Industrial Chemical Technology Module

LONG TERM TRAINING PROGRAMME
ON
“INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY”
MODULE – I
(03/10/2010 TO 20/02/2011)
COURSE MATERIAL
COURSE CO-ORDINATOR
Prof. Latesh B. Chaudhari

Asst. Prof., F.E.T.R., Bardoli.
CONDUCTED BY
Nodal Institute
Chemicals and Petrochemicals Sectors
N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Isroli-Bardoli.
&
ANCHOR INSTITUTE
Chemicals and Petrochemicals Sectors

Promoted by
Industries Commissionerate
Government of Gujarat
In Partnership with
Faculty of Technology, D.D.U., Nadiad
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Prepared By: Prof. Latesh Chaudhari, Asst. Prof. ,F.E.T.R., Bardoli
1.1 HEAT TRANSFER FUNDAMENTALS
1.1.1 Introduction
Practitioners of the thermal arts and sciences generally deal with four basic
thermal transport modes: conduction, convection, phase change, and radiation. The
process by which heat diffuses through a solid or a stationary fluid is termed heat
conduction. Situations in which heat transfer from a wetted surface is assisted by the
motion of the fluid give rise to heat convection, and when the fluid undergoes a liquid–
solid or liquid–vapor state transformation at or very near the wetted surface, attention is
focused on this phase-change heat transfer. The exchange of heat between surfaces, or
between a surface and a surrounding fluid, by long-wavelength electromagnetic radiation
is termed thermal heat radiation.
It is our intent in this section to describe briefly these modes of heat transfer, with
emphasis on an important parameter known as the thermal resistance to heat transfer.
Simple examples are given for illustration; detailed descriptions of the same topics are
presented in specialized chapters.
1.1.2 Conduction Heat Transfer

One-Dimensional Conduction Thermal diffusion through solids is governed by
Fourier’s law, which in one-dimensional form is expressible as
where q is the heat current, k the thermal conductivity of the medium, A the
crosssectional area for heat flow, and dT /dx the temperature gradient, which, because it
is negative, requires insertion of the minus sign in eq. (1.1) to assure a positive heat flow
q. The temperature difference resulting from the steady-state diffusion of heat is thus
related to the thermal conductivity of the material, the cross-sectional area A, and the path
length L (Fig. 1.1), according to

The form of eq. (1.2), where k and A are presumed constant, suggests that in a way that is
analogous to Ohm’s law governing electrical current flow through a resistance, it is
possible to define a conduction thermal resistance as
One-Dimensional Conduction with Internal Heat Generation Situations in which a

solid experiences internal heat generation, such as that produced by the flow of an
electric current, give rise to more complex governing equations and require greater care
in obtaining the appropriate temperature differences.

Direct Contact HeatTransfer

Direct contact heat transfer can occur whenever two substances at different temperatures
touch each other physically. The implication is that there is not an intervening wall
between the two substances. Heat transfer where there is a surface between the two
streams is sometimes called indirect, or the heat transfer device is one of the closed types.
The physical interaction of the two streams can accomplish heat transfer very efficiently.
Without an intervening wall, the energy transport between the two streams can take place
across small thermal resistances. In addition, the fact that a wall is not present can allow a
mass transfer process to take place. In some cases, this is a desirable phenomenon (open
cooling towers), but in other cases it may not be.
Costs are often more favorable for direct contact heat transfer devices than for
their closedcounterparts. The thermal resistances present in closedheat exchangers result
in less heat transfer than might be accomplishedin direct contact, andthis often translates
to lower operating costs for the latter. In addition, the equipment to accomplish the direct
contact processes is generally less expensive than the counterpart closed heat exchangers.
Both aspects can result in considerable life-cycle cost savings for the direct contact
approach over that of the closed type of heat exchanger. Some potential limitations are
inherent in direct contact processes. There is a requirement that the two streams be at the
same pressure. Although this requirement does not often cause significant problems, it
could be very important. Also, as noted above, the mass transfer possibility in direct
contact may not be desirable. Direct contact heat transfer is a fieldwith a wide range of
potential applications. The actual situation is that with some notable exceptions, such as
open feedwater heaters andwet cooling towers, few of these applications have been
usedto any great extent. Reasons for this are numerous, but one of the main reasons is
that engineers are not as knowledgeable as they might be about the design of these types
of systems. This chapter is an attempt to expose some of these possibilities so that the
design of more efficient industrial processes might result.
To present a description of direct contact processes within the limited space of
this chapter, some restriction in scope is necessary. Because the direct contact of any

number of generic streams is possible (and most have in fact been proposed to transfer
heat), only some of the more important applications will be notedhere.
Solid–solid transfer processes are not covered, nor are high-temperature situations
included where radiative heat transfer is important. Open cooling towers are not
discussed here to any great extent, even though they are the single most widely applied
type of direct contact heat exchangers. Although some information related to cooling
towers is provided in the Section 19.4, this will by no means cover a very significant
fraction of the total literature on the subject. The previous work on cooling towers is
voluminous and tends s to use quite specialized design approaches. Interested readers can
find current overviews by ASHRAE (2000) and Mills (1999). An earlier review of the
literature on the numerical modeling developed to predict cooling tower performance was
given by Johnson et al. (1987). The literature contains reports of studies of interaction
between different substances as well as the same substances. For example, a great deal of
interest has been directed to the use of water in phase-change situations, particularly the
condensation of steam on liquid water. On the other hand, interest has also been directed
to the use of fluids of different types. For example, a great deal of literature on heat
transfer in immiscible liquids was cited years ago by Sideman (1966), and many studies
on this topic have appeared since then.
Generally, the prediction of mass transfer has been given more attention over the
years than has the fieldof direct contact heat transfer. Because of mass transfer and heat
transfer analogies, some information from the mass transfer literature can be used in
direct contact heat transfer design. This analog is exposed minimally here, however.
Emphasis here is on surveying predictions and applications, the main thrusts of benefit to
designers.
19.2 SENSIBLE HEAT EXCHANGE
19.2.1 General Comments

Heat transfer from a continuous fluid to droplets or bubbles of another fluid is a

complicated situation involving not only the typical convection-related variables (e.g.,
geometry, velocity, and thermo physical properties) but also the proximity of the objects
to one another where more than one is present. The latter characteristic can be handled in
an overall way through the definition of the void fraction or holdup, the latter denoted
here by the symbol φ. Either of these relates to the volumetric ratio of the amount of the
dispersed phase (droplet or bubble) to the total volume. Holdup has a profound effect on
direct contact heat transfer, as noted several times in this chapter. Another aspect that
influences the heat transfer to droplets or bubbles is the shape of these objects. It has been
well documented that droplets and bubbles can experience a wide variety of shapes,
depending on the object size and the flow situation (Grace, 1983). Despite this, much
work has been done on a variety of systems assuming that the droplet is spherically-
shaped. A great deal of the early work was reviewed by Sideman (1966).
EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION

General Considerations
Lock (1994) has summarized the various modes in which condensation and evaporation
can take place in simple direct contact systems. These include the evaporation–
condensation interactions with droplets and jets in the presence of an incondensable gas.
Consider a representation of the regimes shown in Fig. 19.1. In this figure the italic
notations relate to the state of the vapor, with four regions defined by the intersection of
the interface isobar and the interface isotherm. The non shaded areas, hot evaporation on
the upper right and cold condensation on the lower left, are the normally anticipated
regions where those phenomena occur. Above the isotherm TI the region of vapor heat
gain is demarcated from the region of vapor heat loss. In the hot evaporation region, the
vapor–gas mixture is at a higher temperature than the liquid. This superheated mixture
drives the process by the transfer of heat to the cooler liquid. Below the isotherm, but still
on the same side of the isobar, the process can take place only if the liquid is superheated
and thus furnishes the heat necessary for the evaporation process. Cool evaporation is
limited by the liquid superheat, as would be represented by the liquid Jak ob number.
Condensation processes take place in the region shown to the left of the interface

isobar in Fig. 19.1. These are normally considered to occur when the vapor is cooler than
the liquid, and this region is denotedas cold condensation (lower left). Clearly, the liquid
source or sink available for evaporation or condensation is limited in real situations.
Hence the finite heat capacity of the liquid is a critical element in the determination of the
amount of heat and mass transfer that can occur. For the cool evaporation and warm
condensation regions, this can be assessed by examining the Jakob number for the liquid.
A practical issue that can arise is the presence of a non condensable gas, often air, in a
condensing or evaporating system. In evaporating systems, small amounts of a
component of this type do not cause much effect, and the phase-change processes are
relatively unimpeded. In condensing systems, the situation is quite different. Here the

phase-change process can be grossly hindered. Thus it is very important in condensing

systems to know the extent of the presence of non condensables and account for them
appropriately.
Condensation of a Vapor on or in a Liquid

Condensation of a vapor on or in a liquid, whether or not that liquid is the same substance
as the vapor, is commonly encounteredin engineering systems. Direct contact processes
differ from their indirect counterparts in many respects already noted. In indirect transfer,
the extent of the process is limited by the area of the surface andthe heat transfer rate
possible through the surface. In direct contact processes, the situation is limitedby the
interplay between the latent heat of condensation and the amount of sensible heat the
liquidcan absorb. The amount of the liquid used for condensing purposes and its
subcooling determines the extent of condensation that can be accomplished. The presence
of noncondensables during the condensation process affects performance in negative
ways. Details of the many studies of this will not, in general, be summarized here because
of the effects of the multitude of variables that influence individual situations.
Condensation of a vapor that contains noncondensable elements on a surface finds that a
noncondensable layer builds up near the surface. This causes both a heat transfer and a
mass transfer resistance that impedes the basic condensation process. In many respects
this is similar to what is foundin surface condensers when noncondensable gases are
present. In vapor droplet direct contact condensation in a liquid, this same phenomenon is
present at the inner interface of the bubble. Additionally, though, the presence of
noncondensables results in a decreased vapor pressure inside the bubble compared to that
of a pure substance in the same situation. This then lowers the condensation temperature,
decreasing the driving potential for heat transfer.
Many studies of direct contact condensation are reported in the literature. An
extensive review of this literature was given by Sideman and Moalem-Maron (1982).
Film Condenser We start with a description of a situation that will be of value
primarily for visualization purposes. This is the direct contact film condenser shown
in Fig. 19.2. In this situation, a bulk vapor is condensed on another liquid, the latter
serving as the sink. Patternedafter the model usedfor Nusselt’s solution for laminar

film condensation, and described in most elementary heat transfer texts, the concepts
form a basis for other systems that follow below.
Consider the heat transfer processes that occur in the direct contact film condenser.
The pure saturatedv apor condenses on the liquidof the same substance. Heat then
flows by conduction through the condensed liquid to the sink liquid. Since it is
assumedhere that there is no other place for the heat to be absorbedultimately than
the sink liquid, the heat capacity of that liquid is the determining factor for the duty
possible from devices of this type.
The heat transfer processes that must be analyzedfor this type of system are the
diffusion phenomena through the two liquidfilms. For short times, the sink liquidis
consideredas being semi-infinite at the interface between it andthe condensedliquid

INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
MODULE – I
HEAT TRANSFER TECHNOLOGY
DATE: 21/11/2010 BY: L. B. Chaudhari

Conduction Mode of Heat Transfer:
Transfer of heat from one part of a body to another part of a same body or from on body to another
body which is in physical contact with it, without appreciable displacement of particles of a body.

Fourier’s Law:

The physical law governing the transfer of heat through uniform material by conduction mode is
known as Fourier’s Law.

Q ∝ A x [ dT / dx]

Q = k x A x [ dT / dx]

Where,
Q = Rate of heat transfer, W
A = Area of heat transfer, m2
dT / dx = Rate of change of temperature with distance in the direction of heat flow, oC/m
k = Thermal conductivity, W/mK

Q/A = q = k x [ dT / dx]

q = Heat Flux, W/m2

Fourier’s Law states that “the rate of heat flow by conduction through uniform material is
directly proportional to the area normal to the direction of heat flow and temperature
gradient in the direction of heat flow”.

Thermal Conductivity:

Q = k x A x [dT / dx]

k = (‐ Q x dx) / (A x dT)

k = ( W x m) / (m2 x K)

k = W / mK (Unit of Thermal Conductivity)

Thermal conductivity is defined as “the quantity of heat passing through a quantity of material
of unit thickness with unit heat flow area in unit time when unit temperature difference is
maintained across the opposite face of material”

OR

“The ability of material to conduct heat through itself is known as thermal conductivity”.


• Thermal conductivity depends on the nature of material and its temperature.
• Thermal conductivity of solids is higher then that of liquids and liquids is higher then that of
gases.

State of Matter Solids Liquids Gases
Range of Thermal Conductivity (W/mK) 2.3 to 420 0.09 to 0.7 0.006 to 0.6

The thermal conductivities of some materials at room temperature:

Thermal Conductivity Thermal Conductivity
Material Material
W/m · °C W/m · °C
Diamond 2300 Brick 0.72
Silver 429 Water (l) 0.613
Copper 401 Human skin 0.37
Gold 317 Wood (oak) 0.17
Aluminum 237 Helium (g) 0.152
Iron 80.2 Soft rubber 0.13
Mercury (l) 8.54 Glass fiber 0.043
Glass 0.78 Air (g) 0.026

The range of thermal conductivity of various materials at room temperature

Classification of Materials according to thermal Conductivity:

HEAT CONDUCTORS: The materials having higher value of thermal conductivity are referred to as
heat conductors. Eg. Silver metal (k = 420 W/mK), Red Copper (k = 395 W/mK), Gold (k = 302
W/mK), Aluminums (k = 210 W/mK)

HEAT INSULATORS: The materials having low value of thermal conductivity are referred to as heat
insulators. Eg. Cork (k = 0.025 W/mK), Glass Wool (k = 0.10 W/mK), Asbestos (k = 0.024 W/mK),
85% magnesia (k = 0.04 W/mK)

Thermal Insulation:

• Process equipments such as reaction vessels, Reboilers, distillation column, evaporators etc or
steam pipe will lose heat to the atmosphere by conduction, convection and radiation.
• Thus to overcome this heat loss, some form of lagging is applied to the hot surfaces. Eg. In a
furnace surface temperature is reduced by making use of series of insulating bricks that are
poor conductor of heat (Heat Insulators).

Requirement of lagging materials:

1. It should have low thermal conductivity and
2. It should suppress convection currents.

Optimum insulation thickness:

Increasing the thickness of insulation will decrease the heat loss but at the same time it will
increase the fixed cost. Thus, optimum thickness which will help in minimum heat loss and
minimum cost is calculated.

Optimum Insulation Thickness


Effect of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity:

Variation of the thermal conductivity with temperature

Effect on Thermal Conductivity of Cu & Al with temperature

Temperature, K Copper Aluminum
100 482 302
200 413 237
300 401 237
400 393 240
600 379 231
800 366 218


Prepared By: Prof. Kartik Desai, Sr. Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
INDUSTTRIAL CHEEMICAL TTECHNOLLOGY
MODULE‐1 : HEAT TR
M RANSFER
AL RADIATTION
THERMA
DATE : 17//10/2010 B
BY : K.R.DE
ESAI

¾ HEA AT is a form
m of energyy which flo ow as a result of temperature ggradient.

¾ HEA AT TRANSFFER is the science which dealss with the rates of exchange
e o heat
of
betwween hot aand cold bo odies calleed the SOUURCE and th he RECIEVER.
¾ Heat is transfeerred by thhree primary modes:

C
CONDUCT
TION C
CONVECTION RADIATIO
ON

k = Thermal conducttivity h = Convvective heat transfer ε = Emmiisivity,
co‐efficieent σ = Stefan‐Boltzman co‐efficient
Temperaature depen
ndent Temperaature & momentum m Temperature depend dent
dependeent

RADIATION

It is the energgy transferrred in thee form of eelectromaggnetic wavves as a reesult of
t changges in the “electronic configurration” of the atom
the ms or moleecules of matter.
m
W
Whenever r a charged d particle uundergoess acceleration, energy possesseed by the p particle
is converteed into a fo orm of eneergy known n as electromagneticc radiation.

Radiation is emitted by every point on a plane surfacce in all diirections in nto the
hemispherre above the surfacee. The quantity that describes tthe magnitude of radiation
emitted or incident in a speciffied direction in spacce is the radiation in ntensity. VVarious
radiation fluxes succh as emisssive poweer, irradiation and radiosity are
a expresssed in
t
terms of inntensity.

TTHERMAL RADIATIO ON: It is th
he form off radiation
n emitted by
b bodies because of
o their
t
temperatu ure.

i) Convertiing internaal energy in owing electtromagnetic waves,
nto out‐flo
ii) Absorbing incomin ng electrom magnetic w waves whicch are converted to iinternal ennergy.

The rate of radiant therrmal energgy transfer between two bodiees is descriibed by

t
the Stefan ‐Boltzmannn Law: “Thhe emissio
on of thermmal radiativve energy iis proportional to
t
the fourth power of the absolu ute temperrature (Kellvin or Ran
nkine)”.

Wheere E, is the
t emissivve power flux of thhe surface (W/m2), ((σ) is the Stefan‐
n constant,, and (ε) iss the emisssivity of the surface.
Boltzmann

T
The rate o f radiative heat transsfer betweeen two su
urfaces, a aand b is:

Wheere, Stefan
n‐Boltzman
nn constan 6703 x10‐8 (W/m2K4)
nt, (σ) = 5.6

BLACK BODY RADIATTION (TER
RMS INVOLLVED & RA
ADIATIVE P
PROPERTIEES)

Blackbodyy : A blackb body is deffined as a perfect em mitter and absorber of radiatio on. At a
specified temperatu ure and wavelength
w h, no surfface can emit
e moree energy than a
blackbodyy. A blackb body absorrbs all incident radiation, regaardless of wavelenggth and
direction. Also, a blaackbody emits radiation energgy uniform mly in all diirections p per unit
area normmal to direcction of em mission.
Greybody: It is defined such that the monochro omatic emmissivity (εε) of the body
b is
independeent of wave elength.
Emissivity (ε): The raatio of thee radiation emitted b by the surface at a giiven tempeerature
t
to the radiiation emittted by a b black body at the sam me temperature.
Monochro omatic em missivity (ελ): The ratiio of the m
monochrom matic emisssive powerr of the
surface too the mo onochromaatic emissive powerr of a black surfacce at thee same
t
temperatu ure and waavelength.
ελ =
λ Eλ/Ebλ
A
Absorptivi ity (α): Thee fraction o
of irradiatiion absorb bed by the surface.
• It depends sttrongly on the temp perature of
o the sou urce at whhich the inncident
radiation is originating.
Reflectivitty (ρ): The fraction off irradiatioon reflected d by the su
urface.
T
Transmiss ivity (τ): The fractionn of irradiaation transmitted by the surfacce.


BASIC LAW’S OF RADIATION

1) Stefan‐Boltzmann law: The total radiation energy emitted by a black body per unit
time and per unit surface area was given as:
4
Total blackbody emissive power, Eb = σ *T , where σ =5.67 x10‐8 W/(m2 ∙ K4)

2) Plank’s law: Spectral(or Monochromatic) blackbody emissive power (Ebλ) :
The amount of radiation energy emitted by a blackbody at a thermodynamic
temperature (T) per unit time, per unit surface area, and per unit wavelength(λ).
Ebλ(λ,T) = C1/[λ5*(exp(C2/λ*T)‐1)
where, C1 = 2Π*h*c02, C2 = h*c0/k, h : Plank’s constant, k : Boltzmann’s constant

3) Wien’s displacement law: The wavelength at which the peak spectral blackbody
emissive power occurs for a specified temperature is
given by Wien’s displacement law.
(λ*T)max power =2897 μm*K

4) Kirchhoff’s law: The total hemispherical emissivity of a surface at temperature T is
equal to its total hemispherical absorptivity for radiation coming
from a blackbody at same temperature.
ε(T) = α(T)

QUESTIONS:

1) Why the negative sign appears in Fourier's law of heat conduction?
2) A sealed cube containing argon floating in deep space is heated on one side by a
nearby star. Will there be any heat transfer due to natural convection?
3) What is thermal radiation?
4) Define: Emmisivity, Absorptivity, Reflectivity, Transmitivity, Black body.
5) Explain Stefan‐Boltzman’s law.

Kartik R. Desai
Sr. Lecturer, N.G.Patel Polytechnic,
Isroli‐Afwa.
Prepared By: Prof. Himanshu Desai, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
MODULE – I
DATE: 24/10/2010 BY: H. S. DESAI

What Is Heat Transfer?

HEAT TRANSFER is the science which deals with the rates of exchange of heat between hot
and cold bodies called the SOURCE and the RECIEVER.

What are Heat Transfer Equipments?

A heat transfer equipments are the devices built for efficient heat transfer from one
medium to another.

Classification of Heat Transfer Equipments:

1. According to Mechanical Design:
‐ Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
‐ Shell & Tube type Heat Exchanger
‐ Plat Type Heat Exchanger
‐ Extended Surface (Fin) type Heat Exchanger
‐ Mechanically Agitated Reactor (With Jacket and / or Coil)
2. According to Nature of Flow arrangement:
‐ Parallel (Co‐current Flow)
‐ Opposite (Counter Current)
‐ Perpendicular (Cross Flow)
3. According to Number of Passes:
‐ Single Pass
‐ Multiple Pass
4. According to Physical State of Heat Exchanging Fluids:
‐ Gas to Gas
‐ Liquid to Liquid (Coolers)
‐ Gas to Liquid (Economizer)
‐ Liquid or gas to condensing vapors (Condensers)
‐ Gas to Boiling liquid (Evaporators)
5. According to Operating Pressure Range:
‐ Low Pressure (0 to 8 atm)
‐ Medium Pressure (8 to 35 atm)
‐ High Pressure (35 atm and above)


Types of Heat Transfer Equipments:

• Shell and tube
• Double pipe
• Plate
• Finned tubes/gas heaters
• spiral
• Vessel jackets
• Reboilers and vaporisers / evaporators Etc
• Agitated Vessels or Agitated Reactors.

Important Terminologies:

Range, Approach, Newton’s Law of Cooling, Heat Transfer Coefficient

Temperature Profile & Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD):

What is Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger?

A shell and tube heat exchanger is a class of heat exchanger designs. It is the most
common type of heat exchanger in oil refineries and other large chemical processes, and is
suited for higher‐pressure applications. As its name implies, this type of heat exchanger
consists of a shell (a large pressure vessel) with a bundle of tubes inside it. One fluid runs
through the tubes, and another fluid flows over the tubes (through the shell) to transfer
heat between the two fluids. The set of tubes is called a tube bundle, and may be composed
by several types of tubes.

Types of Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers:


Construction of Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers:

Shell & Tube heat exchangers consist of many components such as: Shell, Tube Bundle,
Baffles, Tie Rod, Tube sheet, Pass, Inlet & Outlet Nozzles.

Baffles: Baffles are metal discs cut to certain area. They are used to increase the
residence time of shell side fluid, to increase the turbulence and to support
the tubes.
Tube Sheet: Tube bundle is welded to the tube sheet.
Pass: It is a metal plate used to create multiple passes in the flow.
Tie Rod: They are used to keep the baffles at the prescribed positions.
Nozzles: They are standard pipes used for entry and exit of shell and tube side fluids.

Working of Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger:

• In the shell and tube heat exchanger shown above, the shell side fluid flows once
through the shell and the tube side fluid flows twice through the tube bundle.
• In this type of heat exchangers the tube side fluid flows in co‐current and counter
current fashion with respect to shell side fluid.


MODULE – I
Date: 05/12/2010 By: H. S. Desai

CONDENSERS & STEAM TRAP
CONDENSER:

• A condenser is a device or unit used to condense a substance from its gaseous to
its liquid state, typically by cooling it.
• In doing so, the latent heat is given up by the substance, and will transfer to the
condenser coolant. Condensers are typically heat exchangers which have various
designs and come in many sizes ranging from rather small to very large industrial‐
scale units used in plant processes.
• Condensers are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical processes such
as distillation, steam power plants and other heat‐exchange systems. Use of cooling
water or surrounding air as the coolant is common in many condensers.

Types of Condensers:

Surface Condensers:
Surface condenser is the commonly used term for a water‐cooled shell and tube heat
exchanger installed on the exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power
stations. These condensers are heat exchangers which convert steam from its gaseous to its
liquid state at a pressure below atmospheric pressure. Where cooling water is in short
supply, an air‐cooled condenser is often used. An air‐cooled condenser is however
significantly more expensive and cannot achieve as low a steam turbine exhaust pressure
as water cooled surface condenser.

Contact condenser:
Contact Condenser is a device in which a vapor is brought into direct contact with a
cooling liquid and condensed by giving up its latent heat to the liquid. In almost all cases
the cooling liquid is water, and the condensing vapor is steam. In this type of condenser the
steam and cooling water are mixed in a condensing chamber and withdrawn together.

STEAM TRAP:

A steam trap is a device used to discharge condensate and non condensable gases with a
negligible consumption or loss of live steam. Most steam traps are nothing more than
automatic valves. They open, close or modulate automatically.

The three important functions of steam traps are:
1. Discharge condensate as soon as it is formed.
2. Have negligible steam consumption.
3. Have the capability of discharging air and other non‐condensable gases.

Types of Steam Trap:

1. Mechanical traps. They have a float that rises and falls in relation to condensate
level and this usually has a mechanical linkage attached that opens and closes the
valve. Mechanical traps operate in direct relationship to condensate levels present
in the body of the steam trap. Inverted bucket and float traps are examples of
mechanical traps.

2. Temperature traps. They have a valve that is driven on / off the seat by either
expansion / contraction caused by temperature change. They differ from
mechanical traps in that their design requires them to hold back some condensate
waiting for it to cool sufficiently to allow the valve to open. In most circumstances
this is not desirable as condensate needs to be removed as soon as it is
formed. Thermostatic traps, BiThermostatic traps and bimetallic traps are
examples of temperature operated traps.

3. Thermodynamic (TD) traps. Thermodynamic traps work on the difference in
dynamic response to velocity change in flow of compressible and incompressible
fluids. As steam enters, static pressure above the disk forces the disk against the
valve seat. The static pressure over a large area overcomes the high inlet pressure
of the steam. As the steam starts to condense, the pressure against the disk lessens
and the trap cycles. This essentially makes a TD trap a "time cycle" device: it will
open even if there is only steam present, this can cause premature wear. If non
condensable gas is trapped on top of the disc, it can cause the trap to be locked shut.

Prepared By: Prof. H.R. Jivanramjiwala, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli ‐ 0 ‐
PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT AND
ENERGY
CONSERVATION
APPROACH FOR
INDUSTRIAL BOILER
Performance Assess.& Energy conservation approach for industrial boiler‐H.R.Jivanramjwala‐N.G.Patel Polytechnic
Prepared By: Prof. H.R. Jivanramjiwala, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli ‐ 1 ‐
1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................1
2. TYPE OF BOILERS.......................................................................................2
3. ASSESSMENT OF A BOILER .....................................................................4
4. ENERGY EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES .......................................... 14
1. INTRODUCTION
This section briefly describes the Boiler and various auxiliaries in the Boiler Room.
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred to
water until it becomes heated water or steam. The hot water or steam under pressure is then
usable for transferring the heat to a process. Water is a useful and inexpensive medium for
transferring heat to a process. When water at atmospheric pressure is boiled into steam its
volume increases about 1,600 times, producing a force that is almost as explosive as
gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be an equipment that must be treated with utmost care.
The boiler system comprises of: a feed water system, steam system and fuel system. The feed
water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam
demand. Various valves provide access for maintenance and repair. The steam system
collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through a piping
system to the point of use. Throughout the system, steam pressure is regulated using valves
and checked with steam pressure gauges. The fuel system includes all equipment used to
provide fuel to generate the necessary heat. The equipment required in the fuel system
depends on the type of fuel used in the system.
The water supplied to the boiler that is converted into steam is called feed water. The two
sources of feed water are: (1) Condensate or condensed steam returned from the processes
and (2) Makeup water (treated raw water) which must come from outside the boiler room
and plant processes. For higher boiler efficiencies, an economizer preheats the feed water
using the waste heat in the flue gas.
Prepared By: Prof. H.R. Jivanramjiwala, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli 2
STEAM TO EXHAUST GAS

VENT
PROCESS
STACK
DEAERATOR
Econo
mizer
mizer
PUMPS
VENT
BOILER
BURNER
Water Source
Water Source
BLOW DOWN
SEPARATOR FUEL
BRINE
CHEMICAL FEED
SOFTENERS
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of a Boiler Room
2. TYPE OF BOILERS
This section describes the various types of boilers: Fire tube boiler, Water tube boiler,
Packaged boiler, Fluidized bed combustion boiler, Stoker fired boiler, Pulverized fuel boiler,
Waste heat boiler and Thermic fluid heater.
2.1 Fire Tube Boiler
In a fire tube boiler, hot gases pass

through the tubes and boiler feed
water in the shell side is converted
into steam. Fire tube boilers are
generally used for relatively small
steam capacities and low to medium
steam pressures. As a guideline, fire
tube boilers are competitive for steam
rates up to 12,000 kg/hour and
pressures up to 18 kg/cm2. Fire tube
boilers are available for operation
with oil, gas or solid fuels. For Figure 2. Sectional view of a Fire Tube Boiler
economic reasons, most fire tube (Light Rail Transit Association)
boilers are of “packaged” construction
(i.e. manufacturer erected) for all fuels.
2.2 Water Tube Boiler
In a water tube boiler, boiler feed water flows

through the tubes and enters the boiler drum. The
circulated water is heated by the combustion gases
and converted into steam at the vapour space in the
drum. These boilers are selected when the steam
demand as well as steam pressure requirements are
high as in the case of process cum power boiler /
power boilers.
Most modern water boiler tube designs are within

the capacity range 4,500 – 120,000 kg/hour of steam,
at very high pressures. Many water tube boilers are
of “packaged” construction if oil and /or gas are to
be used as fuel. Solid fuel fired water tube designs Figure 3. Simple Diagram of Water
are available but packaged designs are less common. Tube Boiler (YourDictionary.com)
The features of water tube boilers are:
Forced, induced and balanced draft provisions help to improve combustion efficiency.
Less tolerance for water quality calls for water treatment plant.
Higher thermal efficiency levels are possible
2.3 Packaged
To Chimney
Boiler
The packaged boiler

is so called because
it comes as a
complete package.
Once delivered to a
site, it requires only
the steam, water pipe
work, fuel supply
and electrical
connections to be
made to become
operational. Package Oil
boilers are generally Burner
of a shell type with a
fire tube design so as
to achieve high heat
transfer rates by both
radiation and Figure 4. A typical 3 Pass, Oil fired packaged boiler
convection. (BIB Cochran, 2003)
Prepared By: Prof. H.R. Jivanramjiwala, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
4
The features of packaged boilers are:

Small combustion space and high heat release rate resulting in faster evaporation.
Large number of small diameter tubes leading to good convective heat transfer.
Forced or induced draft systems resulting in good combustion efficiency.
Number of passes resulting in better overall heat transfer.
Higher thermal efficiency levels compared with other boilers.
These boilers are classified based on the number of passes - the number of times the hot
combustion gases pass through the boiler. The combustion chamber is taken, as the first pass
after which there may be one, two or three sets of fire-tubes. The most common boiler of this
class is a three-pass unit with two sets of fire-tubes and with the exhaust gases exiting
through the rear of the boiler.
3. ASSESSMENT OF A BOILER
This section describes the Performance evaluation of boilers (through the direct and indirect
method including examples for efficiency calculations), boiler blow down, and boiler water
treatment.
3.1 Performance Evaluation of a Boiler
The performance parameters of a boiler, like efficiency and evaporation ratio, reduces with
time due to poor combustion, heat transfer surface fouling and poor operation and
maintenance. Even for a new boiler, reasons such as deteriorating fuel quality and water
quality can result in poor boiler performance. A heat balance helps us to identify avoidable
and unavoidable heat losses. Boiler efficiency tests help us to find out the deviation of boiler
efficiency from the best efficiency and target problem area for corrective action.
3.1.1 Heat balance
The combustion process in a boiler can be described in the form of an energy flow diagram.
This shows graphically how the input energy from the fuel is transformed into the various
useful energy flows and into heat and energy loss flows. The thickness of the arrows indicates
the amount of energy contained in the respective flows.
Stack Stochiometric
Gas Excess Air
Un burnt
FUEL INPUT STEAM
OUTPUT
& Radiation
Blow Down
burnt parts of
Convection
Ash and Un-

Fuel in Ash
Figure 11. Energy balance diagram of a boiler
A heat balance is an attempt to balance the total energy entering a boiler against that leaving
the boiler in different forms. The following figure illustrates the different losses occurring for
generating steam.
12.7 %
Heat loss due to dry flue gas
8.1 % Dry
HeatFlue
loss Gas
due Loss
to steam in flue gas
100.0 % 1.7 %
Heat
Heat loss
loss due
due to
to moisture
moisture in
in fuel
fuel
0.3 %
Fuel BOILER Heat loss due to moisture in air
2.4 % Heat loss due to unburnts in residue
1.0 %
Heat loss due to radiation & other
unaccounted loss
73.8 %
Heat in Steam
Figure 12. Typical Losses from Coal Fired Boiler
The energy losses can be divided in unavoidable and avoidable losses. The goal of a Cleaner
Production and/or energy assessment must be to reduce the avoidable losses, i.e. to improve
energy efficiency. The following losses can be avoided or reduced:
Stack gas losses:
- Excess air (reduce to the necessary minimum which depends from burner technology,
operation, operation (i.e. control) and maintenance).
- Stack gas temperature (reduce by optimizing maintenance (cleaning), load; better
burner and boiler technology).
Losses by unburnt fuel in stack and ash (optimize operation and maintenance; better
technology of burner).
Blow down losses (treat fresh feed water, recycle condensate)
Condensate losses (recover the largest possible amount of condensate)
Convection and radiation losses (reduced by better insulation of the boiler).
3.1.2 Boiler efficiency
Thermal efficiency of a boiler is defined as “the percentage of (heat) energy input that is
effectively useful in the generated steam.”
There are two methods of assessing boiler efficiency:

The Direct Method: the energy gain of the working fluid (water and steam) is compared
with the energy content of the boiler fuel
The Indirect Method: the efficiency is the difference between the losses and the energy
input
3.1.3 Direct method of determining boiler efficiency
Methodology
This is also known as ‘input-output method’ due to the fact that it needs only the useful
output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency can
be evaluated using the formula:
Heat Output
Boiler Efficiency (η) = x 100
Heat Input
Q x (hg – hf)
Boiler Efficiency (η) = x 100
q x GCV
Parameters to be monitored for the calculation of boiler efficiency by direct method are:
Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr.
Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr.
The working pressure (in kg/cm2(g)) and superheat temperature (oC), if any
The temperature of feed water (oC)
Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV) in kcal/kg of fuel
And where
hg – Enthalpy of saturated steam in kcal/kg of steam
hf – Enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg of water
Example
Find out the efficiency of the boiler by direct method with the data given below:
Type of boiler: Coal fired
Quantity of steam (dry) generated: 10 TPH
2 0
Steam pressure (gauge) / temp: 10 kg/cm (g)/ 180 C
Quantity of coal consumed: 2.25 TPH
0
Feed water temperature: 85 C
GCV of coal: 3200 kcal/kg
2
Enthalpy of steam at 10 kg/cm pressure: 665 kcal/kg (saturated)
Enthalpy of feed water: 85 kcal/kg
10 x (665 – 85) x 1000

Boiler Efficiency (η) = x 100 = 80.56 percent
2.25 x 3200 x 1000
Advantages of direct method
Plant workers can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers

Requires few parameters for computation
Needs few instruments for monitoring

Easy to compare evaporation ratios with benchmark figures
Disadvantages of direct method
Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of the system is lower
Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels
3.1.4 Indirect method of determining boiler efficiency
Methodology
The reference standards for Boiler Testing at Site using the indirect method are the British
Standard, BS 845:1987 and the USA Standard ASME PTC-4-1 Power Test Code Steam
Generating Units.
The indirect method is also called the heat loss method. The efficiency can be calculated by
subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100 as follows:
Efficiency of boiler (n) = 100 - (i + ii + iii + iv + v + vi + vii)
Whereby the principle losses that occur in a boiler are loss of heat due to:
i. Dry flue gas

ii. Evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel
iii. Evaporation of moisture in fuel
iv. Moisture present in combustion air
v. Unburnt fuel in fly ash
vi. Unburnt fuel in bottom ash
vii. Radiation and other unaccounted losses
Losses due to moisture in fuel and due to combustion of hydrogen are dependent on the fuel,
and cannot be controlled by design.
The data required for calculation of boiler efficiency using the indirect method are:
Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture content, ash content)

Percentage of oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas
Flue gas temperature in oC (Tf)
Ambient temperature in oC (Ta) and humidity of air in kg/kg of dry air
GCV of fuel in kcal/kg
Percentage combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels)
GCV of ash in kcal/kg (in case of solid fuels)
A detailed procedure for calculating boiler efficiency using the indirect method is given
below. However, practicing energy managers in industry usually prefer simpler calculation
procedures.
Prepared By: Prof. H.R. Jivanramjiwala, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
8
Step 1: Calculate the theoretical air requirement
= [(11.43 x C) + {34.5 x (H2 – O2/8)} + (4.32 x S)]/100 kg/kg of fuel
Step 2: Calculate the percent excess air supplied (EA)
= O2 percent x 100
-------------
(21 - O2 percent)
Step 3: Calculate actual mass of air supplied/ kg of fuel (AAS)
= {1 + EA/100} x theoretical air
Step 4: Estimate all heat losses
i. Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas
= m x Cp x (Tf-Ta) x 100
----------------------------
GCV of fuel
Where, m = mass of dry flue gas in kg/kg of fuel

m = (mass of dry products of combustion / kg of fuel) + (mass of N2 in
fuel on 1 kg basis ) + (mass of N2 in actual mass of air we are
supplying).
Cp = Specific heat of flue gas (0.23 kcal/kg )
ii. Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel
= 9 x H2 {584+Cp (Tf-Ta)} x 100

--------------------------------------
GCV of fuel
Where, H2 = percentage of H2 in 1 kg of fuel

Cp = specific heat of superheated steam (0.45 kcal/kg)
iii. Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of moisture present in fuel
= M{584+ Cp (Tf-Ta)} x 100

---------------------------------
GCV of fuel
Where, M – percent moisture in 1kg of fuel
Cp – Specific heat of superheated steam (0.45 kcal/kg)
iv. Percentage heat loss due to moisture present in air
= AAS x humidity factor x Cp (Tf-Ta)} x 100

---------------------------------------------------
GCV of fuel
Where, Cp – Specific heat of superheated steam (0.45 kcal/kg)
v. Percentage heat loss due to unburnt fuel in fly ash
= Total ash collected/kg of fuel burnt x GCV of fly ash x 100

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
GCV of fuel
vi. Percentage heat loss due to unburnt fuel in bottom ash
= Total ash collected per Kg of fuel burnt x G.C.V of bottom ash x 100
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
GCV of fuel
vii. Percentage heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted loss
The actual radiation and convection losses are difficult to assess because of particular
emissivity of various surfaces, its inclination, airflow patterns etc. In a relatively small boiler,
with a capacity of 10 MW, the radiation and unaccounted losses could amount to between 1
percent and 2 percent of the gross calorific value of the fuel, while in a 500 MW boiler,
values between 0.2 percent to 1 percent are typical. The loss may be assumed appropriately
depending on the surface condition.
Step 5: Calculate boiler efficiency and boiler evaporation ratio
Evaporation Ratio = Heat utilized for steam generation/Heat addition to the steam
Evaporation ratio means kilogram of steam generated per kilogram of fuel consumed. Typical
Examples are:
Coal fired boiler: 6 (i.e. 1 kg of coal can generate 6 kg of steam)
Oil fired boiler: 13 (i.e. 1 kg of oil can generate 13 kg of steam)
However, the evaporation ratio will depend upon type of boiler, calorific value of the fuel and
associated efficiencies.
Example
Type of boiler: Oil fired

Ultimate analysis of Oil
C: 84 percent
H2: 12.0 percent
S: 3.0 percent
O2: 1 percent
GCV of Oil: 10200 kcal/kg
Percentage of Oxygen: 7 percent
Percentage of CO2: 11 percent

Flue gas temperature (Tf): 220 0C
Ambient temperature (Ta): 27 0C
Humidity of air : 0.018 kg/kg of dry air
Step-1: Calculate the theoretical air requirement
= [(11.43 x C) + [{34.5 x (H2 – O2/8)} + (4.32 x S)]/100 kg/kg of oil

= [(11.43 x 84) + [{34.5 x (12 – 1/8)} + (4.32 x 3)]/100 kg/kg of oil
= 13.82 kg of air/kg of oil
Step-2: Calculate the percent excess air supplied (EA)
Excess air supplied (EA)

= (O2 x 100)/(21-O2)
= (7 x 100)/(21-7)
= 50 percent
Step 3: Calculate actual mass of air supplied/ kg of fuel (AAS)
AAS/kg fuel = [1 + EA/100] x Theo. Air (AAS)

= [1 + 50/100] x 13.82
= 1.5 x 13.82
= 20.74 kg of air/kg of oil
Step 4: Estimate all heat losses
i. Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas
m x Cp x (Tf – Ta ) x 100
= -----------------------------
GCV of fuel
m = mass of CO2 + mass of SO2 + mass of N2 + mass of O2
0.84 x 44 0.03 x 64 20.74 x 77

m= ----------- + ---------- + ----------- (0.07 x 32)
12 32 100
m = 21.35 kg / kg of oil
21.35 x 0.23 x (220 – 27)

= ------------------------------- x 100
10200
= 9.29 percent
A simpler method can also be used: Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas
m x Cp x (Tf – Ta ) x 100
= -----------------------------
GCV of fuel
m (total mass of flue gas)
= mass of actual air supplied + mass of fuel supplied
= 20.19 + 1 = 21.19
= 21.19 x 0.23 x (220-27)

------------------------------- x 100
10200
= 9.22 percent
ii. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel
9 x H2 {584+0.45 (Tf – Ta )}
= ---------------------------------
GCV of fuel where H2 = percentage of H2 in fuel
9 x 12 {584+0.45(220-27)}
= --------------------------------
10200
= 7.10 percent
iii. Heat loss due to moisture present in air
AAS x humidity x 0.45 x ((Tf – Ta ) x 100

= -------------------------------------------------
GCV of fuel
= [20.74 x 0.018 x 0.45 x (220-27) x 100]/10200
= 0.317 percent
iv. Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted losses
For a small boiler it is estimated to be 2 percent
Step 5: Calculate boiler efficiency and boiler evaporation ratio
i. Heat loss due to dry flue gas : 9.29 percent

ii. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel : 7.10 percent
iii. Heat loss due to moisture present in air : 0.317 percent
iv. Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted losses : 2 percent
= 100- [9.29+7.10+0.317+2]
= 100 – 17.024 = 83 percent (approximate)
Evaporation Ratio = Heat utilized for steam generation/Heat addition to the steam
= 10200 x 0.83 / (660-60)

= 14.11 (compared to 13 for a typical oil fired boiler)
Advantages of indirect method
A complete mass and energy balance can be obtained for each individual stream, making
it easier to identify options to improve boiler efficiency
Disadvantages of indirect method
Time consuming
Requires lab facilities for analysis
4. ENERGY EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES
This section includes energy efficiency opportunities related to combustion, heat transfer,
avoidable losses, auxiliary power consumption, water quality and blow down.
Energy losses and therefore energy efficiency opportunities in boilers can be related to
combustion, heat transfer, avoidable losses, high auxiliary power consumption, water quality
and blow down.
The various energy efficiency opportunities in a boiler system can be related to:
1. Stack temperature control
2. Feed water preheating using economizers
3. Combustion air pre-heating
4. Incomplete combustion minimization
5. Excess air control
6. Radiation and convection heat loss avoidance
7. Automatic blow down control
8. Reduction of scaling and soot losses
9. Reduction of boiler steam pressure
10. Variable speed control for fans, blowers and pumps
11. Controlling boiler loading
12. Proper boiler scheduling
13. Boiler replacement
Prepared By: Prof.Latesh Chaudhari, Asst. Prof.,F.E.T.R., Bardoli
Prof. Latesh B. Chaudhari,

Asst. Professor,
Faculty of Engineering Technology & Research,
Isroli- Bardoli.
CONVECTION
Convection
C ti i th
is the
transfer of heat by the
actual movement of the
warmed matter.
•Convection is the
transfer of heat energy
in a gas or liquid by
movement off currents.
CONVECTION
Hot water Heated

H t d air
i Air near heater is
rises, cools, rises, cools, replaced by cooler
and falls then falls air and
air,
the cycle repeats
CONVECTION

SEA BREEZE AND

LAND BREEZE
SEA BREEZE LAND BREEZE

CONDUCTION
• Conduction is the
transfer of energy
through matter from
particle to particle.
• It is the transfer and
distribution of heat
energy from atom to
atom within a
substance.
HOW DOES CONDUCTION

HAPPEN?

