Introduction to Applied Reservoir Engineering

Prof. T. Kumar
Dept. of Petroleum Engg.
IIT(ISM) Dhanbad 826004
Reservoir engineering may be defined as the art of forecasting the
future performance of an oil and/or gas reservoir from which
production is obtained according to probable and presumed
conditions.
In addition, the forecasting petroleum engineer must accumulate
and understand a wealth of knowledge collected by his colleagues, the
geologist on the nature of the reservoir rock, on its shape size and
nature of the rock and fluids contained in it.
He must further understand the complexity of the reservoir
considered at large, such as the type of geologic trap which retains the
oil underground, whether the trap structural or stratigraphic in
character, the lateral extension of the reservoir rock, its layering
process, its dip, connate water-table level, structural closure, etc.
In the early stages of development of a reservoir, many of these
answers cannot be furnished by the geologist; he must call upon
another colleague, the geophysicist, who perhaps can inform him on
the probable extent of structural closure. Most certainly, the reservoir
engineer will deal with numerous geophysical bore-hole
measurements, electric and radiation well logs, temperature and
caliper logs, mud logs, etc.
Owing to the expense and uncertainties of core-analysis results,
reservoir-rock data obtainable from geophysical well logs are a
welcome addition to the engineer's supply of dependable reservoir
data. Under the temperatures and pressures encountered in modern
deep wells, reservoir fluids behave in strange and unexpected ways.
A prerequisite to good reservoir performance forecasting is a
dependable knowledge of reservoir temperature and pressure in
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addition to precise information on the physical behaviour of gas, oil,
and water under reservoir conditions. In general, hydrocarbons may
be found in the reservoir in one of the following physical states:
undersaturated petroleum, saturated petroleum, condensate, and dry
gas. Each of these requires special handling if maximum recovery is
to be achieved.

It is now recognized that the expulsive energy operating on the fluids

in a primary reservoir is essentially confined to four sources, namely:

1. External driving fluid energy, under hydrostatic head, usually edge

and bottom waters. Gas-cap expansion may also be considered as
deriving its energy from an external source.

2. Internal driving energy, from gases in solution at reservoir

pressure.

3. Potential energy, or energy of position owing to the action of body

forces, usually gravitational pull because of differential densities in
the reservoir fluids.

4. Surface energy of reservoir fluids as a result of capillary forces.

As in many useful arts where the complexities of a natural
medium are dealt with, it is often expedient to substitute a bulk-
property measurement for specific microscopic properties even though
the constituent properties are amenable to physical reckoning. This is
the case for the capillary forces which are controlled by the rock
texture, preferential wetting, saturation degree, and interfacial
tension. Capillary-pressure determinations of rock samples which
lump all the above parameters in' one test may be considered as one of
the important reservoir-engineering achievements of recent years.

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 So much for the contact of the reservoir engineer with the natural
sciences. He must now call upon the knowledge of his other
colleagues, the mathematician and the experimental physicists and
chemists. It may be said that there are five known fundamental
reservoir-engineering equations with which the engineer must cope in
his forecasting computations, namely:
1. The material-balance equation
2. The generalized Darcy law
3. The fractional-flow formula
4. The rate of frontal advance formula
5. The instantaneous reservoir water-oil and gas-oil ratio formula
Although the use of mathematical deductions may give the
performance forecasts the appearance of accuracy, one should be
aware that inaccuracies in the data are reflected in the results.
Errors in the data may be of several kinds: of omission, which
result in the necessity of using some assumed values for the missing
data; or of commission, as are inevitable in random and unsuspected
systematic errors of observation.
With the above mathematical relations at hand, the engineer can
make performance predictions with a high degree of dependability for
the three fundamental and distinct production processes now
recognized, namely:
1. Frontal drives by either water or gas
2. Depletion, or internal gas drive
3. Segregation, or gravity drive
Actual production cases are often a combination, in various
degrees, of two and even of all the above processes. For accurate
forecasting, their relative importance must be gauged and driving
indices computed. Analytical methods which may include

