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SYSTEMS NODE

Recently Francis Heylighen was invited to submit a definition of Systems

Theory and Systems Analysis to the upcoming Cambridge Dictionary of
Philosophy. He accepted, and invited me to join him. So last November we
began to jointly develop a concise (400 word) definition of perhaps the
least concise field imaginable (many fancy it the "science of everything"
in even a broader sense than physics).

We had considered developing the definition on PRNCYB-L as a PCP node, but

for a variety of reasons that did not work out. But we did work
collaboratively, did use ASCII over email, and did consider issues of
linking to other nodes. This latter was actually forced (willingly!) on us
by the style used by the editors, which were paragraphs with heavy
cross-referencing to other entries. We were requested to indicate "linked"
terms by ALL CAPS, and we had to consider who else had already done what,
what in addition we might do, node and concept boundaries, etc.

We decided to begin by first submitting "blind" initial versions to each

other, which were actually rather divergent. We went through a number of
alternately authored revisions, both giving and claiming some turf, and (I
think) compromising on tone and style. I think we are both quite pleased
with what we've produced, and hopefully we'll see the finished product
relatively soon.

Posting all the versions we made would be too much, so below I've included
first Francis', then my, original versions, then the final result. In my
first draft full references are included, although I intended for them to
be deleted. Also, Francis originally used * to indicate linkes, while I
only used Initial Caps, instead of ALL CAPS.

==================================

Systems theory:

a scientific/philosophical approach and set of concepts, rather than a

theory, for the transdisciplinary study of complex phenomena. It was first
proposed by the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy in the 1940's (anthology:
"General Systems Theory", 1968), as a reaction against scientific
reductionism*. Rather than reducing a phenomenon (say, the human body) to a
collection of elements or parts (say, the organs or cells), systems theory
focuses on the relations and interactions between the parts, which connect
them into a whole (see holism*). The particular arrangement of elements and
relations determines an emergent* organization, or system*. That
organization is abstract, independent of the concrete substance of the
elements, which may be atoms, molecules, cells, transistors, or people.
This entails that the same principles of organization can be found in
different domains: physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, sociology,
technology... One of the aims of systems theory is to unify different
scientific disciplines by uncovering these general principles (see unity of
science*). Systems theory studies characteristics common to many or all
complex systems. These include: system-environment boundary*, input*,
output*, process*, state*, evolution*, hierarchy*, goal-directedness*,
information*. Most of these concepts are shared with the closely related
domain of cybernetics*, which focuses on communication* and control*. These
concepts have been made more precise in elaborate mathematical formalisms.
The difficulties to model complex systems in a rigorous way, on the other
hand, have encouraged philosophical investigations of the meaning and
origin of systems and the methods used to model them. Systems-theoretic
philosophies have been developed by Mario Bunge, Ervin Laszlo, and others.

Systems theory has many fields of application, including engineering,

computing, ecology, management, and psychotherapy. Mathematical systems
theory has been used in the analysis and design of technical systems, and
the global modelling of world evolution (reports of the "Club of Rome").
Recently, its methods have been implemented as 'Computer-Aided Systems
Theory'. More humanistic approaches, such as the 'Soft Systems
Methodology', are applied to social, organizational and family problems.

Systems analysis is a type of investigation using such general methods,

related to (but not generally derived from) systems theory. Its aim is to
analyse a complex system or issue, characterized by multiple, interrelated
objectives, constraints and resources, and extending over various domains
(e.g. physical, technical, social). It proposes guidelines for identifying
possible courses of action, together with their risks, costs and benefits,
thus helping a decision-maker* to choose the most appropriate one.

Francis Heylighen

Words in the definition: 403

==================================

Systems Theory is:

1. The interdisciplinary study of the laws and principles common

to physical processes and objects at all spatial and temporal
scales;

2. The study of the (usually mathematical) models which can be

universally applied to such processes and objects.

These two views are clearly related, differing in their emphasis on

either the formal linguistic/mathematical structures used to study
something, or the contents and results of such models. This difference
in emphasis can be seen in the various branches of Systems Theory
and their use of the term "system".
General Systems Theory, founded by Ludwig von Bertalanffy [13],
was an attempt to revive a view of Unified Science through the study
of the attributes and properties common to all real systems, con-
ceived of as physical processes and objects. He emphasized in par-
ticular that, in contrast to the then prevalent prejudice in physical
science, real systems are open to, and exist in complex hierarchical
relations with, their environments; and that by continual Evolution,
qualitatively new properties can appear through Emergence. This
view is related to the evolutionary philosophy of Spencer [11], Berg-
son [3], and de Chardin [4], and later systems philosophical work of
Laszlo [8], Turchin [12], and Jantsch [6].
Mathematical Systems Theory derives from the modeling view
of Systems Theory, which sees a system as a (usually mathematical)
model of a bounded area of the universe. This work arose from iso-
morphies developed between models of electrical circuit systems and
other physical systems, and is exemplified by the mathematical the-
ories of Zadeh [15], Ashby [1, 2], Mesarovic [9], Rosen [10], and Klir
[7]. This view is related to philosophical Constructivism, which sees
___________________________*
PESP, Free University of Brussels, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium;
Email: fheyligh@vnet3.vub.ac.be
yGraduate Fellow, Systems Science, SUNY-

Binghamton, 327 Spring St. # 2, Portland ME, 04102, USA, (207) 774-0029,
cjoslyn@bingsuns.cc.binghamton.edu, joslyn@kong.gsfc.nasa.gov
zSupported under NASA Grant # NGT 50757.

