Heat Transfer
Improve and Maintain
Cooling Tower
Efficiency
James L. Willa
Willa, Inc.
T
HE COOLING TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE (CTI)
helps industry improve the design of cooling towers
and tests cooling towers to an accuracy of one-tenth of
one degree Fahrenheit. Specifying engineers, likewise, go to
great lengths to obtain the proper cooling tower. Yet, once
towers are placed in service, they often do not get the attention
they deserve and they begin to lose much more than tenths of
a degree in performance. Such loss in thermal performance of
cooling towers is unnecessary.
Debottlenecking projects often reveal the cooling tower as
a (or the) production-limiting factor. Therefore, uprating of
cooling towers has become the buzzword in the cooling tower
industry for the past few years, and it appears that this trend
will continue for some time.
Uprating means getting colder water back from the tower
under current operating conditions, or maintaining current
cold-water return temperatures under increased heat load, or
various combinations of both. There are several valid
approaches to this problem, many of which require substantial
changes and expenditures.
Three factors affect a cooling tower’s performance: the
amount of water being pumped over the tower (L), the
amount of air being pumped through the tower (G), and
the “tower characteristic,” which is a measure of the
tower’s heat transfer ability and is represented by the term
KaV/L. A change in any of these factors will change the
tower’s thermal performance.
Total water flow can be altered by changing the pump-
ing rate to produce a water flowrate above or below the
design rate. In general, if this difference is excessive, the
Changing maintenance and/or
operating procedures can
significantly increase cooling
tower performance without
major capital expenditures.
Here are some tips for ensuring
proper design and operation of
various tower components.
distribution system is adversely affected, either by flood-
ing at high water flow or by improper spray patterns at
low water flow.
Airflow can be affected by changing the static pressure
against which the fan is pumping, fan speed, pitch or efficien-
cy. It is usually not possible to change the speed of an operat-
ing fan. However, pitch and efficiency can be influenced. A
change in static pressure is the most common cause of a
change in airflow.
A change in the tower characteristic, or ability to cool
water, is brought about primarily by changes in physical con-
figuration in the wetted surface area.
The performance of the tower depends not only on
maintaining the proper water/air ratio (L/G), but it also is
based on the assumption that the water and air are thor-
oughly mixed or both properly distributed. However, in the
real world, they very seldom are evenly and thoroughly
mixed. The problem of proper distribution is the most sig-
nificant factor affecting the thermal performance of a cool-
ing tower, and will be discussed in detail in a companion
article next month.
Louvers
Keep louvers free of algae, moss and scale (Figure 1)to
prevent increased static pressure and a reduction in airflow.
One tower inspected had silica scale obstructing one-third of
the total air inlet area, even though the vertical distance
between louvers was 36 in.
New counterflow towers are built without louvers. On
existing counterflow towers, two of every three louvers of the
CEP www.cepmagazine.org April 2005 31
Heat Transfer

■ Figure 1 (left). Louvers should be kept clean and free of materials that
would impede airflow.
■ Figure 2 (above). To improve airflow, two of every three louvers can be
removed.

old style (1/2 in. by 6 in. by 3 ft) can be removed. On old
straight-wall crossflow towers, two out of every three louvers
can be removed (Figure 2).
Keep steam exhaust and/or other heat sources from enter-
ing the air inlets. Where steam-driven pumps are used, be cer-
tain the exhaust steam stack is tall enough to prevent its dis-
charge from reaching the air inlets.
On crossflow towers, maintain the 1-ft-tall plywood air seal
below the bottom louvers to prevent air from bypassing under
the fill.
Casing
Any hole, crack or leak through the casing causes loss of
air through the fill. The closer the leak is to the top of the
tower, the more damaging the effect.
Missing corner rolls near the top of a counterflow tower
can be the source of an appreciable bypass air leak into the
plenum area.
Quite often, a new tower will have its casing installed leak-
free with caulking. Then the fire protection contractor will cut
Fan Stack
Distribution
Deck
Plenum Chamber
Plenum
Chamber
Distribution
Drift E
a 1-ft-square hole through the casing for a 6-in. sprinkler sup-
ply line. Be sure that all holes and cracks are patched.
End-wall entrance doors on crossflow towers must be kept
intact and closed.
Basin
Total cooling ability depends not only on proper cold water
temperature, but also on getting this water to the right places
in the right amounts. Therefore, the sump screens are an
important, though almost universally neglected, factor in the
tower’s cooling ability.
All towers must have a double screen at every
outlet to a sump or pump. The cooling tower, due to
its size and negative pressure at the air inlets, acts
as a huge vacuum cleaner and air washer — sucking
up dust, plastic sandwich bags, foam coffee cups,
paper, cardboard, plastic sheets, etc. The screens are
designed to keep this material out of the heat
exchanger tubes.
However, more than 90% of all screens do not have a
debris-catcher on the first screen (the
screens should be installed in sets of
Fan Stack
two). Thus, when the first screen is
removed for cleaning, the trapped
debris falls to the bottom, under the
Drift Eliminators
first screen to the second screen.

