OPPORTUNISM IN PRACTICE.

i. Opportunism and Social Development.

jHERE is now no longer any doubt that we have a full

fledged opportunism in Germany. There was a time

—
not so long ago the youngest in the party can still re-
—
member it when the German Social Democracy was
considered immune against opportunism. At that time, all that
was necessary to kill any political measure in the party was to
point out its opportunist character. For it was considered an
axiom that the party should not, and could not, be opportunistic.
Any one who two or three years ago dared to charge any promi-
nent party member with opportunism was denounced as a ca-
lamity howler and was liable to be kicked out of the party as a
rowdy for "personal abuse."
But now neither the term opportunism nor its meaning are
—
shunned. Political fops we have some even in our party
boast of their opportunism and flaunt it in everybody's face while
;

revolutionary tactics appear as old-fashioned and provincial to

the eyes of these politicians of the latest make-up as the long
coats and overgrown "stovepipes" of 1848. In short, the oppor-
tunist has arrived and enjoys life. And the fact of his existence
serves him as his stock argument in defending his right to exist-
ence and his political value. He declares "Haven't I been re-
:

peatedly repudiated, beaten in debate, and otherwise annihilated?

Has not all the world been frequently convinced that I should
never recover, after having my sterility of mind, my ignorance,
and my falsification of quotations so mercilessly and so justly ex-
posed? Nevertheless I always return, and I grow daily more
insolent. Is not that sufficient proof that I am the necessary and
natural product of historic development? What is the matter
with your conception of social evolution ?"
The development of the social democracy cannot be detached
from the general political development of the capitalistic world.
The revolutionary activity of the proletariat is not equivalent to
its revolutionary perception. And a man's grasp of social phe-
nomena is not due simply to revolutionary propaganda. The
diligence of our propaganda and the clear perception of our aims
are far from being the only factors that produce a revolutionary
effect. The great interrelations of the world market that deter-
mine the pace of industrial development the periodical change of
;

prosperity and crisis the stagnation of the population in the rural

;

districts or the crowding of country people into the cities emi- ;

gration, development of capitalist colonies, rise of new industrial

352 INTERNATIONAL SOCIALIST REVIEW

countries, and the decay of old forms of production ; the forma-

tion of new world powers and the weakening or downfall of old
ones ; war and peace, the struggle between nations, the fight for
politicaldemocracy, the reactionary tendencies of governments,
the conflicting interests of the bourgeois parties themselves, the
fight between church and state all these are exerting a momen-
;

tous influence on the revolutionary activity of the proletariat. In

the proletarian struggle for emancipation as well as in the eco-
nomic and political development of capitalism, there are periods
of intensified pressure and of lagging advance; there are times
of enthusiastic onslaught and push when the working class sur-
prises the world by its resolute, courageous attitude and its dar-
ing plans; there are times of depression, when that class is ir-
resolute and diffident, apparently wasting its world-stirring
strength in trifles.
The great historical storms of the revolution in 1848 were
followed by a strong depression. This was relieved in the sixties
by a new upward movement that found its expression in the In-
ternational, the Commune, and the grand political organizations
of the German laborers. A renewed relapse took place after the
events of 1870-71, naturally lasting longest in France, and then
came another start ahead. This last period is marked by the
alignment of the proletariat in great parliamentary parties. Es-
pecially in Germany we witness this tendency. Through the
rapid development into a great capitalist state, masses of factory
workers were gathered together and whole branches of industry
were revolutionized, such as tailoring by the merchant tailors,
shoemaking by the shoe factories. The growth of the great cities
created the modern building trades, quite different from the
bricklayers and joiners of the small towns. A new political and
ethical life began to stir, and the Socialists infused it with a ready
organization and a clear-cut program. Meantime the bourgeoisie
that had no other record to show but the political traditions of
half-heartedness, weakness, cowardice, and treason, groveled at
the feet of Bismarck, while this janitor of the house of Hohen-
zollern flung to them as the gracious gift of the King of Prussia
that German unity, to which they were incapable of attaining
themselves. The iron chancellor himself became entangled in a
quarrel with the Catholic clergy which, in spite of its brutality,
was as silly an undertaking as it was irresolute. And by the help
of the laws of exception he hammered class consciousness and
solidarity into the vigorously growing young social democracy.
A similar evolution took place in France, Austria, Italy, Bel-
gium, Holland, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Spain.
This new period of advance in the revolutionary fight tempo-
rarily reached its climax in 1889 at Paris. The organizations
 OPPORTUNISM IN PRACTICE 353