1
2

reality only as a model constructed by a subject to aid its survival.

Closely related are the fields of Cybernetics, which places emphasis
on Control models involving reflexivity, circularity, recursion, and
feedback; and Systems Analysis, which provides a methodology for
identifying parts and wholes in a complex system and their relation-
ships to each other (for example, an analysis of the species in an
ecosystem, or the flow of money in a corporation).
While Systems Theory has not yet succeeded in establishing it-
self as an independent discipline, it has many active researchers,
and its result have permeated current views and methods in science
and engineering. Systems theoretic perspectives are deeply ingrained
in the new interdisciplinary "sciences of complexity" involving far-
from-equilibirium, self-organizing systems, and complex, heteroge-
neous networks of interacting actors; and in the methods of Neural
Networks, Chaotic Dynamics, Computer Modeling, Artificial Intelli-
gence, and classical, algorithmic, and fuzzy Information Theory.

References

[1]Ashby, Ross: (1952) Design for a Brain, Wiley, New York

[2]Ashby, Ross: (1956) Introduction to Cybernetics, Methuen, Lon-

don

[3]Bergson, Henri: (1944) Creative Evolution, Modern Library,

New York

[4]De Chardin, Teilhard: (1959) Phenomenon of Man, Harper and

Row, New York

[5]Forrester, JW: (1971) World Dynamics, Wright + Allen, Cam-

bridge
 [6]Jantsch, Eric: (1980) Self-Organizing Universe, Pergamon, Ox-
ford

[7]Klir, George: (1991) Facets of Systems Science, Plenum, New

York

[8]Laszlo, Ervin: (1972) Introduction to Systems Philosophy, Gor-

don & Breach, New York, NOTE: ORDER

[9]Mesarovic, MD: (1964) "Foundations for a General Systems

Theory", in: Views on General Systems Theory, ed. Mesarovic,
pp. 1-24, Wiley, New York

[10]Rosen, Robert: (1985) Anticipatory Systems, Pergamon, Oxford

[11]Spencer, H: (1857) First Principles, Williams &Northgate, Lon-

don
3

[12]Turchin, Valentin: (1977) Phenomenon of Science, Columbia

U., New York

[13]v Bertalanfy, Ludwig: (1968) General Systems Theory, George

Braziller, New York

[14]Wiener, Norbert: (1948) Cybernetics, MIT Press, Cambridge

[15]Zadeh, Lofti A: (1954) "System Theory", Columbia Eng. Quart.,

v. 8, pp. 16-19

==================================

Systems Theory [Including Systems Analysis]: the transdisci-

plinary study of the abstract ORGANIZATION of phenomena, in-
dependent of their substance, type, or spatial or temporal scale of
existence. It investigates bott the principles common to all com-
plex entities, and the (usually mathematical) MODELS which can
be used to describe them.
Systems theory was proposed in the 1940's by the biologist Lud-
wig von Bertalanfy (anthology: General Systems Theory, 1968),
and furthered by Ross Ashby (Introduction to Cybernetics, 1956).
von Bertlanffy was both reacting against REDUCTIONISM and at-
tempting to revive the UNITY OF SCIENCE. He emphasized that
real systems are open to, and interact with, their environments, and
that they can acquire qualitatively new properties through EMER-
GENCE, resulting in continual EVOLUTION. Rather than reducing
an entity (e.g. the human body) to the properties of its parts or el-
ements (e.g. organs or cells), systems theory focuses on the arrange-
ment of and RELATIONS between the parts which connect them into
a whole (cf. HOLISM). This particular ORGANIZATION determines
a SYSTEM, which is independent of the concrete substance of the el-
ements (e.g. particles, cells, transistors, people, etc). Thus, the same
concepts and principles of organization underlie the different disci-
plines (physics, biology, technology, sociology, etc.), providing a basis
for their unification. Systems concepts include: system-environment
BOUNDARY, INPUT, OUTPUT, PROCESS, STATE, HIERAR-
CHY, GOAL-DIRECTEDNESS, and INFORMATION.
The developments of systems theory are diverse (Klir, Facets of
Systems Science, 1991), including conceptual foundations and phi-
losophy (e.g. the philosophies of Bunge, Bahm and Laszlo); math-
ematical modeling and INFORMATION THEORY (e.g. the work
of Mesarovic and Klir); and practical applications. Mathematical
systems theory arose from the development of isomorphies between
the models of electrical circuits and other systems. Applications
include engineering, computing, ecology, management, and family
psychotherapy. Systems analysis, developed independently of sys-
tems theory, applies systems principles to aid a decision-maker with
problems of identifying, reconstructing, optimizing, and controlling
a system (usually a socio-technical organization), while taking into
account multiple objectives, constraints and resources. It aims to
specify possible courses of action, together with their risks, costs
and benefits. Systems theory is closely connected to CYBERNET-
ICS, and also to SYSTEM DYNAMICS, which models changes in a
NETWORK of coupled variables (e.g. the "world dynamics" mod-
els of Jay Forrester and the Club of Rome). Related ideas are
used in the emerging "sciences of COMPLEXITY", studying SELF-
ORGANIZATION and heterogeneous networks of interacting actors,
and associated domains such as FAR-FROM-EQUILIBRIUM THER-
MODYNAMICS, CHAOTIC DYNAMICS, ARTIFICIAL LIFE, AR-
TIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, NEURAL NETWORKS, and computer
MODELING AND SIMULATION.

Francis Heylighen and Cliff Joslyn

Prepared for the Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy.