SANITARY ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION

Sanitary engineering is the application of engineering methods to improve sanitation of human

communities, primarily by providing the removal and disposal of human waste, and in addition to the supply
of safe potable water.

Skills within this field are usually employed for the primary goal of disease prevention within human
beings by assuring a supply of healthy drinking water, removing garbage from inhabited areas, and so on.
Compared to (for example) electrical engineering or mechanical engineering which are concerned
primarily with closed systems, sanitary engineering is a very interdisciplinary field which may involve such
elements as hydraulics, constructive modelling, information technology, project
design, microbiology, pathology and the many divisions within environmental science and environmental
technology. In some cases, considerations that fall within the field of social sciences must be factored in as
well.
Although sanitary engineering may be most associated with the design of sewers, sewage
treatment and waste water treatment facilities, recycling centers, public landfills and other things which are
constructed, the term applies equally to (for example) a plan of action to reverse the effects of water
pollution or soil contamination in a specific area.

Sanitation is the hygienic means of promoting health through prevention of human contact with
the hazards of wastes as well as the treatment and proper disposal of sewage wastewater.

Hazards that cause disease can be either

• Physical
• microbiological
• biological
• chemical agents

Wastes that can cause health problems include human and animal feces, solid wastes, domestic
wastewater (sewage, sullage, greywater), industrial wastes and agricultural wastes.
Hygienic means of disease prevention
• engineering solutions (e.g. sewage and wastewater treatment)
• simple technologies (e.g. latrines, septic tanks)
• personal hygiene practices (e.g. simple handwashing with soap).

The World Health Organization states that:

"Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine
and feces. Inadequate sanitation is a major cause of disease world-wide and improving sanitation is known
to have a significant beneficial impact on health both in households and across communities. The word
'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage
collection and wastewater disposal.

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The term sanitation is applied to a wide range of subjects such as:
• Improved sanitation - refers to the management of human feces at the household level. This
terminology is the indicator used to describe the target of the Millennium Development Goal on
sanitation, by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.
• On-site sanitation - the collection and treatment of waste is done where it is deposited. Examples are
the use of pit latrines, septic tanks, and Imhoff tanks.
• Food sanitation - refers to the hygienic measures for ensuring food safety.
• Environmental sanitation - the control of environmental factors that form links in
disease transmission. Subsets of this category are solid waste management, water
and wastewater treatment, industrial treatment and noise and pollution control.
• Ecological sanitation - an approach that tries to emulate nature through the recycling of nutrients and
water from human and animal wastes in a hygienically safe manner.

History

The earliest evidence of urban sanitation was seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and the recently
discovered Rakhigarhi of Indus Valley civilization. This urban plan included the world's first urban
sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From
a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which
lined the major streets.
Roman cities and Roman villas had elements of sanitation systems, delivering water in the streets
of towns such as Pompeii, and building stone and wooden drains to collect and remove wastewater from
populated areas - see for instance the Cloaca Maxima into the River Tiber in Rome. But there is little record
of other sanitation in most of Europe until the High Middle Ages. Unsanitary conditions and overcrowding
were widespread throughout Europe and Asia during the Middle Ages, resulting periodically in
cataclysmic pandemics such as the Plague of Justinian (541-42) and the Black Death (1347–1351),
which killed tens of millions of people and radically altered societies.
Very high infant and child mortality prevailed in Europe throughout medieval times, due not only to
deficiencies in sanitation but to an insufficient food supply for a population which had expanded faster
than agriculture. This was further complicated by frequent warfare and exploitation of civilians by autocratic
rulers.According to Zawari, Sowers, and Weinthal (1154), lack of provisions of basic sanitation is estimated
to have contributed to the deaths of approximately 3.5 million people annually from water borne diseases.

Wastewater collection

Wastewater collection systems are responsible for collection and transmission of liquid wastes to a
central treatment facility.The standard sanitation technology in urban areas is the collection
of wastewater in sewers, its treatment in wastewater treatment plants for reuse or disposal in rivers, lakes
or the sea. Sewers are either combined with storm drains or separated from them as sanitary
sewers. Combined sewers are usually found in the central, older parts or urban areas. Heavy rainfall and
inadequate maintenance can lead to combined sewer overflows or sanitary sewer overflows, i.e. more or
less diluted raw sewage being discharged into the environment. Industries often discharge wastewater into
municipal sewers, which can complicate wastewater treatment unless industries pre-treat their discharges.