have indeed grown tremendously since then, but the energy of

revolutionary initiative displayed at the first international Social-
ist congress, the convocation of which was in itself a great
achievement, has not been equalled since. The movement kept
up to the high water mark for some years, and then we entered
on the dull stage in which we now find ourselves. The growth of
the organizations still continues, but the surface of the great his-
torical current no longer shows the former uniformity. We see
side and counter currents gliding along in thin bands, and we
also find oil on the waves. These phenomena may be explained
by many negative and positive reasons.
The primary purpose of parliamentary combination was agi-
tation. But parliamentarianism could not forever remain a mere
means of propaganda. The growth of the party's political influ-
ence created a desire to aim at practical results. When the So-
cialist party was small and weak, it blamed the class character
of the state for many shortcomings that were really the result of
its own feebleness. But when the strengthened party now suc-
ceeds in gradually gaining many a parliamentary victory, then the
brain of the parliamentarian is apt to regard it in the light of a
contradiction to the principle of righting the capitalist state. At
the same time the political activity of the social democracy be-
comes more varied, many-sided, and goes into many details. The
petty work of politics is not only unavoidable, it is also eminently
revolutionary; but many a man who concentrates his mind on
detail work, loses sight of the great outlines. Besides, it is not
to be expected that a great historical movement like the prole-
tarian that is on the eve of touching with its numerous political
phenomena the entire public life, should clearly show its funda-
mental character in every detail. The more powerful the revo-
lutionary movement grows, the more scope is given for deviations
and irregularities in details. It becomes more difficult to recog-
nize the fundamental character of the movement in those details,
and we must pay all the more heed to the general relations of
things. In short, parliamentarianism offers to Socialists many
practical problems that are apt to lead them away from the policy
of fighting the capitalist state on principle. An outside observer
is stttl more easily misled by them.
On the other hand, the exceedingly painful process of revolu-
tionizing the trades, that brought many despairing individuals
into the ranks of the Socialist party, may now be considered as
being practically completed in Western Europe. The ruined
.

craftsman finds a certain satisfaction and a moral hold in a gen-

:

eral critique of capitalist conditions. But this does not satisfy the
industrial laborer. He wants to get rid of his misery first of all.
He wants great revolutionary changes if possible^ but he also ac--
354 INTERNATIONAL SOCIALIST REVIEW

cepts small ones if there is no help for it. Without stopping to

discuss the solution of this problem, I only wish to state that this
creates another desire for a "positive" action. The policy of the
state against the Socialist party has also changed considerably.
It is safe to assume that, generally speaking, the period of politi-
cal disfranchisement and muzzling of the proletariat is past. I do
not mean to convey the idea that the capitalist state has entirely
renounced the use of force against the Socialist party; but it is
true, the state has realized that petty police measures are futile.
After the many defeats received at the hands of the Socialists, the
state is now bent on establishing a parliamentary truce with So-
cialism. This is the case not alone in France, where a ministry
of "social peace" has actually been established, but also in Ger-
many, in Austria, and, lately, in Italy. These tactics are favored
by the circumstance that the colonial policy and the foreign rela-
tions have of late assumed an unequalled importance for capitalist
states. This draws the attention of the governments away from
the interior policy. The desire for internal peace awakes, be-
cause it is necessary to have the hands free for war outside. This
relaxation of the political reaction also has a soothing effect. The
illusions produced in the brains are all the more luxuriant, the
better the soil was previously manured by social reform. The
industrial prosperity of the last years has contributed its share to
foster these illusions.
Of course all these factors cannot change the revolutionary
character of the proletarian class struggle, but they fully suffice
to create in the brains of some parliamentarians, lawyers and
journalists the peculiar hash of ideas characteristic of opportun-
ism. The hollow heads of bourgeois newspaper scribes form
the sounding board necessary to give publicity to this sort of
thing.
But already we can plainly observe the indications of an evo-
lution that must lead to a new revolutionary concentration of
the proletariat. The balance of commercial supremacy on the
capitalist world market is preparing to shift. All the world per-
ceives that the industrial power of England is threatened. That
cannot remain without influence on the policy of the English la-
boring class. The industrial liberalism of England has passed
through a magnificent development since the repeal of the corn
laws, and it even succeeded in tying the laborers to its triumphal
chariot. But the golden time of England's commercial suprem-
acy is past. English capital is being hard pressed in the home
market and the colonial market. The development of the export
 OPPORTUNISM IN PRACTICE 355