RADIATION
Sunlight is a form of
radiation that is radiated
through space to our planet
without
ith t th
the aid
id off fluids
fl id or
solids.
Since there are no fluids in
space, convection is not
responsible for transferring the
heat. Thus, radiation brings
heat to our planet.

RADIATION

RADIATION AMONG
OBJECTS

HEAT TRANSFER
Prof. Latesh B.
Prof B Chaudhari
Asst. Professor
Faculty
l off Engg. Tech.
h & Research
h
Isroli-Bardoli

What we are going to learn
How heat spreads from one region to another.
Examples:
pp rod
How the whole copper dgget hot when we heat
a one
end
How does the heat spread throughout the whole pot of
water
t when
h we are only l hheating
t th
the b
bottom
tt
How does the heat from the Sun reaches us

Heat Transfer
Heat always moves from a warmer place to

a cooler place.
p
Hot objects in a cooler room will cool to
room temperature
temperature.
Cold objects in a warmer room will heat up
to room temperature.
temperature

Question
If a cup of coffee and an ice lolly were left

on the table in this room what would
happen to them? Why?
The cup of coffee will cool until it reaches

room temperature
temperature. The lolly will melt and
then the liquid will cool to room
temperature.
temperature
What is happening?
All things are made up of molecules

When things get heated, they absorb heat energy.
This means that the molecules are absorbing the
heat energy
With more energy, the
th molecules
l l are able bl to
t
move faster
When the molecules move faster,
faster the temperature
of the object increases.
Temperature
p increase means the object
j gets
g
hotter.
3 Processes of Heat Transfer
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

CONDUCTION
Occurs mainly in solids
Two types of conduction

Molecular vibration
Free electron diffusion
Note: Conduction is not the main form of heat

transfer
s e in liquids
qu ds and
d ggases
ses bec
because
use their
e
molecules are spaced further apart.
STEADY STATE
THERMAL CODUCTIVITY
STEADY STAE IS THE STAE WHEN THERE IS NO MORE ABSORPTION OF HEAT AND THE TEMPERATURE BECOMES CONSTANT
DURING STEADY STAE DIFFERENT PARTICLES MAY HAVE DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES BUT DIFFERENT PARTICLES HAVE CONSTANT TEMPERATURE

Molecular Vibration
When heat is supplied to one end, the molecules at the

hot end start to vibrate more vigorously.
In the process, they ‘bump’ into their neighboring
molecules. In doing so, some energy is transferred to
the neighbour.
The neighbour molecule gains energy and starts to
vibrate
ib t more vigorously.
i l Th
The cycle
l continues.
ti

Conduction Animation
The conduction animation is on the left.

Notice the movement of the molecules
along the rod.
Cli k here
Click h forf animation
i ti

Free electron Diffusion
This form of conduction takes place only in metals. As

only metals have free electrons.
electrons
The electrons are freed from the molecule when heated
and they travel towards the cold end.
At the cold end they collide into a molecule therefore
ppassingg all their energy
gy to the molecule.

Comparing the 2 mechanisms
Molecular vibration Free electron diffusion

Occurs in all solids Occurs in metals only
Slow process Fast process

This explains why metals heat up faster:
1. Metals have 2 mechanisms of conduction occuring at
the same time.
2. In metals, free electron diffusion is the main
mechanism, which is faster.
Conductors and Insulators
Materials that can conduct heat easily and

y (eg.
readily ( g Metals)) are known as
conductors.
Materials that do not conduct heat easily
(eg. Water, air, plastic) are known as
insulators.
insulators

Conduction
CONDUCTION is when heat moves through a

________. Metals are better conductors of heat
than plastic or wood.
This is why…
why
These parts are
made of plastic or
wood:
These parts are

made of metal:
Conduction
In this experiment we saw that liquid water is

a poor conductor of heat. The ice cube did
not melt even though the water above it was
boiling.
A piece of ice fixed (with gauze) at the bottom of the test-

test-tube will not
melt even when the water is boiling at the top. Melting has to await
conduction of energy through the water.
The hot water carries its own thermal energy with it when it moves.
That is the process of convection. It happens in a fluid whether it is a
liquid or a gas
gas. On a large scale it happens in the oceans and in the
atmosphere, in hot water heating systems and in ventilation. Winds are
just convection currents.
Conduction
Air is also a poor conductor of heat.

This is how many types of house
insulation and clothing keep us
warm.
•Conduction and
convection
co vec o both
bo need
eed
particles to carry energy
when heat is transferred

Applications of conduction
Trapping air as insulation

Different sensations from conductors and
insulators
Uses of good conductors: cooking utensils
Uses of good insulators: table mats,
h dl
handles

Convection
Occurs in liquids and gases

Does not occur in solids because the
molecules are not free to move around

What happens during convection
Taking the example of heating water

Water at the bottom is heated first
Heated water expands
When water expands density decreases
Heated water of lower density starts to rise
Cooler water of higher density rushes in from
sides to take its place
The cooler water gets heated and the cycle
repeats.
repeats
Convection currents are set up.
Convection Animation
Refer to the animation on the right.

The animation shows the process of
convection taking place.
The blue circles represent unheated
molecules.
The
Th redder
dd the
h molecules
l l get theh more heat
h
they are absorbing.

Applications of convection
Air con is usually placed at the top of a

room.
Heating coil of a kettle is usually at the
bottom
Formation of land and sea breezes

Convection
Words to use: expands, radiators, dense, heated, current,

float

Temp/O
C Heating ice
150
This flat line shows where energy
is being used to push the particles
100 further apart for evaporation
50
0
Time/s
This flat line shows where energy
-50
50 is being used to break bonds –
this has to be done during melting
Particles gain
energy and
become less
dense and rise.
They pass their
energy on and
become more
d
dense andd sink.
i k
Heat up, less
dense rise……
Current
A hot air balloon uses

uses…..
Explain.
p
When the air particles in the balloon
are heated theyy move apart.
p The air
expands and becomes less dense.
This causes the hot air to rise and
the balloon does too.
too

Why does the balloon float back

down?
As it rises the warm air meets cooler air

and ppasses the energy
gy on. Havingg passed
p
on the energy it cools down and becomes
denser which sinks.
This sets up a convection current

current.

Radiation
Radiation does not require a medium to

transfer heat. ((can occur in a vacuum))
Sun releases electromagnetic waves (heat
is contained in the waves as infra-red)
infra red)
Hotter objects radiates more heat.

Emitters and absorbers
The Sun gives out the heat.

It is known as an emitter / radiator
The
Th EEarth
h takes
k iin the
h hheat.
It is known as an absorber.

Radiation
Black ________ infrared radiation (i.e. heat) from the sun better
than white does.
I’m cool! I’m very hot!
Radiation can happen pp through

g
absolutely ________ because the heat
is moving by ______.
______. This is how heat
reaches us from the ____.
____.
Words – sun, absorbs, nothing, warmer, waves

Good and Bad

Emitters/Absorbers
A good emitter would also be a good absorber.
A poor emitter would be a poor absorber.
Good emitter/absorber Poor emitter/absorber
Dull, black surface Shiny, silver surface

Rough surface Smooth surface

Factors affecting radiation
Colour and texture of the surface (refer to

p
previous slide))
Surface temperature
Higher surface temperature,
temperature higher rate of
transfer.
Surface
S f area
Larger surface area, higher rate of transfer

Applications of radiation
Teapots
The greenhouse
Colour and texture of clothings
Skin
Ski cancer

The vacuum flask
The vacuum prevents

conduction and
convection
The silvered surfaces
reduces
d radiation
di i
Cap and base are
made
d off goodd
insulators to reduce
conduction

HEAT TRANSFER
BY
RADIATION
INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY -2010

MODULE-1
Heat Transfer Operation
p
KARTIK R. DESAI
Sr Lecturer
Sr. Lecturer, Chemical Engineering Department
Department,
N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Isroli-Afwa

OUTLINE
9 Introduction
9 Electromagnetic Waves
9 Thermal Radiation
9 Terms involved
9 Basic Law’s of Radiation

INTRODUCTION
¾ HEAT is a form of energy which flow as a result of temperature gradient.

INTRODUCTION
¾ HEAT TRANSFER is the science which deals with the rates of exchange
of heat between hot and cold bodies called the SOURCE and the
RECIEVER.
RECIEVER
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INTRODUCTION
Heat is transferred by three primary modes:
1) CONDUCTION: It is the primary mode of heat transfer through solid. Conduction occurs by two
mechanisms:
h i
i) Molecular Motion - Molecules of higher energy (motion) impart that energy to adjacent molecules
of lesser energy.
ii)) Migration
g of free electrons - This is pprimarily
y associated with ppure metals.
Mathematically conduction is describe by Fourier

Mathematically, Fourier'ss Law:
Where A is the cross-sectional area that the heat is flowing through the solid, ∆T is the
temperature gradient in the solid. (k) is the thermal conductivity of the material.
The thermal conductivity is a physical property of the solid. It the a measure of the materials
ability to conduct heat.
Q: Why the negative sign appears in Fourier's law of heat conduction?
INTRODUCTION
2) CONVECTION: It occurs when a fluid exchanges energy with an adjacent solid. The fluid motion
adjacent to the solid surface assists in the transfer of energy.
There are two types of convection heat transfer:

i) Forced convection - Fluid motion is induced by an external source such as a fan or pump.
ii) Natural convection - Heating a fluid results in natural convective heating, Air will
circulate due to natural convective heating.
The temperature gradient in the fluid creates variations in density within the fluid. The colder fluid
(heavier) will sink, and the hotter fluid (lighter) will rise.
Newton s law of cooling describes the rate of heat transfer from a solid surface into a fluid medium:
Newton's
This relationship is valid for both forced and natural convection.
(Tamb) is the ambient fluid temperature, (h) is defined as the convective heat transfer
coefficient. This proportionality constant contains all the nonlinearities associated with convection.
Q: A sealed cube containing argon floating in deep space is heated on one side by a nearby
star. Will there be any heat transfer due to natural convection?
INTRODUCTION
3) RADIATION: It is the energy transferred in the form of electromagnetic waves as a result of the
changes in the “electronic configuration” of the atoms or molecules of matter. Whenever a charged
particle undergoes acceleration , energy possessed by the particle is converted into a form of energy
known as electromagnetic radiation .
THERMAL RADIATION: It is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their
temperature. i) Converting internal energy into out-flowing electromagnetic waves, ii) Absorbing
incomingg electromagnetic
g waves which are converted to internal energy.
gy
The rate of radiant thermal energy transfer between two bodies is described by the Stefan-
Boltzmann Law: “The emission of thermal radiative energy is proportional to the fourth power of
the absolute temperature (Kelvin or Rankine)”.
Where EE, is the emissive power flux of the surface (W/m2),
) (σ) is the Stefan-Boltzmann
Stefan Boltzmann
constant, and (ε) is the emissivity of the surface.
The rate of radiative heat transfer between
two surfaces, a and b is:
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, (σ) = 5.6703 x10-8 (W/m2K4)

INTRODUCTION
Three modes of heat transfer:

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
z The theoretical foundation was established by

physicist James Clerk Maxwell in1864.
z El t
Electromagneticti radiation
di ti isi the
th propagation
ti off
a collection of discrete packets of energy called
“photons” or “quanta”.
e =hν
where, h : Plank’s constant (=6.625*10-34 J.s)
z All Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed
of light (=2.99*108m/s) in a vacuum.
z Electromagnetic waves are characterized by
their frequency (ν) or wavelength (λ).
λ = C/ ν
where C is the speed of propagation of a
wave in that media.
The Electromagnetic wave spectrum

Electromagnetic Waves
Earth’s energy budget:

Electromagnetic wave spectrum:

Electromagnetic spectrum:

RADIATION
Types of radiation:

THERMAL RADIATION
¾ Every object emits thermal radiation from its surface due to its temperature.
Thermal radiation is continuously emitted by all matter whose temperature is
above absolute zero (0 K).
¾ Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation that is transmitted by the
electrons in the atoms of the radiating object. Everyday objects emit thermal
radiation that is in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
¾ A hot object, like the filament of a light bulb, emits infrared and visible thermal
radiation.
¾ Thermal radiation is transmitted through air or through the vacuum of space.
space
¾ Thermal radiation transports heat from a hotter surface to a cooler surface, e.g.
light from the surface of the Sun to the Earth.
¾ Th thermal
The th l radiation
di ti inside
i id an enclosed
l d oven is i att equilibrium,
ilib i b
because all
ll the
th
walls are at the same temperature.
¾ In heat transfer studies, we are interested in the energy emitted by bodies
beca se of their temperature
because temperat re only.
onl
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THERMAL RADIATION
How radiation differs from other phenomenon?
¾ It does not require the presence of a material media (solid/liquid/gas) to take place.
¾ Energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no
attenuation
tt ti ini a vacuum.
¾ Heat transfer through an evacuated space can occur only by radiation.

E Solar
Ex: S l radiation
di i (0.3-3μm).
(0 3 3 )
¾ Radiation heat transfer can occur between two bodies which are separated by a
medium colder than both the bodies.
bodies
¾ Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, except for opaque bodies (τ=0).
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TERMS INVOLVED
¾ Radiation Intensity (Ie): The rate at

which radiation energy is emitted in the (θ,Φ )
di ti per unit
direction it area normall to
t this
thi di
direction
ti
and per unit solid angle about this direction.
Ie (θ,Φ) = dQe/(dA
/(dA*cosθ*dω)
cosθ dω)
¾ Solid Angle (ω): It is the

two- dimensional angle in
three-dimensional
three dimensional space that
an object subtends at a point.
dω =ds/r2

Terms Involved
Black Body Radiation:

• Thermal radiation from a black body is
termed as black body radiation.
• A black body is an idealized object that
absorbs all e.m.radiation that falls on it.
Irradiation (G):
• The radiation flux incident on a surface
from all directions.
Radiosity (J):
• The rate at which radiation energy
leaves a unit area of a surface in all
directions.
Radiative properties
Emissivity (ε): The ratio of the radiation emitted by the

surface at a given temperature to the radiation emitted
by a black body at the same temperature.
Monochromatic emissivity (ελ): The ratio of the
monochromatic emissive power of the surface to the
monochromatic emissive power of a black surface at
the same temperature and wavelength.
ελ = Eλ/Ebλ
Absorptivity (α): The fraction of irradiation absorbed
by the surface.
• It depends strongly on the temperature of the source
at which the incident radiation is originating.
originating
Reflectivity (ρ): The fraction of irradiation reflected by
the surface
( ): The fraction of irradiation
Transmissi it (τ):
Transmissivity
transmitted by the surface.

Terms Involved
Properties of Opaque Surfaces : Semi-transparent surfaces:
Ii = Ir+Ia • The region into which the
ρ+α
ρ α =11 radiation is transmitted may or
τ=0 may not be part of the
computational domain.
Ii = Ir+Ia+It
ρ+α+τ=1
Types of diffusion :
The Gray body : The gray body is defined such that the monochromatic emissivity
(ελ) of the body is independent of wavelength.
wavelength

Terms Involved
View factor : The view factor from a surface i to j is
(Fij) defined as the fraction of radiation energy leaving
surface i that strikes surface j directly.
y
It is a purely geometric quantity and is independent of
surface properties and temperature.
Radiation analysis on an enclosure consisting of N
surfaces requires the evaluation of N2 view factors.
Reciprocity relation : Ai*Fij = Aj*Fji
Summation rule : ΣFij =1 , for j=1 to N
Optical Thickness : An important dimensionless number
in radiation.
Optical
O i l thickness
hi k indicates
i di how
h strongly l radiation
di i is i
absorbed (and scattered).
Optical thickness = (α + σs) L
L = Mean beam length(typically distance
between two opposing walls)

BASIC LAW’S OF RADIATION
Stefan-Boltzmann law:
The total radiation energy emitted by a black body per unit time and per
unit
it surface
f area was given
i by
b ,
Total blackbody emissive power, Eb = σ *T4
where, σ =5.67 x10-8 W/(m2 · K4)
Spectral(or Monochromatic) blackbody emissive power (Ebλ) :

The amount of radiation energy emitted by a blackbody at a
th
thermodynamic
d i ttemperature
t (T) per unit
it time,
ti per unit
it surface
f area, andd per
unit wavelength(λ).
Ebλ(λ,T) = C1/[λ5*(exp(C2/λ*T)-1)] ……..Plank’s law
2Π h c02
where C1 = 2Π*h*c
where,
C2 = h*c0/k
h : Plank’s constant
k : Boltzmann’s constant

Variation of Ebλ with wavelength
•The emitted radiation is a continuous

function of wavelength.
g
•At any wavelength , the amount of emitted

radiation increases with increasing
temperature.
temperature
•As temperature increases , the curves shift

to the left to the shorter wavelength region.
•The radiation emitted by sun, at (5800K)

reaches its peak in the visible region of the
spectrum.
spectrum

Continued…
Wien’s displacement law:

The wavelength at which the peak spectral blackbody emissive power
occurs for a specified temperature is given by Wien’s displacement law.
(λ*T)max power =2897 μm*K
Kirchhoff’s law:
The total hemispherical emissivity of a surface at temperature T is equal to
its total hemispherical absorptivity for radiation coming from a blackbody at
same temperature.
ε(T) = α(T)

Radiative transfer equation (RTE) :
Radiation intensity along an incremental step in any direction is decreased by

absorption and out-scattering, and increased by emission and in-scattering.

QUESTIONS


I d i l Ch i l T h l
Industrial Chemical Technology
Module – I
Heat Transfer Technology
05/12/2010
By:
y
Himanshu S. Desai
Lecturer, Chemical Engineering Department
N G P t l P l t h i
N. G. Patel Polytechnic
Isroli – Afwa, Bardoli
Condensers
y A condenser is a device or unit used to condense a
substance from its gaseous to its liquid state, typically by
cooling it.
it
y Condensers are typically heat exchangers which have
various designs
g and come in many y sizes.
y Condensers are used in air conditioning,
industrial chemical processes such as distillation,
steam power plants
l and
d other
h heat‐exchange
h h systems.
y Use of cooling water or surrounding air as the coolant is
common in many condensers.
condensers

Types of Condensers
y Surface condenser is the commonly used term for a
water‐cooled shell and tube heat exchanger.
y These
Th condensers
d are heat
h exchangers
h which
hi h convert
steam from its gaseous to its liquid state.
y When cooling water is in short supply,
supply an air
air‐cooled
cooled
condenser is often used.

Types of Condensers
y Contact condenser is a device in which a vapor is
brought into direct contact with a cooling liquid and
condensed by giving up its latent heat to the liquid.
liquid
y In almost all cases the cooling liquid is water, and the
condensing vapor is steam.
steam
y In this type of condenser the steam and cooling water
are mixed in a condensing g chamber and withdrawn
together.

Purpose
y Steam traps exist to discharge air and condensate while
not permitting the escape of live steam
y Their goal is to:
y Improve efficiency (Excess water or air in the system prevents
it from
f reaching
hi operating
ti temperature
t t quickly
i kl during
d i start‐up)
t t )
y Protect system (Inadequate steam trapping can lead to water
hammer, corrosion, leakage, and high maintenance costs)
y Provide maximum heat transfer (‘dry’ steam has best heat
transfer properties in equipment like a heat exchanger)

Types
1. Mechanical steam traps ‐ Have a float that rises and falls in
relation to condensate level and this usually has a mechanical linkage
attached that opens and closes the valve. Operate in direct
relationship to condensate levels present in the body of the steam
trap.
trap

Types
2. Temperature steam traps ‐ Have a valve that moves in/out of
position by either expansion/contraction caused by temperature
change. Some condensate builds up as it cools sufficiently to allow the
valve to open. In most circumstances this is not desirable as
condensate needs to be removed as soon as it is formed.
formed

Types
3. Thermodynamic steam traps ‐ Work on the difference
in response to velocity change in flow of compressible and
incompressible fluids. As steam enters, static pressure above
the disk forces the disk against the valve seat. The static
pressure over a large area overcomes the high inlet pressure of
the steam. As the steam starts to condense, the pressure
g
against the disk lessens and the trap
p opens
p to allow condensate
out.

Thank You

Module I
Module ‐
Thermal Conductivity & Its
y
Measurement
21st November, 2010
By
Prof. Latesh B. Chaudhari
Asst. Prof. & I/C Head
Chemical Engineering Department,
Faculty of Engineering, Technology & Research
Isroli – Afwa, Bardoli
Contents:
• Conduction mode of heat transfer
• Fourier’s Law
• Thermal Conductivity
• Cl ifi i
Classification of Materials based on Thermal Conductivity
f i l b d h lC d i i
• Effect of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity.

Conduction:
• Transfer of heat from one p part of a body y to another
part of a same body or from on body to another body
which is in physical contact with it, without
appreciable
i bl displacement
di l t off particles
ti l off a body.
b d

Fourier s Law:
Fourier’s Law:
Q ∝ A x [ dT / dx]
Q = k x A x [ dT / dx]
Where,
Q = Rate of heat transfer (Watts)
A = Area of heat Transfer (m2)
k = Thermal Conductivity (W/moC)
dT/dx = Rate of change of temperature with distance in the
direction of heat flow, oC/m
“The
The rate of heat flow by conduction through uniform
material is directly proportional to the area normal to
the direction of heat flow and temperature gradient in
the direction of heat flow”

Conduction Of Heat Through A

Material

Thermal Conductivity:
Q = k x A x [dT / dx]
k = ( Q x dx) / (A x dT)
“The quantity of heat passing through a quantity of material of unit

thickness
h k withh unit heat
h fl
flow area in unit time when
h unit temperature
difference is maintained across the opposite face of material”
OR
“The ability of material to conduct heat through itself is known as
thermal conductivity”.
• Thermal conductivity depends on the nature of material and its

temperature.
• Thermal conductivity y of solids is higher
g then that of liquids
q and
liquids is higher then that of gases.

Thermal Conductivities of different materials:
State of Matter Solids Liquids Gases
Thermal Conductivity (W/mK) 2.3 to 420 0.09 to 0.7 0.006 to 0.6
Thermal Conductivities of different materials at Room Temperature
Thermal Conductivity
y Thermal Conductivity
y
M
Material
i l M
Material
i l
W/m°C W/m°C
Diamond 2300 Brick 0.72
Silver 429 Water (l)
Water (l) 0 613
0.613
Copper 401 Human skin 0.37
Gold 317 Wood (oak) 0.17
Aluminum
Al i 237 H li
Helium (g)
( ) 0 152
0.152
Iron 80.2 Soft rubber 0.13
Mercury (l) 8.54 Glass fiber 0.043
Glass 0.78 Air (g) 0.026

The range of thermal conductivity of various materials at room temperature
Classification of Materials based on Thermal
C d i i
Conductivity:
HEAT CONDUCTORS:
The materials having higher value of thermal
conductivity are referred to as heat conductors. Eg. Silver
metal
t l (k = 420 W/mK),
W/ K) Red
R d Copper
C (k = 395 W/mK),
W/ K) Gold
G ld
(k = 302 W/mK), Aluminums (k = 210 W/mK)
HEAT INSULATORS:
The materials having low value of thermal conductivity
are referred to as heat insulators. Eg. Cork (k = 0.025
W/mK), Glass Wool (k = 0.10 W/mK), Asbestos (k = 0.024
W/mK), 85% magnesia (k = 0.04 W/mK)

Thermal Insulation:
• Process equipments such as reaction vessels, Reboilers,
distillation column, evaporators etc or steam pipe will lose heat to
the atmosphere by conduction, convection and radiation.
• Thus to overcome this heat loss, some form of lagging is applied to
the hot surfaces. Eg. In a furnace surface temperature is reduced
by making use of series of insulating bricks that are poor
conductor of heat (Heat Insulators).
Requirement of lagging materials:
• It should have low thermal conductivity and
• It should suppress convection currents.

Optimum Thickness of Insulation:
Increasingg the thickness of
insulation will decrease
the heat loss but at the
same time
ti it will
ill increase
i
the fixed cost. Thus,
optimum
p thickness which
will help in minimum heat
loss and minimum cost is
calculated.
calculated

Variation of the thermal conductivity with temperature
Effect on Thermal Conductivity of Cu & Al with temperature
Temperature, K
T K Copper
C Al i
Aluminum
100 482 302
200 413 237
300 401 237
400 393 240
600 379 231
800 366 218

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER
• Objective: To determine thermal conductivity of insulating powder.
• Theory: Consider the transfer of heat by conduction through the wall of
hollow sphere form by the insulating powder layer packed between two
thin copper spheres. Let ri = radius of inner sphere (m), ro = radius of
outer sphere (m), Ti = avg. temperature of the inner surface (C) where,
• Ti = (T1+T2+T3+T4) / 4 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (1)
• Similarly,
• To = (T5+T6+T7+T8+T9+T10) / 6 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (2)
• From the experimental value of q, Ti the unknown thermal conductivity K
can be determine as,
• ri)] / [4 x Π x ri x ro x (Ti
K = [Q x (ro ‐ ri)] / [4 x Π
K = [Q x (ro x ri x ro x (Ti – To)] ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (3)

• Procedure:
• Connect the equipment with electrical supply.
q p pp y
• Adjust input equal to any value between 20 to 60 watt maximum by volt &
ammeter.
• Take thermocouple readings at frequent intervals till consecutive readings are
same indicating that steady state has been reached.
g y
• OBSERVATION:
– Radius of inner sphere, ri = ___________ mm
– Radius of outer sphere ro
Radius of outer sphere, ro =
= ___________ mm
mm
– Voltmeter reading, V = ___________ volts
– Ammeter reading, I = ___________ ampere
– Heater input (Q) = V x I = ___________ watts
•
• CALCULATION:
• K = [Q x (ro ‐ ri)] / [4 x π x ri x ro x (Ti – To)]
• =
• =
RESULT: Thermal Conductivity of the insulating powder is_____________W / moC. •

Thank You

MODULE – I
Date: 21/11/2010 By: L. B. Chaudhari

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER

Objective: To determine thermal conductivity of insulating powder.

Theory: Consider the transfer of heat by conduction through the wall of hollow sphere
form by the insulating powder layer packed between two thin copper spheres. Let ri =
radius of inner sphere (m), ro = radius of outer sphere (m), Ti = avg. temperature of the
inner surface (C) where,
Ti = (T1+T2+T3+T4) / 4 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (1)
Similarly,
To = (T5+T6+T7+T8+T9+T10) / 6 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (2)
From the experimental value of q, Ti the unknown thermal conductivity K can be determine
as,
K = [Q x (ro ‐ ri)] / [4 x Π x ri x ro x (Ti – To)] ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (3)

Procedure:
1. Connect the equipment with electrical supply.
2. Adjust input equal to any value between 20 to 60 watt maximum by volt & ammeter.
3. Take thermocouple readings at frequent intervals till consecutive readings are same
indicating that steady state has been reached.

OBSERVATION:

1) Radius of inner sphere, ri = ___________ mm
2) Radius of outer sphere, ro = ___________ mm
3) Voltmeter reading, V = ___________ volts
4) Ammeter reading, I = ___________ ampere
5) Heater input (Q) = V x I = ___________ watts


OBSERVATION TABLE:

For Inner Sphere:

Thermocouple Mean temperature
T1 T2 T3 T4
No. Ti = (T1+T2+T3+T4) / 4
Temperature
(oC)

For Outer Sphere:

Thermocouple Mean temperature
T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10
No. To = (T5+T6+T7+T8 + T9 + T10) / 6
Temperature
( C)
o

CALCULATION:

K = [Q x (ro ri)] / [4 x π x ri x ro x (Ti – To)]

=

=

RESULT: Thermal Conductivity of the insulating powder is __________________W / moC.

CONCLUSION:

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO:
Prepared By: Prof.Latesh Chaudhari, Asst. Prof.,F.E.T.R., Bardoli DATE:
STEFAN BOLTZMAN APPARATUS
AIM: To determine the Stefan Boltzman constant for a given apparatus.

THEORY:
The most commonly used law of thermal radiation is the Stefan Boltzman law which state
that the thermal radiation heat flux for emissive power of a black surface is promotional to the
fourth power of absolute temp. of the surface & is given by,

(Q / A) = e x b = σ x T4 (1)

Where constant of proportionality σ is called Stefan Boltzman constant & has the value of 4.88
x 10‐8 Kcal / hr x m2 x K4.

PROCEDURE:
1. Heat the water in the tank by the immersion heater up to a temperature of above 90oC.
2. The disc D is removed before pouring the hot water in the jacket.
3. The hot water is poured in the water jacket.
4. The hemispherical enclosure B & A will come to some uniform temperature in short time
after filling the hot water in the jacket.
5. The enclosure will soon come to thermal equilibrium conditions.
6. The disc D is now inserted in A at a time when its temperature is TD.
7. The radiation energy falling on the disc D from the enclosure is given by:

E = σ x AD x (T4) (2)

Where,
AD = area of disc D.
T = temperature of enclosure.

8. The emmisivity of the D is assume to be unity the radiant energy disc D is emitting into
enclosure will be:

E1 = σ x AD x (TD4) (3)

Where,
TD = Temperature of disc D.

9. Net heat input to disc D per unit time is given by equation (2) – (3),

E – E1 = σ x AD x (T4 – TD4) (4)

10. If the disc D has a mass m & Specific Heat S then a short time after Disc D is inserted in A,

m x s (dT / dt) t = 0 = σ x AD x (T4 – TD4) (5)

σ = (m x s (dT / dt) t = 0) / AD x (T4 – TD4) (6)

In this equation (dT / dt) t = 0 denotes the rate of rise of temperature of the disc D. It is clear
measure at time t=0 before heat conducted from A to D begins to have any significant effects.
This is obtaining from plot of temperature rise of disc D with respect to time and obtaining it
slop at t=0 when temperature is TD. The temperature sensor mounted on disc is to be use for
this purpose. Note that the disc D with its sleeve is placed quickly in a position & start
recording the Temperature at fixed time interval. The whole process must be completed in 30
seconds of time.

OBSERVATION:
1. Mass of disc D, (m) = __________ Kg.
2. Specific Heat of disc materials (S) = __________ Kcal/Kg x oC
3. Diameter of disc D = __________ mm = __________ m.
4. Area of disc D, AD = (Π / 4) x D2

=

= __________ m2

5. Temperature of enclosure, (T) = __________ oC = ____________ K

6. Temperature of disc D at instant when it is inserted:

TD = __________ oC = ____________ K


7. Prof.Latesh
Prepared By: Temperature of disc D at time interval of 5 sec.
Chaudhari, Asst. Prof.,F.E.T.R., Bardoli
Time (t) Temperature of disc, (TD)

(sec) (oC)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40

8. Obtain slop from graph of temperature (TD) versus time (t)

dT/dt = __________ oC/sec

dT/dt = __________ oC/hr

9. T4 = ( __________ )4 = __________ K4

10. TD4 = ( __________ )4 = __________ K4

11. T4 – TD4 = ( __________ )4 – ( __________ )4

=

12. Value of Stephen Boltzman Constant (σ) can be obtain by using

σ = (m x s (dT / dt) t = 0) / AD x (T4 – TD4)

=

=

By: Prof.Latesh Chaudhari, Asst. Prof.,F.E.T.R., Bardoli
Prepared

RESULT:

The value of Stefan Boltzman constant σ is ________________ Kcal/m2K4.

CONCLUSION: ____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________


Prepared By: Prof.Himanshu Desai, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
MODULE – I
PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER

DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER

AIM: To determine log mean temperature difference (LMTD) for Horizontal double pipe
heat exchanger, vertical double pipe heat exchanger using co‐current and counter current
flow.
APPARATUS: Horizontal double pipe heat exchanger, Vertical double pipe heat exchanger,
Bare & lagged pipe apparatus, stop watch, measuring cylinder, etc.

PROCEDURE:
1) Allow the cold water to flow through pipe of exchanger and maintain the steady flow of
water.
2) Allow the steam to flow through Heat Exchanger at constant pressure.
3) Note down the inlet & outlet temperature & flow rate of water at the steady state
condition.
4) Also note down the flow rate & temperature of condensate at steady state condition.
5) Perform the experiment in co‐current and counter current flow.

OBSERVATION:
1. Inner diameter of annulus (Di) = __________ inch = __________ meter
2. Outer diameter of annulus (Do) = __________ inch = __________ meter
3. Length of pipe = __________ inch = __________ meter

OBSERVATION TABLE:
STEAM COLD WATER
Sr. Type of Inlet Outlet Flow Inlet Outlet Flow
Pressure
No. Flow Temp. Temp. Rate Temp. Temp. Rate
(Kg/cm2)
(oC) (oC) (Kg/S) (oC) (oC) (Kg/S)
FOR HORIZONTAL DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER:
1 Co current Flow
2 Counter Current
FOR VERTICA DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER:
1 Co current Flow
2 Counter Current

CALCULATION:
LOGERATHMIC MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE:
FOR HORIZONTAL DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER:
• FOR COCURRENT FLOW:
LMTD = (∆T2 ∆T1) / ln (∆T2/∆T1)

=

=

• FOR COUNTER CURRENT FLOW:
LMTD = (∆T2 ∆T1) / ln (∆T2/∆T1)

=

=


FOR VERTICAL DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER:
• FOR COCURRENT FLOW:
LMTD = (∆T2 ∆T1) / ln (∆T2/∆T1)

=

=

• FOR COUNTER CURRENT FLOW:
LMTD = (∆T2 ∆T1) / ln (∆T2/∆T1)

=

=

RESULT:

Type of Heat Exchanger Type of Flow LMTD
Co‐current Flow
Horizontal Double Pipe H.E.
Counter Current Flow
Co‐current Flow
Vertical Double Pipe H.E.
Counter Current Flow

CONCLUSION: _______________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________


MODULE – I
PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER

BARE & LAGGED PIPE
AIM: To determine heat losses through the bare and lagged pipe

APPARATUS: Measuring cylinder, stop watch, Bare & lagged pipe, thermometer, etc.

PROCEDURE:
1. Allow the steam to flow through bare pipe at constant pressure & measure the outlet
temperature of condensate & flow rate of condensate by using the measuring cylinder
& stop watch.
2. Allow the steam to flow through lagged pipe by operating the valve & after sometimes
measure the temp. & flow rate of condensate.
3. Measure the outside diameter of pipe by vernier caliper.
4. Calculate heat losses by radiation through bare & lagged pipe & compare the result.

OBSERVATION:
1. Outer diameter of bare pipe = __________ cm
2. Thickness of bare pipe = __________ cm
3. Inner diameter of bare pipe = __________ cm
4. Inlet Temperature of steam in bare & lagged pipe = __________ oC
5. Specific Heat at steam at pressure _________ Kg/cm2 = __________ J/kg. k

OBSERVATION TABLE:

BARE PIPE LAGGED PIPE
Inlet Outlet Flow Inlet Outlet Flow
Pressure Pressure
Temp. Temp. Rate Temp. Temp. Rate
(Kg / cm2) (Kg / cm2)
(oC) (oC) (LPM) (oC) (oC) (LPM)


CALCULATION:
[A] FOR BARE PIPE:

Heat loss from bare pipe :

QB = mB x Cp x ∆T

Where,
mB = Mass flow rate of condensate for bare pipe
Cp = Specific heat of steam for bare pipe

QB =

=

[B] FOR LAGGED PIPE:

Heat loss from lagged pipe:

QL = mL x CP x ∆T

Where,
mL = Mass flow rate of condensate for lagged pipe
C p = Specific heat of steam for lagged pipe

QL =

=

RESULT:

• Heat loss through Bare pipe = ____________________ J/sec.
• Heat loss through Lagged pipe = ____________________ J/sec.

CONCLUSION: _______________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Prepared By: Prof.Tarak Padhiyar, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
Long Term Training Programme on “Industrial Chemical Technology’
Chemical Engineering Department
N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Isroli

Experiment: Mechanically Agitated Jacketed Vessel with Coil
Staff: Mr. T.C. Padhiyar, I/c Head, CHED

Objective:
To study the effect of agitation, inlet temp., Flow rate of heating medium, flow rate of cooling medium
on the heat transfer characteristics when using either jacket or coil.

Theory:

Mechanically agitated vessels, equipped with cooling coils or heating jackets are in common use
throughout the chemical process industry. Heat transfer rates agitated vessel is vertical cylinder vessel
incorporation suitable type of agitator that brings even distribution of the liquid in the vessel. Agitated
vessels are commonly employed in chemical industries for different proposes such as mixing,
dissolution, dilution, neutralization, adsorption, crystallization. To done by providing a heat transfer
surface, which may be in the form of a jacket fitted outside the vessel or a coil fitted inside the vessel
depending upon the situation.

Procedure:

1. Fill the agitated vessel with predetermined amount of liquid.
2. Note down the inlet temperature of liquid.
3. Start the supply of hot water either in a coil or jacketed by switching on the pump& by setting a
derived flow rate using the given valve.
4. Note down the change in temp.
5. Change the inlet temperature of liquid with flow rate and note down the similar sets of result.
6. Perform the scheme experiment with agitation and note down the reading.