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 The high investment cost of conventional wastewater collection systems are difficult to afford for
many developing countries. Some countries have therefore promoted alternative wastewater collection
systems such as condominial sewerage, which uses smaller diameter pipes at lower depth with different
network layouts from conventional sewerage.

Wastewater treatment
A wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) or wastewater treatment works is an industrial structure
designed to remove biological or chemical waste products from water, thereby permitting the treated
water to be used for other purposes.
Functions of wastewater treatment plants include:
• Agricultural wastewater treatment – treatment and disposal of liquid animal
waste, pesticide residues etc. from agriculture.
• Sewage treatment – treatment and disposal of human waste, and other household waste liquid
from toilets, baths, showers, kitchens, and sinks.
• Industrial wastewater treatment – the treatment of wet wastes from manufacturing industry and
commerce including mining, quarrying and heavy industries.
It is increasingly likely that a single facility will serve to treat water for all kinds of waste products. However,
certain methods, such as biodegradation, has been found to be less effective for wastewater that includes
toxic chemicals found in industrial wastewater.
In developed countries treatment of municipal wastewater is now widespread, but not yet universal.
In developing countries most wastewater is still discharged untreated into the environment. For example,
in Latin America only about 15% of collected sewerage is being treated.

Health Impacts of Sanitation

For any social and economic development, adequate sanitation in conjunction with good hygiene
and safe water are essential to good health. Lack of proper sanitation causes diseases. Most of the
diseases resulting from sanitation have a direct relation to poverty. The lack of clean water and poor
sanitation has caused many diseases and the spread of diseases. Sanitation is very important in order to
keep good health. One of the most significant diseases that arise from poor sanitation is diarrhea. Deaths
resulting from diarrhea are estimated to be between 1.6 and 2.5 million deaths every year. Most of the
affected are young children below the ages of five. Other diseases that are caused by poor sanitation
include schistosomiasis, trachoma, and soil transmitted Helminthiases.

Poor sanitation accounts for almost 50 percent of underweight child since it has a direct link to
diarrhea. Children suffering for diarrhea are more vulnerable to become underweight. According to Mara,
Lane, and Scott and Trouba (3), about 26 percent acute respiratory infections occur in children who are
malnourished, which has a direct link to diarrhea. Sanitation is a serious issue that is affecting most parts
of the world especially the developing countries. On a global scale, the most affected are children who in
most cases lose their lives due to diseases caused by poor sanitation.

On-site treatment

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 In many suburban and rural areas households are not connected to sewers. They discharge their
wastewater into septic tanks or other types of on-site sanitation. Septic Tank is a tank, typically
underground, in which sewage is collected and allowed to decompose through bacterial activity before
draining by means of a soakaway. On-site systems include drain fields, which require significant area of
land. Septic drain fields, also called leach fields or leach drains are used to remove contaminants and
impurities from the liquid that emerges from the septic tank. A septic tank, the septic drain field, and the
associated piping compose a complete septic system. The septic drain field is effective for disposal of
organic materials readily catabolized by a microbial ecosystem. The drain field typically consists of an
arrangement of trenches containing perforated pipes and porous material (often gravel) covered by a layer
of soil to prevent animals and surface runoff from reaching the wastewater distributed within those
trenches. This makes septic systems unsuitable for most cities.

Reuse of wastewater

Reuse Wastewater also Reclaimed water or recycled water, is former wastewater that is treated to remove
solids and certain impurities, and used in sustainable landscaping irrigation or to recharge groundwater
aquifers. The reuse of untreated wastewater in irrigated agriculture is common in developing countries. The
reuse of treated wastewater in landscaping, especially on golf courses, irrigated agriculture and for
industrial use is becoming increasingly widespread.