and the industries has long ceased to keep pace with the capital-
ist development of other countries. What is to be done ? "What
will be the consequence, when the influx of continental and espe-
cially of American products will grow in an ever-increasing ra-
tio, when the present lion's share of English factories in sup-
plying the world will shrink from year to year? Answer, free
trade, you panacea !" This question, posed by Frederick Engels
in 1885, is now being answered by streams of blood: "Imperial-
ism !" English imperialism is the last desperate step of English
capital endeavoring to maintain for a little while longer its com-
mercial supremacy on the sea. It is beyond doubt that this at-
tempt has failed. Whatever may be the formal end of the South
African war, it will not create the coveted basis for the forma-
tion of a British world empire it rather marks the beginning
;

of a retrogressive era of English world power. Either imme-

diately or after a short whirl of sham prosperity, this war will be
followed by an appalling economic and political insolvency.
Before everybody's eyes, tsarism is meantime drawing an
iron semicircle, reaching from Pekin to the Persian Gulf and
possessing numerous fortified points, around the English sphere
of influence in Asia. Meantime, also, the German and American
export trade presses hard on the English industry in the world
market. Since Engels wrote those words, English liberalism
—
the political representative of industrial capital has continually
grown weaker. It has split into factions and continues to split.
It does not dare to assume the full responsibility for the policy
of the government, nor to oppose it on principle. Thus English
liberalism shares the fate of all bourgeois liberalism: political
dissolution. That frees the English laborers and must force
them to form a political party of their own. The farther the
British state will be compelled to proceed on the road of militar-
ism, and the more critical the situation becomes in the world's
market, the more will the prospects of the English Socialists
brighten. Every year brings England closer to the question:
"Either the nation goes to pieces or the capitalist production."
(Engels.)
The industrials of the continent rejoice over the imminent
downfall of England, for they hope to divide the English inherit-
ance among themselves. Especially the German capitalist con-
siders himself the predestined successor of England in trade su-
premacy. Futile speculation ! The dispute is much more gen-
eral than between two nations. The competition between whole
continents is involved. The industrial future belongs to Amer-
ica and Russia. These countries have the advantage over old
Europe through their geographical position, their immense ex-
tension, the colossal scale on which the industries develop from
S5G INTERNATIONAL SOCIALIST REVIEW

the very beginning, and their political unity. Their competition

threatens Germany and France as well as England. In vain
does Germany throw the weight of its war forces into the scale
it cannot thereby reduce the distances of the world market, nor

increase the industrial potencies of Europe. German imperial-

ism has so far done very good work for Socialism. And it will
continue to do so, if we can only keep opportunism out of the
policy of the party.
Aside from economic conflicts Europe, cursed with historical
traditions and politically divided, will also have to undergo po-
litical conflicts. There are historical moments when evolution
in the various fields has matured to the point of a crisis and ev-
erything tends toward a grand revolution. For instance, during
the revolutionary struggles of 1848, we had the identification of
the idea of liberty with the conception of a united Germany, a
united Italy and an independent Hungary. At present we also
are in a period of general restlessness. The Eastern question de-
mands settlement, the quarrel of the Austrian nationalities has
paralyzed the machinery of state. Unless one is absolutely con-
vinced that the Austrian state will last forever, one cannot ignore
the evil signs of disintegration to be witnessed during the last
years. The political system of Europe, which breaks up the na-
tionalities in one place and bunches them together in another,
has again come into conflict with the tendency of history to form
great national bodies. The whole system of small states in
Western Europe becomes more and more an obstacle in the way
of the capitalistic development of the immense economic organi-
zations of America and Russia. The capitalistic world market
demands with ever greater insistence the formation of a united
Europe. But a united Europe can only be a republic. And
while this is going on in Western Europe, the land of tsarism
shows every day more plainly how incapable it is of mastering
the forces set loose by capitalist development. The young pro-
letariat lifts its daring head and draws closer and closer around
the throne of the autocrat, in spite of knout and Siberia.
We see, it is not necessary to think of a social revolution in
order to hold that the political development of Europe will not
run smoothly and peacefully. And I also believe that many a
man who gradually and gently transforms capitalism into so-
cialism — —
on paper will stop short before the task of minor his-
torical importance involved in painlessly merging into one the
houses of Hapsburg, Savoy, and a score of other political firms
of the grace of God. But whether the political evolution of Eu-
rope proceeds more or less stormily, its influence on the concen-
tration of the revolutionary proletariat is proven beyond doubt
by all the experiences of the past century. This concentration
 OPPORTUNISM IK PRACTICE 357