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statistical analysis of production data, are used at this point.
Computer simulation model is often used for detailed performance
prediction.
Production practices are often designated as primary and
secondary recovery operations. Actually, there is no sharp
demarcation line between the two, artificial pressuring during
primary operations being presently so current as to preclude its
future use as secondary recovery practice.
In the light of present fundamental studies, secondary
recovery is viewed as a particular case of the broader application
of reservoir-technology principles to primary recovery.
The principal function of a reservoir engineer is to predict the
further behaviour of a petroleum reservoir under the various
producing mechanisms which are, or may become, available. The
economics of various operating plans is an integral part of any
reservoir engineering study.
A study of the recovery to be expected from various operating
plans, along with an economic analysis of these plans, will
determine the need for pressure maintenance, secondary recovery,
cycling, or other operations. From his studies, the reservoir
engineer must recommend an operating plan which will yield the
maximum net income, usually expressed in terms of present worth.
Since the oil company is in business to make a profit on its
investments, the usual objective in oil-producing operations is the
realization of the maximum profit, and not necessarily the
maximum recovery of oil from a reservoir. Fortunately, maximum
recovery of oil from a reservoir will usually result in maximum
profit.

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Role of capillary pressure:
Using the capillary pressure equation for a single capillary
tube:

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 It is seen that the capillary pressure is related to the height
above the free water level. The capillary pressure data can be
converted to a plot of h vs. Sw, as shown in Fig.1. The transition
zone from 100 percent water saturation to minimum water
saturation is marked on the graph.
The important concept to be gained from Fig.1 is that there
is no abrupt change from 100 percent water to maximum oil
saturation. There is no such thing as an oil-water contact, but there
is a gradual transition from 100 percent water to maximum oil
saturation.
If the oil-water contact is defined as the lowest point in the
reservoir which will produce 100 percent oil, then the oil-water
contact will be that shown in Fig.1, in which case there may be
substantial quantities of oil below the oil-water contact, but this
oil production would be accompanied by simultaneous water
production. The thickness of the transition zone may be only two
or three feet in some reservoirs, while it may be several hundred
feet in other reservoirs.
Changes in pore size and changes in reservoir fluid densities
will alter the shape of the capillary pressure curve and the
thickness of the transition zone. Rearrangement of Equation (1)
to solve for h, the height above the free liquid surface, shows that
as Δρ, density difference, decreases h increases.

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 From a practical stand- point, this means that in a gas
reservoir having a gas-water contact, the thickness of the
transition zone will be a minimum, since Δρ will be large. Also,
if all other factors remain unchanged, a low API gravity oil
reservoir with an oil-water contact will have a longer transition
zone than a high API gravity oil reservoir. This concept is
illustrated in Fig.2.

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 Inspection of Equation (1) will show that as r, radius of the
pore, increases the value of h decreases. Therefore, a reservoir
rock system with small pore sizes will have a longer transition
zone than a reservoir rock system comprised of large pore sizes.
The reservoir pore size can often be related approximately to
permeability, and where this applies, it can be stated that high
permeability reservoirs will have shorter transition zones than
low permeability reservoirs. This latter concept is shown in
Fig.3. Tilted water-oil contact resulting out of this is shown in Fig.4.

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 Example
Using the drainage capillary pressure curve of the Venango
Core (Fig.5 shown below). How many feet above the free water
table is the water/oil contact?

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Solution: From the Fig.5 above, the capillary pressure at the
water-oil contact can be read as 4 cm.
Pc  hw w  o g  4 *13,322 dynes / cm

Then,

Pc 413,222.2
hw    217.5 cm
w  o g 1 0.75980
=217.5/30.48 = 7.1 ft.

(1 ft = 30.48 cm)

Residual Saturations:
Another important phenomenon associated with fluid flow
through porous media is the concept of residual saturations. When
one immiscible fluid is displacing another, it is impossible to
reduce the saturation of the displaced fluid to zero. At some small
saturation, which is presumed to be the saturation at which the
displaced phase ceases to be continuous, flow of the displaced
phase will cease. This saturation is often referred to as the
irreducible minimum or residual saturation. This is an important
concept as it determines the maximum recovery from the
reservoir. Conversely, a fluid must develop a certain minimum
saturation before the phase will begin to flow. The saturation at
which a fluid will just begin to flow is called the equilibrium
saturation.