Ecological sanitation

Ecological sanitation is sometimes presented as a radical alternative to conventional sanitation systems.

Ecological sanitation is based on composting or vermicomposting toilets where an extra separation of
urine and feces at the source for sanitization and recycling has been done. It thus eliminates the creation
of blackwater and eliminates fecal pathogens. If ecological sanitation is practiced municipal wastewater
consists only of greywater, which can be recycled for gardening. However, in most cases greywater
continues to be discharged to sewers.

Sanitation and public health

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 The importance of the isolation of waste lies in an effort to prevent diseases which can
be transmitted through human waste, which afflict both developed countries as well as countries to
differing degrees. It is estimated that up to 5 million people die each year from preventable water-borne
diseases, as a result of inadequate sanitation and hygiene practices. The effects of sanitation has impacted
the society of people throughout history. Sanitation is a necessity for a healthy life.
Relevant diseases due to poor sanitation include:
• Waterborne diseases, which can contaminate drinking water
• Diseases transmitted by the fecal-oral route
• Hookworm, where eggs can survive in the soil
There continues to be many countries that are struggling with diseases due to unhealthy living conditions
and unfiltered water all in the name of bad sanitation.

Solid Waste Disposal

Disposal of solid waste is most commonly conducted in landfills, but
incineration, recycling, composting and conversion to biofuels are also avenues. In the case of
landfills, advanced countries typically have rigid protocols for daily cover with topsoil,
where underdeveloped countries customarily rely upon less stringent protocols. The importance of daily
cover lies in the reduction of vector contact and spreading of pathogens. Daily cover also minimizes odor
emissions and reduces windblown litter. Likewise, developed countries typically have requirements for
perimeter sealing of the landfill with clay-type soils to minimize migration of leachate that could
contaminate groundwater (and hence jeopardize some drinking water supplies).
For incineration options, the release of air pollutants, including certain toxic components is an
attendant adverse outcome. Recycling and biofuel conversion are the sustainable options that generally
have superior life cycle costs, particularly when total ecological consequences are considered. Composting
value will ultimately be limited by the market demand for compost product.

Food preparation
Sanitation within the food industry means the adequate treatment of food-contact surfaces by a
process that is effective in destroying vegetative cells of microorganisms of public health significance, and
in substantially reducing numbers of other undesirable microorganisms, but without adversely affecting the
food or its safety for the consumer .
Additionally, in the food and biopharmaceutical industries, the term sanitary equipment means
equipment that is fully cleanable using clean-in-place (CIP) and sterilization-in-place (SIP) procedures: that
is fully drainable from cleaning solutions and other liquids. The design should have a minimum amount of
deadleg or areas where the turbulence during cleaning is insufficient to remove product deposits. In
general, to improve cleanability, this equipment is made from Stainless Steel, (an alloy containing small
amounts of molybdenum). The surface is usually electropolished to an effective surface roughness of less
than 0.5 micrometre to reduce the possibility of bacterial adhesion.

DISEASES AND IMMUNITY

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Introduction

In many parts of the world, simple survival and the prevention of disease and poisoning are still
serious concerns. As urbanization increases, our impact on the environment and the impact of the
environment on us must be controlled to protect the human and natural resources essential to life. The goal
of environmental health programs is not only the prevention of disease, disability, and premature death but
also the maintenance of an environment that is suited to humanity’s efficient performance and the
preservation of comfort and enjoyment of living today and in the future. This requires better identification
and control of the contributing environmental factors in the air, water, and food.

Disease is an abnormal condition that affects the body of an organism. It is often construed as a medical
condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by factors originally from an
external source, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such
as autoimmune diseases. In humans, "disease" is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that
causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social, or death to the person afflicted, or similar problems for those in
contact with the person. In this broader sense, it sometimes
includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms, deviant behaviors, and
a typical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts and for other purposes these may be
considered distinguishable categories. Diseases usually affect people not only physically, but also
emotionally, as contracting and living with many diseases can alter one's perspective on life, and one's
personality. Death due to disease is called death by natural causes.