Fill Fill
Air
Inlet
When the second screen is removed
Fill
Louvers
for cleaning, the debris escapes
li
mina

Air under the bottom and travels through

tors

Air Inlet
Water
Air
Louvers the pump and into the exchanger,
Cold Water Basin where even one plastic bag can plug
Cold Water Basin four or five tubes.
The lead screen must have a 6-
■ In a crossflow tower (left), the air passes through the fill media in a horizontal direction, across the down-
ward flowing water droplets. In a counterflow tower (right), air travels vertically upward through the fill and in.-wide by 6-in.-deep screen-lined
contacts the water droplets falling downward through the media. cup or catch on the bottom edge to

32 www.cepmagazine.org April 2005 CEP

catch debris when the screens are lifted for cleaning. Use
stainless steel framing and a 1/2-in.-mesh stainless steel screen
liner for this cup.
The screens must be cleaned regularly. A hoist, either
hand-operated or electric, should be installed over the screens,
and the tops of the screens should have adequate hooks or
handles for attachment to the hoist.
Choose the location where the screens will be cleaned
carefully. An inspection of a hyperbolic natural-draft tower
revealed excellent stainless steel screens with cups, hoists, etc.
However, they were moved by the hoist to one side, leaned
against the louver face, and washed with a pressure hose. All
the wood fiber and other debris went right back into the tower
through the louvers. The hoist support rail must extend past
the sump to a cleaning area away from the tower.
Extraneous streams are often dumped into the cooling
tower basin. Streams such as steam condensate from steam-
powered circulating water pumps, hot water from the steam
condenser on the cold water pumps, and hot boiler blowdown
used for makeup are detrimental to the cooling tower.
The most common extraneous stream, and usually the
most detrimental, is side-stream filter water. This water is
generally taken from the hot water line into the tower, then
run through the side-stream filter and then back into the
basin, since it has insufficient remaining head to be put
over the top of the tower.
In one 10-cell, 6-cube double-flow crossflow tower, a
stream of water was taken off the hot water header and run
through an elaborate side-stream filter setup, which is
good. However, the effluent from the side-stream filter
was then piped back to the cold water basin. The thermal
performance test on this unit revealed that a 0.7°F rise in
the cold water temperature in this 107,000-gal/min cooling
tower was due to this bypassing of hot water directly into
the basin. The company had just paid approximately
$250,000 to lower the cold water temperature by 0.9°F in
a 4-cell crossflow tower to increase its production efficien-
cy; yet it allowed the 10-cell tower to lose 0.7°F strictly
for the lack of a line running to the top of the tower and
the addition of the side-stream filter water into the distri-
bution basin rather than in the cold water basin. Even the
addition of a small pump if necessary to accomplish this
would be a minor expenditure, compared to the difference
in cooling tower performance.
All extraneous streams above the cold water tempera-
ture should go over the top of the tower, where the effect
will be minimal.
Do not allow hot water to bypass into the cold water basin.
Often, a bypass line opened in the winter will be left open dur-
ing the summer. Many counterflow risers have drain lines
from above the valve into the basin. These lines are for winter
use, to drain and prevent freezing in out-of-service risers.
However, many are left open when the seasons change.
Add cold water to the acid dilution trough, not hot water.
Remember, the “product” of the cooling tower is cold water
— don’t pollute it with hot streams, and don’t waste it. Many
plants blow down with cold water, whereas hot water should
be used for blowdown.
Chlorine and other algicide/slimicide injection locations
should be selected where these treatments are most needed. If
slime in the exchanger is the most critical problem, then the
chlorine should be added into the sump or somewhere near it.
However, if algae growth on the distribution deck of a cross-
flow tower is causing poor distribution and loss of perform-
ance, or the film-pack fill is being plugged, then chlorine
should be added to the hot-water supply line.
Water distribution patterns in the unit are most important.
Many times, the spare cooling tower pump is run continuous-
ly. This results in more water flowing over the tower, which
raises the cold water temperature. This rise in cold water tem-
perature often outweighs the gain in heat exchange from the
increased velocity. Avoid this “send more water syndrome.”
Fill
This is where most of the heat transfer takes place. The fill
must be kept clean from algae, slime, scale, product contami-
nation, mud and debris, particularly film-pack-type fill.