Observation:
1) For vessel:
1. Volume of liquid in vessel: 5lit.
2. Material of construction: SS‐316
3. Inside dia. of vessel: 213 mm
4. Height of vessel: 250 mm
5. Thickness of wall: 1.5 mm

2) For Jacket:
1. Material of construction: SS‐316.
2. Inner dia. of jacket: 260mm
3. Outer dia. of jacket: 310mm

3) For Coil:
1. Material of construction: copper
2. Coil length: 915 mm
3. Inner diameter of coil: 7 mm
4. Outer diameter of coil: 9 mm
5. Outer diameter of Spiral: 130 mm

Observation Table:

(A) Without agitation:

(1) Using Jacket:

Inlet temp. of
Sr. Inlet temp. of Outlet temp. of Outlet temp. of
liquid in jacket, Flow rate
No. liquid in vessel, Tc1 liquid in vessel, Tc2 liquid in jacket, Th2
Th1
1
2

(2) Using Coil:

Inlet temp. of
Sr. Inlet temp. of Outlet temp. of Outlet temp. of
liquid in jacket, Flow rate
No. liquid in vessel, Tc1 liquid in vessel, Tc2 liquid in jacket, Th2
Th1
1
2


(B) With agitation:

(1) Using Jacket:

Inlet temp. of
Sr. Inlet temp. of Outlet temp. of Outlet temp. of Flow
liquid in jacket, RPM
No. liquid in vessel, Tc1 liquid in vessel, Tc2 liquid in jacket, Th2 rate
Th1
1
2

(2) Using Coil:

Inlet temp. of
Sr. Inlet temp. of Outlet temp. of Outlet temp. of Flow
liquid in jacket, RPM
No. liquid in vessel, Tc1 liquid in vessel, Tc2 liquid in jacket, Th2 rate
Th1
1
2

Calculation:

(A) Without agitation:

1) Using Jacket:

∆T1 = Th1 – Tc1 ∆T2 = Th2 – Tc2

= =

= ___________ =___________

LMTD ∆Tlm = (∆T2 – ∆T1)
ln ∆T2
∆T1


2) Using Coil:

∆T1 = Th1 – Tc1 ∆T2 = Th2 – Tc2

= =

= ___________ =___________

LMTD ∆Tlm = (∆T2 – ∆T1)
ln ∆T2
∆T1

(A) With agitation:

1) Using Jacket:

∆T1 = Th1 – Tc1 ∆T2 = Th2 – Tc2

= =

= ___________ =___________

LMTD ∆Tlm = (∆T2 – ∆T1)
ln ∆T2
∆T1

2) Using Coil:

∆T1 = Th1 – Tc1 ∆T2 = Th2 – Tc2

= =

= ___________ =___________


LMTD ∆Tlm = (∆T2 – ∆T1)
ln ∆T2
∆T1

Result:

• LMTD using Jacket without agitation = ______________
• LMTD using Coil without agitation = ______________
• LMTD using Jacket with agitation = ______________
• LMTD using Coil with agitation = ______________

Conclusion:

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Compiled by: JJPandya
Module 1
Chapter 1 : Introduction to fluid and Fundamental Concepts
The chapter contains
Lecture 1
Definition of Stress
Definition of Fluid
Concept of Continum
Fluid Properties
Lecture 2
Distinction between Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid

Compressibility
Surface Tension of Liquids
Consider a small area δA on the surface of a body (Fig. 1.1). The force acting on this area is δF
This force can be resolved into two perpendicular components
The component of force acting normal to the area called normal force and is denoted by δFn
The component of force acting along the plane of area is called tangential force and is denoted
by δFt
Fig 1.1 Normal and Tangential Forces on a surface

When they are expressed as force per unit area they are called as normal stress and tangential stress
respectively. The tangential stress is also called shear stress
The normal stress
(1.1)
And shear stress
(1.2)
Definition of Fluid
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously in the face of tangential or shear stress,
irrespective of the magnitude of shear stress .This continuous deformation under the
application of shear stress constitutes a flow.
In this connection fluid can also be defined as the state of matter that cannot sustain any
shear stress.
Example : Consider Fig 1.2
Fig 1.2 Shear stress on a fluid body
If a shear stress τ is applied at any location in a fluid, the element 011' which is initially at rest, will move
to 022', then to 033'. Further, it moves to 044' and continues to move in a similar fashion.

In other words, the tangential stress in a fluid body depends on velocity of deformation and
vanishes as this velocity approaches zero. A good example is Newton's parallel plate experiment
where dependence of shear force on the velocity of deformation was established.
Distinction Between Solid and Fluid
Solid Fluid
More Compact Structure Less Compact Structure
Attractive Forces between the molecules Attractive Forces between the molecules
are larger therefore more closely packed are smaller therefore more loosely
packed
Solids can resist tangential stresses in
static condition Fluids cannot resist tangential stresses in
static condition.
Whenever a solid is subjected to shear
stress Whenever a fluid is subjected to shear
a. It undergoes a definite stress
deformation α or breaks
b. α is proportional to shear stress a. No fixed deformation
upto some limiting condition b. Continious deformation takes
place
Solid may regain partly or fully its until the shear stress is applied
original shape when the tangential
stress is removed A fluid can never regain its original
shape, once it has been distorded by the
shear stress
Fig 1.3 Deformation of a Solid Body

Concept of Continuum

The concept of continuum is a kind of idealization of the continuous description of matter
where the properties of the matter are considered as continuous functions of space
variables. Although any matter is composed of several molecules, the concept of
continuum assumes a continuous distribution of mass within the matter or system with no
empty space, instead of the actual conglomeration of separate molecules.
Describing a fluid flow quantitatively makes it necessary to assume that flow variables
(pressure , velocity etc.) and fluid properties vary continuously from one point to another.
Mathematical description of flow on this basis have proved to be reliable and treatment of
fluid medium as a continuum has firmly become established. For example density at a
point is normally defined as
In continuum approach, fluid properties such as density, viscosity, thermal

conductivity, temperature, etc. can be expressed as continuous functions of space
and time.
Fluid Properties :
Characteristics of a continuous fluid which are independent of the motion of the fluid are called basic
properties of the fluid. Some of the basic properties are as discussed below.
Property Symbol Definition Unit

The density p of a fluid is its mass per unit volume . If a fluid element enclosing a
point P has a volume Δ and mass Δm (Fig. 1.4), then density (ρ)at point P is
written as
However, in a medium where continuum model is valid one can write -

Density ρ kg/m3
(1.3)

Fig 1.4 A fluid element enclosing point P
The specific weight is the weight of fluid per unit volume. The specific weight is
given
Specific by γ= ρg (1.4)
γ N/m3
Weight
Where g is the gravitational acceleration. Just as weight must be clearly
distinguished from mass, so must the specific weight be distinguished from density.
The specific volume of a fluid is the volume occupied by unit mass of fluid.
Specific Thus m3
v /kg
Volume
(1.5)
For liquids, it is the ratio of density of a liquid at actual conditions to the density of
pure water at 101 kN/m2 , and at 4°C.
Specific
Gravity
s
The specific gravity of a gas is the ratio of its density to that of either hydrogen or
air at some specified temperature or pressure. -
However, there is no general standard; so the conditions must be stated
while referring to the specific gravity of a gas.
Viscosity ( μ ) :
Viscosity is a fluid property whose effect is understood when the fluid is in motion.
In a flow of fluid, when the fluid elements move with different velocities, each element will feel
some resistance due to fluid friction within the elements.
Therefore, shear stresses can be identified between the fluid elements with different velocities.

The relationship between the shear stress and the velocity field was given by Sir Isaac Newton.
Consider a flow (Fig. 1.5) in which all fluid particles are moving in the same direction in such a way that
the fluid layers move parallel with different velocities.
Fig 1.6 Two adjacent layers of a moving

Fig 1.5 Parallel flow of a fluid
fluid.
The upper layer, which is moving faster, tries to draw the lower slowly moving layer along with it
by means of a force F along the direction of flow on this layer. Similarly, the lower layer tries to
retard the upper one, according to Newton's third law, with an equal and opposite force F on it
(Figure 1.6).
Such a fluid flow where x-direction velocities, for example, change with y-coordinate is called
shear flow of the fluid.
Thus, the dragging effect of one layer on the other is experienced by a tangential force F on the
respective layers. If F acts over an area of contact A, then the shear stress τ is defined as
τ = F/A
Viscosity ( μ ) :
Newton postulated that τ is proportional to the quantity Δu/ Δy where Δy is the distance of
separation of the two layers and Δu is the difference in their velocities.
In the limiting case of , Δu / Δy equals du/dy, the velocity gradient at a point in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the layer.
According to Newton τ and du/dy bears the relation
(1.7)


where, the constant of proportionality μ is known as the coefficient of viscosity or simply viscosity which
is a property of the fluid and depends on its state. Sign of τ depends upon the sign of du/dy. For the
profile shown in Fig. 1.5, du/dy is positive everywhere and hence, τ is positive. Both the velocity and
stress are considered positive in the positive direction of the coordinate parallel to them.
Equation

defining the viscosity of a fluid, is known as Newton's law of viscosity. Common fluids, viz. water, air,
mercury obey Newton's law of viscosity and are known as Newtonian fluids.
Other classes of fluids, viz. paints, different polymer solution, blood do not obey the typical linear
relationship, of τ and du/dy and are known as non-Newtonian fluids. In non-newtonian fluids viscosity
itself may be a function of deformation rate as you will study in the next lecture.
Causes of Viscosity
The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly attributed to two factors:
(i) intermolecular force of cohesion

(ii) molecular momentum exchange
Due to strong cohesive forces between the molecules, any layer in a moving fluid tries to drag the
adjacent layer to move with an equal speed and thus produces the effect of viscosity as
discussed earlier. Since cohesion decreases with temperature, the liquid viscosity does likewise.
Fig 1.7 Movement of fluid molecules between two adjacent
moving layers
Molecules from layer aa in course of continous thermal agitation migrate into layer bb
Momentum from the migrant molecules from layer aa is stored by molecules of layer bb by way of
collision
Thus layer bb as a whole is speeded up

Molecules from the lower layer bb arrive at aa and tend to retard the layer aa
Every such migration of molecules causes forces of acceleration or deceleration to drag the
layers so as to oppose the differences in velocity between the layers and produce the effect of
viscosity.
As the random molecular motion increases with a rise in temperature, the viscosity also increases
accordingly. Except for very special cases (e.g., at very high pressure) the viscosity of both
liquids and gases ceases to be a function of pressure.
For Newtonian fluids, the coefficient of viscosity depends strongly on temperature but varies very
little with pressure.
For liquids, molecular motion is less significant than the forces of cohesion, thus viscosity of
liquids decrease with increase in temperature.
For gases,molecular motion is more significant than the cohesive forces, thus viscosity of gases
increase with increase in temperature.
Fig 1.8: Change of Viscosity of Water and Air under 1 atm
No-slip Condition of Viscous Fluids
It has been established through experimental observations that the relative velocity between the
solid surface and the adjacent fluid particles is zero whenever a viscous fluid flows over a solid
surface. This is known as no-slip condition.

This behavior of no-slip at the solid surface is not same as the wetting of surfaces by the fluids.
For example, mercury flowing in a stationary glass tube will not wet the surface, but will have zero
velocity at the wall of the tube.
The wetting property results from surface tension, whereas the no-slip condition is a
consequence of fluid viscosity.
Ideal Fluid
Consider a hypothetical fluid having a zero viscosity ( μ = 0). Such a fluid is called an ideal fluid
and the resulting motion is called as ideal or inviscid flow. In an ideal flow, there is no
existence of shear force because of vanishing viscosity.
All the fluids in reality have viscosity (μ > 0) and hence they are termed as real fluid and their
motion is known as viscous flow.
Under certain situations of very high velocity flow of viscous fluids, an accurate analysis of flow
field away from a solid surface can be made from the ideal flow theory.
Non-Newtonian Fluids
There are certain fluids where the linear relationship between the shear stress and the
deformation rate (velocity gradient in parallel flow) as expressed by the is not valid.
For these fluids the viscosity varies with rate of deformation.
Due to the deviation from Newton's law of viscosity they are commonly termed as non-
Newtonian fluids. Figure 2.1 shows the class of fluid for which this relationship is nonlinear.
Figure 2.1 Shear stress and deformation rate relationship of different fluids
The abscissa in Fig. 2.1 represents the behaviour of ideal fluids since for the ideal fluids the
resistance to shearing deformation rate is always zero, and hence they exhibit zero shear stress
under any condition of flow.
The ordinate represents the ideal solid for there is no deformation rate under any loading
condition.
The Newtonian fluids behave according to the law that shear stress is linearly proportional to
velocity gradient or rate of shear strain . Thus for these fluids, the plot of shear
stress against velocity gradient is a straight line through the origin. The slope of the line
determines the viscosity.

The non-Newtonian fluids are further classified as pseudo-plastic, dilatant and Bingham plastic.

Classification of non-Newtonian fluids
Many mathematical models are available to describe the nonlinear "shear-stress vs deformation-
rate" relationship of non Newtonian fluids. But no general model can describe the constitutive
equation ("shear stress vs rate of deformation" relationship) of all kinds of non-Newtonian fluids.
However, the mathematical model for describing the mechanistic behaviour of a variety of
commonly used non-Newtonian fluids is the Power-Law model which is also known as
Ostwald-de Waele model (the name is after the scientist who proposed it). According to
Ostwald-de Waele model
(2.1)
where m is known as the flow consistency index and n is the flow behavior index.
When n = 1, m equals , the model identically satisfies Newtonian model as a special case.
When n < 1, the model is valid for pseudoplastic fluids, such as gelatine, blood, milk etc.
When n > 1, the model is valid for dilatant fluids, such as sugar in water, aqueous suspension of rice
starch etc.
There are some substances which require a yield stress for the deformation rate (i.e. the flow) to
be established, and hence their constitutive equations do not pass through the origin thus
violating the basic definition of a fluid. They are termed as Bingham plastic. For an ideal
Bingham plastic, the shear stress- deformation rate relationship is linear.
Compressibility
Compressibility of any substance is the measure of its change in volume under the action of
external forces.
The normal compressive stress on any fluid element at rest is known as hydrostatic pressure p
and arises as a result of innumerable molecular collisions in the entire fluid.
The degree of compressibility of a substance is characterized by the bulk modulus of elasticity

E defined as
(2.3)

Where Δ and Δp are the changes in the volume and pressure respectively, and is the initial
volume. The negative sign (-sign) is included to make E positive, since increase in pressure
would decrease the volume i.e for Δp>0 , Δ <0) in volume.
For a given mass of a substance, the change in its volume and density satisfies the relation

Δm = 0, Δ( ρ )=0
(2.4)

using
we get
(2.5)

Values of E for liquids are very high as compared with those of gases (except at very high
pressures). Therefore, liquids are usually termed as incompressible fluids though, in fact, no
substance is theoretically incompressible with a value of E as .
For example, the bulk modulus of elasticity for water and air at atmospheric pressure are
approximately 2 x 106 kN/m 2 and 101 kN/m 2 respectively. It indicates that air is about 20,000
times more compressible than water. Hence water can be treated as incompressible.

For gases another characteristic parameter, known as compressibility K, is usually defined , it is

the reciprocal of E
(2.6)

K is often expressed in terms of specific volume .

For any gaseous substance, a change in pressure is generally associated with a change in
volume and a change in temperature simultaneously. A functional relationship between the
pressure, volume and temperature at any equilibrium state is known as thermodynamic
equation of state for the gas.

For an ideal gas, the thermodynamic equation of state is given by
p = ρRT (2.7)
where T is the temperature in absolute thermodynamic or gas temperature scale (which are, in
fact, identical), and R is known as the characteristic gas constant, the value of which depends

upon a particular gas. However, this equation is also valid for the real gases which are
thermodynamically far from their liquid phase. For air, the value of R is 287 J/kg K.
K and E generally depend on the nature of process
Distinction between an Incompressible and a Compressible Flow
In order to know, if it is necessary to take into account the compressibility of gases in fluid flow
problems, we need to consider whether the change in pressure brought about by the fluid motion
causes large change in volume or density.
Using Bernoulli's equation
p + (1/2)ρV2= constant (V being the velocity of flow), change in pressure, Δp, in a flow field, is of
the order of (1/2)ρV2 (dynamic head).
Invoking this relationship into
we get ,
(2.12)

So if Δρ/ρ is very small, the flow of gases can be treated as incompressible with a good
degree of approximation.
For compressible fluid, if the flow velocity is small as compared to the local acoustic velocity,
compressibility of gases can be neglected. Considering a maximum relative change in density
of 5 per cent as the criterion of an incompressible flow, the upper limit of Mach number
becomes approximately 0.33. In the case of air at standard pressure and temperature, the
acoustic velocity is about 335.28 m/s. Hence a Mach number of 0.33 corresponds to a velocity of
about 110 m/s. Therefore flow of air up to a velocity of 110 m/s under standard condition can be
considered as incompressible flow.
The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the two kinds of intermolecular forces
(i) Cohesion : The force of attraction between the molecules of a liquid by virtue of which they are
bound to each other to remain as one assemblage of particles is known as the force of cohesion.
This property enables the liquid to resist tensile stress.
(ii) Adhesion : The force of attraction between unlike molecules, i.e. between the molecules of
different liquids or between the molecules of a liquid and those of a solid body when they are in
contact with each other, is known as the force of adhesion. This force enables two different
liquids to adhere to each other or a liquid to adhere to a solid body or surface.

Work is done on each molecule arriving at surface against the action of an inward force. Thus
mechanical work is performed in creating a free surface or in increasing the area of the surface.
Therefore, a surface requires mechanical energy for its formation and the existence of a free
surface implies the presence of stored mechanical energy known as free surface energy. Any
system tries to attain the condition of stable equilibrium with its potential energy as minimum.
Thus a quantity of liquid will adjust its shape until its surface area and consequently its free
surface energy is a minimum.
The magnitude of surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting across imaginary short
and straight elemental line divided by the length of the line.
The dimensional formula is F/L or MT-2 . It is usually expressed in N/m in SI units.
Surface tension is a binary property of the liquid and gas or two liquids which are in contact with
each other and defines the interface. It decreases slightly with increasing temperature. The
surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is about 0.073 N/m.
It is due to surface tension that a curved liquid interface in equilibrium results in a greater
pressure at the concave side of the surface than that at its convex side.
Capillarity
The interplay of the forces of cohesion and adhesion explains the phenomenon of capillarity.
When a liquid is in contact with a solid, if the forces of adhesion between the molecules of the
liquid and the solid are greater than the forces of cohesion among the liquid molecules
themselves, the liquid molecules crowd towards the solid surface. The area of contact between
the liquid and solid increases and the liquid thus wets the solid surface.
The reverse phenomenon takes place when the force of cohesion is greater than the force of
adhesion. These adhesion and cohesion properties result in the phenomenon of capillarity by
which a liquid either rises or falls in a tube dipped into the liquid depending upon whether the
force of adhesion is more than that of cohesion or not (Fig.2.4).
The angle θ as shown in Fig. 2.4, is the area wetting contact angle made by the interface with the
solid surface.

Fig 2.4 Phenomenon of Capillarity
For pure water in contact with air in a clean glass tube, the capillary rise takes place with θ = 0 .
Mercury causes capillary depression with an angle of contact of about 1300 in a clean glass in
contact with air. Since h varies inversely with D as found from Eq. ( ), an
appreciable capillary rise or depression is observed in tubes of small diameter only.
Vapour pressure
All liquids have a tendency to evaporate when exposed to a gaseous atmosphere. The rate of
evaporation depends upon the molecular energy of the liquid which in turn depends upon the type
of liquid and its temperature. The vapour molecules exert a partial pressure in the space above
the liquid, known as vapour pressure. If the space above the liquid is confined (Fig. 2.5) and the
liquid is maintained at constant temperature, after sufficient time, the confined space above the
liquid will contain vapour molecules to the extent that some of them will be forced to enter the
liquid. Eventually an equilibrium condition will evolve when the rate at which the number of vapour
molecules striking back the liquid surface and condensing is just equal to the rate at which they
leave from the surface. The space above the liquid then becomes saturated with vapour. The
vapour pressure of a given liquid is a function of temperature only and is equal to the saturation
pressure for boiling corresponding to that temperature. Hence, the vapour pressure increases
with the increase in temperature. Therefore the phenomenon of boiling of a liquid is closely
related to the vapour pressure. In fact, when the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the
total pressure impressed on its surface, the liquid starts boiling. This concludes that boiling can
be achieved either by raising the temperature of the liquid, so that its vapour pressure is
elevated to the ambient pressure, or by lowering the pressure of the ambience (surrounding gas)
to the liquid's vapour pressure at the existing temperature.

Figure 2.5 To and fro movement of liquid molecules from an interface in a

confined space as a closed surrounding

Exercise Problems - Chapter 1
1. A thin film of liquid flows down an inclined channel. The velocity distribution in the flow is given
by

where, h = depth of flow, α = angle of inclination of the channel to the horizontal, u = velocity at a
depth h below the free surface, ρ = density of liquid, μ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid. Calculate
the shear stress: (a) at the bottom of the channel (b) at mid-depth and (c) at the free surface. The
coordinate y is measured from the free surface along its normal
[(a) α, (b) α , (c) 0]
2. Two discs of 250 mm diameter are placed 1.5 mm apart and the gap is filled with an oil. A
power of 500 W is required to rotate the upper disc at 500 rpm while keeping the lower one
stationary. Determine the viscosity of the oil.
[ 0. 71 kg/ms]
[ 5.95]
Recap
In this chapter you have learnt the following
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to even an infinitesimal
shear stress. Solids can resist tangential stress at static conditions undergoing a definite
deformation while a fluid can do it only at dynamic conditions undergoing a continuous
deformation as long as the shear stress is applied.
The concept of continuum assumes a continuous distribution of mass within the matter

or system with no empty space. In the continuum approach, properties of a system can
be expressed as continuous functions of space and time. A dimensionless parameter
known as Knudsen number where λ is the mean free path and L is the
characteristic length, aptly describes the degree of departure from continuum. The
concept of continuum usually holds good when Kn< 0.01.
Viscosity is a property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to flow. The shear
stress at a point in a moving fluid is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. For a
one dimensional flow, . The constant of proportionality μ is known as

coefficient of viscosity or simply the viscosity. The relationship is known as the Newton's
law of viscosity and the fluids which obey this law are known as Newtonian fluids.
The relationship between the shear stress and the rate of shear strain is known as the
constitutive equation. The fluids whose constitutive equations are not linear through
origin (do not obey the Newton's law of viscosity) are known as non-Newtonian fluids.
For a Newtonian fluid, viscosity is a function of temperature only. With an increase in
temperature, the viscosity of a liquid decreases, while that of a gas increases. For non-
Newtonian fluid, the viscosity depends not only on temperature but also on the
deformation rate of the fluid. Kinematic viscosity v is defined as .
Compressibility of a substance is the measure of its change in volume or density under

the action of external forces. It is usually characterized by the bulk modulus of
elasticity
A flow is said to be incompressible when the change in its density due to the change in
pressure brought about by the fluid motion is negligibly small. When the flow velocity is
equal to or less than 0.33 times of the local acoustic speed, the relative change in
density of the fluid, due to flow, becomes equal to or less than 5 per cent respectively,
and hence the flow is considered to be incompressible
The force of attraction between the molecules of a fluid is known as cohesion, while that
between the molecules of a fluid and of a solid is known as adhesion. The interplay of
these two intermolecular forces explains the phenomena of surface tension and capillary
rise or depression. A free surface of the liquid is always under stretched condition
implying the existence of a tensile force on the surface. The magnitude of this force per
unit length of an imaginary line drawn along the liquid surface is known as the surface
tension coefficient or simply the surface tension.

Compiled by: JJPandya
Module 1
Chapter 1 : Introduction to fluid and Fundamental Concepts
The chapter contains
Lecture 1
Definition of Fluid
Concept of Continum
Fluid Properties
Lecture 2
Distinction between Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid

Compressibility
Consider a small area δA on the surface of a body (Fig. 1.1). The force acting on this area is δF
This force can be resolved into two perpendicular components
The component of force acting normal to the area called normal force and is denoted by δFn
The component of force acting along the plane of area is called tangential force and is denoted
by δFt
Fig 1.1 Normal and Tangential Forces on a surface

When they are expressed as force per unit area they are called as normal stress and tangential stress
respectively. The tangential stress is also called shear stress
The normal stress
(1.1)
And shear stress
(1.2)
Definition of Fluid
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously in the face of tangential or shear stress,
irrespective of the magnitude of shear stress .This continuous deformation under the
application of shear stress constitutes a flow.
In this connection fluid can also be defined as the state of matter that cannot sustain any
shear stress.
Example : Consider Fig 1.2
Fig 1.2 Shear stress on a fluid body
If a shear stress τ is applied at any location in a fluid, the element 011' which is initially at rest, will move
to 022', then to 033'. Further, it moves to 044' and continues to move in a similar fashion.

In other words, the tangential stress in a fluid body depends on velocity of deformation and
vanishes as this velocity approaches zero. A good example is Newton's parallel plate experiment
where dependence of shear force on the velocity of deformation was established.
Distinction Between Solid and Fluid
Solid Fluid
More Compact Structure Less Compact Structure
Attractive Forces between the molecules Attractive Forces between the molecules
are larger therefore more closely packed are smaller therefore more loosely
packed
Solids can resist tangential stresses in
static condition Fluids cannot resist tangential stresses in
static condition.
Whenever a solid is subjected to shear
stress Whenever a fluid is subjected to shear
a. It undergoes a definite stress
deformation α or breaks
b. α is proportional to shear stress a. No fixed deformation
upto some limiting condition b. Continious deformation takes
place
Solid may regain partly or fully its until the shear stress is applied
original shape when the tangential
stress is removed A fluid can never regain its original
shape, once it has been distorded by the
shear stress
Fig 1.3 Deformation of a Solid Body

Concept of Continuum

The concept of continuum is a kind of idealization of the continuous description of matter
where the properties of the matter are considered as continuous functions of space
variables. Although any matter is composed of several molecules, the concept of
continuum assumes a continuous distribution of mass within the matter or system with no
empty space, instead of the actual conglomeration of separate molecules.
Describing a fluid flow quantitatively makes it necessary to assume that flow variables
(pressure , velocity etc.) and fluid properties vary continuously from one point to another.
Mathematical description of flow on this basis have proved to be reliable and treatment of
fluid medium as a continuum has firmly become established. For example density at a
point is normally defined as
In continuum approach, fluid properties such as density, viscosity, thermal

conductivity, temperature, etc. can be expressed as continuous functions of space
and time.
Fluid Properties :
Characteristics of a continuous fluid which are independent of the motion of the fluid are called basic
properties of the fluid. Some of the basic properties are as discussed below.
Property Symbol Definition Unit

The density p of a fluid is its mass per unit volume . If a fluid element enclosing a
point P has a volume Δ and mass Δm (Fig. 1.4), then density (ρ)at point P is
written as
However, in a medium where continuum model is valid one can write -

Density ρ kg/m3
(1.3)

Fig 1.4 A fluid element enclosing point P
The specific weight is the weight of fluid per unit volume. The specific weight is
given
Specific by γ= ρg (1.4)
γ N/m3
Weight
Where g is the gravitational acceleration. Just as weight must be clearly
distinguished from mass, so must the specific weight be distinguished from density.
The specific volume of a fluid is the volume occupied by unit mass of fluid.
Specific Thus m3
v /kg
Volume
(1.5)
For liquids, it is the ratio of density of a liquid at actual conditions to the density of
pure water at 101 kN/m2 , and at 4°C.
Specific
Gravity
s
The specific gravity of a gas is the ratio of its density to that of either hydrogen or
air at some specified temperature or pressure. -
However, there is no general standard; so the conditions must be stated
while referring to the specific gravity of a gas.
Viscosity ( μ ) :
Viscosity is a fluid property whose effect is understood when the fluid is in motion.
In a flow of fluid, when the fluid elements move with different velocities, each element will feel
some resistance due to fluid friction within the elements.
Therefore, shear stresses can be identified between the fluid elements with different velocities.

The relationship between the shear stress and the velocity field was given by Sir Isaac Newton.
Consider a flow (Fig. 1.5) in which all fluid particles are moving in the same direction in such a way that
the fluid layers move parallel with different velocities.
Fig 1.6 Two adjacent layers of a moving

Fig 1.5 Parallel flow of a fluid
fluid.
The upper layer, which is moving faster, tries to draw the lower slowly moving layer along with it
by means of a force F along the direction of flow on this layer. Similarly, the lower layer tries to
retard the upper one, according to Newton's third law, with an equal and opposite force F on it
(Figure 1.6).
Such a fluid flow where x-direction velocities, for example, change with y-coordinate is called
shear flow of the fluid.
Thus, the dragging effect of one layer on the other is experienced by a tangential force F on the
respective layers. If F acts over an area of contact A, then the shear stress τ is defined as
τ = F/A
Viscosity ( μ ) :
Newton postulated that τ is proportional to the quantity Δu/ Δy where Δy is the distance of
separation of the two layers and Δu is the difference in their velocities.
In the limiting case of , Δu / Δy equals du/dy, the velocity gradient at a point in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the layer.
According to Newton τ and du/dy bears the relation
(1.7)


where, the constant of proportionality μ is known as the coefficient of viscosity or simply viscosity which
is a property of the fluid and depends on its state. Sign of τ depends upon the sign of du/dy. For the
profile shown in Fig. 1.5, du/dy is positive everywhere and hence, τ is positive. Both the velocity and
stress are considered positive in the positive direction of the coordinate parallel to them.
Equation

defining the viscosity of a fluid, is known as Newton's law of viscosity. Common fluids, viz. water, air,
mercury obey Newton's law of viscosity and are known as Newtonian fluids.
Other classes of fluids, viz. paints, different polymer solution, blood do not obey the typical linear
relationship, of τ and du/dy and are known as non-Newtonian fluids. In non-newtonian fluids viscosity
itself may be a function of deformation rate as you will study in the next lecture.
Causes of Viscosity
The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly attributed to two factors:
(i) intermolecular force of cohesion

(ii) molecular momentum exchange
Due to strong cohesive forces between the molecules, any layer in a moving fluid tries to drag the
adjacent layer to move with an equal speed and thus produces the effect of viscosity as
discussed earlier. Since cohesion decreases with temperature, the liquid viscosity does likewise.
Fig 1.7 Movement of fluid molecules between two adjacent
moving layers
Molecules from layer aa in course of continous thermal agitation migrate into layer bb
Momentum from the migrant molecules from layer aa is stored by molecules of layer bb by way of
collision
Thus layer bb as a whole is speeded up

Molecules from the lower layer bb arrive at aa and tend to retard the layer aa
Every such migration of molecules causes forces of acceleration or deceleration to drag the
layers so as to oppose the differences in velocity between the layers and produce the effect of
viscosity.
As the random molecular motion increases with a rise in temperature, the viscosity also increases
accordingly. Except for very special cases (e.g., at very high pressure) the viscosity of both
liquids and gases ceases to be a function of pressure.
For Newtonian fluids, the coefficient of viscosity depends strongly on temperature but varies very
little with pressure.
For liquids, molecular motion is less significant than the forces of cohesion, thus viscosity of
liquids decrease with increase in temperature.
For gases,molecular motion is more significant than the cohesive forces, thus viscosity of gases
increase with increase in temperature.
Fig 1.8: Change of Viscosity of Water and Air under 1 atm
No-slip Condition of Viscous Fluids
It has been established through experimental observations that the relative velocity between the
solid surface and the adjacent fluid particles is zero whenever a viscous fluid flows over a solid
surface. This is known as no-slip condition.

This behavior of no-slip at the solid surface is not same as the wetting of surfaces by the fluids.
For example, mercury flowing in a stationary glass tube will not wet the surface, but will have zero
velocity at the wall of the tube.
The wetting property results from surface tension, whereas the no-slip condition is a
consequence of fluid viscosity.
Ideal Fluid
Consider a hypothetical fluid having a zero viscosity ( μ = 0). Such a fluid is called an ideal fluid
and the resulting motion is called as ideal or inviscid flow. In an ideal flow, there is no
existence of shear force because of vanishing viscosity.
All the fluids in reality have viscosity (μ > 0) and hence they are termed as real fluid and their
motion is known as viscous flow.
Under certain situations of very high velocity flow of viscous fluids, an accurate analysis of flow
field away from a solid surface can be made from the ideal flow theory.
Non-Newtonian Fluids
There are certain fluids where the linear relationship between the shear stress and the
deformation rate (velocity gradient in parallel flow) as expressed by the is not valid.
For these fluids the viscosity varies with rate of deformation.
Due to the deviation from Newton's law of viscosity they are commonly termed as non-
Newtonian fluids. Figure 2.1 shows the class of fluid for which this relationship is nonlinear.
Figure 2.1 Shear stress and deformation rate relationship of different fluids
The abscissa in Fig. 2.1 represents the behaviour of ideal fluids since for the ideal fluids the
resistance to shearing deformation rate is always zero, and hence they exhibit zero shear stress
under any condition of flow.
The ordinate represents the ideal solid for there is no deformation rate under any loading
condition.
The Newtonian fluids behave according to the law that shear stress is linearly proportional to
velocity gradient or rate of shear strain . Thus for these fluids, the plot of shear
stress against velocity gradient is a straight line through the origin. The slope of the line
determines the viscosity.

The non-Newtonian fluids are further classified as pseudo-plastic, dilatant and Bingham plastic.

Classification of non-Newtonian fluids
Many mathematical models are available to describe the nonlinear "shear-stress vs deformation-
rate" relationship of non Newtonian fluids. But no general model can describe the constitutive
equation ("shear stress vs rate of deformation" relationship) of all kinds of non-Newtonian fluids.
However, the mathematical model for describing the mechanistic behaviour of a variety of
commonly used non-Newtonian fluids is the Power-Law model which is also known as
Ostwald-de Waele model (the name is after the scientist who proposed it). According to
Ostwald-de Waele model
(2.1)
where m is known as the flow consistency index and n is the flow behavior index.
When n = 1, m equals , the model identically satisfies Newtonian model as a special case.
When n < 1, the model is valid for pseudoplastic fluids, such as gelatine, blood, milk etc.
When n > 1, the model is valid for dilatant fluids, such as sugar in water, aqueous suspension of rice
starch etc.
There are some substances which require a yield stress for the deformation rate (i.e. the flow) to
be established, and hence their constitutive equations do not pass through the origin thus
violating the basic definition of a fluid. They are termed as Bingham plastic. For an ideal
Bingham plastic, the shear stress- deformation rate relationship is linear.
Compressibility
Compressibility of any substance is the measure of its change in volume under the action of
external forces.
The normal compressive stress on any fluid element at rest is known as hydrostatic pressure p
and arises as a result of innumerable molecular collisions in the entire fluid.
The degree of compressibility of a substance is characterized by the bulk modulus of elasticity

E defined as
(2.3)

Where Δ and Δp are the changes in the volume and pressure respectively, and is the initial
volume. The negative sign (-sign) is included to make E positive, since increase in pressure
would decrease the volume i.e for Δp>0 , Δ <0) in volume.
For a given mass of a substance, the change in its volume and density satisfies the relation

Δm = 0, Δ( ρ )=0
(2.4)

using
we get
(2.5)

Values of E for liquids are very high as compared with those of gases (except at very high
pressures). Therefore, liquids are usually termed as incompressible fluids though, in fact, no
substance is theoretically incompressible with a value of E as .
For example, the bulk modulus of elasticity for water and air at atmospheric pressure are
approximately 2 x 106 kN/m 2 and 101 kN/m 2 respectively. It indicates that air is about 20,000
times more compressible than water. Hence water can be treated as incompressible.

For gases another characteristic parameter, known as compressibility K, is usually defined , it is

the reciprocal of E
(2.6)

K is often expressed in terms of specific volume .

For any gaseous substance, a change in pressure is generally associated with a change in
volume and a change in temperature simultaneously. A functional relationship between the
pressure, volume and temperature at any equilibrium state is known as thermodynamic
equation of state for the gas.

For an ideal gas, the thermodynamic equation of state is given by
p = ρRT (2.7)
where T is the temperature in absolute thermodynamic or gas temperature scale (which are, in
fact, identical), and R is known as the characteristic gas constant, the value of which depends

upon a particular gas. However, this equation is also valid for the real gases which are
thermodynamically far from their liquid phase. For air, the value of R is 287 J/kg K.
K and E generally depend on the nature of process
Distinction between an Incompressible and a Compressible Flow
In order to know, if it is necessary to take into account the compressibility of gases in fluid flow
problems, we need to consider whether the change in pressure brought about by the fluid motion
causes large change in volume or density.
Using Bernoulli's equation
p + (1/2)ρV2= constant (V being the velocity of flow), change in pressure, Δp, in a flow field, is of
the order of (1/2)ρV2 (dynamic head).
Invoking this relationship into
we get ,
(2.12)

So if Δρ/ρ is very small, the flow of gases can be treated as incompressible with a good
degree of approximation.
For compressible fluid, if the flow velocity is small as compared to the local acoustic velocity,
compressibility of gases can be neglected. Considering a maximum relative change in density
of 5 per cent as the criterion of an incompressible flow, the upper limit of Mach number
becomes approximately 0.33. In the case of air at standard pressure and temperature, the
acoustic velocity is about 335.28 m/s. Hence a Mach number of 0.33 corresponds to a velocity of
about 110 m/s. Therefore flow of air up to a velocity of 110 m/s under standard condition can be
considered as incompressible flow.
The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the two kinds of intermolecular forces
(i) Cohesion : The force of attraction between the molecules of a liquid by virtue of which they are
bound to each other to remain as one assemblage of particles is known as the force of cohesion.
This property enables the liquid to resist tensile stress.
(ii) Adhesion : The force of attraction between unlike molecules, i.e. between the molecules of
different liquids or between the molecules of a liquid and those of a solid body when they are in
contact with each other, is known as the force of adhesion. This force enables two different
liquids to adhere to each other or a liquid to adhere to a solid body or surface.

Work is done on each molecule arriving at surface against the action of an inward force. Thus
mechanical work is performed in creating a free surface or in increasing the area of the surface.
Therefore, a surface requires mechanical energy for its formation and the existence of a free
surface implies the presence of stored mechanical energy known as free surface energy. Any
system tries to attain the condition of stable equilibrium with its potential energy as minimum.
Thus a quantity of liquid will adjust its shape until its surface area and consequently its free
surface energy is a minimum.
The magnitude of surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting across imaginary short
and straight elemental line divided by the length of the line.
The dimensional formula is F/L or MT-2 . It is usually expressed in N/m in SI units.
Surface tension is a binary property of the liquid and gas or two liquids which are in contact with
each other and defines the interface. It decreases slightly with increasing temperature. The
surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is about 0.073 N/m.
It is due to surface tension that a curved liquid interface in equilibrium results in a greater
pressure at the concave side of the surface than that at its convex side.
Capillarity
The interplay of the forces of cohesion and adhesion explains the phenomenon of capillarity.
When a liquid is in contact with a solid, if the forces of adhesion between the molecules of the
liquid and the solid are greater than the forces of cohesion among the liquid molecules
themselves, the liquid molecules crowd towards the solid surface. The area of contact between
the liquid and solid increases and the liquid thus wets the solid surface.
The reverse phenomenon takes place when the force of cohesion is greater than the force of
adhesion. These adhesion and cohesion properties result in the phenomenon of capillarity by
which a liquid either rises or falls in a tube dipped into the liquid depending upon whether the
force of adhesion is more than that of cohesion or not (Fig.2.4).
The angle θ as shown in Fig. 2.4, is the area wetting contact angle made by the interface with the
solid surface.

Fig 2.4 Phenomenon of Capillarity
For pure water in contact with air in a clean glass tube, the capillary rise takes place with θ = 0 .
Mercury causes capillary depression with an angle of contact of about 1300 in a clean glass in
contact with air. Since h varies inversely with D as found from Eq. ( ), an
appreciable capillary rise or depression is observed in tubes of small diameter only.
Vapour pressure
All liquids have a tendency to evaporate when exposed to a gaseous atmosphere. The rate of
evaporation depends upon the molecular energy of the liquid which in turn depends upon the type
of liquid and its temperature. The vapour molecules exert a partial pressure in the space above
the liquid, known as vapour pressure. If the space above the liquid is confined (Fig. 2.5) and the
liquid is maintained at constant temperature, after sufficient time, the confined space above the
liquid will contain vapour molecules to the extent that some of them will be forced to enter the
liquid. Eventually an equilibrium condition will evolve when the rate at which the number of vapour
molecules striking back the liquid surface and condensing is just equal to the rate at which they
leave from the surface. The space above the liquid then becomes saturated with vapour. The
vapour pressure of a given liquid is a function of temperature only and is equal to the saturation
pressure for boiling corresponding to that temperature. Hence, the vapour pressure increases
with the increase in temperature. Therefore the phenomenon of boiling of a liquid is closely
related to the vapour pressure. In fact, when the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the
total pressure impressed on its surface, the liquid starts boiling. This concludes that boiling can
be achieved either by raising the temperature of the liquid, so that its vapour pressure is
elevated to the ambient pressure, or by lowering the pressure of the ambience (surrounding gas)
to the liquid's vapour pressure at the existing temperature.

Figure 2.5 To and fro movement of liquid molecules from an interface in a

confined space as a closed surrounding

Exercise Problems - Chapter 1
1. A thin film of liquid flows down an inclined channel. The velocity distribution in the flow is given
by

where, h = depth of flow, α = angle of inclination of the channel to the horizontal, u = velocity at a
depth h below the free surface, ρ = density of liquid, μ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid. Calculate
the shear stress: (a) at the bottom of the channel (b) at mid-depth and (c) at the free surface. The
coordinate y is measured from the free surface along its normal
[(a) α, (b) α , (c) 0]
2. Two discs of 250 mm diameter are placed 1.5 mm apart and the gap is filled with an oil. A
power of 500 W is required to rotate the upper disc at 500 rpm while keeping the lower one
stationary. Determine the viscosity of the oil.
[ 0. 71 kg/ms]
[ 5.95]
Recap
In this chapter you have learnt the following
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to even an infinitesimal
shear stress. Solids can resist tangential stress at static conditions undergoing a definite
deformation while a fluid can do it only at dynamic conditions undergoing a continuous
deformation as long as the shear stress is applied.
The concept of continuum assumes a continuous distribution of mass within the matter

or system with no empty space. In the continuum approach, properties of a system can
be expressed as continuous functions of space and time. A dimensionless parameter
known as Knudsen number where λ is the mean free path and L is the
characteristic length, aptly describes the degree of departure from continuum. The
concept of continuum usually holds good when Kn< 0.01.
Viscosity is a property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to flow. The shear
stress at a point in a moving fluid is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. For a
one dimensional flow, . The constant of proportionality μ is known as

coefficient of viscosity or simply the viscosity. The relationship is known as the Newton's
law of viscosity and the fluids which obey this law are known as Newtonian fluids.
The relationship between the shear stress and the rate of shear strain is known as the
constitutive equation. The fluids whose constitutive equations are not linear through
origin (do not obey the Newton's law of viscosity) are known as non-Newtonian fluids.
For a Newtonian fluid, viscosity is a function of temperature only. With an increase in
temperature, the viscosity of a liquid decreases, while that of a gas increases. For non-
Newtonian fluid, the viscosity depends not only on temperature but also on the
deformation rate of the fluid. Kinematic viscosity v is defined as .
Compressibility of a substance is the measure of its change in volume or density under

the action of external forces. It is usually characterized by the bulk modulus of
elasticity
A flow is said to be incompressible when the change in its density due to the change in
pressure brought about by the fluid motion is negligibly small. When the flow velocity is
equal to or less than 0.33 times of the local acoustic speed, the relative change in
density of the fluid, due to flow, becomes equal to or less than 5 per cent respectively,
and hence the flow is considered to be incompressible
The force of attraction between the molecules of a fluid is known as cohesion, while that
between the molecules of a fluid and of a solid is known as adhesion. The interplay of
these two intermolecular forces explains the phenomena of surface tension and capillary
rise or depression. A free surface of the liquid is always under stretched condition
implying the existence of a tensile force on the surface. The magnitude of this force per
unit length of an imaginary line drawn along the liquid surface is known as the surface
tension coefficient or simply the surface tension.