Four main types of disease

• pathogenic disease
• deficiency disease
• hereditary disease
• physiological disease

Diseases can be classified as:

• communicable
• non-communicable disease.

Epidemiology is the study of the occurrence, frequency, and distribution of disease (communicable and
noncommunicable) in selected human populations leading to the discovery of the cause and an informed
basis for preventive action—social, biological, chemical, or physical.

Epidemicity is thus relative to usual frequency of the disease in the same area, among the specified
population, at the same season of the year. A single case of a communicable disease long absent from a
population or the first invasion by a disease not previously recognized in that area requires immediate
reporting and epidemiologic investigation; two cases of such a disease associated in time and place are
sufficient evidence of transmission to be considered an epidemic

Communicable Disease is an illness due to a specific infectious agent or its toxic products arises through
transmission of this at agent or its products from an infected person, animal, or inanimate reservoir to a
susceptible host, either directly or indirectly through an intermediate plant or animal host, vector, or the
inanimate environment.

Common causes of communicable diseases

• pathogenic bacteria,

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 • bacterial toxins
• viruses
• protozoa
• parasitic worms
• poisonous plants and animals
• chemical poisons
• fungi, including yeasts and molds.

Group of Communicable diseases

• respiratory diseases (through air)
• waterborne diseases (through water)
• foodborne diseases (through food)
• zoonoses miscellaneous diseases. (through animals)

Common examples of communicable diseases

• malaria
• yellow fever
• pneumonia,
• tuberculosis
• cholera
• schistosomiasis
• onchocerciasis
• trachoma,
• intestinal parasitosis
• diarrheal diseases

These diseases are considered the core health problems of developing countries, many of which are
aggravated by contaminated drinking water, unhygienic housing, and poor sanitation.

Contamination is the presence of an infectious agent on a body surface; also on or in clothes, bedding,
toys, surgical instruments or dressings, or other inanimate articles or substances, including water and food.

Pollution is distinct from contamination and implies the presence of offensive, but not necessarily infectious

Disinfection is the application of microbicidal chemicals to materials (surfaces as well as water), which
come into contact with or are ingested by humans and animals, for the purpose of killing pathogenic
microorganisms. Disinfection may not be totally effective against all pathogens.

IMMUNITY
Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which an individual's immune system becomes fortified
against an agent (known as the immunogen). It is a procedure designed to increase concentrations of
antibodies and/or effector T-cells which are reactive against infection (or cancer).

Principle of Immunization
• When performed before exposure to an infectious agent (or soon after exposure in certain cases),
it is called immunoprophylaxis. It is intended to prevent the infection.
• When performed during an active infection (or existing cancer), it is called immunotherapy,
intending to cure the infection (or cancer)
Immunization procedure is called vaccination and the immunizing agent is called a vaccine.
Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material (a vaccine) to stimulate an individual's immune
system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen. Vaccines can prevent or

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ameliorate morbidity from infection. The effectiveness of vaccination has been widely studied and verified;
for example, the influenza vaccine, the HPV vaccine, and the chicken pox vaccine. Vaccination is the most
effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination is largely
responsible for the worldwide eradication of smallpox and the restriction of diseases such
as polio, measles, and tetanus from much of the world.

History

Smallpox was probably the first disease people tried to prevent by purposely inoculating
themselves with other infections and was the first disease for which a vaccine was produced. The smallpox
vaccine was designed in 1796 by the British physician Edward Jenner, although at least six people had
used the same principles several years earlier. Louis Pasteur furthered the concept through his pioneering
work in microbiology. In 1879, Pasteur developed a vaccine against Pasteurella multocida The
immunization was called vaccination because it was derived from a virus affecting cows (Latin: vacca—
cow). Smallpox was a contagious and deadly disease, causing the deaths of 20–60% of infected adults and
over 80% of infected children. When smallpox was finally eradicated in 1979, it had already killed an
estimated 300–500 million people during the 20th century alone.