will proceed all the more easily, as the incessant

progress of the
political consolidation of the proletariat has created organiza-
tions of such grand dimensions, that they are unique in the po-
litical history of Europe and have never been equalled by any
attempts of the proletariat at organization. At the same time a
more rapid process of expropriation is lately taking place in in-
dustry, throwing aside the capitalist middle class and creating
immense combinations, giant pools, that concentrate the class
struggle of the laborers in the same measure in which they con-
centrate production. The question of property is thereby re-
duced to the simple problem monopoly of a capitalist combina-
:

tion or collectivism? And under the pressure of electro-techni-

cal development, a fundamental revolution of the entire pro-
ductive activity is also taking place.
Capitalist development is proceeding much more rapidly
than the evolution of so-called "public opinion.' 7
It is always
considerably ahead of the ideas that dominate in the press and
the parliament. Hardly have the bourgeois idea mongers had
time to prepare their little doctrines and wishing slips for a
quiet, slow, and easy capitalist development, when it suddenly
bursts forth impetuously, rushes on madly, and behaves in gen-
eral as if it* were specially bent on hoodwinking its friends. The
influence of this always belated public opinion of the bourgeois
reaches even to the ranks of the Socialists. Were we to judge
of the political character of the proletarian class struggle by the
opinions uttered daily in the ranks of the labor parties, then we
should often have good reasons for discouragement. But the
revolutionary character of the labor movement is founded on
facts, not on the vacillating opinions of this or that man who
may temporarily disport himself as the mouthpiece of the party.
There are always certain unlucky birds in the party whom the
revolutionary perception approaches mostly from the outside,
in the shape of literary or political drubbings. If we view evolu-
tion from we must admit that the German Social
this point,
Democracy brought forth a good deal of revolutionary percep-
tion during the last years. For whenever opportunistic tenden-
cies showed themselves, the revolutionary perception always, and
everywhere followed close behind. Opportunism was tracked
by revolutionary perception step by step, and often pulled out
of its darkest hiding place. The historical method bequeathed
by Marx and Engels affords the possibility of recognizing the
sources and consequences of errors and political mistakes made
by the proletariat. Thus we prevent disappointment, assist in
removing disarrangements, and endeavor to preserve the accu-
mulated revolutionary energy from wasting, until a new revolu-
358 INTERNATIONAL SOCIALIST BEYIEW

tionary concentration of the proletariat takes place under the

pressure of the conditions.
2. Opportunism and the Doctrine.
Since opportunism appeared among German Socialists, it has
never ceased to complain that it was being misunderstood. Voll-
man's eldorado speeches in 1891 were misunderstood, his re-
marks on State Socialism were misunderstood, the consent of the
Bavarian fraction in the Landtag to the budget was misunder-
stood, the idea of independent farmers in the draft of the South
German agrarian program was misunderstood, Schippel's posi-
tion toward militarism at the Hamburg congress was misunder-
stood, Heine's compromise policy was misunderstood, and finally
Bernstein's revision was misunderstood first by myself, then by
everybody else who attacked it, including Karl Kautsky, the in-
timate friend of Bernstein, with whom a twenty years' exchange
of ideas connected him. The capacity for being misunderstood
is the strongest intellectual weapon of opportunism. There are
politicians who can never succeed in being misunderstood, no
matter how much they try. They are rather too outspoken, draw
too one-sided conclusions out of individual eases and pay the
penalty by falling unawares into a ludicrous contradiction. A
contradiction arising from a daring and upright search for truth
and clearness is surely more praiseworthy than that intellectual
adaptability which always carries in its mouth two half-truths
that do not fit together because they belong to two different
wholes. But the contradiction is clearly apparent, the half-truth
is plainly perceptible.
The alleged misfortune of being misunderstood is founded in
the character of opportunism. First and most of all it is misun-
derstood by itself. It needs outside help in order to draw the
conclusions from its own actions, and a long experience in order
to know itself. When it first appears, it is only a modification, a
different shade of color, a grease spot. No matter how much it
grows, it never becomes a system, a doctrine, or even a principle.
It remains a shapeless, gelatinous mass. For this reason nothing
in the world is so distasteful to it as a firm outline, a doctrine or
a dogma. At the same time, when attacked, it never finds any
^

difficulty in adhering to a dogma.