11/13/2010
Faculty of Engineering and

Technical Studies
FLUID MECHANICS
Chapter 2: Fluid Statics
Compiled by: Janmeshkumar J Pandya

Technical Studies
Introduction
Objectives
2.1 Pressure
2 2 Ab
2.2 Absolute
l t and dGGauge PPressure
2.3 Variation of Pressure with Elevation
2.3.1 Pressure and Head
2.3.2 Equality of pressure at the same level in static fluid
2.3.3 Pascal’s Paradox
2.4 Pressure Measurement
2.5 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surface
2.6 Hydrostatic
y Buoyant
y Force
Summary

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Technical Studies
Introduction
• Fluid static is the study of pressures throughout a fluid at
rest and the pressure forces on finite surface.
• The general rule applies to fluid at rest:
1. No shears stress /force acting on it.
2. Any force between the fluid and the boundary must be acting at
right angles to the boundary (normal to the surface).
F F
Figure 2.1 Pressure forces normal to the boundary

Technical Studies
Objectives
1. Define the relationship between absolute pressure, gauge
pressure and atmospheric pressure.
2. Define the relationship between change in elevation and
change in pressure.
3. Describe pressure measurements.
4. Compute the hydrostatic pressures and forces on
submerged surfaces on static fluid.
5. Use the principle of static equilibrium to solve for the
forces involves in buoyancy problems.
6. Define the condition for stability of submerged and
floating bodies.

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Technical Studies
2.1 Pressure
The basic property of a static fluid is pressure.
Pressure is defined as the amount of surface force exerted
by a fluid on any boundary it is in contact with. It can be
written as:
Force
Pr essure =
Area of which the force is applied
F
P= (2.1)
A
Unit: N / m2 or Pascal (Pa).

(Also frequently used is bar, where 1 bar = 105 Pa).
Faculty
ArchofDam
Engineering and
Technical Studies Dams
Arch & Gravity Dam
Gravity Dam

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Dams (cont.)
Technical Studies
Hydrostatic forc
Turbine
Energy conversion Hydrostatic uplift
Bernoulli equation

Fluid Statics
Technical Studies
When a surface is submerged in a fluid at rest, hydrostatic

forces develop on the surface due to the fluid pressure.
These forces must be perpendicular to the surface since
there is no shear action present. These forces can be
determined by y integrating
g g the static p
pressure distribution
over the area it is acting on.
Example: What is the force acting on the bottom of the
tank shown?
Fluid with density ρ
Tank area A

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Technical Studies
2 (TWO) important principles about pressure;

• Pressure acts uniformly in all directions on a small volume of
fluid.
• In a fluid confined by solid boundaries, pressure acts
perpendicular to the boundary.
• These principles, called Pascal’s Law,
Fluid surfaces
Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3:

Pressure acting uniformly Direction of fluid pressures
in all directions on boundaries
9

Technical Studies
10

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Technical Studies
2.2 Absolute and Gauge Pressure

• Pressure measurements are generally indicated as being either
absolute or gauge pressure.
Gauge pressure
G
• is the pressure measured above or below the atmospheric pressure
(i.e. taking the atmospheric as datum).
• can be positive or negative.
• A negative gauge pressure is also known as vacuum pressure.
Absolute pressure
• uses absolute zero,
zero which is the lowest possible pressure
pressure.
• Therefore, an absolute pressure will always be positive.
• A simple equation relating the two pressure measuring system can
be written as:
Pabs = Pgauge + Patm (2.2)
11

Technical Studies

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Technical Studies
Atmospheric pressure
• refers to the prevailing pressure in the air around us.
us
• It varies somewhat with changing weather conditions, and it
decreases with increasing altitude.
• At sea level, average atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa
(abs), 14.7 psi (abs), or 1 atmosphere (1 bar = 1x105 Pa).
• This is commonly referred to as ‘standard atmospheric
pressure’.
pressure
13

Technical Studies
14

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Technical Studies
Example 2.1
Express a pressure of 155 kPa (gauge) as an absolute
pressure.
Express a pressure of –31 kPa (gauge) as an absolute
pressure.
The local atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa (abs).
Solution:
Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
Pabs = 155 + 101 = 256 kPa
Pabs = -31 + 101 = 70 kPa
15

Technical Studies
2.3 Variations of Pressure with Elevation
P2, A
Area, A
Figure 2.4: Fluid h

Density
Small cylindrical ρ Z2
element of fluid
Z1
P1, A
Reference/datum
To find the variations of pressure with elevation, let’s consider a

small cylindrical element of fluid of cross-sectional area A, and
height (h = Z2 –Z1), surrounded by the same fluid of mass density, ρ.
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Technical Studies
The pressure at the bottom of the cylinder is P1 at level Z1,

and at the top is P2 at level Z2. The fluid is at rest and in
equilibrium so all the forces in the vertical direction sum to
zero.
Force due to P1 ((upward)
p ) = P1A
Force due to P2 (downward) = P2A
Force due to weight of element = mg = ρgA(Z2-Z1)
Taking the summation of forces (upward as positive);
(↑)∑F=0
P1A – P2A - ρgA(Z2-Z1) = 0
P1 – P2 = ρg (Z2-Z1) = ρgh (2.3)
or P2 – P1 = - ρg(Z2-Z1) = - ρgh (2.3a)
Thus, in any fluid under gravity,

9 an increase in elevation causes a decrease in pressure.
9 a decrease in elevation causes an increase in pressure.
17

Technical Studies
2.3.1 Pressure and head

Free surface
P2 = Patm
ya h
P1
y
In a liquid with a free surface the pressure at any depth h

measured from the free surface can be found by applying equation
(2.3) to the figure.
q
From equation ((2.3):
) P1 – P2= ρg (ya-y)
y)
But ya-y = h , and
P2 = Patm (atmospheric pressure since it is at free surface).
Thus,
P1 – Patm= ρgh
or P1 = Patm + ρgh (abs) (2.4)
or in terms of gauge pressure (Patm= 0),:
P1 = ρgh = γh (2.5)
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From the above equations, it can be concluded that the change in pressure
is directly proportional to the specific weight of the liquid, and pressure
varies linearly with the change of elevation or depth.
The linear variation with depth below the free surface is known as
hydrostatic pressure distribution.
Hydrostatic pressure increases with the depth of fluid. Notice that in
Figure 2.5 below, the reading on the pressure gauge of tank A is lower
than the reading of tank B. The gauges show the pressure created by the
depth and specific weight of the liquid.
Tank A Tank B
liquid
liquid
Figure 2.6:
Different pressure
due to different depth
PA < PB
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Technical Studies
As g is assumed constant, the gauge pressure can be

given by stating the vertical height, h, of any fluid
density ρ,
density, ρ which would be necessary to produce this
pressure. This vertical height, h, is known as pressure
head or just head of fluid, and can be written as;
h = P/ρg (2.6)
Note that when pressures are expressed as head, the
density of fluid must be given or the fluid is named.
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2.3.2 Equality of Pressure at the Same

Level in a Static Fluid
y, ρ
Fluid density,
A A Figure 2.7
PR
PL Horizontal element
cylinder of fluid
W = mg
Consider the horizontal cylindrical element of fluid with cross sectional

area, A, in a fluid of density ρ, pressure PL at the left end and PR at the
right end.
Fluid is at equilibrium
equilibrium, so the sum of forces acting on the x-direction is
zero.
(→) ΣF =0.
PLA – PRA = 0
∴ PL = PR (2.7)
This proof that pressure in the horizontal direction is constant.
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Technical Studies
Figure 2.8:
Two tanks of different
cross-section connected
by a pipe
Applying equation (2.4)

PL = PP + ρgh ---------------- (1)
and
PR = PQ + ρgh ---------------- (2)
Earlier,
E li we hhave shown
h th
thatt PL = PR (refer
( f equation
ti 2 2.6),
6) th
therefore
f
equating (1) and (2) will give
Pp + ρgh = PQ + ρgh
PP = P Q (2.8)
This shows that the pressures at two equal levels P & Q are the same.
This is an important concept when dealing with manometers (see Section
2.4).
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2.3.3 Pascal’s Paradox

Earlier we have shown that the change in pressure depends
only on the change of elevation and the type of fluid, not on
the weight of the fluid present.
present
Therefore, all the containers shown in Figure 2.8 would have
the same pressure at the bottom – no matter what the size or
shape of container and how much fluid they contained.
This observation is called Pascal’s Paradox.
Figure 2.9:
h h
Illustration of
Pascal’s Paradox
Pressure is the same at the bottom of container: P=ρgh
25

Technical Studies
Example 2.2
What will be the gauge pressure and absolute pressure of
water at a depth 12m below the surface? Take ρwater = 1000
kg/m3 and Patm = 101 kN/m2
Solution:
Pgauge = ρgh
= 1000 x 9.81 x 12
= 117.7 kN/m2 (kPa)
Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
= (117.7 + 101) kN/m2
= 218.7
218 7 kN/m
kN/ 2
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Example 2.3
A cylinder contains a fluid at a gauge pressure of 200 kN/m2.
Express this pressure in terms of
head of water (ρ =1000
1000 kg/m3)
head of mercury (SG=13.6)
What would be the absolute pressure if the atmospheric
pressure is, Patm = 101.3 kN/m2.
Solution:
h= P/ρg
a) for water: h = 200x103/(1000x9.81)
= 20.39 m of water.
b) for mercury h = 200x103/(13.6x1000x9.81)
= 1.5 m of mercury
Absolute pressure = Patm + Pgauge
= 101.3 + 200 = 301.3 kN/m2.
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Technical Studies
Example 2.4
Figure below shows a tank with one side open to the
atmosphere and the other side sealed with air above the oil
(SG=0.90). Calculate the gauge pressure at points A,B,C,D,E.
1m A
3m
Oil (SG = 0.90)
B D
2m
C
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Solution:
At point A, the oil is exposed to the atmosphere
thus PA=Patm = 0 (gauge)
Point B is 3 m below point A,
Thus PB = PA + ρoilgh
= 0 + 0.9x1000x9.81x3
= 26.5 kPa (gauge)
Point C is 5 m below point A,
Thus PC = PA + ρoilgh
= 0 + 0.9x1000x9.81x5
= 44.15 kPa (gauge)
Point D is at the same level of point B,
thus PD = PB
= 26.5 kPa (gauge)
Point E is higher by 1 m from point A,
Thus PE = PA - ρoilgh
= 0 - 0.9x1000x9.81x1
= -8.83 kPa (gauge).
29

Technical Studies
2.4 Pressure Measurement

Atmospheric pressure is usually measured by a
mercury barometer.
A simple
p barometer consists of a tube more than
760 mm (30 inch) long inserted in an open container
of mercury with a closed and evacuated end at the
top and open end at the bottom with mercury
extending from the container up into the tube.
A void is produced at the top of the tube which is
very nearly a perfect vacuum. Figure 2.10 below
shows an example of a barometer. Figure 2.10:
Mercury rises in the tube to a height of Barometer
approximately 760 mm (30 in.) at sea level.
The level of mercury will rise and fall as
atmospheric pressure changes; direct reading of the
mercury level gives prevailing atmospheric pressure
as a pressure head (of mercury), which can be
converted to pressure using the relation:
Patm = ρgh.
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Piezometer tube
A simple vertical tube open at the top, which is attached to
the system containing the liquid where the pressure (higher
p
than atmospheric pressure)) to be measured.
p
As the tube is open to the atmosphere, the pressure
measured is the gauge pressure.
Pressure at A = pressure due to

column of liquid above A
h1 PA = ρgh1
h2
A Pressure at B = pressure due to
column of liquid above B
Liquid
density, ρ PB = ρgh2
•
B
Figure 2.11: Piezometer tube

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Technical Studies
U-tube Manometer
One end of the U-tube is connected to the pressure that is to be
measured, while the other end is left open to atmosphere.
The tube contains a liquid, which is called the manometric fluid,
which does not mix with the fluid whose pressure is to be
measured.
The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a lesser
density than the manometric fluid. (ρ < ρman )
Pa
PA Figure 2.12:
U-tube manometer
h2
h1
Fluid density, ρ B C
Manometric fluid density, ρman

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Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so,
Pressure at B = Pressure at C
P B = Pc (1)
For the left hand arm:
Pressure at B = Pressure at A + pressure due to h1
PB = PA + ρgh1 (2)
For right hand arm:
Pressure at C = Pressure at D + pressure due to height h2
PC = PD + ρmangh2
but PD = Patm (atmospheric pressure due to open end)
As we are measuring gauge pressure, Patm = 0
PC= ρmangh2 (3)
But PC = PB, substitute in (3); will give;
PB = ρmangh2 (4)
Equating (2) and (4);
PA + ρgh1= ρmangh2
PA = ρmangh2 - ρgh1 (2.9)
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Technical Studies
Differential Manometer
In some cases, the different
between the pressures at two
different points is desired rather
than the actual value of the
pressure at each point.
A manometer to determine this
pressure difference is called the
differential manometer (see figure
below).
The liquids in manometer will rise
or fall as the pressure at either end
(or both ends) of the tube changes.
Figure 2.13:
Differential manometer
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In the above figure:

P1 = PA + ρ1ga
P2 = PB + ρ1g(b-h) + ρmangh
But P1 = P2 (same horizontal level)
Thus PA + ρ1ga = PB + ρ1g(b-h) + ρmangh
or PA - PB = ρ1g(b-h)
g(b h) + ρmangh - ρ1ga
PA- PB = ρ1g(b-a) + gh(ρman - ρ1) (2.10)
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Technical Studies
Pressure Gauges
The pressure to be measured is
applied to a curved tube, oval in cross
section.
Pressure applied to the tube tends to
cause the tube to straighten out, and
the deflection of the end of the tube
is communicated through a system of
levers to a recording needle.
This gauge is widely used for steam
and compressed gases.
The pressure indicated is the Figure 2.16:
Bourdon tube
difference between that pressure gauges
communicated by the system to the
external (ambient) pressure, and is
usually referred to as the gauge
pressure.
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Example 2.5
What height would a barometer need to be to measure
atmospheric pressure?
Solution:
Patm = 1 bar = 1 x 105 Pa

Patm = ρgh
Patm 1x10 5
Water barometer: h= =
ρ water g 1000x9.81
= 10.2 m of water
1x10 5
Mercury barometer: P
h = atm =
ρ Hg g 13.6 x1000 x9.81
= 0.75 m of mercury
37

Technical Studies
Example 2.6
Determine the pressure at point A in the figure below if
h1 = 0.
0.2 m a d h2 = 0.3 m.. Use ρwater = 1000
and 000 kg/m
g 3.
Solution:
P2 = P1 + ρHggh2
But P1 = Patm (open to atmosphere) ==>P1 = 0 (gauge)
∴ P2 = ρHggh2
P3 = PA + ρwaterg(h1+h2)
We know that P2 = P3 (same horizontal level)
Thus Points to be selected:
ρHggh2 = PA + ρwaterg(h1+h2) 1 – at the open end of the manometer

2 – at the right leg of the manometer
∴ 3 – same level with point 2 but at left
leg of the manometer
PA = ρHggh2 - ρwaterg(h1+h2) 4 – same level as point A
PA = 13.54x1000x9.81x0.3 – 1000x9.81x(0.2+0.3) Pressure at the points:
P1=Patm
PA = 39, 848 - 4905 P2 = P3
PA = 34.9 kPa (gauge) P4 = PA
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2.5 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surface

Pressure has been defined as force divided by the area on which it acts.
This principle can be restated as when a fluid is adjacent to a fixed
surface,, it exerts a force on the surface because of the p pressure in the
liquid. For fluid at rest, the force always act at right angles to the surface.
For horizontal plane submerged in a liquid, the pressure, P, will be equal
at all points of the surface. This leads to the conclusion that the resultant
force on horizontal surface due to that pressure can be computed from the
simple product of pressure times the area of interest, i.e.
Force = Pressure x Area of plane
F = PA
This force will act vertically downward and through the center of pressure.
F=PA=ρgh Figure 2.17:

h Resultant force on
horizontal plane
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Technical Studies
Fluid statics
Consider an arbitrary flat shape and
orientation:
The pressure at
any point on the
shape
P = P0 + ρ gh
h
= P0 + ρ gysinθ
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Fluid statics
The resultant force FR is given by
FR = ∫ PdA
= ∫ ( P0 + ρgysinθ )dA
= P0 A + ρgsinθ ∫ ydA
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Technical Studies
Fluid statics
The integral is related to the y coordinate of

the centroid (center)
1
yC =
A ∫ ydA or y C A = ∫ ydA
FR = ( P0 + ρgy Csinθ )A = PAVG A
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Fluid statics
Now that we know the resultant force on a

submerged plane body is
FR = ( P0 + ρgy Csinθ )A = PAVG A
where yc is the y-coordinate of the centroid.
it is necessary to know where the center of
pressure is, that is, the point through
which it acts.
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Technical Studies
Fluid statics
In general the location yP of the center
of pressure is
b l
below th
the
location of the
centroid yC
because the
pressure
increases with
depth.
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Fluid statics
Equate the moment of the resultant force
FR to the moment of the distributed
pressure force about the x
x-axis.
axis.
y P FR = ∫ yPdA = ∫ y(P0 + ρ gysinθ )dA
= P0 ∫ ydA + ρ gsinθ ∫ y 2 dA
= P0 y C A + ρ gsinθ I XX,0
Where is the second
= (area ∫
2
moment Iof area
XX,0 y dA moment of
inertia).
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Technical Studies
Fluid statics
Most area moments of inertia are given
about the centroid of the shape (IXX,C).
They are relate to the moment IXX,0 about

the x-axis by
I XX,0 = I XX,C + yC2 A
Area moments of inertia about the centroid

are in Fig. 10-5 for some common shapes.
Centroids are also given there.
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Table 2.1 Second Moments of Area

Shape Area Ig
Rectangle bh bh3/12
b hh
G G
G G
Triangle
Gh hG bh/2 bh3/36
GG h/3
h/3
b
b
Circle
πd2/4 πd4/64
dd
GG
GG
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Technical Studies
2.5.2 Pressure Diagram

In Figure, the triangle on the right hand side
R
(RST) is a graphical representation of the
P = ρgy
(gauge) pressure change with depth on one y
Liquid 2/3 H
side
id off the
th vertical
ti l wallll off the
th tank
t k containing
t i i density, ρ
a liquid with density ρ. At the free surface the Fw
H
gauge pressure is zero. It increases linearly
from zero at the surface by P = ρgy, to a S T
maximum of at the base of P = ρgH. P = ρgH
The area of this triangle (RST) represents the resultant force per unit width on the
vertical wall. So;
Area of pressure diagram = Therefore, the resultant force per unit width,
1
Fw = ρ gH 2 (N / m ) (2.17)
2
This
h force
f acts through
h h the
h centroid d off the
h pressure diagram.
d For a triangle,
l theh
centroid is located at 2/3 its height, thus the resultant force acts at a depth of 2/3 H
from R.
The total resultant force can be obtained by multiplying the above equation with the
width of the surface, B.
F = ½ pgH2B (2.17a)
The same pressure diagram technique can be used when combinations of liquid are
held in tanks (e.g. oil floating on water).
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Example 2.7
A66-m
m deep tank contains 4 m of water and 2
2-m
m of oil as
shown in the diagram below. Determine the pressure at
point A and at the bottom of the tank. Draw the pressure
diagram.
oil 2m
A ρwater = 1000 kg/m3
SG of oil = 0.98
0 98
water 4m
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Technical Studies
Solution:
Pressure at oil water interface (PA)
PA = Patm + Poil (due to 2 m of oil)
= 0 + ρoilghoil = 0 + 0.98
0 98 x 1000 x 9
9.81
81 x 2
= 15696 Pa
PA = 15.7 kPa (gauge)
Pressure at the bottom of the tank;
PB = PA + ρwaterghwater
PB = 15.7x1000 + 1000 x 9.81 x 4
= 54940 Pa
PB = 54.9 kPa (gauge)
Patm = 0 Pressure Diagram
2m oil PA=15.7 kPa

A
water
PA
4m
PB = 54.9 kPA
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2.6 Hydrostatic Buoyant Force

When a body is submerged or floating in a static fluid, the resultant force
exerted on it by the fluid is called the buoyancy force. This buoyancy force is
always acting vertically upward, and has the following characteristics;
The buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the solid
body.
The buoyancy force acts through the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid,
called the center of buoyancy.
A floating body displaces a volume of fluid whose weight is equal to the weight
of the body
The above principle is known Archimedes’ principle and can be defined
mathematically as demonstrated below (see Figure 2.21);
W = mg
W = mg
G Figure 2.21:
G
B
Volume of B
Buoyancy force
displaced
fluid
Fb= W Fb = W
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Technical Studies
Buoyancy
A buoyant force FB is caused by increasing
pressure with depth, so
F = ρ f gA × depth
FTOP = ρ f gAs
and
FBOTTOM = ρ f gA(s + h)
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Buoyancy
The upward force from the bottom is

obviously greater
greater, and so the net
buoyancy force is
FNET = ρ f gAh = ρ f gV
where ρisf the density of the fluid, not the
b d and
body, d V is
i th
the volume
l off th
the body.
b d
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Technical Studies
For equilibrium: + ΣFy = 0

Fb – W = 0 or Fb = W
Therefore we can write ;
∴ Fb = weight of fluid displaced by the body
or Fb = W = mg = ρg∀ (2.21)
where Fb = buoyant force
∀ = displaced volume of fluid
W = weight of fluid
The buoyant force will act ↑ through the center of
buoyancy (B), while the weight will act ↓ through the center
of gravity (G) of the body.
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Summary
The chapter has summarized the important of:
1. Pressure as basic property of fluid and the equation
2. Principal of Pascal Law
3. Indicating the gauge pressure and absolute pressure
4. The variations of pressure with elevation and the
calculation involved
5. Pressure measurement of Piezometer Tube, U-tube
Manometer, Differential Manometer, Advances of U-Tube
M
Manometert and dPPressure G
Gauges
g
6. The Resultant force and the application to the pressure
diagram
7. Demonstrating the technique of determining the forces
acting on submerged or partially submerged surfaces
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PUMPS
S l ti O
Selection Operation
ti & M
Maintenance
i t
By: Janmesh J Pandya
Prepared by : Janmesh J Pandya
• A PUMP IS A MECHANICAL DEVICE BY WHICH FLUIDS

CAN BE TRANSFERRED FROM ONE PLACE TO OTHER
UNDER PRESSURE
• Pump is one of the most common machines used in our life –

whether for domestic or industrial life . The liquids for which a
pump is generally used are Water, Milk, Oil, Chemicals, Mud,
Sludge etc.
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ARRANGEMENT OF A PUMPING SYSTEM
TYPE OF PUMPS
• Classification of pumps
• The main categories are
A) Positive Displacement type
B) R
Roto-dynamic
t d i ttype
C) Special type
• Based on their working design

Mainly they are 4 types
A) Reciprocating
B) Rotary
C) Centrifugal
D) Jet
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Rotary Pump Types (HI definitions)
Pumps
Others (e.g.
(e g Positive
D
Dynamic
i Impulse, Buoyancy) Displacement
Centrifugal Special effect Rotary Reciprocating
Internal External Slide

Lobe
gear gear vane
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Positive Displacement Pumps

• For each pump revolution
• Fixed amount of liquid taken from one end
• Positively discharged at other end
• If pipe blocked
• Pressure rises
• Can damage pump
• Used for pumping fluids other than

water
• Reciprocating pump
• Displacement by reciprocation of piston
plunger
• Used only for viscous fluids and oil wells
• Rotary pump
• Displacement by rotary action of gear, cam
or vanes
• Several sub-types
• Used for special services in industry
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Dynamic pumps
• Mode of operation
• Rotating impeller converts kinetic energy
into pressure or velocity to pump the fluid
• Two types
• Centrifugal pumps: pumping water in
industry – 75% of pumps installed
• Special effect pumps: specialized conditions
Reciprocating Power and Direct Acting (Steam) Pump Types (HI

definition)
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Pumps
• Two types
Flow rates Pressure Flow

characteristics
Displacement Low High Pulsating

- plunger
- piston
- rotary
Dynamic High Low Steady Flow
- centrifugal
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Pumps, Fans, Compressors--Turbomachines
• Differences between p
pumps,
p , fans,, compressors
p
– Pumps: move liquids
– Fans: move gases with little increase in pressure
– Compressors: move gases with greater increase in pressure
Reciprocating pump
• It consists of a cylinder barrel, piston with rings, suction valve,
delivery valve.
• Piston with ring reciprocates inside the barrel. On one side of the
barrel, suction and delivery valves are fixed. The piston is connected
with power - drive with the help of crank and a connecting rod.
rod When
the piston moves, water is sucked inside during the suction stroke
and till the delivery stroke, water is pumped out.
• Reciprocating pumps are:

1. PISTON OR PLUNGER TYPE
2.SINGLE ACTING OR DOUBLE ACTING
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Roto-Dynamic Pumps
• Centrifugal Pump
– Relative simplicity
p y
– Mech. effeciency as high as 90%
– Can handle fluids containing suspended solids
– Ease of maintenance…good for food products
– 2 parts: impeller and casing
– Radial, mixed, axial flow
Rotary Pumps ( Positive displacement )
• Both centrifugal and rotary pumps work on the same principle of

rotation.
• But in the Rotary pumps-

pumps different rotating member such as Gears,
Gears
lobes, screws, Vanes or Cams are provided instead of impellers.
• Rotary pumps have the advantage of the rotary motion of the

centrifugal pumps and the positive displacement benefit of the
reciprocating pumps.
• These pumps can also be used for pumping thick and Viscous
liquids.
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• Jet Pumps:
These pumps work on the principle of jets and injectors. A high
velocity fluid in a channel creates vacuum which pulls up the
working fluid.
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Centrifugal Pump
• This is the most commonly used pump in industry.
• It works on the principle of centrifugal force.
• Centrifugal force is developed in a rotating body. Thus in these
pumps,
p p , the kinetic energy
gy is converted to p potential energy,
gy, which
helps to increase the delivery pressure. When the impeller rotates,
liquid is discharged by the centrifugal force from its center to the
periphery. Partial vacuum is created at the center of the impeller
which sucks fluid from the suction tank.
• Type of centrifugal pumps
a) VOLUTE type
b) DIFFUSER type
• As
A per the
th stage
t d i they
design th may be b
i) SINGLE STAGE ii) MULTI STAGE
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• a) Volute Pump:
In the case of volute pump, the impeller is surrounded by a fixed
spiral casing called the "VOLUTE CHAMBER" The large velocity of
water leaving the impeller is converted into pressure inside the
volute chamber.
• b) Diffuser pump:
• A Diffuser pump has the guide vanes fixed inside the vortex
chamber in such a way that the space between two consecutive
vanes have an increased area from the center to the circumference
When water from the impeller passes through these guide vanes,
the velocity head is converted into higher pressure head.
• Hence diffuser pumps yield higher delivery pressure compared to
the volute pumps.
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SELECTION OF PUMPS:
Pumps are selected on the basis of the following criteria.
• a) Fluid to be handled
• b) Flow Capacity
• c) Pressure head
• d) Suction data
• e) Type of the Drive- Elect. Motor Or mechanical engine
Technical Specifications:
• PUMP TYPE- . Type of the pump desired

• FLUID Type : Density, Viscosity, Volatility.
• PRESSURE: Of the fluid desired to the Pressure Vessel
• TEMPERATURE: Of the Fluid , of the working environment (such
as in front of a furnace)
• TOTAL HEAD- Suction Head , Delivery Head , Total Friction
Head of the system
• CAPACITY- Flow Rate in m3/ Hr, Lpm etc
• SUCTION - Size, Strainer, Lift, NPSH
• DELIVERY- Size, Minimum Flow Line, NRVs.
• INSTRUMENTs Pressure Gauge, Thermometer, Flowmeter
• DRIVE
DRIVE- Motor Ic Engine,
Motor, Engine Turbine
• POWER SOURCE- Single phase, 3 phase, Voltage
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• Out of these , the most important ones are the pressure ( Head)
and flow.
• While ordering a new pump the following data are entered in a data
sheet and sent to the manufacturer to suggest / provide a suitable
pump
• The data sheet should contain:Type of Liquid, Its viscosity & specific
gravity, working temperature, Required Pressure (Head) - Flow -
suction &- delivery details - pump type - Rpm - efficiency size/
capacity .
• Also Pipe line details - gland cooling system
• Motor, power source etc
MAIN COMPONENTS of a Centrifugal Pump

• SN Part Name Description
1. Air vent :A small valve for removing air during priming operation.
2. Drive Shaft which is the central part of a pump and rotates the
impeller
3. Impeller: Main rotating part of a pump having spiral blades
4. Packing: May be gland packing
5. Stuffing Box:A small housing for fixing the gland packing
6. Bearing driving end The bearing nearest to the coupling or pulley.
7. Bearing housing An overhung casing accommodating the

bearings.
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8. Bearing non Drive end (NDE): The bearing farthest from the coupling
end or pulley.
9. Pump Casing: Cast housing for the pump parts. In multistage pump,
the casing includes suction casing, delivery casing and the
intermediate stage casing . The casing may be in one piece or 2
pieces- having lower & upper half
11. Coupling flexible: A device flexibly connecting -the pump shaft and
the motor shaft for transmission.
12. Foot Valve: The entry side non return valve at suction line. It
contains one strainer
DETAILS of FEW IMPORTANT PARTS :
• FOOT VALVE
• Foot valve is an important component of a centrifugal pump. Fixed
at the bottom of suction pipe, it keeps the pump primed and
restricts the entry of foreign matter, specially floating debris and
q
aquatic plants into the suction p
p pipe.
p
• The valve is a one way flap piece made of leather or rubber and
hinged to the valve body. When the pump is not working the valve
rests on a machine base plate and prevents the return flow of
water to the well.
• Thus water is retained in the pump casing and suction pipe. The
total area of the opening in the strainer of the foot valve should be
about 2.5
2 5 times the cross sectional area of the suction pipe.
pipe Less
than this will result in heavy friction losses and reduced pump
discharge.
• The flap valve in the valve body should open fully.
17
1/8/2011
• IMPELLER:-
• Impeller is the rotary element of the pump. It is a wheel or disc
mounted on the shaft and provided with a number of vanes are
arranged in a circular array around an inlet opening at the centre.
The impeller is secured on a shaft mounted on suitable bearings
g of the impeller
The design p greatly
g y influences the efficiencyy and
operating characteristic of centrifugal pump.
• SLUICE VALVE :-
• This will allow the motor to be started without load. If sluice valve is
provided, it is kept closed at the time of starting. When the pump
reaches its full speed, the sluice valve is opened gradually until the
desired quantity of water is delivered.
• Care is taken not to run the pump for a long period with the sluice
valve
l closed,
l d as this
thi may over heat
h t the
th pump.
WORKING PRINCIPLE & CALCULATIONS
• The centrifugal pumps work on the principle of centrifugal force. By

the rotation of the impeller, a vacuum is created inside the pump
casing which sucks in the input fluid .
• This fluid then is given further mechanical energy & rotated to create
centrifugal force which then sends out the fluid at high pressure out
of the pump outlet.
18
1/8/2011
19
1/8/2011
20
1/8/2011
• SUCTION HEAD:-
• Suction head represents the difference in level between the centre
line of the pump (also called datum or datum line) and the water
level in the source.
• It indicates the vertical height through which the water has to be

lifted or sucked on the suction side of the pump.
• The suction lift may be too high due to the clogging of the pump inlet
with mud, gravel or some other obstruction. The other reason could
be a broken disk or a clogged strainer of the foot valve in case the
pump is being started for the first time, the actual suction lift could
be excessive.
• In such a case the pump is to be lowered so that the total suction lift
is with in 6.5 meter ( preferably within 4.5m to ensure efficient
operation)
• DISCHARGE HEAD:-
• This represents the height to which the delivered water is to be lifted
on discharge side of the pump.
• It indicates the difference in level or height between the datum (or

centre line of the p
pump)p) and the deliveryy spout
p of the discharge
g ppipe
p
if water discharge into an overhead service tank or the level of water
in that tank at a given instant, if the delivery pipe is connected to the
bottom of the tank.
• The principal reasons of too high discharge head is partially closed

sluice valve on the delivery side and blocking of the suction or
delivery pipe with solid entrained in water. If the discharge head is
kept less than the designed value, it will result in slight overloading
of the pump and motor.
21
1/8/2011
IMPELLER EYE TOO SMALL

• The capacity of a pump is a function of diameter of the impeller eye.
Therefore, incorrect choice of a pump or moving it from one base to
the other may result in this trouble The only remedy in such a case
is replacement of the pump with a properly selected one,
• PUMP CALCULATIONS
Q x Total Head (Hd- Hs) x d x g
• Hydraulic Power Ph = --------------------------------------------------
1000
Where;
• Q = Fluid Flow in M 3 / Hour
• Hd= Discharge Head in meter
• Hs = Suction Head in meter .
• d = Fluid density Kg/m3
• g = Acceleration due to gravity m/sec2
Hydraulic Power
• Pump Shaft Power Ps = --------------------------------
• Pump Efficiency
Pump Shaft Power Ps

• Electrical Motor Power = --------------------------
• Motor Efficiency
22
1/8/2011
• Relationship of technical parameters Of a centrifugal pump:

• D α N
•
• Q α N
• H α N²
N
• P α N³
Where Q = Fluid Flow m³/Hr
H = Head of water in meter
P = Power absorbed KW
N =Rotating speed of impeller rpm
_______________________________________
• NPSH : Net Positive Suction Head

• NPSH is a very important characteristic of a centrifugal pump
design.
• The value by which the pressure in the pump Suction exceeds the
liquid vapour pressure,
pressure is expressed as ahead of liquid and is
referred to as Net Positive Suction Head Available(NPSHA) The
value of NPSH needed in the pump suction to prevent the pump
from cavitation is known as NPSH Required (NPSHR)
23
1/8/2011
– Need enough pressure on the suction side s.t. the pump

does not reduce press @ the eye to cause P < Psat. If P <
Psat, water flashes to vapor causing damage to the pump.
pump
Cavitation
24
1/8/2011
PUMP INSTALLATION
Pump Foundation :-
• The foundation should be sufficiently strong to absorb any
vibration and to form a permanent rigid support for the base plate.
This is important for maintaining the alignment of a direct connected
unit.
• A concrete foundation on a solid base is advisable . Foundation

bolts of the proper size should be embedded in the concrete located
by a drawing or template.
• Pump is put on level foundation base plate with grouted bolts and is
fixed on the base, level again with the spirit level before tightening
the foundation base bolts.
• Motor is to be fixed on the base plate and the bolts put on. The
pump and couplings are to be aligned and then the base bolts are to
be tightened.
• After the alignment the coupling bolts are to be fixed with coupling
bushes.
bushes
• The Suction,, Delivery, Minimum pipe line, gland cooling water lines
are to be connected. Motor can then be electrically connected and
test run taken.
• For checking the correctness of alignment, vibration readings are
advised
25
1/8/2011
PUMP ALIGNMENT :-
The alignment of the pump shaft is very important. Realignment of

pump is necessary after complete unit has been levelled on the
foundation and again after the grout has been set and foundation
both has been tightened.
• The alignment must be checked after the unit is piped up and

rechecked periodically.
Type of misalignment
(a) Angular mis-alignment Shaft with axis concentric but not parallel.
(b ) Parallel mis-alignment Shaft with axis parallel but not concentric.
• The two halves of the coupling should be at least 4 mm apart so that

they cannot touch each other when the driver shaft is rotated.
Necessary tools for approximately checking are a straight edge and
an out side caliper.
• In order to align the pump and motor, the motor is to be pushed
towards the pump coupling till the axial gap specified is maintained.
Ali
Alignment t is
i done
d in
i two
t stages,
t Preliminary
P li i Alignment
Ali t and
d
Accurate Alignment.
26
1/8/2011
• Preliminary Alignment: Is done by short straight edge and feeler

gauge, keeping the straight edge on both coupling the level of both
are to be made the same by putting packing sheets underneath the
motor. Once it is leveled the gap between couplings is to be
checked by the feeler gauge. The gap should be same at four points
top, bottom, sides.
• Fi
Finall A
Accurate
t Ali
Alignment: t
• Requires a coupling alignment jig. The jig is to be attached to the
shafts. Double dial gauge is used to measure the clearance at four
planes 90 apart. If the difference measured does not exceed 0.04
mm both in axial and radial directions then the alignment is
considered to be accurate.
• The coupling alignment check should be repeated after the trial
run, to be sure that it is not disturbed after the starting shock.
Materials of Pump Parts

• In pump manufacture, common metals used are.
• Cast Iron, Cast Steel, Bronze, Brass, Stainless Steel & Alloy Steel .
• Impeller: Cast Iron
Iron, Bronze
Bronze, Stainless Steel
Steel.
• Casing : CI, CS, SS Shaft: Medium carbon steel, St. Steel .
• Wearing ring: Bronze, SS.
27
1/8/2011
OPERATION OF PUMP
PRIMING :-
• Filling the pump with water is called Priming. The pump should
not start without being primed. Priming is done filling the pump
casing and the suction pipe completely with water, thus ensuring
that all the air in the pump and suction pipe is removed.
removed
• The filling of water can be done manually through a funnel. While

filling water, the air-release valve is Kept-open to permit the air to
escape from the pump section. Overflow of water through the air
release valve is an indication that priming has been completed.
• The pump is started after closing the valve. The manual priming is
required
q to be done rarelyy , when either the foot valve is not
functioning properly or there is an air pocket in the suction pipe.
LOW SPEED OF THE ROTATION OF PUMP :-
• Sometimes, the speed of motor driving the pump may be low

because of low voltage.
• Hence it is necessary to check the voltage. Some times the motor
may have an open phase which causes it to run at a speed lower
than its rated speed.
p
• In case of an engine driven pump the fuel supply and governor
should be checked.
• CARE: During the operation of a pump, observe the pump carefully,
note down its condition, the readings of Pressure, Temperature and
other parameters at each hour in the prescribed Log Sheet. Any
deviation is to be taken care of/ corrected and necessary action is to
be initiated
• In addition, Noise, Vibration and Heat are also to be checked.
• Initially,
Initially hourly readings of all parameters and observations including
the defects are to be recorded. Any Running maintenance carried
out are also to be recorded. Any Abnormal sound, observed should
be investigated and correct ed because it may be the first warning of
a trouble
28
1/8/2011
OPERATIONAL CHECKS FOR THE PUMPS
1 . Checks for the pump before starting.

• a) The shaft rotates freely.
• b) The pump is primed.
• c)) If there
th iis any valve
l iin d
delivery
li b
branch,
h it iis open.
• d) The stuffing box (gland) is properly tightened (in case of gland
packed pump)
2. Checks during running conditions:

• a) The direction of rotation is correct.
• b) The pump is running smoothly.
• c) See that the prime mover is not overloaded.
• d) Leakage through stuffing box is not abnormal
• e) There is no leakage from mechanical seal.
• f) The ball bearing do not get excessive hot.
• g) Avoid idle running on operation against closed discharge valve for
a longer period of time.
DIRECTION OF ROTATION :-
• The pump must be run in the direction indicated by an arrow on the
casing which is always toward the discharge nozzle. Rotation, right-
hand or left hand, is determined by facing the pump from the drive
end.
VAPOUR LOCK IN SUCTION LINE

• Vapour pockets may develop in the pump suction line due to
excessive suction head and inadequate submergence of the foot
valve. The possible remedies include lowering the pump and
increasing the submergence of the foot valve below the pumping
water level.
29
1/8/2011
AIR LEAKAGE
• Air leakage may take place either in the stuffing box or in the suction
pipe . The stuffing box should leak a small amount of water during
pump operation First of all, one should check for the desired leakage
by making suitable adjustments. If this adjustments fails to give the
desired results, the pump should be stopped and the gland packing
checked for damage. A damaged gland packing should be replaced
b a new one, The
by Th leakage
l k f
from th stuffing
the t ffi box
b isi again
i checked
h k d
• If even after replacement of the gland packing. the defect is not

removed, the suction line will have to be checked for air leakage.
The flanges and screwed joints are tightened first
• In case the leakage is not traceable the same can be located by

using a flame or a lighted match stick, The flame, if held close to the
pipe and flanges,
flanges will be drawn towards any leak
OPERATIONAL SHUTDOWN OF PUMP:

• While shutting down a pump, the following operations can
be taken up :
• Throttle the Discharge valve.
• Stop Motor.
• As soon as the pump stops, close Discharge valve fully.
• Close Suction valve.
• Close Bypass line.
• Shut the Cooling & Sealing system when the pump casing
attains room temp
30
1/8/2011
PUMP START UP PROCEDURE

• The following steps are normally suitable for starting a Pump after a
long shutdown--
• 1) Check the Lubrication. Start Lub. oil pump if it has Forced
Lubrication System.
• 2) Check & open cooling system for Bearing, Gland & Mechanical
Seal, if any.
• 4) Open Suction valve. Vent the pump.
• 5) Close all Drains.
• 6) Prime the pump. Priming means filling the pump with liquid and
driving out ,
• 8) Warm up the pump, in case of hot water system.
• 9) Open Minimum flow line.
• 10) Start pump and bring upto the rated speed.
• 11)) Open
p Dischargeg valve,, depending
p g on the starting
gpprocedure.
• 12) Check gland leakage and adjust, if required.
• 13) Adjust Sealing liquid flow.
• 14) Check pump lubrication for proper oil flow.
• 15) Close Re-circulation (Minimum flow) valve, when there is
sufficient flow
• However, for specific cases, the steps mentioned in the Pump

Manual to be followed.
• If there is Excessive Bearing temperature, excessive gland
leakage, high gland heating, Vibration or Noise then stop the pump,
rectify the defects and then re-start.
• STANDBY PUMPS :
• Standby pumps are required in case the running pump
develops any problem or when more flow is needed. These must be
kept in readiness to start in emergencies.
• · Keep Suction valve open.
• · Keep Discharge valve throttled.
• · Keep all Cooling & Sealing systems on.
• · Start pump once in each 8 hour shift and run for atleast 5 minutes.
31
1/8/2011
STANDARD PUMP PERFORMANCE CURVES CHARECTERSTICS
32
1/8/2011
Maintenance of Pumps
• For efficient running of any pump, lot of care and regular
maintenance is required. There are two types of Maintenance
• 1. PLANNED
• 2. UNPLANNED
• Planned maintenance
• It is that which is preplanned and the activities start ahead of
the actual execution of job. All kinds of resources like Manpower,
tools spares, and other services are readily available at the time of
maintenance.
• Planned Maintenance is Subdivided into
• i) Preventive ii) Predictive iii) Corrective.
• Preventive Maintenance is the best type of Maintenance
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
• This may be ON-LINE & SHUT DOWN
• ON-LINE / ROUTINE Maintenance are activities which can be
carried out during the actual running of the equipment.
• In pump maintenance on line maintenance includes.