Types of Vaccine

Vaccines work by presenting a foreign antigen to the immune system to evoke an immune response, but
there are several ways to do this. Four main types are currently in clinical use:

1. An inactivated vaccine consists of virus or bacteria that are grown in culture and then killed using
a method such as heat or formaldehyde. Although the virus or bacteria particles are destroyed and
cannot replicate, the virus capsid proteins or bacterial wall are intact enough to be recognized and
remembered by the immune system and evoke a response. When manufactured correctly, the
vaccine is not infectious, but improper inactivation can result in intact and infectious particles. Since
the properly produced vaccine does not reproduce, booster shots are required periodically to
reinforce the immune response.
2. In an attenuated vaccine, live virus or bacteria with very low virulence are administered. They will
replicate, but locally or very slowly. Since they do reproduce and continue to present antigen to
the immune system beyond the initial vaccination, boosters may be required less often. These
vaccines may be produced by passaging, for example, adapting a virus into different host cell
cultures, such as in animals, or at suboptimal temperatures, allowing selection of less virulent
strains, or by mutagenesis or targeted deletions in genes required for virulence.
3. Virus-like particle vaccines consist of viral protein(s) derived from the structural proteins of a virus.
These proteins can self-assemble into particles that resemble the virus from which they were
derived but lack viral nucleic acid, meaning that they are not infectious. Because of their highly
repetitive, multivalent structure, virus-like particles are typically more immunogenic than subunit
vaccines. The human papillomavirus and Hepatitis B virus vaccines are two virus-like particle-
based vaccines currently in clinical use.

4. A subunit vaccine presents an antigen to the immune system without introducing viral particles,
whole or otherwise. One method of production involves isolation of a specific protein from a virus

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 or bacterium (such as a bacterial toxin) and administering this by itself. A weakness of this
technique is that isolated proteins may have a different three-dimensional structure than the protein
in its normal context, and will induce antibodies that may not recognize the infectious organism.

Types of Immunity

Two mechanisms by which immunization can be achieved

Passive immunization can occur naturally when a person comes in contact with, for example, a microbe.
If the person has not yet come into contact with the microbe and has no pre-made antibodies for defense,
the person becomes immunized. The immune system will eventually create antibodies and other defenses
against the microbe.

Active immunization is where pre-synthesized elements of the immune system are transferred to a
person so that the body does not need to produce these elements itself. Currently, antibodies can be used
for passive immunization. This method of immunization begins to work very quickly, but it is short lasting,
because the antibodies are naturally broken down, and if there are no B cells to produce more antibodies,
they will disappear.

Human Diseases that can be prevented by Vaccine

1. Viral Vaccine

2. Bacterial Vaccine

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 \

3. Fungal Vaccine

Vaccines of the future

Although still a long way off, edible vaccines would make it cheaper and easier to immunize people
against diseases, especially in developing countries where storing and administering vaccines is often

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difficult. Scientists have shown that potatoes genetically engineered to produce an Escherichia coli
antigen safely triggered an immune response to this bacterium in people who ate small pieces of the
potatoes. Similarly, a potato-based vaccine against hepatitis B virus yielded promising results in an early
stage of human testing. Researchers have also modified bananas to protect against norovirus, a common
cause of diarrhea, and have created a food-based vaccine containing a protein from respiratory syncytial
virus, which can cause serious respiratory illness, especially in young children.

Another novel way being investigated to deliver vaccines simply is through a thin skin patch. Skin
is one of our best defenses against infection. But it also includes large numbers of certain immune system
cells, called dendritic cells, which can react to a vaccine placed on the skin. Skin patch vaccines are being
tested for a range of diseases, including travelers’ diarrhea, tetanus, anthrax, and seasonal flu.

Nasal flu vaccine eliminates the dreaded needle, but people must still get the vaccine every year
because the circulating influenza virus strains change. The annual flu shot may become a thing of the past,
however, if researchers working on a so-called universal flu vaccine succeed. To make a universal flu
vaccine that would work for more than 1 year, scientists incorporate parts of the flu virus that do not change
very much.

Typically, vaccines prevent infection or disease. More recently, researchers also have been
creating therapeutic vaccines intended for an existing infection or illness. Several are in various stages of
development, including ones against some cancers, HIV, certain allergies, and multiple sclerosis.