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Saturation history or hysteresis:
Theoretically, the equilibrium saturation and the
irreducible minimum saturation should be exactly equal for any
fluid; however, they are not identical. Equilibrium saturation is
measured in the direction of increasing saturation, while
irreducible minimum or residual saturation is measured in the
direction of reducing saturation.
Thus the saturation histories of the two measurements are
different, and result in differing permeability measurements.
This is probably due to the different arrangement of the fluids in
the pore openings during displacement. This difference in
permeability when changing the saturation history is called
hysteresis.
Since relative permeability measurements are subject to
hysteresis, it is important to duplicate, in the laboratory, the
saturation history of the reservoir. It is generally agreed that the
pore spaces of reservoir rocks were originally filled with water,
after which oil moved into the reservoir, displacing some of the
water, and reducing the water to some residual saturation.
When discovered, the reservoir pore spaces are filled with
a connate water saturation and an oil saturation. If gas is the
displacing agent, then gas moves into the reservoir, displacing
the oil. This same history must be duplicated in the laboratory
to eliminate the effects of hysteresis.
Laboratory or Drainage process:
The laboratory procedure is to first saturate the core with
water, then displace the water to a irreducible minimum or
connate water saturation with oil, after which the oil in the core

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is displaced by gas. This flow process is called the gas drive or
drainage depletion process. In the gas drive depletion process,
the non-wetting phase fluid is continuously increased, and the
wetting phase fluid is continuously decreased.
Water drive or imbibition process:
The other principal flow process of interest is the water
drive, or imbibition process, where water is the wetting phase.
The laboratory technique is first to saturate the core with water,
then displace the water to a minimum irreducible or connate
water saturation with oil. This procedure establishes the fluid
saturations which are found when the reservoir is discovered. In
the water drive process, water is introduced into the core, and the
water (wetting) saturation is continuously increased.
Fig.6 shows typical drainage and imbibition relative
permeability curves and the resulting hysteresis effects.

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 Relative permeability measurements for several different
formations are shown in Fig.7 and Fig.8.

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 These data may be useful when it is necessary to estimate
the relative permeability characteristics of a reservoir where
actual laboratory data are unavailable. When available, other
pertinent data concerning the character of the formations are
presented, in addition to the relative permeability data.

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 Examples of the validity of empirical equations
(correlations) used to model the calculated relative permeability
are shown in Fig.9 and Fig.10, where calculated relative
permeabilities are compared to measured relative permeabilities
on two different core samples selected at random. It can be seen
from examination of the figures that, in general, agreement is
quite good. In some cases a better match would be obtained by
shifting the measured data a constant amount.

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 Torcaso and Wyllie" have also published a method of
calculating relative permeability ratios which is reported to have
been confirmed by laboratory data. Their expression is:

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Concept of Reservoir Management:
Reservoir management involves the best utilization of available
technological, manpower and financial resources to get maximum
profit by optimum recovery and minimum cost. It requires concerted
effort to achieve desired goals as stated above. Through sound
reservoir management practice oil and gas recovery from the field can
be enhanced and profit can be maximized.
The modem reservoir management process envisages the team
work and integration of various aspects of field operations including
different types of personnel involved. Goal setting, planning,
implementing, monitoring, evaluating, and revising plans are part of
the stages of reservoir management.
Oil and Gas Field Development and Planning:
Oil and gas field development includes drilling of wells over an
reservoir (well spacing) and order of their drilling, control of movement
of oil & gas to the wells by proper spacing pattern, operating condition
of production and injection wells, control of reservoir energy through
gas/ water injection; and cost element based on the most economical
withdrawal rate.
In other words decision is based on techno-economic aspects, where
technology has to be sound and economically viable.

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References:
1. Sylvain J Pirson, Oil Reservoir Engineering, Prentice
Hall NY 2nd Ed. 1958.
2. Frank W Cole, Reservoir Engineering Manual, gulf Publishing,
TX 2nd Ed. 1969.
3. A. Satter and G. C. Thakur, Integrated Petroleum Reservoir
Management: A Team Approach, Gulf Publishing Co. 1994.
4. M.L. Wiggins and R.A. Startzman: An Approach to Reservoir
Management, SPE 20747, 65th ATCE LA, 1990.
5. C. C. Mezzomo and D. J. Schiozer: Field Development Planning
Optimization Using Reservoir Simulation, www.researchgate.net
2014.
6. J. Efrain Rodriguez-Sanchez, J. Martin Godoy-Alcantar, Israel
Ramirez-Antonio, Concept Selection for Hydrocarbon Field
Development Planning, http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/eng.2012.411102
Engineering, 2012.

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