• 1. Tightening of loose Bolts
• 2. Top up of Lubricants in oil wells/cups
• 3. Tightening of gland in the pumps and valves
• 4. Greasing. of moving parts
• SHUTDOWN Maintenance can be for minor repairs or major repairs.

• Replacements of damaged parts can be done during short shut-ins
of' plant stoppages.
of stoppages .
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1/8/2011
OVERHAULING MAINTENANCE:
• It is done to take up major jobs which take long duration to
complete.
• Previous planning is to be made and all needed resources are made

available before the shutdown of the pump for overhauling.
• After the shutdown form has reached the maintenance section, the
job can be started.
• Coupling bolts are removed, suction delivery and other pipes

disconnected and the pump has to be shifted to a suitable place
where the job will be started.
• The steps are as follows:
• a) Dismantling: The following parts are to be removed a) Coupling b)

Bearing bracket c) Bearings d) Stuffing box e) Connecting rods f)
Inlet cover g) Impellers and casings, sleeves h) Outlet cover.
• b Cleaning: All the parts are to be cleaned thoroughly
• c) Inspection: Parts are to be inspected for damage
• d) Repairs: Repairable parts are to be repaired at the work shops
• e) Spares: Spares required to be replaced are to be are to be

arranged.
34
1/8/2011
f) Assembly: Assembly has to be done as per the correct sequence,

not forgetting to insert parts at their correct places. Once the
pump has been assembled completely it has to> be put on base
and fixed. Motor .is to be fixed with coupling and alignment is
done. The pipes are to be connected and Bearings lubricated
before the test run.
g) Test run : Pump has to be started and stopped immediately,.
During the test run abnormalities if any are to be noted and
rectified.
h) Clearance' Clearance can be given to operation to run the pump.
i) House keeping: Once the job completed, the area should be
cleaned. Oil spillage, debris are to be removed.
The overhauling Jobs may consists of:
a)) Dismantling g b)) Cleaning
g c)) Inspection
p of p
parts d)) Repairs
p e))
Replacement spares f) Assembly g) Test run h) Clear to operation
i) House keeping j) Record keeping.
Unplanned Maintenance:
• Unplanned maintenance is done when there are unexpected
failures of pump. It is a costly type of maintenance as it directly
effects production and productivity.
• Breakdown of a pump is an Unplanned maintenance activity.
• SHUTDOWN MAINTENANCE:
• For such repairs,· which can not be carried out during normal
operation of the pump, a short shutdown is taken to repair them.
• 1. New gland packing.
• 2. Alignment.
• 3. Replacement coupling flexible elements.
• 4. Change of Bearings.
• 5. Cleaning of Suction filters / Foot valves.
• 6. Changeg of Valves / Non-return valves.
• 7. Oil / Grease replacement.
• 8. Other necessary jobs.
35
1/8/2011
WEARING RINGS :-
• Wearing ring clearances should be checked from time to time.
When the wearing ring clearance is increased, a loss in capacity
and head is caused . If the clearance is approximately twice the
original, or if the loss in capacity and head does not meet
requirements, it is time to replace the rings.
STUFFING BOX AND SHAFT PACKINGS
• Stuffing box should be carefully cleaned and the packing
placed in them.
• Generally a leakage of 15-30 drops of liquid per minute from the
stuffing box is excessive or the packing is worn, the entire packing in
the box will have to be replaced.
• Replacing just a ring or two will not result in an effective

sealing. The shaft and shaft sleeve surface are properly cleaned
before inserting the packing rings.
rings There should not be any burrs or
scores on the working surface.
• If the shaft sleeve is badly worn or scored, it is to be replaced.
36
1/8/2011
IMPORTANT PUMP PROBLEMS
• PLUGGING OF IMPELLER
• In case of cavity wells, solids in the water may get a
accumulated in the impeller This may block the pump either
completely or partially.
partially Under such situation,
situation the pump casing
should be opened and all the parts of the impeller cleaned
periodically.
• BENT SHAFT
• Thermal distoration, damage during pump overhaul or wrong
assembly of the rotating assembly can cause the bent shaft. Check
the shaft deflection by means of a dial gauge by turning the shaft
between lathe centres.
• g run out of the shaft should not be more than 0.075
The average
mm and 0.150 mm for high speed and low speed pumps
respectively. The shaft deflection should be checked with a dial
gauge by turning the shaft between the lathe centres. If the shaft is
found damaged it should be replaced.
37
1/8/2011
DISTORTED CASING
• . Many a time, the casing gets distorted because of poorly
aligned suction and discharge piping. This results in excessive
friction between the impeller and casing. The piping and the
alignment of the primemover should be checked. The wearing rings
should also be checked and replaced, if found damaged.
PUMP TROUBLE SHOOTING:

1. Problem: Pump fails to deliver fluid
• Probable Causes
• 1. Pump not vented properly
• 2. Foot valve defective
• 3. Speed too low.
• 4. High back pressure.
• 5. Foreign bodies inside impeller
• 6. Reverse rotation.
• 7. Pump not primed properly
2. Insufficient Flow
Probable Causes
• 1. Pump not vented properly
• 2. Speed too low.
• 4. Wearing rings worn out.
• 5. Impeller damaged.
• 6. Suction filter chocked.
3. Total head too low
Probable Causes
• 1 Speed too low.
• 2. Impeller damaged.
38
1/8/2011
4. Motor taking high Current

Probable Causes
• 1. Speed too high
• 3. Wearing rings worn
• 4. Reverse rotation
• 5 R
5. Rotating
t ti elements
l t fouling
f li inside.
i id
5 High Vibration
Probable Causes
• 1. Foreign bodies inside impeller
• 2 Impeller damaged.
• 3. Rotating element fouling
• 4 Mis-alignment
• 5. Shaft bent.
• 6. Bearings damaged.
• 7. Operates at low flow rate
• 8. Faulty bearing assembly.
• . 9. Suction line incompletely primed.
6. Low bearing life

Probable Causes
• 1. Rotating elements fouling.
• 2. Misalignment.
• 3. Shaft bent.
• 4. Rotor vibration.
• 5 F
5. Faulty
lt b
bearing
i assembly.bl
• 6. Lubrication not proper.
• 7. Ingress of water into bearing
7. Excessive Gland Leakage
Probable Causes
• 1. Misalignment
• 2. Shaft bent.
• 3. Bearings damaged.
• 4. Shaft protection sleeve worn out.
• 5. Stuffing box badly packed.
• 6. Improper gland packing.
• 7. Rotor vibration.
39
1/8/2011
ENERGY CONSERVATION OPPORTUNITIS IN PUMPING

SYSTEMS
• Centrifugal pumps are some of the most inefficient equipment as far

as the energy utilization is concerned due to its typical design
features. Hence this also offers good scope for improving energy
efficiency.
efficiency
• Some Recommendations are :
• OPERATE PUMPS AT NEAR ITS BEST EFFICIENCY
• TO MODIFY PUMING SYSTEM & PUMP LOSSES TO MINIMISE
THROTTLING So That Need Not To Close Valves
• ENSURE ADEQUATE NPSH AT THE INSTALLATION
• STOP RUNNING MULTIPLE PUMPS IF NOT NECESSARY. ADD
AUTO-START OR ADD A BOOSTER PUMP
• REPAIR ALL THE SEALS & PACKINGS TO MINIMISE

LEAKAGES
• BALANCE THE SYSTEM TO MINMISE FLOWS & REDUCE
PUMP POWER REQUIREMENT
• REPLACE ANY OLD INEFFICIENT PUMPS BY MORE
EFFICIENT PUMPS
• REDUCE THE SYSTEM RESISTANCE BY PROPER DESIGN
OF VALVES, PIPES, ELBOWS, FLANGES
• PRESSURE DROP ASSESSMENT AND PIPE SIZE TO BE
OPTIMISED
• AVOID OVER SIZING OF PUMPS. PROVIDE VARIABLE SPEED
DRIVE. PROVIDE CORRECT SIZE PUMP
• HAVE ALWAYS VERY GOOD MAINTENANCE WITH PROPER
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
• 12 USE MODERN PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE TOOLS TO
12.USE
MONITOR PERFORMANCE
40
1/8/2011
More details about problems

and failures in pump
41
1/8/2011
• Section B -- Pump Application Data
• B-2 Material Selection Chart

• This chart is intended as a guide in the selection of economical
materials. It must be kept in mind that corrosion rates may vary
widelyy with tem-perature,
p , concentration,, and the p
presence of trace
elements or abrasive solids. Blank spaces in the chart indicate a
lack of accurate corrosion data for those specific conditions.
• Code:
• A Recommended
• B Useful resistance
• X Unsuitable
42
1/8/2011
• Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

• NPSH Available is a function of the system in which the pump
operates.
• It is the excess pressure of the liquid in feet absolute over its vapor
pressure as it arrives at the pump suction.
suction
43
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44
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45
1/8/2011
R e cip r o cat in g P u m p
C h a r a c t e r i st i c C u r v e
N 1 N 2
P R E SSU R E H E A D
( H p = f t lb f / lb m )
CA PA CITY
( V = GPM )
A ct u al
I d eal
46
1/8/2011
Blowers
PERFORMANCE CURVE comparison:

CENTRIFUGAL vs POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT
Theoretical
Flow
Actual
Flow Pressure
Centrifugal Positive Displacement
47
Prepared by: Prof.M. Dhangar, Lecturer, N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
Long Term Training Program
on
“Industrial Chemical Technology”
Fluid Flow Operation
Topic: Pressure concept & measurement
Prepared by:
M M B Dh
Mr. M. B. Dhangar
Lecturer, ChED
N. G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
Date: 10th October, 2010
Date: 10 October 2010

Newtonian Fluids:
Newtonian Fluids:
Bingham
g
Pseudo Plastic
Newtonian
Dilatant
Velocityy Gradient du / dy
y

Examples:
• Newtonian
Newtonian Fluids: All gases, air, liquids such as
Fluids: All gases air liquids such as
kerosene, alcohol, glycerine, benzene etc.
• Bingham Fluids: Tooth Paste, jellies, paints etc.
Bingham Fluids: Tooth Paste jellies paints etc
• Pseudo Plastic: Blood, Polymer solutions,
muds, rubber latex etc.
d bb l
• Dilatant Fluids: Pulp in water, Starch in water
etc.

Pressure:
• The normal force exerted by a fluid per unit
area of the surface is called as the fluid
pressure.
pressure
• P = F / A

Pabs = Patm + Pg Gauge

g Pressure Pg
g
Local Atmosphere
Pressure line Patm
Vacuum Pressure
Pabs = Patm - Pg
Absolute zero line

Pressure Measurement:
Pressure Measurement:
Pressure measuring Devices
Pressure measuring Devices
Manometers Mechanical Gauges Transducers

-Piezometer -Bourdon Tube
-Simple U tube Mano. -Diaphragm
-Differential
Differential Manometer -Bellow
Bellow Pressure Gauge
-Inverted Diff. Manometer -Dead Weight
-Single Tube Manometer
-Inclined Tube Manometer
-Mocromanometer

A Long Term Training Program
Nodal Institute
Experiment: Reynolds No. and Flow Pattern
Staff: Mr. M. B. Dhangar Date: 26th December, 2010
Objective: - To indentify the various flow pattern by calculating the Reynold’s No.
Equipment: - Water supply tank, KMnO4 solution, stop watch etc.
Experimental Set up: - Apparatus consist of storage cum supply tank which has the
provision for supplying colored dye through jet. A Perspex tube is provided to visualize the
different flow conditions. The entry of water in Perspex tube is through elliptical bell mouth to
have smooth flow at the entry. A regulating value is provided on the downstream side of the tube
to regulate the flow. The discharge must be varied vary gradually from a smaller to larger value;
A collecting tank is used to find the actual discharge though Perspex tube.
Theory: - Depending upon the relative magnitudes of viscous and inertial forces, flow can
occur in two different manner viz. Laminar flow and turbulent flow. In laminar flow viscous
effect are more predominant than the inertial effects. But when shear and normal stresses are
added with the increase in velocity of flow, the flow is turbulent. To identify the laminar and
turbulent ranges of flow a dimensionless parameter is being utilized which is a measure of the
relative importance of inertial force and viscous force prevailing in the flow of a fluid, which is
known as Reynolds number. It is equal to the ratio of the inertial force to the viscous force per
unit volume. Sir Osborene Reynolds first did the study of flow pattern in 1883.Reynold number
gives a fair idea about the flow pattern
Reynolds no. given by the formula:-
NRe = ρvd
µ
where d = diameter of pipe

v = velocity of flowing fluid
µ = viscosity of fluid
ρ = density of fluid

This means that a large value of Reynolds number signifies less viscous effects and vice versa.
For determining different flow conditions, equipment first used by Professor Osborne Reynolds
after whose name Reynolds’s number exists. The motion is laminar or turbulent according to the
value of NRe is less then or greater then a certain value. When a fluid flows in a pipe, the flows
are either laminar or turbulent. When a velocity of the flowing fluid is low, the fluid flows in a
pattern of parallel layers or laminar, sliding past adjacent laminar and the flow is said to be
Laminar flow when the velocity of fluid is further increased, the fluid no longer flows in parallel
layers and the layers starts intermingling/mixing with each other resulting in formation of eddy.
This type of flow is known as Turbulent flow. In between laminar flow & turbulent flow there
exists a transition flow pattern where the flow is neither laminar nor turbulent.
Procedure: -
• Note down Diameter of perspex tube, Area of collecting tank and room temperature.
• Switch on the pump and circulate the water through the Storage reservoir, supply
tank, Perspex tube and back to storage reservoir.
• Allow the flow rate to achieve steady state.
• Open the valve attached with dye supply tube carefully and introduces the dye into
the Perspex tube.
• Observe the flow pattern of dye inside Perspex tube. If the velocity of fluid is very
less it will be observed like a thread flowing at the centre of Perspex tube. This type
of flow can be described as laminar flow.
• Record the discharge of water flowing in the Perspex tube by collecting the water in
measuring tank for known time period.
• Increase the velocity of flow in the Perspex tube by operating regulating valve.
Oscillating motion of dye thread will be observed and after oscillation dye will
gradually disperse in the fluid. This flow describes transition stage between laminar
and turbulent. Again measure the flow rate by same method as that described above.
• On further increasing the flow rate, thorough mixing of dye in water will be
observed which represents turbulent flow. Repeat again the flow measurement
procedure.

• Tabulate the readings and calculate the Reynolds No. using given data of dia.,
density and viscosity. Match the calculated value of Reynolds No. with observed
flow pattern.
Observations: -
• Room temp: _________0C
• Internal dia. of pipe D= 3.2 cm =____________
• Density of water to given temp, ρ=_______gm/cm3
• viscosity of water at given temp, μ=_______gm/cm-sec
• Cross Sectional area of pipe=_____cm2
• Area of collecting tank A=________ cm2
Observation Table: -
Sr. Discharge Measurement
No. Initial Height Final Height Time Observed Flow
H1 (cm) H2 (cm) (sec) Pattern
Computation sheet: -
Sr. Velocity Reynolds No. Flow Pattern Based On

No. v=Q/A NRe= ρvd/µ Reynolds No.
(m/sec)

Calculation steps: -

Cross sectional Area (i.e. flow area) of pipe a=(π /4) x d2
Volumetric flow rate = volume of water collected in collecting tank/time

Q = (H2-H1) x A / t where, H2= initial height in collection tank
H1= initial height in collection tank

t = time of collection of fluid in
Collecting tank
Velocity of fluid (water) v = Q/A where, v = velocity of fluid

Q = discharge
A = c/s. of pipe
Reynold’s No. NRe = ρvd / µ where, ρ = density of fluid
v = velocity of fluid
d = dia. Of pipe
µ = viscosity of fluid
If NRe < 2100 it is laminar flow

If NRe > 4000 it is turbulent flow
If 2100 < NRe > 4000 it is transition flow

Nodal Institute

Experiment: Rotameter
Staff: Mr. M. B. Dhangar
Objective: To calibrate the Rota meter for water system.
Apparatus: Arrangement of cooling water / ion exchanger unit with rotameter.
Theory:
Rota meter essentially consists of tapered glass tube and float along with scale meter in
tube set vertically in a piping system with its range and end at top and small at bottom.
Float:
Rota meter scale be marked on which have density higher then liquid than can be made
corrosion to any metal like Al, Ni, SS.
Rota meter scale:
Scale can be marked on glass or it is mounted on to the measuring tube. A direct reading
type is used to give the actual reading. Various shapes of floats are as follows.
Procedure:
• An assembly of cooling tower / Ion exchanger unit with Rota meter arrangement..
Set the float of Rota meter arrangement up to LPM and take water in beaker of 1
min by using stop watch.
• Measure the volume by collecting in a measuring cylinder and compare it with
actual flow rate of Rota meter.
• Repeat the same procedure for other flow rates.
Result:
Conclusion:

Observation table:
Sr. Flow rate by Actual flow rate Error in % Error

No. measuring cylinder measured by Rota meter (LPM)
(LPM) (LPM)
Calculation:
% Error = error________ X 100

Rota meter Flow rate

Nodal Institute

Experiment: U Tube Manometer
Objective : - To measure the differential pressure across two points in a pipe, for a
fluid flowing through it.
Apparatus : - U-Tube manometer connected across two points of a pipe, stopwatch,

container, and scale.
Theory : - Manometer is a simple device used for measuring pressure differences. A U-
Tube manometer is the simplest form of manometer. It consists of a small diameter U-
Shaped tube of glass. The U-Tube is clamped on a wooden board. Between the two
arms the manometer, scale is fixed on the same board. The U-Tube is partially filled
with a manometric fluid, which is heavier than the process fluid. The two limbs of the
manometer are connected by the tubing to the taps between which the pressure drop is
to be measured. Air vent valves are provided at the end of the each arm for removal of
trapped air in the arm. The manometric fluid is mercury. U-Tube manometer filled with
manometric fluid up to certain height. The remaining portion of the U-Tube if filled
with process fluid / flowing fluid of density p including the tubing. The one limb of the
manometer is connected to the downstream tap in the pipeline between which the
pressure difference P1 – P2 is required to the measured. Air if any is there in the line of
the manometer should be removed. At steady state, for a given flow rate, the reading of
the manometer i.e. difference in the level of the manometric fluid in two arms is
measured and it give the value of pressure difference in terms of manometric fluid
across the taps.

Experimental Set Up : - Figure Shows a U-Tube manometer that is connected

across a pipeline. There are two gauge points. One gauge point is at the junction of the
pipe before the hindrance in the pipeline and the other gauge points is after the
hindrance. Manometer tapping are done from their gauge points & connected to a
differential manometric head having a U-Tube manometer fixed on a measuring scale.
Flow through the pipeline is controlled with the help of a valve and the fluid is collected
in a collection tank.
Procedure: -
1.With the help of the regulating valve, adjust the rate of flow through pipe
so as to get maximum possible differences in the manometer liquid levels.
2.Note the reading of the right limp & the left limp of the manometer. With
the help of the stopwatch note the time taken for a specific volume of water
collected in the measuring tank.
3.Vary the flow rate and take more reading.
Observation :-
1. Area of a measuring tank =
2. Density of Manometric fluid =
3. Density of Process fluid =

Observation Table :-
Sr. Left Limb Right Limb Difference Differential Pressure

No. h1 h2 Δh=h2-h1 ΔP =∆hg(ρM-ρ)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (N/m2)
Calculation : Δh=_________________ m
ρM = _________________ kg/m3
ρ =__________________kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/sec2
Δh=
Result : -

Nodal Institute

Experiment: Rectangular and V notch
Objective:- Determination of discharge coefficients of discharge of

(i) V-notch
(ii) Rectangular notch
Equipment :- A constant steady water supply tank (Notch tank) with

baffles wall, pointer gauge, collecting tank, models of
(i) v-notch
(ii) Rectangular notch
Introduction and Theory :-

Different types of models are available to find discharge in an open channel as a
notch, venturiflume, weir etc. For calibration of rectangular notch, Trapezoidal
notch or v-notch some flow is allowed in the flume. Once the flow becomes
steady and uniform discharge coefficients can be determined for any model. In
general, sharp crested notches are preferred where highly accurate discharge
measurements are required, for example in hydraulic laboratories, industry and
irrigation pilot schemes which do not carry derbies and sediments.
Notches are those overflow structures whose length of crest in the direction of
flow is accurately shaped. They may be rectangular, trapezoidal, v-notch etc. The
v-notch is one of the most precise discharge-measuring devices suitable for a
wide range of flow.
A triangular or v notch is having a triangular or ‘v’ shaped opening provided in its
body so that water is discharged through this opening only. The line which

bisects the angle of the notch should be vertical and at the same distance from
both sides of the channel. The discharge coefficients Cd of a V notch may be
determined by applying formula:
Cd = ________Q____________
(8/15)(√ 2g) H5/2 tan θ/2
Where, Q =discharge over a triangular notch,

θ = the apex angle of notch,
H = head over the crest of the notch.
A rectangular notch, symmetrically located in a vertical thin plate, which is placed
perpendicular to the sides and the bottom of a straight channel, is defined as a
rectangular sharp-crested weirs. The discharge coefficient Cd of a rectangular
notch may be determined by applying formula:
Cd= _____Q______
2/3(√2g) B H3/2
Where,
Q = Discharge over a rectangular notch,
B = Width of notch,
H= Head over the crest of the notch, and g is
acceleration due to gravity.
Experimental setup: -
The experimental set up consists of a tank where inlet section is provided with 2
nos. of baffles for streamline flow. While at the upstream portion of the tank one
can fix a notch of rectangular notch, trapezoidal notch or ‘v’-notch. A hook gauge
is used to measure the head of water over the model. A collecting tank is used to
find the actual discharge through the notch.

Experimental Procedures: -
• Position the notch under test at the end of the tank, in a vertical
plane, and with the sharp edge on the upstream side.
• Fill the tank with water up to the crest level and subsequently note
down the crest level of the notch by the help of the point gauge.
• Adjust the flow regulating valve to give the maximum possible
discharge without flooding the notch.
• Allow the conditions to attain steady state.
• Measure the head over the notch, i.e.’H2’ with the help of point
gauge.
• Reduce the flow rate in stages and the readings of discharge and
H2 were taken.
• Repeat the procedure for other type of notch.

OBSERVATION & COMPUTATION SHEET:-

[A] TRIANGULAR OR ‘V’ NOTCH :
Apex angle of notch θ =
Crest level of ‘V’ notch, H1 =
Area of collecting tank, A =
Discharge Measurement Final reading of Head

water level above over
Sr. Initial Finial Time Discharge the notch notch Cd
No. h1,(cm) h2(cm) T Q H2 (cm) H=H2-H1
(sec) (cm3/sec)
Calculations steps :-
1) Discharge, Q= Area of collecting tank, a x (Final,h2-Initial,h1)

Time,t
2) Head over notch, H=H2-H1
3) Co-efficient of discharge, Cd = ________Q____________

(8/15)(√ 2g) H5/2 tan θ/2

Graphical Method: - Equation fro flow rate is:

Q = 8/15 Cd (√ 2g) H5/2 tan θ/2
Taking log for both sides of above equation,
log Q = log [(8/15) Cd (√ 2g) tan θ/2] +5/2 log H.
Which is a straight-line equation similar to y=mx + C.
Where, y= log Q, x= log H, m= 5/2,
c= log [(8/15) Cd (√ 2g) tan θ/2].
log Q 5/2
c
log H
Plot the graph as explained above using log Q &log H

data, read value of c from graph and find value of Cd
graphically using following equation,
Cd = 10c .
8/15 (√ 2g) tan θ/2

[B] RECTANGULAR NOTCH:
Width of rectangular notch, B =

Crest level of rectangular notch, H =
Area of collecting tank, a =
Sr. Discharge Measurement Final reading of Head

No. water level above over
Initial Finial Time Discharge the notch notch Cd
h1,(cm) h2(cm) T Q H2 (cm) H=H2-H1
(sec) (cm3/sec)
Calculations steps :-
1) Discharge, Q= Area of collecting tank, a*(Initial h2-final, h1)/Time, t
2) Head over notch, H=H 2 - H 1
3) Co-efficient of discharge, Cd= _____Q______

2/3(√2g) B H3/2

Graphical Method: - Equation for flow rate is:

Q = 2/3 B Cd (√ 2g) H3/2
Taking log for both sides of above equation,
log Q = log [(2/3) Cd (√ 2g) B] +3/2 log H.
Which is a straight-line equation similar to y=mx + C.
Where, y= log Q, x= log H, m= 3/2,
c= log [(2/3) Cd (√ 2g) B].
log Q 3/2
c
log H
Plot the graph as explained above using log Q &log H

data, read value of c from graph & find value of Cd
graphically using following equation,
Cd = 10c___
2/3 (√ 2g)B

Result: -
‘V’ Notch Recatngular
Notch
Co efficient of
Discharge(Analytically)
Co efficient of
Discharge(Graphically)
Conclusion: -

Prepared By: Prof.J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
NODAL INSTITUTE
N. G. PATEL POLYTECHNIC
LONG TERM TRAINING PROGRAMME ON INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL
TECHNOLOGY (MODULE-I)
MTT
Lecture-1
Introduction
` Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location to other.
` Some common examples of mass transfer processes are the evaporation of water from a
pond to the atmosphere, the diffusion of chemical impurities in lakes, rivers, and oceans
from natural or artificial point sources, separation of chemical components in distillation
columns. In cooling towers, hot water flows down over the fill material as air flows up
and contact between water and air evaporates some of the water. Evaporation requires
heat; the heat is removed from the remaining water lowering its temperature.
Day-by-Day experiences also involve MT:

` A lump of sugar added to a cup of coffee eventually dissolves and then eventually
diffuses to make the concentration uniform.
` Water evaporates from ponds to increase the humidity of passing-air-stream
` A perfume presents a pleasant fragrance which is imparted throughout the surrounding
atmosphere.
Why Mass is Transfered?

` The random motion of molecules causes a net transfer of mass from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.
` The driving force for mass transfer is a difference in concentration
Mass transfer operations – nature of interface between phases

` Gas-liquid contact e.g. absorption, evaporation, distillation etc
` Liquid-liquid contact e.g. extraction
` Liquid-solid contact e.g. crystallization, adsorption
` Gas-solid contact e.g. adsorption, drying etc
Methods of operation
` Non steady state – concentration changes with time e.g. batch processes
` Steady state
` Stage
` Differential contact
Page 1 Prepared By: JMV
Mass transfer operation

In every mass transfer operation mass is transferred from one phase to another phase.
` Distillation(G/L)-Gas to Liquid & Liquid to Gas
` Gas Absorption(G/L)-Gas to Liquid
` Desorption(L/G)-Liquid to Gas
` Extraction(L/L)-Liquid to Liquid
` Leaching(L/S)-Liquid to Solid
` Crystallization(L/S)-Liquid to Solid
` Drying(S/G)-Solid to Gas
` Adsorption(F/S)-Fluid to solid
Distillation
` Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in
a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process,
and not a chemical reaction.
` It is used to separate crude oil into more fractions for specific uses such as transport,
power generation and heating.
Type of Distillation column

` There are many types of distillation columns, each designed to perform specific types of
separations, and each design differs in terms of complexity. Batch and Continuous
Columns
` Batch Columns In batch operation, the feed to the column is introduced batch-wise. That
is, the column is charged with a 'batch' and then the distillation process is carried out.
When the desired task is achieved, a next batch of feed is introduced.
` Continuous Columns In contrast, continuous columns process a continuous feed stream.

No interruptions occur unless there is a problem with the column or surrounding process
units. They are capable of handling high throughputs and are the most common of the
two types. Concentration does not change with time.
Gas Absorption
` Gas absorption (also known as scrubbing) is an operation in which a gas mixture is
contacted with a liquid for the purpose of preferentially dissolving one or more
components of the gas mixture and to provide a solution of them in the liquid.
` We will focus on the analysis for gas absorption, for the simple case whereby only one
component of the gas solute is being absorbed. The other components of the gas are
assumed to be non-soluble in the liquid (i.e. the other gas components are inert
components),
` The liquid is non-volatile, which means that there is no transfer of molecules from the
liquid to the gas phase.
` In addition, we assume there is no chemical reaction in the system and that it is operating
at isothermal condition.
` The process of gas absorption thus involves the diffusion of solute from the gas phase
through a stagnant or non-diffusing liquid.
` There are 2 types of absorption processes: physical absorption and chemical absorption,
depending on whether there is any chemical reaction.
Liquid-Liquid Extraction
` Liquid-liquid extraction, also known as solvent extraction and partitioning, is a
method to separate compounds based on their relative solubility in two different
immiscible liquids, usually water and an organic solvent. It is an extraction of a substance
from one liquid phase into another liquid phase. Liquid-liquid extraction is a basic
technique in chemical laboratories, where it is performed using a separatory funnel. This
type of process is commonly performed after a chemical reaction as part of the work-up.
` Solvent extraction is used in nuclear reprocessing, ore processing, the production of fine
organic compounds, the processing of perfumes, and other industries.
` Example: Acetic Acid &Water/Isopropyl ether(Solvent)
Adsorption
` Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions, biomolecules or molecules of gas, liquid, or
dissolved solids to a surface. This process creates a film of the adsorbate (the molecules
or atoms being accumulated) on the surface of the adsorbent. It differs from absorption,
in which a fluid permeates or is dissolved by a liquid or solid. The term sorption
encompasses both processes, while desorption is the reverse of adsorption.
` The most common industrial adsorbents are activated carbon, silica gel, and alumina,
because they present enormous surface areas per unit weight.
` Used in many industrial processes:
` dehumidification
` odour/colour/taste removal
` gas pollutant removal (H2S)
` water softening and deionisation
` hydrocarbon fractionation
` pharmaceutical purification
Nature of Adsorbents
` Porous material - Large surface area per unit mass – size, shape, polarity cause certain
particles to be held more strongly in these pores than others
` Rate of mass transfer is dependent on the void fraction within the pores
` Granular (50μm - 12 mm diameter)

` Suitable for packed bed use
Types of Adsorption
` Physical Adsorption
◦ Result of intermolecular forces causing preferential binding of certain substances
to certain adsorbents
◦ Reversible by addition of heat (via steam, hot inert gas, oven)
◦ Attachment to the outer layer of adsorbent material
` Chemisorption
◦ Result of chemical interaction
◦ Large amount heat released
◦ Irreversible
◦ Mainly found in catalysis
ANCHOR INSTITUTE – N. G. PATEL POLYTECHNIC
Module – I (Mass transfer operations)
Lecture – I (Mr. R. M. Patel) Date: 10-10-2010
FUNAMENTALS OF MASS TRANSFER
1. Fick’s Law:
The rate of mass transfer is directly proportional to the concentration gradient, dCA/dz
(concentration difference divided by time). This law is called Fick’s Law for z direction.
The proportionality constant, DAB is called Diffusivity.
Rate or molar Flux is of two types:

i. Flux relative to a fixed location, NA
ii. Flux relative to the average molar velocity of all components, JA.
The unit of both fluxes is mol/(time.Area).
dC
J A = − DAB. A − − − − − − − − − (1)
dz
JA is the called relative flux when all components are moving. For a given system having
two components A and B, DAB =DBA.
2. Relationship between NA and JA:

N A = Nx A + J A − − − − − − − − − − − (2)
Where, NA molar flux relative to a fixed location,
The mole fraction, xA = CA/C (i.e. concentration of component A / Total concentration of
all components).
If two components A and B are flowing with same rate but in opposite direction,
JA=-JB, CA+CB=constant, DAB =DBA
If two components A and B are flowing with same rate but in same direction,
JA=JB, CA+CB=constant, DAB =DBA
3. Steady State diffusion molecular diffusion of NA and NB in z-direction:

N A DABC ⎡ ( N A /( N A + N B )) − (C A 2 / C ) ⎤
NA = ln ⎢ ⎥ − − − − − − − − − −(3)
NA + NA z ⎣ ( N A /( N A + N B )) − (C A1 / C ) ⎦
Considering molecular diffusion of gases (Ideal Gas) and substituting the following into
equation (3),
C A PA n P
= = y A and C = = T
C PT V RT
NA DAB PT ⎡ ( N A /( N A + N B )) − y A 2 ⎤
NA = ln ⎢ ⎥ − − − − − − − − − −(4)
N A + N A RTz ⎣ ( N A /( N A + N B )) − y A1 ⎦

where,
PA = partial pressure of component A in gas
PT = Total pressure of gas mixture
R is universal gas constant
T is absolute temperature of gas
y A1 mole fraction of component A at location z=1
y A 2 mole fraction of component A at location z=2
4. Steady state diffusion of A through non-diffusing B:

N B = 0 and N A N A + N B = 1
DAB PT
NA = ( PA1 − PA2 ) − − − − − − − − − − − −(5)
RTz PB , M
PB 2 − PB1
where, PB , M =
ln( PB 2 / PB1 )
5. Steady state equimolal diffusion of both A and B:

N A = − N B and N A N A + N B = ∞
D
N A = AB ( PA1 − PA2 ) − − − − − − − − − − − −(6)
RTz
PT PT PT PT
PA 2
PA1 PB 2
PA1
PB1
PB 2 PB1 PA 2
Distance, z Distance, z
Diffusion of A through stagnant B Equimolal counter diffusion
6. Mass transfer coefficient, k:

Flux = (coefficient)(concentration difference)
Since, different ways are there to present concentrations, the mass transfer coefficient
will also be f various types.
Mass transfer coefficient for steady state diffusion of A through non-diffusing B:

N B = 0 and N A N A + N B = 1
N A = kG ( PA1 − PA2 ) = k y ( y A1 − y A 2 ) = kC (C A1 − C A 2 ) ……………..(for gases)
N A = k x ( x A1 − x A 2 ) = k L (C A1 − C A 2 ) ……………………………….(for liquids)
Mass transfer coefficient for steady state equimolal counter diffusion of A and B:
N A = − N B and N A N A + N B = ∞
N A = kG′ ( PA1 − PA 2 ) = k ′y ( y A1 − y A 2 ) = kC′ (C A1 − C A 2 ) ……………..(for gases)
N A = k x′ ( x A1 − x A 2 ) = k L′ (C A1 − C A 2 ) ……………………………….(for liquids)
7. Relationship of DAB and mass transfer coefficient k:

According to Film theory, mass transfer coefficient is directly proportional to square root
of mass diffusivity.
k α DAB
0.5
8. Interphase mass transfer:
When mass transfer occurs between two phases it is called interphase mass transfer.
When the molecules are transferring from one phase to another but if the net transfer of
all the molecules is zero, this condition is called dynamic equilibrium. The
concentration measured at the condition of equilibrium or dynamic equilibrium is called
equilibrium concentration of component A in both phases (xA and yA in both phases).
The equilibrium distribution of a solute between a gas and liquid phase at constant
temperature is as shown in figure below (Equilibrium curve).
Mole
fraction
of A in
gas = yA
Mole fraction of A in
liquid = xA
Equilibrium-distribution curve of solute between a

gas
Long Term Training Programme on and liquid
"Industrial phaseTechnology"
Chemical at constant temperature
9. Diffusion between two phases:
kx and ky are the liquid- and gas-phase mass transfer coefficients, Kx and Ky are the
liquid- and gas-phase overall mass transfer coefficients [kmol m–2 s–1], NA* is the molar
flux [kmol m–2 s–1], xs is the equilibrium mole fraction of the liquid at the interface, x∞ is
the mole fraction of the bulk liquid, x* is the mole fraction of the liquid in equilibrium
with the bulk gas, ys is the equilibrium mole fraction of the gas at the interface, y∞ is the
mole fraction of the bulk gas, and y* is the mole fraction of the gas in equilibrium with
the bulk liquid
Equilibrium curve
Slope = -kx/ky
P
y∞ D
Slope = m”
ys
M
Slope = m’
y*
C
x∞
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical xs
Technology" x*
Hence, from the above graph, the relationship between overall mass transfer coefficient
(Ky) and individual phase mass transfer coefficient of liquid phase (kx) and gas phase (ky)
can be found as,
1 1 m′ 1 1 1
= + and = + .
K y ky kx K x m′′k y k x
MATERIAL BALANCE IN MASS TRANSFER
1. Steady state co-current processes:

E
ES
,y
B Y
E1 moles total material / time

I
ES moles of non-diffusing material / time II
,y1 mole fraction solute E2
Y1 mole ratio solute ES
,y2
Y2
R2
RS
,x2
R1 moles total material / time X2
RS moles of non-diffusing material / time
,x1 mole fraction solute
X1 mole ratio solute
R
RS
B ,x
X
Steady state cocurrent processes

Let E and R be two insoluble phases. Considering only one component solute A
diffusing from R to E. The other components of the E and R, i.e. solvent of the phases
are considered non-diffusing. R1 mole / time of total substance, consisting of non-
diffusing solvent RS mole / time and diffusing solute A. concentration of A in R1 is x1
mole fraction. As phase R moves through equipment, A diffuses to phase E as a result of
which total R falls to R2 moles / time at the exit and the concentration of A falls to mole
fraction x2. But RS mole / time do not change and remains same as entrance. R1 mole /
time of total substance, consisting of non-diffusing solvent RS mole / time and diffusing
solute A. concentration of A in R1 is x1 mole fraction.
Similarly, phase E at entrance contains E1 moles / time total substance. ES moles / time is
non-diffusing solvent and concentration of A is y1 mole fraction. Due to transfer of A

from R to E, the concentration of A increases to y2 and moles of E increases to E2 at exit
of equipment. The solvent ES remains constant during the process.
Mass balance of component A over envelope I:

Amount of A entering with phase E = E1y1
Amount of A entering with phase R = R1x1
Amount of A leaving with phase E = E2y2
Amount of A leaving with phase R = R2x2
At steady state: Amount of substance in = Amount of substance out
Hence,
R1 x1 + E1 y1 = R2 x 2 + E 2 y 2 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (7)
R1 x1 − R2 x 2 = E 2 y 2 − E1 y1 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (8)
x1
but , R1 x1 = R S = R S X 1 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(9)
1 − x1
where, X1 is moles A/moles non-A (moles solute/moles solvent)
RS ( X 1 − X 2 ) = ES (Y2 − Y1 ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(10)
This equation 10, is an equation of a straight line on X, Y coordinates with slope = -RS /ES.
Mass balance of component A over envelope II:

Similarly, at section B-B, a general equation can be found for any concentration of A in E
and R as
RS ( X 1 − X ) = ES (Y − Y1 ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(11)
− RS
(Y1 − Y ) = ( X 1 − X ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(12)
ES
Equation 12, is also equation of a straight line and the line drawn using the above
equation is called the operating line of system (Line QP in figure below).

Operating line = -RS/ES
(transfer from E to R) K, interfacial
concentration
P
Equilibrium curve, Yi = f(Xi)
Q
Operating line = -RS/ES

Y2*
Q
(transfer from R to E)
Ye
Concentration in phase E, Y2
moles A / moles non-A = Y
Y1 P
X2* Xe X2 X1
Concentration in phase R,
moles A / moles non-A = X
Steady state cocurrent process, transfer of solute from

phase R to phase E
The operating line above equilibrium curve is for transfer of A from E to R and below the
equilibrium curve is for transfer of A from R to E

2. Steady state counter-current processes:
E
ES
,y
B Y
E1 moles total material / time

I
ES moles of non-diffusing material / time II
,y1 mole fraction solute E2
Y1 mole ratio solute ES
,y2
Y2
R2
RS
,x2
R1 moles total material / time X2
RS moles of non-diffusing material / time
,x1 mole fraction solute
X1 mole ratio solute
R
RS
B ,x
X
Steady state countercurrent processes

Mass balance of component A over envelope I:
E 2 y 2 + R1 x1 = E1 y1 + R2 x 2 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (13)
R S ( X 1 − X 2 ) = E S (Y1 − Y2 ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(14)
Mass balance of component A over envelope II:

Ey + R1 x1 = E1 y1 + Rx − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(15)
R S ( X 1 − X ) = E S (Y1 − Y ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(16)
RS
(Y1 − Y ) = ( X 1 − X ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (17)
ES
The equation (17), is the equation of straight line on X, Y coordinates and is called
equation of operating line for counter current processes (as shown in figure below).
The operating line above equilibrium curve is for transfer of A from E to R and below the
equilibrium curve is for transfer of A from R to E in figure below.