Splash fill. Splash fill (Figure 3) must be kept level and in
position. The first 6 ft of crossflow fill near the air inlet
should be secured in place with plastic clips to the support
grid, and its overhang past the last support grid near the lou-
vers should never exceed 6 in. Ice-damaged fill slats near the
perimeter must be repaired or repositioned. When icing
threatens to be a problem, heavy-duty redwood fill should be
used rather than plastic.
Crossflow and counterflow fills should not be used inter-
■ Figure 3. Splash fill should be held securely in place.
CEP www.cepmagazine.org April 2005 33
Heat Transfer
■ Figure 4. Film-pack fill is more susceptible to clogging and plugging
than splash fill.
changeably. Crossflow splash fill should be positioned parallel
to airflow in most cases. Missing fill should be replaced.
Film-pack fill. Film-pack fill (Figure 4) has a much larger
surface area than splash fill, and is much more efficient per
foot of height, which allows increased efficiency and reduced
pumping head. However, film-pack fill does have limitations.
It is much more susceptible to decreases in performance from
poor distribution patterns, and is more susceptible to clogging
or plugging. Indeed, all film-pack fill will clog or plug under
adverse conditions.
During the 1950s and early 1960s, it was very difficult to
convince industrial users to accept film-pack fill. The pendu-
lum has now swung completely the other way. Now, film-pack
fill is used in many, if not most, cooling towers. Many of these
applications are not suited to film-pack fill due to water condi-
tions and/or product contamination, which will result in its
fouling or plugging. Therefore, a thorough investigation of the
water and possible contaminants should be conducted before
using film-pack fill.
The best defense against loss of performance due to fill
problems is a good water-treatment program that will prevent
accumulation of mud, algae, slime and scale, and a good
screen design and operation to prevent debris accumulation.
Fan stacks
Holes in the fan stack beneath the fan cause air to bypass
the fill. The most common holes in this area are slots in the
fan stack at the drive shaft, oil line and mechanical equipment
support steel. The hole for the drive shaft should not be a slot,
but only a hole approximately 2 in. larger in diameter than the
coupling on the drive shaft. The oil line, vent line and any
other line or beam penetrating the stack should have holes
only large enough for a tight fit around the line or beam.
Vertical joints must be kept tight, and caulking or putty, where
used, must be kept in place.
The backpressure against the fan can be reduced and
the air delivery increased at the same horsepower by using
a tall velocity-recovery fan stack that flares out after the
34 www.cepmagazine.org April 2005 CEP
throat area, thereby increasing the discharge area and
reducing the backpressure.
The fan blade tip clearance should be kept to a minimum,
such as 1 in. to 1-1/2 in. for a 28-ft-dia. fan. If the tip clear-
ance is greater than this, a tip seal should be installed.
Fan deck
Any hole in the fan deck will leak air, which bypasses the
water. Holes are common under the fan motor, and somewhat
less common around the perimeter of a counterflow tower
between the fan deck and the outside casing. Access hatches
must be kept closed.
Often, when the fan deck is repaired, boards will be left
extending into the fan stack area. These must always be cut off
flush with the inside bottom flange of the fan stack to avoid
obstructing the airflow. Pultruded glass-reinforced polyester
panels should be used for any new or replaced fan deck.
On counterflow towers, a ladder should extend from the
fan deck through the drift eliminators to the top of the fill.
This will facilitate periodic checking of the distribution.
Fans
The fan blades must be pitched evenly. The degree of pitch
must be high enough so that the motor draws a full current
load or very near full load during summer operation. The
blades may be left at this pitch all year.
Even though the colder (heavier) air of winter will increase
the load on the fan, two compensating factors offset this. First,
the air going through the fan is the hot air coming off the hot
water, and its temperature does not vary nearly as much as the
ambient air temperature. Second, the motor is being cooled by
outside ambient (cold) air, which will prevent the motor from
overheating during winter operation, even if it is drawing
somewhat more than the rated amperage.
A very common mistake is to leave the center air disk or
air seal off the fan. This allows easier access to the fan blade
attachment area for mechanics. However, it also allows the air
near the center to flow backwards or down through the fan.
This can be a significant loss (up to 15%), which is reflected
directly as a 15% loss in total performance.
The fans must be kept running at full speed for maxi-
mum performance. Mechanical equipment must be kept in
good order, and vibration kept below the level that will trig-
ger the vibration switch. The vibration switch should be set
to allow starting torque and sensitive enough to prevent
excessive vibration, but not so sensitive that it causes unnec-
essary shutdowns. The vibration switch should be mounted
on the fan motor or on the motor end of the mechanical
equipment support steel.
Fan blades must be kept clean and free of algae and scale,
with smooth leading edges.
Mechanical equipment support
The fan stack must be sealed tight against the support
steel. Torque tubes must be sealed on one end, preferably
the outboard end, to prevent major air loss. Plastic caps
on the outboard end are normal, but often are missing. A
steel plate welded on the inboard end keeps saturated air
out of the tubes.
Crossflow short wall
Any air leak into the tower reduces performance. The
closer the leak is to the fan, the more air will pass through
a given size leak, due to increasing negative pressure near-
er the fan.
Missing boards or panels and holes in the crossflow
short wall, i.e., the wall between the fan deck and the dis-
tribution deck, will significantly reduce the airflow
through the fill. Seals are often left out between fan deck
joists when new mechanical equipment supports are
installed, which causes major leaks. Access panels through
this wall to the plenum area must be kept closed.
Drift eliminators
Any pluggage in the drift eliminators (Figure 5) can cause
uneven or reduced airflow. This pluggage can be caused by
algae, slime, moss and mud accumulation, which should be
controlled by chlorine or other algicide and dispersants. It can
be caused by scale, which can be controlled by proper pH,
blowdown and dispersants. Objects on the drift eliminators
such as scaffold boards, work platforms, collapsed partition
walls, walkways, etc. can also restrict air flow.
■ Figure 5. Drift eliminators must be kept clean (bottom) and not allowed
to become clogged with plant growth and other pluggage (top).
Missing blades or sections of drift eliminators not only
cause increased drift, but also induce uneven airflow pat-
terns and loss of performance.
In counterflow towers, an access panel in the drift elimina-
tors must be provided to allow inspection and work on the dis-
tribution system.
Be certain the seals at the top of the drift eliminators in
crossflow towers are intact, to prevent air bypass.
Proper chemical treatment is the best way to keep drift
eliminators clean.
Partitions
Wind checks in the bottom of counterflow towers are
important, particularly in towers with open end walls.
These partitions reduce the amount of water blown out of
the bottom of the tower by wind (called windage) and help
direct the airflow properly. Keep them intact by renailing
when necessary.
Partitions between cells do not play an active role in per-
formance as long as all cells are in operation. However, main-
tenance and load conditions often call for one or more fans to
be out of service. Complete intact partitions with doors closed
(on crossflow towers) are important to prevent active fans
from pulling air from the plenum of adjacent inoperative cells,
thereby bypassing the fill.
Distribution systems
All cooling tower calculations and rating systems must pre-
sume the air and water to be evenly and thoroughly mixed.
However, in the real world, they very seldom are. Improper
distribution is the most significant factor affecting the thermal
performance of a cooling tower, and will be discussed in detail
in a companion article next month.
JAMES L. WILLA has over 50 years of experience in the cooling tower
industry. He has been a consultant for 18 years and is president of
Willa, Inc. (18 Fortune Lane, St. Louis, MO 63122; Phone: (314) 965-
5051; E-mail: jwilla@willainc.com), a firm engaged in cooling tower
testing, inspecting, seminars, specification review, bid evaluations, and
project engineering. He was vice president and president of a major
cooling tower manufacturing company for 23 years. He worked
extensively with the Cooling Technology Institute — he performed all
CTI’s testing and inspecting for 13 years, chaired the CTI Engineering
Standards and Maintenance Committee and the Operating Seminar, and
conducted research for CTI bulletins on wood maintenance,
recirculation, performance testing, lumber standards, treating
standards, certification program, and the performance curves “Blue
Book.” He served twice as president of CTI and several times as a board
member, and has been a member of several technical organizations. He
has written and published numerous papers, given many seminars,
served on committees at CTI, ASME, American Wood-Preservers
Association (AWPA), and the National Association of Corrosion
Engineers (NACE), where he is listed as a corrosion specialist. He
graduated from Rice Univ. with a BA and BS in chemical engineering.
CEP www.cepmagazine.org April 2005 35