Foundations of Electronic Circuits and Devices, R.L. Meade, R. Diffenderfer, Ed.
Thomson Delmar Learning
6. T. Wildi,Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems.
7. V. del Toro,Electric Machines and Power Systems.

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