Prepared By: Prof.J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli MTT
NODAL INSTITUTE
LONG TERM TRAINING PROGRAMME ON INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL
TECHNOLOGY (MODULE-I)
MTT
Lecture-3
Drying
Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water moisture or moisture
from another solvent, by evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid (hereafter
product). To be considered "drying", the final product must be a solid, either as a
continuous sheet (e.g., paper), as long pieces (e.g., wood), particles (cereal grains, corn
flakes) or in powder form (sand, salt, washing powder, milk powder). To achieve this,
there must be a source of heat, and a sink of the vapor thus produced. In bioproducts
(food, grains, vaccines), and pharmaceuticals, the solvent to be removed is almost
invariably water.
In the most common case, a gas stream, e.g., air, applies the heat by convection and
carries away the vapor as humidity. Other possibilities are vacuum drying, where heat is
supplied by conduction or radiation (or microwaves) while the vapor thus produced is
removed by the vacuum system. Another indirect technique is drum drying (used, for
instance, for manufacturing potato flakes), where a heated surface is used to provide the
energy and aspirators draw the vapor outside the room.
Crystallization
Crystallization is the (natural or artificial) process of formation of solid crystals

precipitating from a solution, melt or more rarely deposited directly from a gas.
Crystallization is also a chemical solid-liquid separation technique, in which mass
transfer of a solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline phase occurs.
The crystallization process consists of two major events, nucleation and crystal growth.
Nucleation is the step where the solute molecules dispersed in the solvent start to gather
into clusters, on the nanometer scale (elevating solute concentration in a small region),
that becomes stable under the current operating conditions. These stable clusters
constitute the nuclei. However when the clusters are not stable, they redissolve.
Therefore, the clusters need to reach a critical size in order to become stable nuclei. Such
critical size is dictated by the operating conditions (temperature, supersaturation, etc.). It
is at the stage of nucleation that the atoms arrange in a defined and periodic manner that
defines the crystal structure — note that "crystal structure" is a special term that refers to
the relative arrangement of the atoms, not the macroscopic properties of the crystal (size
and shape), although those are a result of the internal crystal structure.
The crystal growth is the subsequent growth of the nuclei that succeed in achieving the
critical cluster size. Nucleation and growth continue to occur simultaneously while the
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: JMV
supersaturation exists. Supersaturation is the driving force of the crystallization, hence

the rate of nucleation and growth is driven by the existing supersaturation in the solution.
Depending upon the conditions, either nucleation or growth may be predominant over the
other, and as a result, crystals with different sizes and shapes are obtained (control of
crystal size and shape constitutes one of the main challenges in industrial manufacturing,
such as for pharmaceuticals). Once the supersaturation is exhausted, the solid-liquid
system reaches equilibrium and the crystallization is complete, unless the operating
conditions are modified from equilibrium so as to supersaturate the solution again.
Leaching
In general, leaching is the extraction of certain materials from a carrier into a liquid
(usually, but not always a solvent). Specifically, it may refer to:
• Leaching (agriculture), the loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from the soil; or
applying a small amount of excess irrigation to avoid soil salinity
• Leaching (chemical science), the process of extracting minerals from a solid by
dissolving them in a liquid
• Leaching (metallurgy), a widely used extractive metallurgy technique which
converts metals into soluble salts in aqueous media
o Dump leaching, an industrial process to extract metals from ore taken
directly from the mine and stacked on the leach pad without crushing
o Heap leaching, an industrial process to extract metals from ore which has
been crushed into small chunks
o Tank leaching, a hydrometallurgical method of extracting valuable
material from ore
o In-situ leaching, a process of recovering minerals such as copper and
uranium through boreholes drilled into the deposit
• Leaching (pedology), the loss of mineral and organic solutes due to percolation
from soil
• Bioleaching, the extraction of specific metals from their ores through the use of
bacteria
• In cooking, leaching generally refers to Parboiling.
Tray Dryer
A tray Dryer is an enclosed insulated chamber in which trays are placed on top of each
other in trolleys. Tray Dryer are used where heating and drying are essential parts of
manufacturing process in industries such as Chemicals, Dye stuff, Pharmaceutical, Food
Products, Colours etc. The material to be dried either wet or solids are placed in the trays.
Heat transfer is by circulation of hot air by electric heaters or steam in radiator coils.
Blower fans are installed inside to ensure proper circulation and transfer of heat. A
control panel to control the temperature and other parameters is fixed outside the dryer.
These dryers are available in Mild Steel, Stainless Steel or construction. Tray dryer is
used for drying of pigments, food, bakery, electrodes, chemical and plastic powders.
DESCRIPTION: The Drying ovens are normally available with choice of heating mode,
as electrically heated / steam heated & thermic fluid heated. In electrically heated model,
digital temperature controller provided with digital timer to facilitate working day and
night. In steam & thermic fluid heated model, digital temperature indicator is provided
with digital timer , but the temperature controller is not supplied with the machine. AIR
CIRCULATION A highly effective recirculating air system is provided. The heated air,
is recirculated with fresh air in selected proportions for optimum drying. The system is
designed so that the materials at the top & the bottom dry simultaneously. Uniform air
circulation, controlled temperature, sturdy construction and large working space are the
valuables of the oven which is suitably designed to cover wide temperature range,
loading and unloading is faster and simple. In higher capacities trays trolley rolls in and
out of the chamber. For continuous operation a spare trolley can be had for loading while
the drying cycle is taking place. CONTROLLED TEMPERATURE & TIME Digital
temperature controller with digital timer are supplied to facilitate working day and night.
Rotary Dryer
Rotary dryers which are generally used in various industries, especially in the mineral
industry. In mineral industry, the equipment is used for drying commodity such as clay,
kaolin, gypsum, mineral sand, limestone, potash and silica sand. This equipment is
suitable for evaporating and drying of wide range of material of variegated sizes and
composition. To lift, distribute and transport the material some internal lifters or flights
are used. We offer co-current direct-heat rotary dryer which is the most common
equipment available in the market. In this equipment, the initial heat transfer level is very
high which creates a considerable drop in temperature and prevents over heating of the
dryer as well as the material. Apart from this, counter current dryers that we provide
are ideal for the materials that need to be dried to very low moisture contents. It is further
helps for the material in which last traces of moisture are hard to remove.
Other details of the equipment are mentioned below:
• Consist of a relatively long cylindrical shell

• The shell ranges from 0. 6 to 5 m in diameter and from 5 to 30 m long
• It is supported by two riding rings running on a set of rollers (rotation speed up to
25 rpm)
• The shell is slightly inclined from the horizontal and the slope enables material to
move from the feed to the discharge end under gravity
• Feed rate ranges from less than 1 tonne to 500 tonnes per hour
• the internal flights produce a shower, or cascade, of wet feed material through the
hot gas stream
• This promotes evaporation of the moisture and breaks up lumps to produce a
more uniformly dried material
• The hot air is introduced either at the feed end such that it moves in the same
direction as the material (co-current) or at the discharge end such that it moves in
the opposite direction (counter-current)
• While coming in contact with the highest temperature and extremely hot gas
stream, the surface moisture of the wet material get evaporated
• As the wet material progresses through the dryer, heat energy is lost to the
material it is drying and it leaves the dryer at a comparatively low temperature
• The moisture content can be readily controlled when the final dried product is
discharged with the gas stream at its lowest temperature
Application:
The wet slurry comes in contact with the hottest drying gases which is supplied from an
external source and the heat transfer is done by convection. This equipment find
application in the production process of the following products:
• floatation concentrates
• coal/coke
• clays, phosphates
• suifilter cakes
• minerals, fertilizers
• beet pulp
• germ, stillage
• sludges
• animal feeds
Heavy Duty Rotary Dryer Drum [8] Combustion Chamber (optional)

[1] •
3
/8" steel construction for most • Refractory lined
models • Adjustable air vent
• Reinforcement bands • Burner mounting plate
[9] Rotary Dryer Discharge Chute

[2] Internal Rotary Dryer Lifters • Off gas connection
• Heavy-duty lifters • Discharge chute
• Designed specifically for each • Cleanout removable door
application
• Welded or boltable
[10] Rotary Dryer Discharge Seals

[3] Rotary Dryer Riding Rings • High temperature seals
• Specially forged rings for
durability
• Machined for precision
• Wedge system for alignment
[11] Rotary Dryer Support Frame

• Unitized frame
[4] Rotary Dryer Trunnion Rollers • Allows for installation on
• Specially forged rollers and concrete piers
treated for durability
• Heavy-duty shaft
• Large pillow block bearings
• Adjustable bases [12] Rotary Dryer Modular Frame

(optional)
• Adjustable frame
• Adjustable slope
• (Also available mounted on
[5] Rotary Dryer Thrust Wheel portable chassis)
• Engineered design for strength
• Built to last with low
maintenance
• Forged wheel [13] Rotary Dryer Burner System
• Natural gas or oil
• Complete system with
controls and safety
[6] Rotary Dryer Drive • Sized for each application
• Heavy-duty chain and sprocket
• Spur gear set (optional)
• Drive guard
• Reduction unit with direct-
coupled motor
[7] Rotary Dryer Feed Chute

• Standard unit allows for direct
burner mounting
• Natural gas or oil burners
(optional)
Cooling tower
Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat to the
atmosphere. Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process
heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or rely solely on air
to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature. Common applications
include cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries, chemical plants, power
stations and building cooling. The towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very
large hyperboloid structures that can be up to 200 metres tall and 100 metres in diameter,
or rectangular structures that can be over 40 metres tall and 80 metres long. Smaller
towers are normally factory-built, while larger ones are constructed on site. They are
often associated with nuclear power plants in popular culture.
Industrial cooling towers
Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from various sources such as
machinery or heated process material. The primary use of large, industrial cooling towers
is to remove the heat absorbed in the circulating cooling water systems used in power
plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants, food
processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and for other industrial facilities such as in
condensers of distillation columns, for cooling liquid in crystallization, etc. The
circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700 MW coal-fired power plant with a
cooling tower amounts to about 71,600 cubic metres an hour (315,000 U.S. gallons per
minute) and the circulating water requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5
percent (i.e., 3,600 cubic metres an hour).
If that same plant had no cooling tower and used once-through cooling water, it would
require about 100,000 cubic metres an hour and that amount of water would have to be
continuously returned to the ocean, lake or river from which it was obtained and
continuously re-supplied to the plant. Furthermore, discharging large amounts of hot
water may raise the temperature of the receiving river or lake to an unacceptable level for
the local ecosystem. Elevated water temperatures can kill fish and other aquatic
organisms. A cooling tower serves to dissipate the heat into the atmosphere instead and
wind and air diffusion spreads the heat over a much larger area than hot water can
distribute heat in a body of water. Some coal-fired and nuclear power plants located in
coastal areas do make use of once-through ocean water. But even there, the offshore
discharge water outlet requires very careful design to avoid environmental problems.
Petroleum refineries also have very large cooling tower systems. A typical large refinery
processing 40,000 metric tonnes of crude oil per day (300,000 barrels (48,000 m3) per
day) circulates about 80,000 cubic metres of water per hour through its cooling tower
system.
The world's tallest cooling tower is the 200 metre tall cooling tower of Niederaussem
Power Station.
Types of cooling Tower Based on Air flow (Three types):
• Natural draft, which utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air
naturally rises due to the density differential to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm
moist air is less dense than drier air at the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy
produces a current of air through the tower.
• Mechanical draft, which uses power driven fan motors to force or draw air
through the tower.
o Induced draft: A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge which
pulls air through tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the discharge.
This produces low entering and high exiting air velocities, reducing the
possibility of recirculation in which discharged air flows back into the air
intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also known as draw-through.
o Forced draft: A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the
intake. The fan forces air into the tower, creating high entering and low
exiting air velocities. The low exiting velocity is much more susceptible to
recirculation. With the fan on the air intake, the fan is more susceptible to
complications due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is that a
forced draft design typically requires more motor horsepower than an
equivalent induced draft design. The forced draft benefit is its ability to
work with high static pressure. They can be installed in more confined
spaces and even in some indoor situations. This fan/fill geometry is also
known as blow-through.
• Fan assisted natural draft, A hybrid type that appears like a natural draft though
airflow is assisted by a fan.
Some commonly used terms in the cooling tower industry
• Drift - Water droplets that are carried out of the cooling tower with the exhaust
air. Drift droplets have the same concentration of impurities as the water entering
the tower. The drift rate is typically reduced by employing baffle-like devices,
called drift eliminators, through which the air must travel after leaving the fill and
spray zones of the tower. Drift can also be reduced by using warmer entering
cooling tower temperatures.
• Blow-out - Water droplets blown out of the cooling tower by wind, generally at
the air inlet openings. Water may also be lost, in the absence of wind, through
splashing or misting. Devices such as wind screens, louvers, splash deflectors and
water diverters are used to limit these losses.
• Plume - The stream of saturated exhaust air leaving the cooling tower. The plume
is visible when water vapor it contains condenses in contact with cooler ambient
air, like the saturated air in one's breath fogs on a cold day. Under certain
conditions, a cooling tower plume may present fogging or icing hazards to its
surroundings. Note that the water evaporated in the cooling process is "pure"
water, in contrast to the very small percentage of drift droplets or water blown out
of the air inlets.
• Blow-down - The portion of the circulating water flow that is removed in order to
maintain the amount of dissolved solids and other impurities at an acceptable
level. It may be noted that higher TDS (total dissolved solids) concentration in
solution results in greater potential cooling tower efficiency. However the higher
the TDS concentration, the greater the risk of scale, biological growth and
corrosion.
• Leaching - The loss of wood preservative chemicals by the washing action of the
water flowing through a wood structure cooling tower.
• Noise - Sound energy emitted by a cooling tower and heard (recorded) at a given
distance and direction. The sound is generated by the impact of falling water, by
the movement of air by fans, the fan blades moving in the structure, and the
motors, gearboxes or drive belts.
• Approach - The approach is the difference in temperature between the cooled-

water temperature and the entering-air wet bulb temperature (twb). Since the
cooling towers are based on the principles of evaporative cooling, the maximum
cooling tower efficiency depends on the wet bulb temperature of the air. The wet-
bulb temperature is a type of temperature measurement that reflects the physical
properties of a system with a mixture of a gas and a vapor, usually air and water
vapor
• Range - The range is the temperature difference between the water inlet and
water exit.
• Fill - Inside the tower, fills are added to increase contact surface as well as contact
time between air and water. Thus they provide better heat transfer. The efficiency
of the tower also depends on them. There are two types of fills that may be used:
o Film type fill (causes water to spread into a thin film)
o Splash type fill (breaks up water and interrupts its vertical progress)
NODAL INSTITUTE
LONG TERM TRAINING PROGRAMME ON INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MODULE-I)
MTT
Lecture-4
GAS ABSORPTION & DESORPTION
Gas absorption (also known as scrubbing) is an operation in which a gas

mixture is contacted with a liquid for the purpose of preferentially
dissolving one or more components of the gas mixture and to provide a
solution of them in the liquid.
Therefore we can see that there is a mass transfer of the component of the
gas from the gas phase to the liquid phase. The solute so transferred is
said to be absorbed by the liquid.
In gas desorption (or stripping), the mass transfer is in the opposite

direction, i.e. from the liquid phase to the gas phase. The principles for
both systems are the same.
We will focus on the analysis for gas absorption, for the simple case
whereby only one component of the gas solute is being absorbed. The
other components of the gas are assumed to be non-soluble in the liquid (i.e.
the other gas components are inert components), and the liquid is non-
volatile, which means that there is no transfer of molecules from the liquid
to the gas phase.
In addition, we assume there is no chemical reaction in the system and that it

is operating at isothermal condition.
The process of gas absorption thus involves the diffusion of solute from the
gas phase through a stagnant or non-diffusing liquid.
Physical vs. Chemical Absorption
There are 2 types of absorption processes: physical absorption and

chemical absorption, depending on whether there is any chemical reaction
between the solute and the solvent (absorbent).
Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology" Prepared By: Jignesh M.Vasoya
When water and hydrocarbon oils are used as absorbents, no significant

chemical reactions occur between the absorbent and the solute, and the
process is commonly referred to as physical absorption.
When aqueous sodium hydroxide (a strong base) is used as the absorbent to

dissolve an acid gas, absorption is accompanied by a rapid and irreversible
neutralization reaction in the liquid phase and the process is referred to as
chemical absorption or reactive absorption.
More complex examples of chemical absorption are processes for absorbing

CO2 and H2S with aqueous solution of mono ethanol amine (MEA),
diethanolamine (DEA), diethylene glycol (DEG) or triethylene glycol
(TEG), where a reversible chemical reaction takes place in the liquid phase.
Chemical reactions can increase the rate of absorption, increase the
absorption capacity of the solvent, increase selectivity to preferentially
dissolve only certain components of the gas, and convert a hazardous
chemical to a safe compound.
Method of Operation
Two methods of contacting the gas and liquid are possible: counter-current
operation and co-current operation. We will focus principally on the counter-
current gas absorption, as it was widely used in the industry. The main
differences between the two configurations will be highlighted. Note that for
counter-current operation, the gas enters the column or tower from below as
leaves at the top, while liquid enters from the top and flows in opposite
direction and exits from the bottom.
We will be concerned primarily with counter-current gas absorption. The gas

flows upwards while the liquid flow downwards. Inside the column where
there is vapour-liquid contact, mass transfer by absorption occurs, i.e. there
is a transfer of solute(s) from the gas phase to the liquid phase.
Absorption Equipment
Absorption and stripping are conducted in tray (or plate or stage) columns,
packed columns, spray towers, bubble columns, and centrifugal contactors.
In general, operating pressure should be high and temperature low for an
absorber, to minimize stage requirements and/or absorbent flow rate to lower
the equipment volume required accommodating the gas flow. The reverse is
true for stripping. However, the operating pressure should not be too high
and the operating temperature should not be too low as to condense the feed
gas.
Tray Column
The types of trays used in absorption include: sieve tray, valve tray and
bubble-cap trays. These internals are the same as those covered in
"Distillation".
Packed Column
Both random and structured packings had been used. Again, please refer to
the topics covered in "Distillation".
Spray Column
The gas flows upward continuously through an open chamber in which

scrubbing liquid droplets falls from spray nozzles through the gas. The gas
pressure drop is small, but separation is not as good as the bubble column.
This column is widely used for its simplicity, low pressure drop, and
resistance to scale deposition and plugging.
Bubble Column
The gas is forced under pressure through perforated pipes submerged in the
scrubbing liquid. As such the gas phase is dispersed and the liquid phase is
continuous. As the bubbles rise through the liquid, absorption of the gas
occurs. This type of device suffers from the high pressure drop due to the
liquid hydrostatic head.
Integration of absorber and stripper
In practice, absorbers and strippers are often interconnected with one

stripper serving several absorbers.

absorber, to minimize stage requirements and/or solvent flow rate and to
lower the equipment volume required accommodating the gas flow.
Unfortunately, both compression and refrigeration of a gas are expensive.
Therefore most absorbers are operated at feed gas pressure, which may be
higher than ambient pressure. Operating temperature is kept low, but not to
condense the feed gas.
An amine treating system typical in refineries with one absorber (scrubber)

and one regenerator (stripper).
In the absorber, H2S is removed from the incoming sour gas by contacting it
with liquid amine (DEA or MEA) in a counter-current manner. The amine
solution (known as lean amine) enters the column at the top. The gas leaves
the absorber as sweet gas with the H2S removed. The amine solution that
leaves the bottom of the column is rich in absorbed H2S (known as rich
amine) and is feed to the stripper or regenerator.
In the regenerator, the opposite process takes place whereby H2S is removed
from rich amine by counter-current contact with steam. The amine stripped
of H2S leaves the bottom of the regenerator is send back to the scrubber as
lean amine for more absorption. The entire process takes place essentially in
a closed loop.
Note that in this case, the liquid entering the absorber is no longer pure (i.e.
x2 is not 0) as it may contain traces of H2S in the entering liquid amine.
Liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) is an important unit operation that allows one

to separate fluids based on different solutes being soluble to different
degrees in different solvents. In this experiment, acetone is extracted by
contact with water from a feed stream containing an unknown concentration
of acetone in butyl acetate (BA).
Purpose:- The goal of this laboratory exercise is to study the performance of

a liquid-liquid extraction column.
Learning Objectives:-The main learning objective of this laboratory exercise

is to gain experience in characterizing the behavior of a liquid-liquid
extraction column. To do this, one must examine such parameters as the
composition of the top and bottom products at various feed rates and
compositions. These parameters should be calculated theoretically using
available computer programs and determined experimentally from the
column.
NODAL INSTITUTE
LONG TERM TRAINING PROGRAMME ON INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MODULE-I)
MTT
Lecture-4
GAS ABSORPTION & DESORPTION
Gas absorption (also known as scrubbing) is an operation in which a gas

mixture is contacted with a liquid for the purpose of preferentially
dissolving one or more components of the gas mixture and to provide a
solution of them in the liquid.
Therefore we can see that there is a mass transfer of the component of the
gas from the gas phase to the liquid phase. The solute so transferred is
said to be absorbed by the liquid.
In gas desorption (or stripping), the mass transfer is in the opposite

direction, i.e. from the liquid phase to the gas phase. The principles for
both systems are the same.
We will focus on the analysis for gas absorption, for the simple case
whereby only one component of the gas solute is being absorbed. The
other components of the gas are assumed to be non-soluble in the liquid (i.e.
the other gas components are inert components), and the liquid is non-
volatile, which means that there is no transfer of molecules from the liquid
to the gas phase.
In addition, we assume there is no chemical reaction in the system and that it

is operating at isothermal condition.
The process of gas absorption thus involves the diffusion of solute from the
gas phase through a stagnant or non-diffusing liquid.
Physical vs. Chemical Absorption
There are 2 types of absorption processes: physical absorption and

chemical absorption, depending on whether there is any chemical reaction
between the solute and the solvent (absorbent).
When water and hydrocarbon oils are used as absorbents, no significant

chemical reactions occur between the absorbent and the solute, and the
process is commonly referred to as physical absorption.
When aqueous sodium hydroxide (a strong base) is used as the absorbent to

dissolve an acid gas, absorption is accompanied by a rapid and irreversible
neutralization reaction in the liquid phase and the process is referred to as
chemical absorption or reactive absorption.
More complex examples of chemical absorption are processes for absorbing

CO2 and H2S with aqueous solution of mono ethanol amine (MEA),
diethanolamine (DEA), diethylene glycol (DEG) or triethylene glycol
(TEG), where a reversible chemical reaction takes place in the liquid phase.
Chemical reactions can increase the rate of absorption, increase the
absorption capacity of the solvent, increase selectivity to preferentially
dissolve only certain components of the gas, and convert a hazardous
chemical to a safe compound.
Method of Operation
Two methods of contacting the gas and liquid are possible: counter-current
operation and co-current operation. We will focus principally on the counter-
current gas absorption, as it was widely used in the industry. The main
differences between the two configurations will be highlighted. Note that for
counter-current operation, the gas enters the column or tower from below as
leaves at the top, while liquid enters from the top and flows in opposite
direction and exits from the bottom.
We will be concerned primarily with counter-current gas absorption. The gas

flows upwards while the liquid flow downwards. Inside the column where
there is vapour-liquid contact, mass transfer by absorption occurs, i.e. there
is a transfer of solute(s) from the gas phase to the liquid phase.
Absorption Equipment
Absorption and stripping are conducted in tray (or plate or stage) columns,
packed columns, spray towers, bubble columns, and centrifugal contactors.
absorber, to minimize stage requirements and/or absorbent flow rate to lower
the equipment volume required accommodating the gas flow. The reverse is
true for stripping. However, the operating pressure should not be too high
and the operating temperature should not be too low as to condense the feed
gas.
Tray Column
The types of trays used in absorption include: sieve tray, valve tray and
bubble-cap trays. These internals are the same as those covered in
"Distillation".
Packed Column
Both random and structured packings had been used. Again, please refer to
the topics covered in "Distillation".
Spray Column
The gas flows upward continuously through an open chamber in which

scrubbing liquid droplets falls from spray nozzles through the gas. The gas
pressure drop is small, but separation is not as good as the bubble column.
This column is widely used for its simplicity, low pressure drop, and
resistance to scale deposition and plugging.
Bubble Column
The gas is forced under pressure through perforated pipes submerged in the
scrubbing liquid. As such the gas phase is dispersed and the liquid phase is
continuous. As the bubbles rise through the liquid, absorption of the gas
occurs. This type of device suffers from the high pressure drop due to the
liquid hydrostatic head.
Integration of absorber and stripper
In practice, absorbers and strippers are often interconnected with one

stripper serving several absorbers.

absorber, to minimize stage requirements and/or solvent flow rate and to
lower the equipment volume required accommodating the gas flow.
Unfortunately, both compression and refrigeration of a gas are expensive.
Therefore most absorbers are operated at feed gas pressure, which may be
higher than ambient pressure. Operating temperature is kept low, but not to
condense the feed gas.
An amine treating system typical in refineries with one absorber (scrubber)

and one regenerator (stripper).
In the absorber, H2S is removed from the incoming sour gas by contacting it
with liquid amine (DEA or MEA) in a counter-current manner. The amine
solution (known as lean amine) enters the column at the top. The gas leaves
the absorber as sweet gas with the H2S removed. The amine solution that
leaves the bottom of the column is rich in absorbed H2S (known as rich
amine) and is feed to the stripper or regenerator.
In the regenerator, the opposite process takes place whereby H2S is removed
from rich amine by counter-current contact with steam. The amine stripped
of H2S leaves the bottom of the regenerator is send back to the scrubber as
lean amine for more absorption. The entire process takes place essentially in
a closed loop.
Note that in this case, the liquid entering the absorber is no longer pure (i.e.
x2 is not 0) as it may contain traces of H2S in the entering liquid amine.
Liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) is an important unit operation that allows one

to separate fluids based on different solutes being soluble to different
degrees in different solvents. In this experiment, acetone is extracted by
contact with water from a feed stream containing an unknown concentration
of acetone in butyl acetate (BA).
Purpose:- The goal of this laboratory exercise is to study the performance of

a liquid-liquid extraction column.
Learning Objectives:-The main learning objective of this laboratory exercise

is to gain experience in characterizing the behavior of a liquid-liquid
extraction column. To do this, one must examine such parameters as the
composition of the top and bottom products at various feed rates and
compositions. These parameters should be calculated theoretically using
available computer programs and determined experimentally from the
column.
1. Distillation
Distillation is a unit operation in which 2 or more miscible substances are separated to
relatively pure products by using vaporization and condensation of the mixture. The
liquid with lower boiling point is vaporized and condensed in a separate flask.
2. Theory of distillaiton
A. Vaporization and Condensation
a) For any liquid, the individual molecules within the liquid are continuously in
motion
b) A small percentage of these molecules attain enough kinetic energy to leave the
liquid phase
c) This exerts an opposing pressure on the atmosphere above the solution known as
the vapor pressure, P
Atmospheric pressure, Patm
Vapor Pressure, P
d) When enough energy, in the form of heat, is imparted to the solution the vapor
pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure and the liquid begins to
boil
P < Patm P ≥ Patm

e) The vapor obtained from a boiling liquid, once cooled, will re-condense to a
liquid known as the distillate. The complete process is called a distillation.

3. Types of distillation
a) Simple (Differential) distillation
b) Fractional distillation
Distillation column types:

The distillation column can be operated in Batch or continuous process.
Batch distillation: The feed to this type of distillation is fed initially only and then the
distillation is operated. At the time of distillation process, there is no supply of feed or
removal of product. (Above figures are batch distillation operations)
Continuous distillation: This type of distillation consists of continuous supply of feed and
continuous removal of products.
4. Introduction to (continuous) distillation with reflux

In a distillation column the stages (referred to as sieve plates or trays) in a distillation
tower are arranged vertically, as shown schematically in figure below.

1. Feed enters the column

somewhere in the middle
of the column.
2. Feed is liquid, it flows
down to a sieve tray or
stage.
3. Vapor enters the tray and
bubbles through the liquid
on this tray as the entering
liquid flows across.
4. The vapor and liquid
leaving the tray are
essentially in equilibrium
5. The vapor continues up to
the next tray or stage,
where it is again contacted
with a down-flowing
liquid.
6. The concentration of the
more volatile component is
being increased in the
vapor form each stage
going upward and
decreased in the liquid
from each stage going
downwards.
7. The final vapor product
coming overhead is
condensed in a condenser
and a portion of the liquid
product (distillate) is
removed, which contains a
high concentration of A
8. The remaining liquid from
the condenser is returned
(refluxed) as a liquid to the
top tray
9. The liquid leaving the
bottom tray enters a
reboilier, where it partially
vaporized, and the
remaining liquid, which is
lean in A or rich in B, is
withdrawn as liquid
product.
10. The vapor from the
reboiler is sent back to the
bottom stage or tray is
much greater.
Temperature Versus xA, yA for Benzene (A) – Toluene (B)

5. Parts of continuous distillation column

a) Feed
b) Distillation stage

c) Rectifying section:
d) Stripping section

e) Overhead vapour and condenser:
f) Overhead product (Light component with low boiling point) and Reflux

g) Bottom liquid and reboiler
h) Bottom Product (Heavy component with high boiling point)

5. Equilibrium curve (yA vs xA) (At constant Pressure = 101.325 KPa)

6. Mac-Cabe and Thiele Method (Number of stages)










Prepared by:
Jignesh Vasoya
Lecturer
N.G.POLYTECHNIC,ISROLI
,

` Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one

location to other.
` Some common examples of mass transfer processes
are the evaporation of water from a pond to the
atmosphere, the diffusion of chemical impurities in
lakes, rivers, and oceans from natural or artificial
point sources, separation of chemical components in
distillation columns. In Cooling towers, hot water
flows down over the fill material as air flows up and
contact between water and air evaporates some of the
water.

Evaporation requires heat, the heat is removed from

the remaining water lowering its temperature.
Day-by-Day experiences also involve MT:
` A lump of sugar added to a cup of coffee eventually
dissolves and then eventually diffuses to make the
concentration uniform.
` Water
Wt evaporates
t f
from ponds
d to t increase
i th
the
humidity of passing-air-stream
` Perfumes presents a pleasant fragrance which is
imparted throughout the surrounding atmosphere.

Why Mass is Transfered?

` The
Th random d motion
ti off molecules
l l causes a nett
transfer of mass from an area of high concentration
to an area of low concentration.
` The driving force for mass transfer is a difference in
concentration
Mass transfer operations – nature of interface
between phases
` Gas-liquid contact e.g.
e g absorption,
absorption evaporation
evaporation,
distillation etc
` Liquid-liquid
q q contact e.g.
g extraction
` Liquid-solid contact e.g. crystallization, adsorption
` Gas-solid contact e.g. adsorption, drying etc

` Non steady state – concentration changes

with time e.g. batch processes
` Steady state
` S
Stage
` Differential contact

In every mass transfer operation mass is transferred

from one phase to another phase.
` Distillation(G/L)-Gas to Liquid & Liquid to Gas
` G Ab
Gas Absorption(G/L)-Gas
ti (G/L) G tto Liquid
Li id
` Desorption(L/G)-Liquid to Gas
` Extraction(L/L)-Liquid to Liquid
` Leaching(L/S)-Liquid to Solid
` Crystallization(L/S)-Liquid
y ( ) q to Solid
` Drying(S/G)-Solid to Gas
` Adsorption(F/S)-Fluid to solid

` Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based

on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid
mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical
separation
i process, andd not a chemical
h i l reaction.
i
` It is used to separate crude oil into more fractions for
specific uses such as transport,
transport power generation and
heating.

Total condenser
Distillation
Reflux drum
Overhead vapor
Rectifying section stages 1 Reflux

Distillate
2
Feed Feed Stage
Boilup
Stripping section stages N
Partial reboiler
Bottoms

TYPES OF DISTILLATION COLUMNS
` There are many types of distillation columns, each

d i d to
designed t perform
f specific
ifi types
t off separations,
ti andd
each design differs in terms of complexity. Batch
and Continuous Columns
` Batch Columns In batch operation, the feed to the
column is introduced batch-wise. That is,, the column
is charged with a 'batch' and then the distillation
process is carried out. When the desired task is
achieved, a next batch of feed is introduced.


` Continuous Columns In contrast, continuous

columns pprocess a continuous feed stream. No
interruptions occur unless there is a problem with the
column or surrounding process units. They are
capable
bl off handling
h dli hi h throughputs
high h h andd are the
h
most common of the two types. Concentration does
not change with time.
time


` Gas absorption (also known as scrubbing) is an

operation in which a gas mixture is contacted with a
liquid for the purpose of preferentially dissolving one
or more components off the h gas mixture
i andd to
provide a solution of them in the liquid.
` We will focus on the analysis for gas absorption,
absorption for
the simple case whereby only one component of the
gas solute is being absorbed. The other components
of the gas are assumed to be non-soluble in the liquid
(i.e. the other gas components are inert components),

` and the liquid is non-volatile, which means that there is no

transfer of molecules from the liquid to the gas phase.
` In addition, we assume there is no chemical reaction in the
system and that it is operating at isothermal condition.
` Th process off gas absorption
The b i thus
h involves
i l the
h diffusion
diff i off
solute from the gas phase through a stagnant or non-
diffusing liquid.
liquid
` There are 2 types of absorption processes: physical
absorption and chemical absorption, depending on whether
there is any chemical reaction.


` Liquid-liquid extraction, also known as solvent

extraction and partitioning,
partitioning is a method to separate
compounds based on their relative solubility in two
different immiscible liquids, usually water and an
organic solvent. It is an extraction of a substance
from one liquid phase into another liquid phase.
Liquid-liquid extraction is a basic technique in
chemical laboratories, where it is performed using a
t
separatory ffunnel.
l Thi
This ttype off process iis commonly
l
performed after a chemical reaction as part of the
work-up.
work-up

` Solvent extraction is used in nuclear reprocessing, ore

processing, the production of fine organic compounds,
the processing of perfumes, and other industries.
` Example: Acetic Acid &Water/Isopropyl ether(Solvent)


` Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions,

biomolecules or molecules of gas, liquid, or dissolved
solids to a surface. This process creates a film of the
adsorbate
d b t (h
(the molecules
l l or atoms beingb i
accumulated) on the surface of the adsorbent. It
differs from absorption,
absorption in which a fluid permeates or
is dissolved by a liquid or solid. The term sorption
encompasses
p both processes,
p , while desorption
p is the
reverse of adsorption.

` The most common industrial adsorbents are activated

carbon, silica gel, and alumina, because they present
enormous surface areas per unit weight.
` Used in many industrial processes:
◦ dehumidification
◦ odour/colour/taste removal
◦ gas pollutant removal (H2S)
◦ water softening and deionisation
◦ hydrocarbon fractionation
◦ pharmaceutical
h i l purification
ifi i

` Porous material - Large surface area per unit mass –

size, shape, polarity cause certain particles to be held
more strongly in these pores than others
` Rate of mass transfer is dependent on the void
fraction within the pores
` Granular ((50μm
μ - 12 mm diameter))
` Suitable for packed bed use

` Physical Adsorption
◦ Result of intermolecular forces causing preferential
binding of certain substances to certain adsorbents
◦ Reversible by addition of heat (via steam, hot inert gas,
oven)
◦ Attachment to the outer layer of adsorbent material
` Ch i
Chemisorption
ti
◦ Result of chemical interaction
◦ Large amount heat released
◦ Irreversible
◦ Mainly found in catalysis



Prepared By: Prof.R. M. Patel, Lecturer,N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
Fundamentals of Mass
T
Transfer
f Operations
O i
Mr. R. M. Patel
Lecturer,
Chemical engineering Department,
N G
N. G. PPatell Polytechnic,
P l h i
Bardoli.

Fick’s
Fick s Law
Rate or molar Flux is of two types:
yp
Flux relative to a fixed location, NA
Flux relative to the average molar velocity of all components, JA.
Th unit
The i off b
both
h fl
fluxes is
i moles/(time.
l /( i area).
)
dC A
J A = − DAB − − − − − − − − − (1)
d
dz

Relationship between NA and JA

N A = NxA + J A − − − − − − − − − − − (2)
xA = C A / C
If two components A and B are flowing with same rate but in opposite
direction, -
di i JA= JB, CA+CB=constant, DAB =D
DBA
If two components A and B are flowing with same rate but in same direction,
JA=JB, CA+CB=constant, DAB =DBA

Steady State diffusion molecular
diffusion of NA and NB in z-
z-
direction
N A DABC ⎡ ( N A /( N A + N B )) − (C A2 / C ) ⎤
NA = ln ⎢ ⎥ − − − − − − − − − −(3)
NA + NA z ⎣ A
( N /( N A + N B )) − (C A1 / C ) ⎦
Considering above equation

eq ation for ideal gas,
gas
C A PA n P
= = yA C= = T
C PT V RT
NA DAB PT ⎡ ( N A /( N A + N B )) − y A2 ⎤
NA = ln ⎢ ⎥ − − − − − − − − − −(4)
N A + N A RTz ⎣ A
( N /( N A + N B )) − y A1 ⎦
where,
PA= partial pressure of component A in gas
PT= Total pressure of gas mixture
R is universal gas constant
T is absolute temperature of gas
yA1 mole fraction of component A at location z=1
yA2 mole fraction of component A at location z=2
Steady state diffusion of A through

non--diffusing B
non
NB = 0 N A N A + NB = 1
DAB PT
NA = ( PA1 − PA 2 ) − − − − − − − − − − − −(5)
RTz PB ,M
Where, PB 2 − PB1
PB , M =
ln( PB 2 / PB1 )

Steady state equimolal diffusion of

both A and B
N A = −NB N A N A + NB = ∞
DAB
NA = ( PA1 − PA 2 ) − − − − − − − − − − − −(6)
RTz

Mass transfer coefficient, k

Flux = (coefficient) (concentration difference)
Mass transfer coefficient for steady state diffusion of A
through non-diffusing B:
NB = 0 N A N A + NB = 1
N A = kG ( PA1 − PA 2 ) = k y ( y A1 − y A 2 ) = kC (C A1 − C A 2 ) (For Gases)
N A = k x ( x A1 − x A 2 ) = k L (C A1 − C A 2 ) (For Liquids)
Mass transfer coefficient for steady state equimolal counter

diff i off A and
diffusion dBB:
N A = −NB N A N A + NB = ∞
N A = kG′ ( PA1 − PA 2 ) = k ′y ( y A1 − y A 2 ) = kC′ (C A1 − C A 2 ) (For Gases)
N A = k x′ ( x A1 − x A2 ) = k L′ (C A1 − C A 2 ) (For Liquids)
Relationship of DAB and mass

transfer coefficient k
Based on widely used Film Theory, the relationship between mass
transfer coefficient, k and mass diffusivity, DAB is,
kα D 0.5
AB

Driving force for mass transfer

Interphase mass transfer -

Equilibrium
When mass transfer occurs between two phases it is called interphase
mass transfer.
When the molecules are transferringg from one p phase to another but if
the net transfer of all the molecules is zero, this condition is called dynamic
equilibrium. The concentration measured at the condition of
q
equilibrium or dynamic
y equilibrium
q is called equilibrium
q concentration of
component A in both phases (xA and yA in both phases).

Equilibrium Curve

Interphase mass transfer

(Two
T resistance Theory)
T

Interphase mass transfer

(Two
T resistance Theory)
T
kx, ky = liquid
liquid- and gas-phase
gas phase mass transfer coefficients,
coefficients
Kx, Ky = liquid & gas-phase overall mass transfer coefficients,
[kmol m–2 s–1],
NA* is the molar flux [kmol m–2 s–1],]
xS is the equilibrium mole fraction of the liquid at the interface,
x∞ is the mole fraction of the bulk liquid,
x* is the mole fraction of the liquid in equilibrium with the bulk gas,gas
yS is the equilibrium mole fraction of the gas at the interface,
y∞ is the mole fraction of the bulk gas,
y** is the mole
m le fraction
fr ti n off the gass in eq
equilibrium
ilibri m with
ith the bulk
b lk liquid
liq id

Relationship of local and overall
mass transfer coefficients

(Two resistance Theory)
1 1 m′ 1 1 1
= + = +
K y ky kx K x m′′k y k x

Steady state co
co--current processes

Mass balance of component A over

envelope I
Amount of A enteringg with phase
p E = E1y1
Amount of A entering with phase R = R1x1
Amount of A leaving with phase E = E2y2
Amount of A leavingg with phase
p R = R2x2
R1 x1 + E1 y1 = R2 x2 + E2 y2 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (7)
R1 x1 − R2 x2 = E2 y2 − E1 y1 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (8)
x1
but , R1 x1 = RS = RS X 1 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(9)
1 − x1
At steady state: Amount of substance in = Amount of substance out
where, X1 is moles A/moles non-A (moles solute/moles solvent)

RS ( X 1 − X 2 ) = ES (Y2 − Y1 ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(10)
Equation of a straight line on X, Y coordinates with slope = -RS /ES.

envelope II
RS ( X 1 − X ) = ES (Y − Y1 ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(11)
− RS
(Y1 − Y ) = ( X 1 − X ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(12)
ES
Equation
q of a straight
g line on X,, Y coordinates with slope
p = -RS //ES.
Equation (12) is called equation of operating line for Co-current processes.

(Line QP in figure below).

Operating Line – Co
Co--current
Processes
The operating line above equilibrium curve is for transfer of A from E to R

and below the equilibrium curve is for transfer of A from R to E
Steady state counter-

counter-current
processes
Mass balance of component A over envelope I


envelope I
E 2 y 2 + R1 x1 = E1 y1 + R 2 x 2 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (13)
R S ( X 1 − X 2 ) = E S (Y1 − Y2 ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(14)

envelope II
E + R1 x1 = E1 y1 + Rx
Ey R − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(15)
R S ( X 1 − X ) = E S (Y1 − Y ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(16)
RS
(Y1 − Y ) = ( X 1 − X ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (17)
ES
The equation (17), is the equation of straight line on X, Y coordinates and is

called
ll d equation
i off operating
i li
line for
f counter current processes (as
( shown
h in
i
figure below).
Counter-current processes
Counter-
(Operating Line)
The operating line above equilibrium curve is for transfer of A from

E to R and below the equilibrium curve is for transfer of A from R to
E in figure.

MASS TRANSFER
TECHNOLOGY
Prepared by:
Jignesh Vasoya
Chemical Engineer(Gold Medalist)
Lecturer

Drying
• Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the
removal of water moisture or moisture from
another
th solvent,
l t by b evaporationti fromf a solid,
lid semi-i
solid or liquid (hereafter product). To be considered
"drying"
drying , the final product must be a solid, solid either as
a continuous sheet (e.g., paper), as long pieces
((e.g.,
g , wood),), pparticles ((cereal ggrains,, corn flakes)) or
in powder form (sand, salt, washing powder, milk
powder). To achieve this, there must be a source of
heat, and a sink of the vapor thus produced. In
bioproducts(food,grains,vaccines),and
pharmaceuticals the solvent to be removed is
almost invariably water.
• In the most common case, a gas stream, e.g., air,

applies the heat by convection and carries away the
vapor as humidity.
h idit Other
Oth possibilities
ibiliti are vacuum
drying, where heat is supplied by conduction or
radiation (or microwaves) while the vapor thus
produced is removed by the vacuum system. Another
indirect technique
q is drum drying
y g ((used,, for instance,,
for manufacturing potato flakes), where a heated
surface is used to provide the energy and aspirators
draw the vapor outside the room

Crystallization
• C
Crystallization
t lli ti is i the
th (natural
( t l or artificial)
tifi i l) process off
formation of solid crystals precipitating from a
solution melt or more rarely deposited directly from a
solution,
gas. Crystallization is also a chemical solid-liquid
separation technique, in which mass transfer of a
solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid
crystalline phase occurs.
• The crystallization process consists of two major
events, nucleation and crystal growth. Nucleation is
th step
the t whereh th solute
the l t molecules
l l dispersed
di d in
i the
th
solvent start to gather into clusters, on the nanometer
scale (elevating solute concentration in a small
region), that becomes stable under the current
operating conditions.
• These stable clusters constitute the nuclei. nuclei

However when the clusters are not stable, they
redissolve. Therefore, the clusters need to reach a
critical
iti l size
i ini order
d to t become
b stable
t bl nuclei.
l i Such
S h
critical size is dictated by the operating conditions
((temperature,
p , supersaturation,
p , etc.).
) It is at the
stage of nucleation that the atoms arrange in a
defined and periodic manner that defines the
crystal structure — note that "crystal
crystal structure
structure" is
a special term that refers to the relative
arrangement of the atoms, not the macroscopic
properties
ti off the
th crystal
t l (size
( i andd shape),
h ) although
lth h
those are a result of the internal crystal structure.

• The crystal growth is the subsequent growth of the

nuclei that succeed in achieving the critical cluster
size. Nucleation and growth continue to occur
simultaneously while the supersaturation exists.
Supersaturation is the driving force of the
crystallization,
t lli ti h
hence th rate
the t off nucleation
l ti andd
growth is driven by the existing supersaturation in
the solution.
solution Depending upon the conditions,
conditions either
nucleation or growth may be predominant over the
other,, and as a result,, crystals
y with different sizes and
shapes are obtained (control of crystal size and shape
constitutes one of the main challenges in industrial
manufacturing,
f i suchh as for f pharmaceuticals).
h i l)
• Once the supersaturation is exhausted, the solid-liquid

system reaches equilibrium and the crystallization is
complete, unless the operating conditions are
modified from equilibrium so as to supersaturate the
solution again.
again
Leaching
I general,
In l leaching
l hi i the
is th extraction
t ti off certain
t i
materials from a carrier into a liquid (usually, but not
always a solvent).
solvent) Specifically,
Specifically it may refer to:
• Leaching (agriculture), the loss of water-soluble plant
nutrients from the soil; or applying a small amount of
excess irrigation to avoid soil salinity
• Leaching(chemical
g( science),
), the pprocess of extractingg
minerals from a solid by dissolving them in a liquid
• Leachingg ((metallurgy),
gy) a widelyy used extractive
metallurgy technique which converts metals into
soluble salts in aqueous media
– Dump leaching,
leaching an industrial process to extract
metals from ore taken directly from the mine and
stacked on the leach pad without crushing
– Heap
H l hi
leaching, an industrial
i d t i l process to
t extract
t t
metals from ore which has been crushed into small
chunks
– Tank leaching, a hydrometallurgical method of
extracting valuable material from ore
– In-situ
In situ leaching,
leaching a process of recovering minerals
such as copper and uranium through boreholes
drilled into the deposit

• Leachingg (p
(pedology),
gy), the loss of mineral and organic
g
solutes due to percolation from soil
• Bioleaching, the extraction of specific metals from
their ores through the use of bacteria

Tray Dryer
• A tray
t D
Dryer i an enclosed
is l d insulated
i l t d chamber
h b in i
which trays are placed on top of each other in
trolleys. Tray Dryer are used where heating and
drying are essential parts of manufacturing process in
industries such as Chemicals, Dye stuff,
Pharmaceutical,, Food Products,, Colours etc. The
material to be dried either wet or solids are placed in
the trays. Heat transfer is by circulation of hot air by
electric heaters or steam in radiator coils. Blower
fans are installed inside to ensure proper circulation
and transfer of heat. A control panel to control the
temperature and other parameters is fixed outside the
dryer. These dryers are available in Mild Steel,
Stainless Steel or construction. Tray dryer is used for
drying of pigments,
pigments food,food bakery,
bakery electrodes,
electrodes
chemical and plastic powders.
• DESCRIPTION: The Drying ovens are normally

available
il bl with
i h choice
h i off heating
h i mode, d as electrically
l i ll
heated / steam heated & thermic fluid heated. In
electrically heated model,
model digital temperature controller
provided with digital timer to facilitate working day
and night.
g In steam & thermic fluid heated model,,
digital temperature indicator is provided with digital
timer , but the temperature controller is not supplied
with the machine AIR CIRCULATION A highly
effective recirculating air system is provided. The
heated air,
air is recirculated with fresh air in selected
proportions for optimum drying. The system is
designed so that the materials at the top & the bottom
dry simultaneously.
• Uniform air circulation, controlled temperature,

sturdy construction and large working space are the
valuables of the oven which is suitably designed to
cover wide temperature range, loading and unloading
is faster and simple.
• In higher
g capacities
p trays
y trolleyy rolls in and out of
the chamber. For continuous operation a spare trolley
can be had for loading while the drying cycle is
taking place. CONTROLLED TEMPERATURE
& TIME Digital temperature controller with digital
timer are supplied to facilitate working day and
night.

Rotary Dryers
• Rotary dryers which are generally used in various
industries, especially in the mineral industry. In
mineral industry, the equipment is used for drying
commodity
dit suchh as clay,
l k li gypsum, mineral
kaolin, i l
sand, limestone, potash and silica sand. This
equipment is suitable for evaporating and drying of
wide
id range off material i l off variegated
i d sizes
i andd
composition. To lift, distribute and transport the
material some internal lifters or flights
g are used. We
offer co-current direct-heat rotary dryer which is
the most common equipment available in the market.
In this equipment,
q p , the initial heat transfer level is veryy
high which creates a considerable drop in temperature
and prevents over heating of the dryer as well as the
material.

• Apart from this, counter current dryers that we

provide
id are ideal
id l for
f the
th materials
t i l that
th t needd to
t be
b
dried to very low moisture contents. It is further
helps for the material in which last traces of moisture
are hard
h d to remove.
Other details of the equipment are mentioned
below:
• The shell ranges from 0. 6 to 5 m in diameter and
from 5 to 30 m long
• It is supported by two riding rings running on a set of
rollers (rotation speed up to 25 rpm)
• The shell is slightly inclined from the horizontal and
the slope enables material to move from the feed to
th discharge
the di h endd under
d gravity
it

• Feed rate ranges from less than 1 tonne to 500 tonnes

per hour
• the internal flights produce a shower, or cascade, of
wet feed material through the hot gas stream
• This promotes evaporation of the moisture and breaks
up lumps to produce a more uniformly dried material
• The hot air is introduced either at the feed end such
that it moves in the same direction as the material
(co current) or at the discharge end such that it moves
(co-current)
in the opposite direction (counter-current)
• While coming in contact with the highest temperature
and extremely hot gas stream, the surface moisture of
the wet material gget evaporated
p

• As the wet material progresses through the dryer,

heat energy is lost to the material it is drying and it
leaves the dryer at a comparatively low temperature
• The moisture content can be readily controlled when
the final dried product is discharged with the gas
stream at its lowest temperature
• Application: The wet slurry comes in contact with
the hottest drying gases which is supplied from an
external source and the heat transfer is done by
convection.

This equipment
q p find application
pp in the pproduction
process of the following products:
• coal/coke
• y , pphosphates
clays, p
• suifilter cakes
• minerals,, fertilizers
• beet pulp
• germ stillage
germ,
• sludges
• animal feeds

Rotary Dryer

Cooling tower
• Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to
transfer process waste heat to the atmosphere. Cooling
towers mayy either use the evaporation
p of water to
remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near
the wet-bulb air temperature or rely solely on air to
cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air
temperature. Common applications include cooling the
circulating water used in oil refineries,
refineries chemical
plants, power stations and building cooling. The
towerss va
towe vary
y in ssizee from
o ssmall
a roof-top
oo top uunits
ts to ve
veryy
large hyperboloid structures (as in Image 1) that can be
up to 200 metres tall and 100 metres in diameter, or
rectangular structures (as in Image 2) that can be over
40 metres tall and 80 metres long.
• Smaller towers are normally factory-built, while

l
larger ones are constructed
t t d on site.
it They
Th are often
ft
associated with nuclear power plants in popular
culture.
• Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat
from various sources such as machinery or heated
process material. The primary use of large, industrial
cooling
li towers
t i to
is t remove the
th heat
h t absorbed
b b d in i the
th
circulating cooling water systems used in power
plants,, ppetroleum refineries,, ppetrochemical pplants,,
p
natural gas processing plants, food processing plants,
semi-conductor plants, and for other industrial
facilities such
s ch as in condensers of distillation columns,
col mns
for cooling liquid in crystallization, etc.
• The circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700

MW coal-fired
coal fired power plant with a cooling tower
amounts to about 71,600 cubic metres an hour (315,000
U.S. gallons per minute) and the circulating water
requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5
• If that same plant had no cooling tower and used once-
through cooling water, it would require about 100,000
cubic metres an hour and that amount of water would
h
have to be
b continuously
i l returnedd to the
h ocean, lake
l k or
river from which it was obtained and continuously re-
supplied
pp to the pplant. Furthermore,, discharging
g g large
g
amounts of hot water may raise the temperature of the
receiving river or lake to an unacceptable level for the
local ecosystem.
ecosystem

• Elevated water temperatures can kill fish and other

aquatic organisms.
organisms (See thermal pollution.)
pollution ) A cooling
tower serves to dissipate the heat into the atmosphere
instead and wind and air diffusion spreads the heat
over a much larger area than hot water can distribute
heat in a body of water. Some coal-fired and nuclear
power plants located in coastal areas do make use of
once-through ocean water. But even there, the
offshore
ff h di h
discharge water
t outlet
tl t requires
i very careful
f l
design to avoid environmental problems.
• The world's tallest cooling tower is the 200 metre tall
cooling tower of Niederaussem Power Station.

• Petroleum refineries also have very large cooling

tower systems. A typicali l large
l refinery
fi processing
i
40,000 metric tonnes of crude oil per day
(48 000 m3) per day) circulates about
(300 000 barrels (48,000
(300,000
80,000 cubic metres of water per hour through its
coolingg tower system.
y

• Types of cooling Tower Based on Air flow (Three

types):
• Natural draft, whichhi h utilizes
ili b
buoyancy via
i a tall ll
chimney. Warm, moist air naturally rises due to the
densityy differential to the dry,
y, cooler outside air. Warm
moist air is less dense than drier air at the same
pressure. This moist air buoyancy produces a current
of air through
g the tower.
• Mechanical draft, which uses power driven fan
motors to force or draw air through the tower.
– Induced
I d d draft:
d f A mechanical
h i l draft
d ft tower
t with
ith a fan
f
at the discharge which pulls air through tower. The
fan induces hot moist air out the discharge. This
produces low entering and high exiting air
velocities, reducing the possibility of recirculation
in which discharged g air flows back into the air
intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also known as
draw-through.
– Forced draft:f A mechanical draft tower with a

blower type fan at the intake. The fan forces air into
the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air
velocities. The low exitingg velocityy is much more
susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on the air
intake, the fan is more susceptible to complications
due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is
that a forced draft design typically requires more
motor horsepower than an equivalent induced draft
design The forced draft benefit is its ability to
design.
work with high static pressure. They can be
installed in more confined spaces and even in some
indoor situations.
situations This fan/fill geometry is also
• Fan assisted natural draft, A hybrid type that appears
lik a naturall draft
like d f though
h h airflow
i fl isi assisted
i d byb a fan.
f


Some commonly used terms in the cooling tower

industry
• Drift - Water droplets that are carried out of the
cooling tower with the exhaust air. Drift droplets have
th same concentration
the t ti off impurities
i iti as the
th water t
entering the tower. The drift rate is typically reduced
by employing baffle-like devices, called drift
eliminators,
li i through
h h which
hi h theh air
i must travell after
f
leaving the fill and spray zones of the tower. Drift can
also be reduced byy usingg warmer enteringg coolingg
tower temperatures.
• Blow-out - Water droplets blown out of the cooling
tower by wind,
wind generally at the air inlet openings.
openings
Water may also be lost, in the absence of wind,
through splashing or misting. Devices such as wind
screens louvers,
screens, louvers splash deflectors and water diverters
are used to limit these losses.
• Plume - The stream of saturated exhaust air leaving

the coolingg tower. The pplume is visible when water
vapor it contains condenses in contact with cooler
ambient air, like the saturated air in one's breath fogs
on a cold day. Under certain conditions, a cooling
tower plume may present fogging or icing hazards to
it surroundings.
its di
• Blow-down - The portion of the circulating water
flow that is removed in order to maintain the amount
of dissolved solids. It may be noted that higher TDS
(total ddissolved
(tota sso ved so
solids)
ds) co
concentration
ce t at o in so solution
ut o
results in greater potential cooling tower efficiency.
However the higher the TDS concentration, the
greater the risk of scale, biological growth and
corrosion.
• Leaching - The loss of wood preservative chemicals

by the washing action of the water flowing through a
woodd structure cooling
li tower.
• Noise - Sound energy emitted by a cooling tower
and heard (recorded) at a given distance and
direction. The sound is generated by the impact of
falling water, by the movement of air by fans, the
fan blades moving in the structure,
structure and the motors,
motors
gearboxes or drive belts.
• Approach - The approach is the difference in
t
temperature
t b t
between th cooled-water
the l d t temperature
t t
and the entering-air wet bulb temperature (twb).
Since the cooling towers are based on the principles
off evaporative
i cooling,
li the
h maximum
i cooling
li tower
efficiency depends on the wet bulb temperature of
the air.

• The wet-bulb temperature is a type of temperature

measurement that reflects the physical properties of a
system with a mixture of a gas and a vapor, usually air
and water vapor
• Range - The range is the temperature difference
between the water inlet and water exit.
• Fill - Inside the tower, fills are added to increase
contact surface as well as contact time between air and
water. Thus they provide better heat transfer. The
efficiencyy of the tower also depends
p on them. There
are two types of fills that may be used:
– Film type fill (causes water to spread into a thin
film)
– Splash type fill (breaks up water and interrupts its
vertical progress)
•
THANK YOU
THANK YOU

MASS TRANSFER
TECHNOLOGY
Prepared by:
Jignesh Vasoya
Chemical Engineer(Gold Medalist)
Lecturer

Drying
• Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the
removal of water moisture or moisture from
another
th solvent,
l t by b evaporationti fromf a solid,
lid semi-i
solid or liquid (hereafter product). To be considered
"drying"
drying , the final product must be a solid, solid either as
a continuous sheet (e.g., paper), as long pieces
((e.g.,
g , wood),), pparticles ((cereal ggrains,, corn flakes)) or
in powder form (sand, salt, washing powder, milk
powder). To achieve this, there must be a source of
heat, and a sink of the vapor thus produced. In
bioproducts(food,grains,vaccines),and
pharmaceuticals the solvent to be removed is
almost invariably water.
• In the most common case, a gas stream, e.g., air,

applies the heat by convection and carries away the
vapor as humidity.
h idit Other
Oth possibilities
ibiliti are vacuum
drying, where heat is supplied by conduction or
radiation (or microwaves) while the vapor thus
produced is removed by the vacuum system. Another
indirect technique
q is drum drying
y g ((used,, for instance,,
for manufacturing potato flakes), where a heated
surface is used to provide the energy and aspirators
draw the vapor outside the room

Crystallization
• C
Crystallization
t lli ti is i the
th (natural
( t l or artificial)
tifi i l) process off
formation of solid crystals precipitating from a
solution melt or more rarely deposited directly from a
solution,
gas. Crystallization is also a chemical solid-liquid
separation technique, in which mass transfer of a
solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid
crystalline phase occurs.
• The crystallization process consists of two major
events, nucleation and crystal growth. Nucleation is
th step
the t whereh th solute
the l t molecules
l l dispersed
di d in
i the
th
solvent start to gather into clusters, on the nanometer
scale (elevating solute concentration in a small
region), that becomes stable under the current
operating conditions.
• These stable clusters constitute the nuclei. nuclei

However when the clusters are not stable, they
redissolve. Therefore, the clusters need to reach a
critical
iti l size
i ini order
d to t become
b stable
t bl nuclei.
l i Such
S h
critical size is dictated by the operating conditions
((temperature,
p , supersaturation,
p , etc.).
) It is at the
stage of nucleation that the atoms arrange in a
defined and periodic manner that defines the
crystal structure — note that "crystal
crystal structure
structure" is
a special term that refers to the relative
arrangement of the atoms, not the macroscopic
properties
ti off the
th crystal
t l (size
( i andd shape),
h ) although
lth h
those are a result of the internal crystal structure.

• The crystal growth is the subsequent growth of the

nuclei that succeed in achieving the critical cluster
size. Nucleation and growth continue to occur
simultaneously while the supersaturation exists.
Supersaturation is the driving force of the
crystallization,
t lli ti h
hence th rate
the t off nucleation
l ti andd
growth is driven by the existing supersaturation in
the solution.
solution Depending upon the conditions,
conditions either
nucleation or growth may be predominant over the
other,, and as a result,, crystals
y with different sizes and
shapes are obtained (control of crystal size and shape
constitutes one of the main challenges in industrial
manufacturing,
f i suchh as for f pharmaceuticals).
h i l)
• Once the supersaturation is exhausted, the solid-liquid

system reaches equilibrium and the crystallization is
complete, unless the operating conditions are
modified from equilibrium so as to supersaturate the
solution again.
again
Leaching
I general,
In l leaching
l hi i the
is th extraction
t ti off certain
t i
materials from a carrier into a liquid (usually, but not
always a solvent).
solvent) Specifically,
Specifically it may refer to:
• Leaching (agriculture), the loss of water-soluble plant
nutrients from the soil; or applying a small amount of
excess irrigation to avoid soil salinity
• Leaching(chemical
g( science),
), the pprocess of extractingg
minerals from a solid by dissolving them in a liquid
• Leachingg ((metallurgy),
gy) a widelyy used extractive
metallurgy technique which converts metals into
soluble salts in aqueous media
– Dump leaching,
leaching an industrial process to extract
metals from ore taken directly from the mine and
stacked on the leach pad without crushing
– Heap
H l hi
leaching, an industrial
i d t i l process to
t extract
t t
metals from ore which has been crushed into small
chunks
– Tank leaching, a hydrometallurgical method of
extracting valuable material from ore
– In-situ
In situ leaching,
leaching a process of recovering minerals
such as copper and uranium through boreholes
drilled into the deposit

• Leachingg (p
(pedology),
gy), the loss of mineral and organic
g
solutes due to percolation from soil
• Bioleaching, the extraction of specific metals from
their ores through the use of bacteria

Tray Dryer
• A tray
t D
Dryer i an enclosed
is l d insulated
i l t d chamber
h b in i
which trays are placed on top of each other in
trolleys. Tray Dryer are used where heating and
drying are essential parts of manufacturing process in
industries such as Chemicals, Dye stuff,
Pharmaceutical,, Food Products,, Colours etc. The
material to be dried either wet or solids are placed in
the trays. Heat transfer is by circulation of hot air by
electric heaters or steam in radiator coils. Blower
fans are installed inside to ensure proper circulation
and transfer of heat. A control panel to control the
temperature and other parameters is fixed outside the
dryer. These dryers are available in Mild Steel,
Stainless Steel or construction. Tray dryer is used for
drying of pigments,
pigments food,food bakery,
bakery electrodes,
electrodes
chemical and plastic powders.
• DESCRIPTION: The Drying ovens are normally

available
il bl with
i h choice
h i off heating
h i mode, d as electrically
l i ll
heated / steam heated & thermic fluid heated. In
electrically heated model,
model digital temperature controller
provided with digital timer to facilitate working day
and night.
g In steam & thermic fluid heated model,,
digital temperature indicator is provided with digital
timer , but the temperature controller is not supplied
with the machine AIR CIRCULATION A highly
effective recirculating air system is provided. The
heated air,
air is recirculated with fresh air in selected
proportions for optimum drying. The system is
designed so that the materials at the top & the bottom
dry simultaneously.
• Uniform air circulation, controlled temperature,

sturdy construction and large working space are the
valuables of the oven which is suitably designed to
cover wide temperature range, loading and unloading
is faster and simple.
• In higher
g capacities
p trays
y trolleyy rolls in and out of
the chamber. For continuous operation a spare trolley
can be had for loading while the drying cycle is
taking place. CONTROLLED TEMPERATURE
& TIME Digital temperature controller with digital
timer are supplied to facilitate working day and
night.

Rotary Dryers
• Rotary dryers which are generally used in various
industries, especially in the mineral industry. In
mineral industry, the equipment is used for drying
commodity
dit suchh as clay,
l k li gypsum, mineral
kaolin, i l
sand, limestone, potash and silica sand. This
equipment is suitable for evaporating and drying of
wide
id range off material i l off variegated
i d sizes
i andd
composition. To lift, distribute and transport the
material some internal lifters or flights
g are used. We
offer co-current direct-heat rotary dryer which is
the most common equipment available in the market.
In this equipment,
q p , the initial heat transfer level is veryy
high which creates a considerable drop in temperature
and prevents over heating of the dryer as well as the
material.

• Apart from this, counter current dryers that we

provide
id are ideal
id l for
f the
th materials
t i l that
th t needd to
t be
b
dried to very low moisture contents. It is further
helps for the material in which last traces of moisture
are hard
h d to remove.
Other details of the equipment are mentioned
below:
• The shell ranges from 0. 6 to 5 m in diameter and
from 5 to 30 m long
• It is supported by two riding rings running on a set of
rollers (rotation speed up to 25 rpm)
• The shell is slightly inclined from the horizontal and
the slope enables material to move from the feed to
th discharge
the di h endd under
d gravity
it

• Feed rate ranges from less than 1 tonne to 500 tonnes

per hour
• the internal flights produce a shower, or cascade, of
wet feed material through the hot gas stream
• This promotes evaporation of the moisture and breaks
up lumps to produce a more uniformly dried material
• The hot air is introduced either at the feed end such
that it moves in the same direction as the material
(co current) or at the discharge end such that it moves
(co-current)
in the opposite direction (counter-current)
• While coming in contact with the highest temperature
and extremely hot gas stream, the surface moisture of
the wet material gget evaporated
p

• As the wet material progresses through the dryer,

heat energy is lost to the material it is drying and it
leaves the dryer at a comparatively low temperature
• The moisture content can be readily controlled when
the final dried product is discharged with the gas
stream at its lowest temperature
• Application: The wet slurry comes in contact with
the hottest drying gases which is supplied from an
external source and the heat transfer is done by
convection.

This equipment
q p find application
pp in the pproduction
process of the following products:
• coal/coke
• y , pphosphates
clays, p
• suifilter cakes
• minerals,, fertilizers
• beet pulp
• germ stillage
germ,
• sludges
• animal feeds

Rotary Dryer

Cooling tower
• Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to
transfer process waste heat to the atmosphere. Cooling
towers mayy either use the evaporation
p of water to
remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near
the wet-bulb air temperature or rely solely on air to
cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air
temperature. Common applications include cooling the
circulating water used in oil refineries,
refineries chemical
plants, power stations and building cooling. The
towerss va
towe vary
y in ssizee from
o ssmall
a roof-top
oo top uunits
ts to ve
veryy
large hyperboloid structures (as in Image 1) that can be
up to 200 metres tall and 100 metres in diameter, or
rectangular structures (as in Image 2) that can be over
40 metres tall and 80 metres long.
• Smaller towers are normally factory-built, while

l
larger ones are constructed
t t d on site.
it They
Th are often
ft
associated with nuclear power plants in popular
culture.
• Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat
from various sources such as machinery or heated
process material. The primary use of large, industrial
cooling
li towers
t i to
is t remove the
th heat
h t absorbed
b b d in i the
th
circulating cooling water systems used in power
plants,, ppetroleum refineries,, ppetrochemical pplants,,
p
natural gas processing plants, food processing plants,
semi-conductor plants, and for other industrial
facilities such
s ch as in condensers of distillation columns,
col mns
for cooling liquid in crystallization, etc.
• The circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700

MW coal-fired
coal fired power plant with a cooling tower
amounts to about 71,600 cubic metres an hour (315,000
U.S. gallons per minute) and the circulating water
requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5
• If that same plant had no cooling tower and used once-
through cooling water, it would require about 100,000
cubic metres an hour and that amount of water would
h
have to be
b continuously
i l returnedd to the
h ocean, lake
l k or
river from which it was obtained and continuously re-
supplied
pp to the pplant. Furthermore,, discharging
g g large
g
amounts of hot water may raise the temperature of the
receiving river or lake to an unacceptable level for the
local ecosystem.
ecosystem

• Elevated water temperatures can kill fish and other

aquatic organisms.
organisms (See thermal pollution.)
pollution ) A cooling
tower serves to dissipate the heat into the atmosphere
instead and wind and air diffusion spreads the heat
over a much larger area than hot water can distribute
heat in a body of water. Some coal-fired and nuclear
power plants located in coastal areas do make use of
once-through ocean water. But even there, the
offshore
ff h di h
discharge water
t outlet
tl t requires
i very careful
f l
design to avoid environmental problems.
• The world's tallest cooling tower is the 200 metre tall
cooling tower of Niederaussem Power Station.

• Petroleum refineries also have very large cooling

tower systems. A typicali l large
l refinery
fi processing
i
40,000 metric tonnes of crude oil per day
(48 000 m3) per day) circulates about
(300 000 barrels (48,000
(300,000
80,000 cubic metres of water per hour through its
coolingg tower system.
y

• Types of cooling Tower Based on Air flow (Three

types):
• Natural draft, whichhi h utilizes
ili b
buoyancy via
i a tall ll
chimney. Warm, moist air naturally rises due to the
densityy differential to the dry,
y, cooler outside air. Warm
moist air is less dense than drier air at the same
pressure. This moist air buoyancy produces a current
of air through
g the tower.
• Mechanical draft, which uses power driven fan
motors to force or draw air through the tower.
– Induced
I d d draft:
d f A mechanical
h i l draft
d ft tower
t with
ith a fan
f
at the discharge which pulls air through tower. The
fan induces hot moist air out the discharge. This
produces low entering and high exiting air
velocities, reducing the possibility of recirculation
in which discharged g air flows back into the air
intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also known as
draw-through.
– Forced draft:f A mechanical draft tower with a

blower type fan at the intake. The fan forces air into
the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air
velocities. The low exitingg velocityy is much more
susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on the air
intake, the fan is more susceptible to complications
due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is
that a forced draft design typically requires more
motor horsepower than an equivalent induced draft
design The forced draft benefit is its ability to
design.
work with high static pressure. They can be
installed in more confined spaces and even in some
indoor situations.
situations This fan/fill geometry is also
• Fan assisted natural draft, A hybrid type that appears
lik a naturall draft
like d f though
h h airflow
i fl isi assisted
i d byb a fan.
f


Some commonly used terms in the cooling tower

industry
• Drift - Water droplets that are carried out of the
cooling tower with the exhaust air. Drift droplets have
th same concentration
the t ti off impurities
i iti as the
th water t
entering the tower. The drift rate is typically reduced
by employing baffle-like devices, called drift
eliminators,
li i through
h h which
hi h theh air
i must travell after
f
leaving the fill and spray zones of the tower. Drift can
also be reduced byy usingg warmer enteringg coolingg
tower temperatures.
• Blow-out - Water droplets blown out of the cooling
tower by wind,
wind generally at the air inlet openings.
openings
Water may also be lost, in the absence of wind,
through splashing or misting. Devices such as wind
screens louvers,
screens, louvers splash deflectors and water diverters
are used to limit these losses.
• Plume - The stream of saturated exhaust air leaving

the coolingg tower. The pplume is visible when water
vapor it contains condenses in contact with cooler
ambient air, like the saturated air in one's breath fogs
on a cold day. Under certain conditions, a cooling
tower plume may present fogging or icing hazards to
it surroundings.
its di
• Blow-down - The portion of the circulating water
flow that is removed in order to maintain the amount
of dissolved solids. It may be noted that higher TDS
(total ddissolved
(tota sso ved so
solids)
ds) co
concentration
ce t at o in so solution
ut o
results in greater potential cooling tower efficiency.
However the higher the TDS concentration, the
greater the risk of scale, biological growth and
corrosion.
• Leaching - The loss of wood preservative chemicals

by the washing action of the water flowing through a
woodd structure cooling
li tower.
• Noise - Sound energy emitted by a cooling tower
and heard (recorded) at a given distance and
direction. The sound is generated by the impact of
falling water, by the movement of air by fans, the
fan blades moving in the structure,
structure and the motors,
motors
gearboxes or drive belts.
• Approach - The approach is the difference in
t
temperature
t b t
between th cooled-water
the l d t temperature
t t
and the entering-air wet bulb temperature (twb).
Since the cooling towers are based on the principles
off evaporative
i cooling,
li the
h maximum
i cooling
li tower
efficiency depends on the wet bulb temperature of
the air.

• The wet-bulb temperature is a type of temperature

measurement that reflects the physical properties of a
system with a mixture of a gas and a vapor, usually air
and water vapor
• Range - The range is the temperature difference
between the water inlet and water exit.
• Fill - Inside the tower, fills are added to increase
contact surface as well as contact time between air and
water. Thus they provide better heat transfer. The
efficiencyy of the tower also depends
p on them. There
are two types of fills that may be used:
– Film type fill (causes water to spread into a thin
film)
– Splash type fill (breaks up water and interrupts its
vertical progress)
•
THANK YOU
THANK YOU

Distillation
R. M. Patel

Distillation in Industries

Why distillation?
• Distillation is used separate 2 or
more miscible substance substances
(Ex: Ethanol & Water)
• It increases purity of substance
present in the mixture (Both Ethanol
& Water).
• It uses vaporization
i ti and
d
condensation method for purification.

Distillation - Theory
1. For any liquid, the individual molecules within the liquid are
continuously in motion
2. A small percentage of these molecules attain enough kinetic

energy to leave the liquid phase
3. This exerts an opposing pressure on the atmosphere above the

solution known as the vapor pressure, P
Atmospheric pressure, Patm
Vapor Pressure, P

Distillation - Theory
4. When enough energy, in the form of heat, is imparted to the

solution the vapor pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric
pressure and the liquid begins to boil
P < Patm P ≥ Patm

The vapor
obtained
from a boiling
liquid, once
cooled, will
re-condense
to a liquid
known as the
distillate
The complete
process is
called
ll d a
distillation
DISTILLATION SYSTEM
Simple (Differential)
Distillation

Fractional Distillation

Distillation separation of
Ethanol
Ethanol--water


Water
Ethanol +
Water

Movie of distillation

Vapor-Liquid
Vapor Liquid Equilibrium Relations
Raoult’s Law
An ideal law, Raoult’s law, can be defined for vapor-liquid phases in

equilibrium (only ideal solution e.g. benzene-toluene, hexane-heptane etc.
p A = PA x A (1)
Where
pA is the partial pressure of component A in the vapor in Pa (atm)
PA is the vapor pressure of pure A in Pa (atm)
xA is the mole fraction of A in the liquid.
Composition in liquid: 1 = x A + xB (2)

Composition in vapor: 1 = y A + yB (3)
13

Boiling-Point
Boiling Point Diagrams and xy Plots
Boiling-point diagram for system benzene (A)-toluene (B) at a total pressure

of 101.32 kPa.
Dew point is the temperature at which

the saturated vapour starts to condense.
Bubble point is the temperature at

Bubble-point
which the liquid starts to boil.
The difference between liquid and

vapour compositions
iti iis th
the b
basis
i ffor
distillation operations.
14

A common method of plotting the equilibrium data is shown in Figure

where yA is plotted versus xA for the benzene-toluene system. The 45º line
is given to show that yA is richer in component A than is xA.
Figure: Equilibrium diagram for system benzene(A) – toluene(B) at 101.32

kPa (1atm).
15

Differential distillation

Differential Distillation
The pot is filled with liquid mixture
and heated.
• Rayleigh equation: Vapour

p flows upwards
p though
g the
column and condenses at the top.
xF
⎛F ⎞
F
dL dx
∫W L = ln⎜⎝ W ⎟= ∫ ∗
⎠ xw y − x
Part of the liquid is returned to the
column as reflux, and the remainder
withdrawn as distillate.
F = moles of feed Nothing is added or withdrawn from
W = Moles of residue the still until the run is completed.
xF= mole fraction of A in feed

xW= mole fraction of A in residue

4.4.1 Introduction to Distillation with Reflux
In a distillation column the stages (referred to as sieve plates or trays) in a distillation tower are
arranged vertically, as shown schematically in figure below.
1. Feed enters the column somewhere in

th middle
the iddl off th
the column.
l
2. Feed is liquid, it flows down to a sieve

tray or stage.
3. Vapor enters the tray and bubbles

through the liquid on this tray as the
entering liquid flows across.
4. The vapor and liquid leaving the tray

are essentially in equilibrium.
5. The vapor continues up to the next tray

or stage,
t where
h it iis again
i contacted
t t d with
ith
a downflowing liquid.
6. The concentration of the more volatile

component is being increased in the vapor
form each stage going upward and
decreased in the liquid from each stage
going donwards. 18

Continuous Distillation with Reflux
In a distillation column the stages (referred to as sieve plates or trays) in a distillation tower are
arranged vertically, as shown schematically in figure below.
7. The final vapor product coming

overhead
h d is i condensed
d d iin a condenser
d
and a portion of the liquid product
(distillate) is removed, which contains a
high concentration of A.
8. The remaining liquid from the

condenser is returned (refluxed) as a
liquid to the top tray.
9. The liquid leaving the bottom tray

enters a reboiler, where it partially
vaporized, and the remaining liquid, which
is lean in A or rich in B, is withdrawn as
liquid product.
product
10. The vapor from the reboiler is sent

back to the bottom stage or trays is much
greater.

Continuous distillation

Industrial Distillation
column
Mccabe.swf
Distillation Design

Lecture - 3
R. M. Patel
N. G. Patel Polytechnic,
Isroli – Afwa, Bardoli.

What are you going to learn in this chapter?
4.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Relations

4.2 Single-Stage
g g Equilibrium
q Contact for Vapor-Liquid
p q
System
4 3 Distillation with reflux and McCabe-Thiele
4.3 McCabe Thiele Method

4 1 Vapor-Liquid
4.1 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium Relations
4.1.1 Raoult’s Law
An ideal law, Raoult’s law, can be defined for vapor-liquid phases in

equilibrium (only ideal solution e.g. benzene-toluene, hexane-heptane etc.
p A = PA x A (1)
Where
pA is the partial pressure of component A in the vapor in Pa (atm)
PA is the vapor pressure of pure A in Pa (atm)
Composition in liquid: 1 = x A + xB (2)

Composition in vapor: 1 = y A + yB (3)
3

4.1.2 Boiling-Point

of 101.32 kPa.
Dew point is the temperature at which

the saturated vapour starts to condense.
Bubble point is the temperature at

Bubble-point
which the liquid starts to boil.
The difference between liquid and

vapour compositions
iti iis th
the b
basis
i ffor
distillation operations.

4.1.2 Boiling-Point

of 101.32 kPa.
If we start with a cold liquid

p
composition is xA1 = 0.318 ((xB1
= 0.682) and heat the mixture, it
will start to boil at 98ºC.
The first vapor composition in
equilibrium is yA1 = 0.532
0 532 (yB1 =
0.468).
Continue boiling, the
p
composition xA will move to the
left since yA is richer in A.

4.1.2 Boiling-Point Diagrams and xy Plots
The boiling point diagram can be calculated from (1) the pure vapor-
pressure data in the table below and (2) the following equations:
p A + pB = P (4)
PA x A + PB (1 − x A ) = P
(5)
p A PA x A
yA = =
P P (6)
Where
pA, pB are the partial pressure of component A and B in the vapor in Pa (atm)
PA , PB are the vapor pressure of pure A and pure B in Pa (atm)
P is total pressure in Pa (atm)
6

The boiling point diagram can be calculated from (1) the pure vapor-
pressure data in the table below and (2) the following equations:

Ex 4.1 Use of Raoult’s Law for Boiling-Point Diagram

Calculate the vapor and liquid compositions in equilibrium at 95ºC
(368.2K) for benzene-toluene using the vapor pressure from the
table 1 at 101.32 kPa.
Solution: At 95ºC from Table 1 for benzene, PA = 155.7 kPa and PB = 63.3
kPa. Substituting into Eq.(5) and solving,
PA x A + PB (1 − x A ) = P
155 7( A) + 63.3(1-x
155.7(x 63 3(1 A) = 101.32
101 32 kPa
kP (760 mmHg)
H )
Hence,, xA= 0.411 and xB= 1 – xA = 1 - 0.411 = 0.589. Substituting

g into
eqn.(6),
p A PA x A 155.7(0.411)
yA = = = = 0.632
P P 101.32

The boiling
gp point diagram
g can be calculated from the p
pure vapor-pressure
p p
data in the table below and the following equations:

A common method of plotting the equilibrium data is shown in Fig. 2 where

yA is plotted versus xA for the benzene-toluene system. The 45º line is
given to show that yA is richer in component A than is xA.
Fig. 2 Equilibrium diagram for system benzene(A) – toluene(B) at 101.32

kPa (1atm).
10

4 1 Vapor
4.1 Vapor-Liquid
Liquid Equilibrium Relations
Ideal boiling point diagram Minimum-boiling azeotrope Maximum-boiling azeotrope
An azeotrope is a mixture of two or more liquids in such a ratio that its

composition cannot be changed by simple distillation.
This occurs because, when an azeotrope is boiled, the resulting vapor has
the same ratio of constituents as the original mixture. 11

4.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Relations

4 1 2 Boiling-Point Diagrams and xy Plots
4.1.2
12

4 2 Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact for Vapor-Liquid System

4.2
A single equilibrium stage is
- the two different p
phases are brought
g into intimate contact with each other.
- The mixing time is long enough and the components are essentially at
equilibrium in the two phases after separation.
V1 V2
Where
V1, V2 is a vapor
L0, L1is a liquid
L0 L1
Total mass balance: L0 + V2 = L1 + V1 = M
Mass A balance: L0 x A0 + V2 y A 2 = L1 x A1 + V1 y A1 = Mx AM
In case of constant molal overflow : V1 = V2 and L0 = L1 13

Ex 4.2 Equilibrium Contact of Vapor-Liquid

Vapor Liquid Mixture
A vapor at the dew point and 101.32 kPa containing a mole fraction
of 0.40 benzene (A) and 0.60 toluene (B) and 100 kg mol total vapour
is contacted with 110 kg mol of a liquid at the bubble point containing
a mole fraction of 0.30 benzene and 0.70 toluene. The two streams
are contacted in a single stage, and the outlet streams leave in
equilibrium with each other
other. Assume constant molal overflowoverflow.
Calculate the amounts and compositions of the exit streams.
Solution: The g given values are V2 = 100 kg

g mol,, yA2 = 0.40,, L0=110 kg
g mol
, and xA0 = 0.30.
V1, yA1 V2, yA2

For constant molal overflow,
V2 = V1 and
d L0 = L1.
L0, xA0 L1, xA1
14

Material balance on component A,
L0 x A0 + V2 y A 2 = L1 x A1 + V1 y A1 = Mx AM
110(0.30) + 100(0.40) = 110 x A1 + 100 y A1
To solve equation above, the equilibrium relation between yA1 and xA1 in
figure below must be used.
First, we assume that xA1 = 0.20 and substitute into equation above to
solve for yA1.
110(0.30) + 100(0.40) = 110(0.2) + 100 y A1
Assuming that xA1 = 0.20 and solving yA1 = 0.51.