Hence it has always been impossible to strike opportunism
by any resolution. When Bebel offered his resolution in Erfurt,
the congress was convinced that Yollmar would have to define
his position by certain amendments and additions. But he did
nothing of the kind and at once fully endorsed the resolution.
He even declared in his closing speech that he did not wish to
see the tactics of the party changed they suited him very well
;

as they were. Likewise Bernstein now endorses all resolutions.

 OPPORTUNISM IN PRACTICE 359

While carrying on a bitter fight against the entire scientific and

political activity of Marx and Engels, he declares that he is
standing on the ground created by the ideas and activity of these
men. And although an abyss has long since formed between
him and the entire policy and historical tradition of the party, he
persistently repeats that the party is standing on the same
ground with him and is only not aware of it.
To clearly formulate opportunism is not feasible. It is as
little adapted for that purpose as quicksand is for sculpturing.
In criticizing it, we must confine ourselves to exposing its origin,
its development, and its muddleheadedness.

One trait is common in the origin of all opportunist errors

in the Socialist labor movement the incapacity for organically
:

combining the present policy of the party with its final revolu-
tionary aim. In the eyes of the opportunists these two points
separate themselves: here the final aim, there the present policy.
At best they recognize a parallel activity: agitation for the social
revolution and activity within the capitalist state. That it is pos-
sible for our present activity to be thoroughly revolutionary with
all its variety, all its "positive" and practical character, even

in the old true sense of the term, according to which the social
revolution does not begin until the proletariat is supreme, that
passes their understanding. But the simple revolutionary spirit
that scorns all present activity is perfectly plain tO' them. Voll-
mar, e. g. t represented the so-called "young Socialists" as models
of consistency. In 1891, he described their position as follows:
"The modern social and political conditions are beyond improve-
ment. . . .Hence we have stood aloof from all participation
in practical politics and confine ourselves to protesting and wait-
ing, until our strength lies in the street and we can get the whole
at one stroke. And this time is near it even depends on us alone
;

to hasten its arrival." And he added "This position is doubtless

:

clear and precise."

But the position of Bebel, Liebknecht and others appears to
him as pure inconsistency. He writes in the same articles of the
Muenchener Post (Ueber Optimismus, reproduced in the pam-
phlet Ueber die naechsten Aufgaben der deutschen Sozialdemo-
kratie, publisher M
Ernst): "It directly contradicts our entire
conception of a gradual growing into a new form of society, if
now and then declarations are suddenly sprung on us that repre-
sent any for immediate measures as practically worthless.
work
... A prominent party member recently said in a well-con-
sidered speech at Berlin 'The state of the ruling classes will
:

never yield to more than petty concessions/ That might have

been said very well by one of the 'young Socialists' as an argu-
ment in favor of his policy of abstention from all practical poli-
360 INTERNATIONAL SOCIALIST REVIEW

tics and of pure agitation of principles. Why should we, indeed,

devote nine-tenths of our activity to work which will never yield
anything but insignificant results?" You see, what Vollmar
does not understand is the value of present day parliamentary
work and practical politics for our revolutionary propaganda.
This value will become plainly apparent when the class interest
or the class egoism of the ruling elements prevent the realization
of our demands by legal means. It was precisely this that was
later emphasized by the Erfurt resolution, and Vollmar did not
even hesitate to approve of it.
Whoever does not know how to combine the fight for social
revolution with the present day political or parliamentary work,
finds now the revolutionary agitation in the way of present day
work, now the latter in the way of the former. Hence he is
placed before the alternative: pure revolution, or pure reform.
That explains why the time limit plays such an important role
in the opportunist reflections on the social revolution. If the
revolution is impending, then they are freed from the vexing
problem and believe that there is no use in bothering with social
reform measures they are then extremely revolutionary. Thus
;