Next,, assuming
g that xA1=0.40 and solving,
g, yA1 = 0.29.
(These point are plotted on the graph.)
At the intersection of this line with the equilibrium curve,
yA1 = 0.455 and xA1 = 0.25. Answer
15

16

4 2 1 Relative
4.2.1 R l ti Volatility
V l tilit off Vapor-Liquid
V Li id Systems
S t
Relative volatility(α AB )
It is a measure of the differences in volatility between 2 components, and hence their boiling
points. It indicates how easy or difficult a particular separation will be.
y A / xA y A / xA
α AB = =
y B / xB (1 − y A )(1 − x A )
Where αAB is the relative volatility of A with respect to B in the binary system.
P x PB xB
Raoult’s law: yA = A A yB =
P P
PA
α AB =
PB
α AB x A
yA =
1 + (α AB − 1) x A
when αAB is above 1.0, a separation is possible. 17

Ex 4.3 Using data from table 1 calculate the relative volatility for the
benzene-toluene system at 85ºC (358.2K) and 105ºC (378.2K)
Solution: At 85ºC, substituting into equation below for a system following

R
Raoutl’s
tl’ law,
l
PA 116.9
α AB = = = 2.54
PB 46.0
Similarly at 105ºC,
204.2
α= = 2.38
86.0
The variation in α is about 7%. Answer
18

4.3 Distillation with Reflux and McCabe-Thiele

Method
4.3.1 Introduction to Distillation with Reflux
R tifi iti (f
Rectificaition (fractionation)
ti ti ) or stage
t di
distillation
till ti with fl is
ith reflux i
a series of flash-vaporization stages are arranged in a series which the vapor and liquid
products from each stage flow countercurrently to each other.
The liquid in a stage is conducted or flows to the stage below and the vapor from a stage
flow upward to the stage above.
V1 V2 V3 V2 Vn Vn+1
L0 L1 L2 L1 Ln-1 Ln
A total material balance: Vn +1 + Ln −1 = Vn + Ln
A component balance on A: Vn +1 y n +1 + Ln −1 x n −1 = Vn y n + Ln x n
19

4.3.2 McCabe-Thiele Method of Calculation for Number of

Theoretical Stages
4.3.2A) Introduction and assumptions
A mathematical – graphical method for determining the number of theoretical trays

or stages needed for a given separation of a binary mixture of A and B has been
developed by McCabe and Thiele.
The method uses material balances around certain parts of the tower, which give
operating lines and the xy equilibrium curve for the system.
Main assumption
1) Equimolar overflow through the tower between the feed inlet and the top tray and
the feed inlet and bottom tray.
2) Liquid and vapor streams enter a tray, are equilibrated, and leave.
20

A total material balance:
Vn +1 + Ln −1 = Vn + Ln
A component A balance:
Vn +1 y n +1 + Ln −1 x n −1 = Vn y n + Ln x n
Where
Vn+1 is mol/h of vapor from tray n+1
Ln is mol/h liquid from tray n
yn+1 is mole fraction of A in Vn+1 and so on.
21

4.3.2B) Equation for enriching section
A total material balance:
F = D +W (1)
A component A balance:
Fx F = Dx D + Wx w (2)
Where
F is the entering feed (mol/h)
D is the distillate (mol/h)
W is the bottoms (mol/h)
22

Material balance over dashed-line section: Vn +1 = Ln + D (3)
A balance on component A: Vn +1 yn +1 = Ln xn + DxD (4)
23

Solving for yn+1, the enriching-section operating line is
Ln Dx
yn +1 = xn + D (5)
Vn +1 Vn +1
Since Vn +1 = Ln + D, LnVn +1 = R /( R + 1) and equation becomes
R x
y n +1 = xn + D (6)
R +1 R +1
where R = Ln / D = reflux ratio = constant.

The eqn. (1) is a straight line on a plot of vapor composition versus liquid
composition.
composition
24

The slope is Ln / Vn +1 or R /( R + 1) . It intersects the y=x line (45º diagonal

line) at x = xD . The intercept of the operating line at x = 0 is y = xD /( R + 1) .
The theoretical stages are determined by starting at xD and stepping off the first
plate to x1. Then y2 is the composition of the vapor passing the liquid x1.
I a similar
In i il manner, th
the other
th ththeoretical
ti l ttrays are stepped
t d off
ff d
down th
the ttower iin
the enriching section to the feed tray.
25

4.3.2C) Equation for stripping section
Material balance over dashed-line section: Vm +1 = Lm − W (7)
A component A balance: Vm +1 ym+1 = Lm xm − Wxw (8)

26

Solving for ym+1, the enriching-section operating line is
Lm Dx
ym +1 = xm + D (9)
Vm +1 Vm +1
Again, since equimolal flow flow is assumed, Lm = LN = constant and

Vm +1 = VN = constant, eqn. (2) is a straight line when plotted as y versus x,
with a slope of Lm / Vm +1 . It intersects the y = x line at x = xw.
Th iintercept
The t i y = −Wx
t att x = 0 is Vm +1 .
W W //V
27

The theoretical stages for the stripping section are determined by starting at
xW, going up to yW, and then across to the operating line
line, etc
etc.
28

4.3.2D) Effect of feed conditions
The condition of feed stream is represented by the quantity q, which is the mole
fraction of liquid in feed.
Lm = Ln + qF (10)
Vn = Vm + (1 − q) F (11)
The enriching and striping operating-line

equations on an xy diagram can be
derived as follows:
Vn y = Ln x + Dx D (12)
Vm y = Lm x − Wx w (13)
Where
e e tthe
eyaandd x values
a ues a
are
e tthe
e po
pointt o
of
intersection of the two operating lines.
Subtracting eqn.(3) from eqn.(4),
(Vm − Vn ) y = ( Lm − Ln ) x − ( Dx D + Wx w ) (14)
29

4.3.2D) Effect of feed conditions
Substituting eqn.(2), (10), and (11) into eqn.(14) and rearranging,
q x
y= x− F (15)
q −1 q −1
c pL (Tb − TF ) c pV (TF − Td )
q = 1+ q = 1+
λ λ
Cold-liquid feed Superheated vapor
where
CpL, CpV = specific heats of liquid and vapor, respectively
TF = temperature of feed
Tb, Td = bubble point and dew point of feed respectively
λ = heat of vaporization
30

4.3.2E) Location of the feed tray in a tower and number of trays.
From eqn.(15), the q-line equation and is the locus of the intersection of the two
operating lines. Setting y = x in eqn(15), the intersection of the q-line equation
with the 45º line is y=x=xF, where xF is the overall composition of the feed.
In given below the figure, the q line is plotted for various feed conditions. The
slope of the q line is q/(q-1).
q = 0 (saturated vapor)
q = 1 (saturated liquid)
q > 1(subcooled liquid)
q < 0 (superheated vapor)
0 < q < 1 (mix of liquid and
vapor)
31

4.3.2D) Number of stages and trays
1st point
2nd point
3rd point
n = 7 =number of tray + reboiler
Number of tray = 6
4.3.2F) Using Operating Lines and the Feed Line in McCabe-Thiele

Design
Slope = R/(R+1)
Slope = q/(1-q)
Slope = L/ V

Ex 4.4 A continuous fractioning column is to be designed to separate

30,000 kg/h of a mixture of 40 percent benzene and 60 percent toluene
into an overhead product containing 97 percent benzene and a bottom
product containing 98 percent toluene. These percentages are by weight.
A reflux
fl ratio
ti off 3.5
3 5 moll tto 1 moll off product
d t is
i tto be
b used.
d Th
The molal
l l llatent
t t
heats of benzene and toluene are 7,360 and 7,960 cal/g mol,
respectively. Benzene and toluene from a nearly ideal system with a
relative volatility of about 2.5.
2 5 The feed has a boiling point of 95ºC at a
pressure of 1 atm.
a) Calculate the moles of overhead product and bottom product per hour.
b) Determine the number of ideal plates and the position of the feed plate
(i) if the feed is liquid and at its boiling point; (ii) if the feed is liquid and at
20ºC ((specific
p heat 0.44 cal/g.ºC);
g ); ((iii)) if the feed is a mixture of two-thirds
vapor and one-third liquid.

Solution (a)
40 97 2
78 xD = 78 = 0.974 78
xF = = 0.440 xB = = 0.0235
40 60 97 3 2 98
+ + +
78 92 78 92 78 92
100
The average molecular weight of the feed is = 85 . 8
40 60
+
78 92
The average of heat vaporization is λ = 0 .44 ( 7 ,360 ) + 0 .56 ( 7 ,960 ) = 7 ,696 cal / gmol
The feed rate F is 30,000/85.8 = 350 kg mol/h. By an overall benzene

balance, using Eq. below
⎛ 0 . 440 − 0 . 0235 ⎞
D = 350 ⎜ ⎟ = 153 .4 kgmol / h
⎝ 0 . 974 − 0 . 0235 ⎠
B = 350 − 153 . 4 = 196 .6 kgmol / h

Solution (b) (i),

We determine the number of ideal plates and position of the feed plate
plate.
1) Plot the equilibrium diagram, erect verticals at xD, xF, and xB.
2)) Draw the feed line. Here q=1,
q , and the feed line is vertical.
3) Plot the operating lines. The intercept of the rectifying lie on
the y axis is, xD/(R+1) = 0.974/(3.5+1) = 0.216 (eqn (6)). From the
intersection of the rectifying operating line and the feed line
line, the stripping
line is drawn.
4) Draw the rectangular steps between the two operating lines
and
d th
the equilibrium
ilib i curve. Th
The stripping
ti i liline iis att th
the seventh
th step.
t B
By
counting steps it is found that, besides the reboiler, 11 ideal plates are
needed and feed should be introduced on the seventh plate from the top.


Solution (b) (ii),

(ii)
The latent heat of vaporization of the feed λ is 7,696/85.8 = 98.7 cal/g.
0 .44 ( 95 − 20 )
q = 1+ = 1 .37
89 . 7
q x
y= x− F
q −1 q −1
The slope of the feed line is -1.37/(1-1.37) = 3.70. When steps are drawn
for this case, as shown in Fig. below, it is found that a reboiler and 10
ideal pplates are needed and that the feed should be introduced on the
sixth plate.


Solution (b) (iii),

From the definition of q it follows that for this case q = 1/3 and the slope
of the feed line is -0.5.
0.5. The solution is shown in Fig. below. It calls for a
reboiler and 12 plates, with the feed entering on the seventh plate.


4.3.3 Total and Minimum Reflux Ratio for McCabe

McCabe-Thiele
Thiele
Method
4.3.3A Total flux
One limiting values of reflux ratio is that of total reflux, or R = ∞. Since R = Ln/D
and, by eqn.(16).
Vn +1 = Ln + D (16)
Then Ln is very large, as is the vapor flow Vn. This means that the slope R/(R+1)
of the enriching operating line becomes 1.0 and the operating lines of both
sections of the column coincide with the 45º diagonol line, as shown in Fig below.
Minimum number of trays can be obtained by returning all the overhead

condensed vapor V1 from the top of the tower back to the tower as reflux
reflux, i.e.,
ie
total reflux. Also, the liquid in the bottoms is reboiled.
42

⎛ x 1 − xw ⎞
Minimum number of theoretical steps Nm log⎜⎜ D ⎟⎟
when a total condenser is used (α is constant). Nm = ⎝ 1 − x D xw ⎠
logg α av
For small variations in α, α av = (α1α w )
1/ 2
where α1 is the relative volatility of the overhead vapor

αw is
i the
th relative
l ti volatility
l tilit off the
th bottoms
b tt li id
liquid.
43

4.3.3B Minimum reflux ratio
The minimum reflux ratio (Rm) will require an infinite number of trays for the given
separation desired of xD and xW.
If R is decreased,
decreased the slope of the enriching operating line R/(R+1) is decreased,
decreased
and the intersection of this line and the stripping line with the q line moves farther
from the 45º line and closer to the equilibrium line.
Two operating lines touch the

equilibrium line (“pinch point”) at y’
and x’ (number of steps required
)
becomes infinite).
The line passes through the points x’,
y’ and xD (y=xD):
Rm x − y′
= D
Rm +1 xD − x′
44

4.3.3C Operating
p g and optimum
p reflux ratio
Total reflux = number of plates is a minimum, but the tower diameter is infinite.
This corresponds to an infinite cost of tower and steam and cooling water.
water This
is the limit in the tower operation.
Minimum reflux = number of trays is infinite, which again gives an infinite cost.
These are the two limits in operation of the tower.
Actual operating reflux ratio to use is in between these two limits. The optimum
reflux ratio to use for lowest total cost per year is between the minimum Rm and
total reflux (1.2Rm to 1.5Rm).
45

Ex 4.5 What are (a) the minimum reflux ratio and (b) the minimum
number of plates for cases (b)(i), (b)(ii), and (b)(iii) of EX 4.7 if
αavis given as 2.47.
Solution (a)
For minimum reflux ratio use eqn. (x). Here xD = 0.974. The results are
given in Table below
below.
Solution (b)
For minimum number of plates,
plates the reflux ratio is infinite,
infinite the operating
lines coincide with the diagonal, and there are no differences among
the three cases. Use the αav 2.47 and equation below we get,
⎛ x 1 − xw ⎞
log⎜⎜ D ⎟⎟
⎝ 1 − x x w ⎠ ⎛ 0.974 × 0.976 ⎞
Nm = D
= ln⎜ ⎟ −1
log α av ⎝ 0.024 × 0.026 ⎠
= 8.105 − 1 = 7
The minimum number of ideal plates is 7 plus a reboiler. 46

Homework No.6
1. The vapor-pressure data are given below for the system

hexane-octane.
(a) Using Raoult’s law, calculate and plot the xy data at a total
pressure of 101.32 kPa.
(b) Plot the boiling-point diagram.
T(ºF) T(ºC) Vapor Pressure

n-Hexane n-Octane
kP
kPa mmHg
H kP
kPa mmHg
H
155.6 68.7 101.3 760 16.1 121
175 79.4 136.7 1025 23.1 173
200 93.3 197.3 1480 37.1 278
225 107.2 284.0 2130 57.9 434
258 2
258.2 125 7
125.7 456 0
456.0 3420 101 3
101.3 760

Homework No.7 (continue)
2. A mixture of 50 g mol of liquid benzene and 50 g water.

Determine the boilingg at 101.32 kPa p
pressure. Liquid
q benzene
is immiscible in water. Determine the boiling point of the
mixture and the composition of the vapor. Which component
will first be removed completely from the still? Vapor pressure
data of the pure components are as follows:
Temperature Pwater Pbenzene

(mm Hg) (mm Hg)
K ºC
308.5 35.3 43 150
325.9 52.7 106 300
345.8 72.6 261 600
353.3 80.1 356 760

Homework No.8
1. A saturated liquid feed of 200 mol/h at the boiling point

containing 42mol% heptane and 58% ethyl benzene is to be
fractionated at 101.32 kPa abs to give a distillate containing 97
mol% heptane and a bottoms containing 1.1 mol% heptane.
The reflux ratio used is 2.5:1. Calculate the mol/h distillate,
mol/h
l/h bottoms,
b tt th
theoretical
ti l number
b off trays,
t andd the
th feed
f d tray
t
number. Equilibrium data are given below at 101.32 kPa abs
pressure for the mole fraction n-heptane xH and yH.
Temperature Temperature
K ºC xH yH K ºC xH yH
409.3 136.1 0 0 383.8 110.6 0.485 0.730
402.6 129.4 0.08 0.23 376.0 102.8 0.790 0.904
392.6 119.4 0.25 0.514 371.5 98.3 1.000 1.000

Homework No.8 (continue)
2. Determine the minimum reflux ration Rm and the minimum

number of theoretical plates at total reflux for the rectification
of a mixture of heptane and ethyl benzene as given in problem
1. Do this by the graphical mehtods of McCabe-Thiele.

Prepared By: Prof. J. M. Vasoya, Lecturer, N.G. Patel Polytechnic, Bardoli
EXPERIMENT‐1 Date:
Mass Transfer Technology (Prepared By: Mr. J. M. Vasoya)
Tray & Rotary Dryer
Objective: ‐ To measure moisture content of the given sample by using tray
& rotary drier& Find out Drying time.
Apparatus: ‐ Tray drier, Rotary drier, weight machine, dish
Chemicals: ‐ sand, water
Theory:‐
Tray dryer : It is the simplest batch dryer. It consists of enclosed insulated
cabinet into which material to be dried is placed on a number of trays. The
tray may be fabricated from sheets or from screens. It is provided with the
inlet and outlet connection for air. A heating coil either electrical or steam
heating is incorporated in it.
The material to be dried is spread over the trays and put into the cabinet
and then it is closed. The steam is continuously passed through the coil and
fan is started. Air is heated by heating coils, its relative humidity decreases
and hot air then passes over the trays. The moisture is evaporated from
wet feed, gets added in air and finally air leaves the dryer through the
outlet.
Rotary dryer: This type of dryer, that may be directly or indirectly heated, is
adopted for drying of free flowing granular materials on large scale. It
consists of hollow cylindrical shell, set with its axis at a slight angle to the
horizontal, so that the material is consequently advanced through the dryer
from one end to another end.
LongICT Chemical
Term Training Programme on "Industrial ChemicalEngineering
Technology" Department
It is supported on the supporting rollers so that it can be rotated. To avoid
its slipping over the rollers, it is fitted with thrust wheels. It is fitted inside
with flights which lift the material upward and shower it down from the
top. The material to be dried is fed at the high end of the dryer by a hopper
and the product is taken out from the lower end of the dryer. The material
moves through dryer by virtue of rotation, heat effect and inclination of the
cylindrical shell.
Rate of drying:
The rate,
Nc =Ky (Ys – Y)
Where,
Nc = Rate of drying,
Ky = Gas mass transfer co – efficient,
Y = Absolute humidity
Ys = Saturated temperature at drying surface,
Temperature co –efficient; constant
Also,

Where,
Ss = mass of dry solid
A = cross section of bed
X = moisture content i.e. mass of moisture / mass of dry
solids
Drying Time:

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Drying Time= Ss/A ∫ dx/N

Procedure:‐
Tray drier
1. Take an empty pan & weigh it.
2. Put 500gm sand in it & distribute it through the X‐
surface of the pan.
3. Add 100gm of water into sand & again weight the
pan with wet solid.
4. Now start the experiment by starting the heat &
adjust temperature here about 100 0 C & wait till
steady state is achieved.
5. Put the pan in oven & note down the weigh of the
pan initially after two minutes & then after every gm
of loss of the weight.
Rotary Drier
1. Feed material in rotary drier and operate drier for 10
minutes.
2. Weigh remove sample & record data.

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Observations:‐
Tray dryer
1. Weight of empty pan = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ gm.
2. Weight of pan + dry solid = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ gm.
3. Weight of pan + dry solid + H2O = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ gm.
4. Temperature = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 0 C.
5. Weight of dry solid = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐gm.
Rotary dryer
1. Dry solid + H2O = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ gm.
2. Weight of dry solid= ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐gm.
Observation Table for Tray Dryer:‐
Sr. Time Wt. of X N 1/N

solid
No.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Graph:‐1/N vs X
Result: ‐
Drying Time=
Conclusion:‐
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Experiment: 02
Distillation – Separation of a Mixture
Date: 31/10/10
Purpose:
a)
To purify a compound by separating it from a non-volatile or less-volatile material.
b)
To separate a mixture of two miscible liquids (liquids that mix in all proportions) with
different boiling points.
Equipment / Materials:
large test tubes(3) test tube rack (1) 10-mL graduated cylinder 50- mL round bottom
flask
clamp (1 or 2) heating mantle condenser (1 or 2) thermometer
ringstand glass adaptor grease rubber tubing (2)
boiling chips thermometer adaptor 50- mL round bottom flask unknowns ( A and
B)
In this experiment you will perform several distillations. You will compare
distillations of a mixture of Benzene and Toluene using the glassware set-up for
a simple distillation and one for fractional distillation. You will also measure the
boiling point-range for an unknown compound and use this information as an aid in its
identification from Table 1 of possible substances.
Pairs of students will perform this experiment. Each pair will conduct either the simple
distillation procedure or the fractional distillation procedure. Results will be shared
between two groups, so that everyone has data for both simple and fractional distillation.
Also remember Benzene and Toluene are flammable. Never add boiling chips to hot
liquid and never distill the flask to dryness. Some organic compounds form peroxide,
which explode upon dryness and concentration. All glassware must be clamped in place.
Experimental Procedures
Place 30 ml of an unknown liquid mixture (15ml A + 15 ml B) that is to be purified by
simple distillation and for which the boiling point range is to be determined.
Assemble the assigned distillation apparatus (simple or fractional). Transfer the unknown
liquid to a 50 mL round bottom flask (this will be the distilling pot). Add one boiling
stone, and proceed to distill the liquid into a 10 mL graduated cylinder (this will be the
receiver). Check the position of the thermometer (the bulb of the thermometer must be
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below the arm of the distillation head) and make sure that the bottom of the distillating
pot touching the heating surface of the heating mantel. Securely attach a piece of
condenser tubing to each condenser outlets. Securely connect the other end of the “water
in” tubing to the water jet in the sink (or hood). Place the other end of the “water out”
tubing in the sink (or back of the hood). Plug in the heating mantle and before heating
your distillation apparatus or turning on the water for cooling the condenser, have your
laboratory instructor check your distillation apparatus.
After your laboratory instructor has checked your apparatus, slowly turn on the water for
condenser, and begin heating. Adjust the heating mantle to maintain a distillation rate of
one drop per second. As the lower boiling component is distilled, the boiling point of the
mixture in the distillation flask will increase.
Record the temperature after the first drop is collected and again after every 2 ml of
distillate is collected. After the 10 ml of distillate has been collected, you will have to
empty the graduated cylinder into a test tube as it fills. Cover and label the test tube first
fraction (component A). KEEP IT.
Collect the next 10 ml of distillate, again recording the temperature after every 1 ml of
distillate. After the second 10 ml of distillate has been collected, you will have to empty
the graduated cylinder into a test tube as it fills and DISCARD IT in organic waste
container.
Collection of last portion of distillate should continue until the temperature remains
constant. If the distillation flask is approaching dryness, remove the heat source
immediately and after cooling, transfer the distillate and any remaining liquid from the
flask to the third test tube (component B). KEEP IT.
Determine the boiling point range of the first fraction of the collected liquid and the third
portion of the collected liquid. Identify the unknowns by their boiling points using the
possible boiling points of compounds.
Construct a table like that given below, to record the temperature at the distillation "head"
as a function of volume distilled. You will record your data in report form. Plot distillate
temperature (oC) vs. volume of distillate (ml) collected for the mixture with and without
the fractionating column and use the graph to determine the boiling points of the two
compounds in the mixture and identify the compound in the mixture.
Both sets of data will be plotted on the same graph, using different symbols (colors).
Label the two curves.
Volume distilled (mL) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Temperature without column

(simple or fractional)
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Observed boiling point of the first compound (A): ____________oC

range
Literature boiling point of the first compound (A): ____________oC

range
Observed boiling point of the second compound (B): ____________oC

range
Literature boiling point of the second compound (B): ____________oC

range
Identity of Mixture
Compound A is _____________________
(name)
Compound B is _____________________
(name)
* Fractional Distillation experiments also done. From experiment, they were asked
to write on Fractional distillation and were assessed.
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LIQUID – LIQUID EXTRACTION

Objective: ‐ To obtain stage efficiency for liquid – liquid extraction.
Apparatus:‐Separating funnel, Burette, Pipette, Beaker, Measuring cylinder,
Flask, Thermometer, etc.
Chemicals:‐Benzene (20 ml), Acetic acid (20 ml), Water (40 ml), 0.1N NaOH
Solution, Phenolphthalein as an indicator
Theory:‐
Liquid extraction, sometimes called solvent extraction, is the separation of
the constituents of liquid solution by contact with another insoluble liquid.
If the substance constituting the originally between the two liquid phase, a
certain degree of separation will result, and this can be enhanced by use of
multiple contacts or their equivalent in the manner of gas absorption and
distillation.
If a solution of acetic acid in water is agitated with a liquid such as ethyl
acetate, some of the acid but relatively little water will enter the ester
phase. Since at equilibrium the densities of the aqueous and esters layer
are different, they will settle when agitation stops and can be decanted
from each other. Since now the ratio of acid to water in the ester layer is
different from that in the original solution and also different from that in
the residual water solution a certain degree of separation will have
occurred. This is an example of stage wise contact. In all such operations,
the solution which is to be extracted is called the Feed, and the liquid with
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which the feed is contacted is the Solvent. The solvent rich product of the
operation is called the Extract and the residual liquid from which solute has
been removed is the Raffinate stage.
When two insoluble phases are allowed to come in the contact, so that
various substances are distributed themselves into the phase and phase are
mechanically separated. The entire operation and equipment required to
carry it out is called stage.
Stage efficiency: ‐The approach to equilibrium realize in any Stage is
defining stage efficiency.

Procedure:‐
(1) Take 20 ml of acetic acid, 20 ml of Benzene in the flask with the help of
measuring cylinder in the beaker.
(2) Take 40 ml of water by measuring cylinder and add it mixture of acetic
acid and benzene.
(3) Now transfer this mixture into separating funnel and Separate the two
layers.
(4) Measure the volume of two layers.
(5) Collect the lower layer which mainly contains acetic acid
which extracted by water.
(6) Collect 10 ml lower layer and dilute it 10 times. From 100ml total
solutions collect 10 ml and titrate it against 0.1 N NaOH solutions

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Observation:‐

1. Room temperature : ______ oC
2. Volume of water taken : ______ ml
3. Volume of Benzene taken : ______ ml
4. Volume of acetic acid taken : ______ ml
5. Volume of upper layer (Raffinate) : ______ ml
6. Volume of bottom layer (Extract) :______ ml
7. Sp. Gravity of water :______ gm/cc
8. Sp. Gravity of Benzene :______ gm/cc
9. Sp. Gravity of Acetic acid :______ gm/cc
Observation Table for First Stage:‐
Burette :‐
Flask :‐
Indicator:-
Sr. Initial Final Burette Difference Mean
No. Burette Reading Difference
Reading
1.
2.

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Calculation for single stage:
(1) Normality of Acetic acid; N1V1= N2V2
N1= N2V2/V1
N1 =

N1 = Normality of Acetic acid = ________
N2 = Normality of NaoH solution = ________
V1 = Volume of Acetic acid = ________
V2 = Volume of NaoH solution = _________
(2) Concentration of gm/lit = equivalent weight × normality
=
=

(3) Mass of A.A extract = Normality × ml of A.A × Eq.Wt x Lower ext.
1000
=

=

(4) Density = mass
Volume
=

(5) % efficiency: =
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Result:‐
Stage efficiency for single stage is: _____________

Conclusion:‐

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Cooling Tower
Objective: ‐ To cool down hot stream by using air in cooling tower.
Apparatus: ‐ Cooling tower, Digital hydrometer.
Theory:‐
In cooling tower a stream of hot water is cooled by exchange of the
sensible and latent heat and water vapor with a stream of relatively
cool dry air.
The operation of a cooling tower is shown in figure which the hot
water at T2 is introduced at the top of the tower and leaves the
bottom at T1 while the air flows counter current to the water,
entering the bottom at position,
Cooling tower is square shape 250 × 250 mm sides with 800mm
height. The packing used for the cooling tower is sieve plate (total
contact area 1500 cm2)
Air is supplied form 90.5 hp centrifugal blower.
The flow rate by which may be varied. Digital hydrometer is fitted at
the inlet and outlet air to the towers. Air enters the tower through air
distributors. The cooled water is removed from the tower. The
temperature of inlet and outlet water form the tower is taken via air
distributor. The temperature of inlet and outlet water form the
tower is taken in closed proximity to the tower.

The air velocity is measured by means of manometer tapping
pressure taping are made in the tower immediately blow and above
the packing to unable pressure drop reading to be taken.

Procedure:‐
The heater to the water storage tank is set to the desired value with
the tank filled with water line. The water is pumped to the tower.
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The air blower is then started at lower air velocity and system is
allowed to run in this way for l hour to attain steady condition
It is possible to note visual examination if the water flow rate
sufficient under this condition to completely wet.
Observation:‐
Room temperature __________________

Observation Table:‐

Sr. No. Flow rate of Inlet temp. Outlet Humidity
water temp. of
of water
water
m3/sec

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Result:‐

Inlet water temperature __________
Outlet water temperature _________

Conclusion:‐
Quiz:‐
1. Write Principle of Cooling Tower.
2. Write Types of Cooling Tower.
3. What do you mean by Humidity?
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Mass Transfer Technology (Prepared By: Mr. J.M.Vasoya)
Adsorption
Objective: ‐ Adsorbing Acetic acid on Charcoal.
Apparatus: ‐Titration set, Conical flask, Funnel, Filter paper.
Chemicals: ‐Charcoal, Acetic Acid, NaOH solution, Phenolphthalein.
Theory: ‐
Adsorption is the adhesion of molecules of gas, liquid, or dissolved
solids to a surface. This process creates a film of the adsorbate (the
molecules or atoms being accumulated) on the surface of the
adsorbent. It differs from absorption, in which a fluid permeates or is
dissolved by a liquid or solid. The term sorption encompasses both
processes, while desorption is the reverse of adsorption.
Characteristics and general requirements for adsorbent:
Adsorbents are used usually in the form of spherical pellets, rods,
molding with hydrodynamic diameters between 0.5 and 10 mm. They
must have high abrasion resistance, high thermal stability and small
pore diameters, which results in higher exposed surface area and
hence high surface capacity for adsorption. The adsorbents must also
have a distinct pore structure which enables fast transport of the
gaseous vapors.
The freundlich’s adsorption isotherm
Y = m * Xn

Where,
Y = gm of solute per gm of solvent
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X = gm of solute / gm of adsorbent
N = component in isotherm
M = slope of equilibrium adsorption
isotherm
Taking log both side,
log Y = log m + n log X
Now, plot of log Y v/s log X straight – line slope is n & intercept
is log m.
Procedure:‐
1. Prepare Acetic acid solution (1 N, 0.5 N, 0.25 N, 0.125N, 0.625 N)
by dissolving required Acetic acid in 250 ml of distillate water.
2. Then 2 gm of charcoal weighted five times separately & feed it to
5 different conical flasks.
3. 100 ml Acetic acid is then added to those five conical flasks.
4. Keep for 15 min & then filter all the flasks.
5. After weighing the filtrate titrate it against 0.1 N NaOH solutions
after adding phenolphthalein.
6. The weight of acid adsorbed is calculated from the normality of
filtrate & graph of log Y v/s log X.
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Observation Tables:‐
Equivalent weight of Acetic acid = ________
Table 1:
Sr. Normality Initial Weight of Final conc. Weight of Weight
No. of Acetic conc. of Acetic acid of Acetic Acetic acid Adsorbed,
acid before Acetic in sample acid, gm/lit in sample A‐B = X
Adsorption acid, (A) after gm
gm/lit adsorption
(B)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Table 2:
Sr. Weight of
No. Adsorbent,
X/M ln X/M ln Co
M gm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Calculations:‐
Normality of filtrate:
• N1 = Normality of acetic acid in filtrate
• N2 = Normality of NaOH
• V1 = Volume of filtrate
• V2 = Volume of NaOH ( Burette Reading)

N1 = N2V2/V1

= ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐N
Weight of filtrate:
= Normality * Eq. weight

= ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ gm/lit
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Weight of Acetic acid in filtrate:
= (gm/lit) / Volume of sample for titration

= ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ gm

Result:‐
Conclusion:‐

Quiz:‐

1. Define: Adsorption & Desorption.
2. Give the classification of Adsorption.
3. Why do you heat the silica gel sample initially?
4. Give the name of industrial adsorbents with application. (Any Four)

LongICT Chemical
MASS TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT
Prepared By: Mr.J.M.Vasoya
MASS TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT FOR GAS-LIQUID SYSTEM
Aim :- To determine mass transfer co-efficient of water.
Apparatus :- Thermometer,stopwatch,glass beaker, measuring, burner,etc.
Chemical : - water
Theory :- Mass transfer co-efficient is defined as the rate of mass transfer

per unit area per unit concentration. The mechanism of flow
process involving the movement of eddies in the turbulent region
is not theoretically understood. On the other hand mechanism of
mole diffusion a, characteristics of mole diffusion DAB.c/z is
replaced by F.
Mass transfer co-efficient for binary solution the equation is,
NA = NA / (NA + NB). F. ln NA / (NA + NB ) - CA2 / C
NA / (NA + NB ) – CA1/ C
Where CA/C = mole fraction,
Concentration XA for liquid and XB for gases. It is at above equation is

the local mass transfer co-efficient define for a particular location on
the phase boundary.
The rate of mass transfer is always expressed in terms of molar flux.
Molar flux = rate of mass transfer/ unit area. Unit time
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In practical situation it has become customary describe the

mass flux in terms of mass transfer co-efficient.
Flux = co-efficient x Concentration difference
Here concentration will be define in the variety of phase like in molar ,

volume, pressure , temperature etc. variety of mass transfer co-
efficient for liquid are given below.
Diffusion of A through non diffusion B,
NA = Kx(XA1- XA2)
= Kl(CA1- CA2)
for the equimolar counter diffusion.
NA = Kx “(XA1- XA2)
= KL’ (CA1- CA2)
Absolute humidity is the ratio ‘mass of vapor’ to ‘mass of gas’

is called humidity.
Molar humidity Y = nA / nb = PA / PB = PA-/ Pt - PA
Here PA & PB indicate partial pressure.
Relative humidity:
It is expressed as the % & is define as ,
Relative humidity = 100 Y / Ys
Procedure :- (1) Measure the diameter of beaker to find cross sectional

area of beaker.
(2) Take 150 ml water in beaker
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(3) Heat this water to some constant temperature i.e. 500

C by using burner for 30 minutes.
(4) Measure the final volume of the water after 30 minutes
heating.
(5) Repeat the same procedure at 80 C.
(6) Find dry bulb and wet bulb temperature for absolute
humidity with the help of psychometric chart.
Observation:-
10. Diameter of Beaker : ______cm.

11. Room temperature : ______oC.
12. Dry bulb temperature : ______oC.
13. Wet bulb temperature : ______oC.
14. Volume of water evaporated : ______ml.
Observation table: -
Sr. Initial volume of Final volume

o
No. Temperature, water, of water, Difference
C
ml ml
1. 80
2. 50
Calculation : -
(1) C/S Area of Beaker

A = π/4.D2.
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(2) Mass of water evaporated = volume of water evaporated x density (H2O)
(3) Rate of Evaporation

WA = mass of water evaporated / time
(4) Absolute humidity of Air

From graph directly
(5) Mass Transfer Co-efficient Ky = WA / A( PAV - PA)

=
Therefore K = Ky / 18
Result :- M.T. co-efficient of water at 50oC =
M.T. co-efficient of water at 80oC =
Conclusion :-
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Heat Engines
Heat Engines
V K Joshi
V K Joshi
Asst Prof
FETR



Contents
• Thermal prime movers
• Definitions
– Heat reservoirs
– Heat sources
– Heat sinkk
– Heat engines
– Refrigerators
– Heat pumps
Heat pumps
• Carnot Cycle
• Air standard cycles
– Otto cycle
Otto cycle
– Diesel cycle
• Rankine cycle

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover
Definition
– Device
i
working over a cycle to convert
the heat energy (low grade)
into work energy(high grade)
into work energy(high grade)

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover
Ob
Obey second law of thermodynamics
dl f h d i
– Kelvin Plank statement

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover
Classification
• Internal combustion engine (I.C.)
• External combustion engine (E.C.)
External combustion engine (E.C.)

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover
Classification
• Internal combustion engine (I.C.)
Internal combustion engine (I C )
– Reciprocating
• Four stroke
Four stroke
– Petrol
– Diesel
– Gas
G
• Two stroke
– Petrol
– Diesel
– Gas
– Rotary
– Space shuttle
Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover
Classification
• External combustion engine
– Reciprocating
R i ti
• Steam engine
– Rotary
R t
• Steam turbine
• Gas turbine
Gas turbine

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover
• Internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
– The energy of fuel is released
– by combustion of fuel with air
y
– in the engine cylinder itself
• External combustion engine
External combustion engine
– The energy of combustion is not released
– inside the cylinder
y
– it is transferred to a working medium like
– steam or gas
g

Thermal prime mover

Thermal prime mover
Sources of energy
Sources of energy
• Chemical energy
– Combustion of solid , liquid or gaseous fuels
• Atomic energy
– Energy is released from
– the changes in structure of atomic material
h h i f i i l
– Fission or fusion
• Heat energy
Heat energy
– Obtained directly
– Solar radiation
– Geothermal energy
• gysers
Definitions
Reservoir
– Source of infinite heat energy
– Finite amount of heat absorbed or rejected
Finite amount of heat absorbed or rejected
– Will not affects its temperature
– Ocean, Atmosphere
O At h

Definitions
Sink
‐ Absorbs heat from a system
Source
‐ Supplies heat to a system

Definitions
• Heat engine
Heat engine
– Produce work continuously
– At the expenses of heat input
At the expenses of heat input

Heat engine
Heat engine
Output
Heat Source η =
Input
T1
= Work
Heat Engine E
Energy
W = Q1‐Q2 = W
Q1
Heat Sink
= Q1 − Q2
T2 Q1

Quiz
A heat engine performs 200 J of work/cycle and
is 30% efficient. How much energy is absorbed
per cycle?
per cycle?
A. 200 J B. 467 J
C 667 J
C. 667 J D 60 J
D. 60 J

Quiz
is 30% efficient. How much energy is absorbed
per cycle?
per cycle?
A. 200 J B. 467 J
C 667 J
C. 667 J D 60 J
D. 60 J

Quiz
is 30% efficient. How much energy is expelled
per cycle?
per cycle?
A. 200 J B. 467 J
C 667 J
C. 667 J D 60 J
D. 60 J

Quiz
is 30% efficient. How much energy is expelled
per cycle?
per cycle?
A. 200 J B. 467 J
C 667 J
C. 667 J D 60 J
D. 60 J

Quiz
A heat engine takes in 1000 J of energy at 1000
K and exhausts 700 J at 400 K. What is the
actual efficiency of this heat engine?
A. 30 % B. 40 %
C 60 %
C. 60 % D 70 %
D. 70 %

Quiz
K and exhausts 700 J at 400 K. What is the
A. 30 % B. 40 %
C 60 %
C. 60 % D 70 %
D. 70 %

Quiz
What is the theoretical maximum efficiency of
this heat engine?
A 30 %
A. 30 % B 40 %
B. 40 %
C. 60 % D. 70 %

Quiz
this heat engine?
A 30 %
A. 30 % B 40 %
B. 40 %
C. 60 % D. 70 %
C. 60 %
C

Quiz
How should you set the operating temperatures
in order to maximize the efficiency of a heat
engine?
A. Make TL as warm as possible.
B Make ΔT as large as possible.
B. Make ΔT as large as possible
C. Make ΔT as small as possible.
D Make TH as cool as possible.
D. Make T as cool as possible

Quiz
in order to maximize the efficiency of a heat
engine?

Definitions
• Refrigerator
– Operating in a cycle
– Absorbs heat from a low temperature body
Absorbs heat from a low temperature body
– Rejects heat to high temperature body
– At the expenses of heat input
At th fh ti t

Refrigerator

Refrigerator
Output
COP= Input
= Energy
W k
Work
= Q2
W
= Q1
Q1 − Q2

Quiz
in order to maximize the performance of a
refrigerator?

Quiz
in order to maximize the performance of a
refrigerator?
D Make TH as cool as possible

Quiz
Can the coefficient of performance of a
refrigerator be greater than one?
A Yes
A. Yes B No
B. No

Quiz
refrigerator be greater than one?
A Yes
A. Yes B No
B. No
Good COP values for actual refrigerators can be
3 or more.

Quiz
An ideal refrigerator runs between 0
An ideal refrigerator runs between 0°C
C and 25
and 25°C
C.
It removes 8000 kJ/h from the cold region.
What minimum power is required?
A. 204 W B. 320 W
C 400 W
C. 400 W D 733 W
D. 733 W

Quiz
An ideal refrigerator runs between 0°C and 25°C.
It removes 8000 kJ/h from the cold region.
A. 204 W B. 320 W
C. 400 W D. 733 W

Thermal Process

Quiz

Quiz

Industrial Chemical Technology Module

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LONG TERM TRAINING PROGRAMME

Prof. Latesh B. Chaudhari

Chemicals and Petrochemicals Sectors

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

1.1 HEAT TRANSFER FUNDAMENTALS

1.1.2 Conduction Heat Transfer

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

One-Dimensional Conduction with Internal Heat Generation Situations in which a

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Direct Contact HeatTransfer

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

19.2 SENSIBLE HEAT EXCHANGE

19.2.1 General Comments

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Heat transfer from a continuous fluid to droplets or bubbles of another fluid is a

EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

phase-change process can be grossly hindered. Thus it is very important in condensing

Condensation of a Vapor on or in a Liquid

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

The rate of radiant therrmal energgy transfer between two bodiees is descriibed by

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

Long Term Training Programme on "Industrial Chemical Technology"

STEAM TO EXHAUST GAS

2.1 Fire Tube Boiler

In a fire tube boiler, hot gases pass

2.2 Water Tube Boiler

In a water tube boiler, boiler feed water flows

Most modern water boiler tube designs are within

The packaged boiler

The features of packaged boilers are:

3.1 Performance Evaluation of a Boiler

3.1.1 Heat balance

Ash and Un-

Figure 11. Energy balance diagram of a boiler

Figure 12. Typical Losses from Coal Fired Boiler

3.1.2 Boiler efficiency

There are two methods of assessing boiler efficiency:

3.1.3 Direct method of determining boiler efficiency

10 x (665 – 85) x 1000

Advantages of direct method

Plant workers can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers

Needs few instruments for monitoring

Disadvantages of direct method

3.1.4 Indirect method of determining boiler efficiency

Efficiency of boiler (n) = 100 - (i + ii + iii + iv + v + vi + vii)

i. Dry flue gas

Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture content, ash content)

Step 1: Calculate the theoretical air requirement

= [(11.43 x C) + {34.5 x (H2 – O2/8)} + (4.32 x S)]/100 kg/kg of fuel

Step 2: Calculate the percent excess air supplied (EA)

Step 3: Calculate actual mass of air supplied/ kg of fuel (AAS)

Heat always moves from a warmer place to

If a cup of coffee and an ice lolly were left

The cup of coffee will cool until it reaches

All things are made up of molecules