Vollmar replied to Bebel, who expected great social changes in

the near future "If I could share this belief, no regard to agita-
:

tion could induce me to continue any political chores." By the

way, that would be just the right method to delay the revolution
a little longer.
Whether it takes ten, or twenty, or fifty years for the prole-
tariat to obtain sufficient power to make an end of capitalist ex-
ploitation, that is a question of great ethical importance. But
revolutionary politics are not dependent on the date of the revo-
lution. They are the result of capitalist evolution that creates
an irreconcilable conflict between the working class and the capi-
talists, no matter whether its march is slow or rapid. It has
caused some surprise that Vollmar, who first was much more in-
clined to go to extremes in his ultra-revolutionary attitude, be-
came so moderate. We know to-day that therein lies a peculiar
consistency which was also exhibited later on by the "young
Socialists" of 1891, all of whom have shed their skins and become
Vollmarians unless, they have left politics entirely. It is clear if
;

a man is only a revolutionary, because he expects a revolution to-

morrow, he will turn into a reformer, if the revolution is delayed
by the march of events until the end of the week. The revolu-
tionism of the "young ones" was due more to desire than to con-
viction. It lacked the true insight into the development of social
conditions, and it was as hollow as their present opportunism.
But Marx and Engels fought for the social revolution during half
a century without wavering for a single moment. On the con-
 OPPORTUNISM IN PRACTICE 361

trary, their buoyancy increased with the years, far they had the
historical perception which the others lacked. Nor did August
Bebel change when no great political events took place by 1898.
It is not a matter of any great political day, but of great histori-
cal events that are not dependent so much on our ability to plan
ahead, as on capitalist development.
Vollmar, who charged Bebel with inconsistency because the
latter did not push his revolutionary tendencies to the point of
totally abandoning his "chores," failed to draw the logical con-
clusions from his own standpoint. For if such a chasm yawns
between the social revolution and the "daily chores/' then it fol-
lows that in order to devote ourselves fully to the "chores" we
should have to give up the idea of a social revolution. This
Vollmar did not do, however, but declared that he wished to
keep his eye on the "final aim" while doing his "chores/' Eduard
Bernstein went a step farther in his well-known statement "The
:

final aim is nothing, the movement everything to me." But this

is precisely the characteristic mark of opportunism that it does

not dare to solve the contradictions that entangle it. Once the
opportunist draws his conclusions as to social reforms, he ceases
to be an opportunist and becomes a reformer. That would at
once clear the situation, and we should settle the pure reformer's
account as quickly as we did the advocates of pure revolution.
The development of opportunism tends toward reformism.
But until this final result is reached, opportunism throws a cloak
over its own development. Thus the theories are born of a grad-
ual growing of society into socialism, of an insensible stifling of
capitalism, etc., all of which simply tend to substitute social re-
form for social revolution. They pretend to change things by
changing names. As this is impossible, they become gradually
involved in an irreconcilable opposition to their starting point,
They sneer at revolutionism, first proclaim the freedom of So-
cialist science, then appeal from science to the fallaciousness of
human perception, and finally make Socialism a matter of belief
and temperament. Hence these Socialists who first could not be
revolutionary enough, turn into social reformers long before
capitalism is transferred into Socialism. Instead of stifling capi-
talism, they choke their own political past.
So far from solving the contradiction in which he is entan-
gled, the opportunist transfers it to his whole party. He thinks
that in fighting him we oppose the future ideal of social revolu-
tion to the present day chores. But this problem does not exist
for us at all. For the work of the present does not interfere
with our revolutionary agitation, it rather furthers it. The trouble
lies in the present day work itself, from which the opportunists
want to eliminate revolutionary agitation. The question is:
362 INTERNATIONAL SOCIALIST REVIEW

Shall we aim exclusively at immediate parliamentary and eco-

nomic results in our present work, or shall these results be sim-
ply the means for the realization of a higher object, the revolu-
tionary organization of the proletariat. It is not merely a ques-
tion of voting, obtaining political successes, advocating social re-
forms and democratic laws, organizing strikes for higher wages,
—
and other labor demands but of either leaving the political
power in the hands of the bourgeoisie or leading the proletariat
by means of these measures to the conquest of the political
powers for the purpose of changing the fundaments of the state,
of property and of the mode of production. Parvus.
(Translated by E. Untermann.)