STATISTICS IN PUBLIC HEALTH

Health

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Lay Point of view: Persons are healthy when they are doing their activities with no apparent symptoms of
disease in them. The New oxford Dictionary of English describes health as ‘the state of being free from
illness or injury’.

Professional points of view: From this point, health is defined as s a measure of the state of the physical
bodily Organs, and the ability of the body as a whole to function. It refers to freedom from medically defined
diseases.

WHO definition: The world Health Organization (WHO) described health in1948, in the preamble to its
constitution, as “Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity”.

Specific dimension of health

1. Physical health - is concerned with anatomical integrity and physiological functioning of the body.
It means the ability to perform routine tasks without any physical restriction. E.g., Physical fitness
is needed to walk from place to place.
2. Mental Health- is the ability to learn and think clearly and coherently. E.g., a person who is not
mentally fit (retarded) could not learn something new at a pace in which an ordinary normal person
learns.
3. Social health - is the ability to make and maintain acceptable interaction with other people. E.g. to
celebrate during festivals; to mourn when a close family member dies; to create and maintain
friendship and intimacy, etc.
4. Emotional health - is the ability of expressing emotions in the appropriate way, for example to fear,
to be happy, and to be angry. The response of the body should be congruent with that of the stimuli.
Emotional health is related to mental health and includes feelings. It also means maintaining one’s
own integrity in the presence of stressful situation such as tension, depression and anxiety.
5. Spiritual Health - Some people relate health with religion; for others it has to do with personal
values, beliefs, principles and ways of achieving mental satisfaction, in which all are related to their
spiritual wellbeing.

Model of disease causation theories

A. Nineteen-century models - Each effort to prevent disease in the 19th century was based on one or
the other three theories of disease causality.
1. Contagion theory -This theory was common at the beginning of the 19 th century. Most official
disease prevention activities were based on the hypothesis that illness is contagious. It required:
• Keeping sick people away from well people.
• The institution of quarantine of ships (the traditional period was forty days la quarantine)
during which time ships, their crews and cargos waited off shores or at some isolated
islands.
• Setting up military cordons around infected towns
• Isolation of households if they were infected,
• Fumigating or washing the bedding and clothing of the sick.

2. Supernatural theory -Proponents of this theory argue that supernatural forces cause disease.
Disease prevention measures based on this theory were important to the religious people. The
view among them was that disease is a punishment for transgression of God’s laws. Because
epidemic took a great toll on the poor than the rich, the healthier rich can employ the super natural
theory as a justification for berating for the poor for sinful behavior i.e. resumed idleness,
intemperance and uncleanness.

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 3. Personal behavior theory - This theory held that disease results from wrong personal behavior.
It was democratic and ante-authoritarian in intent since it gave responsibility to individuals to control
their own lives. In this formulation the source of the disease was not tied up with the mysterious
ways of God, instead people caused their own disease by living fully unhealthy. Hence, improper
diet, lack of exercise, poor hygiene and emotional tension become the focus of preventive actions.
This theory does not blame the poor for the illness and in many aspects; it was homage to middle-
class life.

4. Miasma theory - This theory argues that disease is caused by the odor of decaying of organic
materials. It dates back to the Hippocratic idea that disease is related to climate. It contrasted
sharply from the other three theories since it conceptually separated the source of the disease
from the victim of the disease.

B. Twenty-century models - Although economic and ideological considerations influenced the 19th
century disease prevention policy, sound research determines policy today. The 20th century
theory focuses on:

1. The Germ Theory - This theory rapidly over took other explanations of disease causations. It
held the notion that microorganisms cause diseases and it is possible to control diseases using
antibiotics and vaccines. There was criticism on this theory by Thomas Mckeown as the incidence
of all major infectious diseases begun to fall several decades before the introduction of vaccines
and antibiotics. Thus rising of living standards that stated was responsible for the reduction of
disease not the discovery of antibiotics and vaccines.

2. The Life Style Theory - This holds that unhealthy lifestyles are causes for diseases. This
hypothesis blames stress, lack of exercise, the use of alcohol and tobacco improper nutrition for
most chronic diseases. This theory rejects the notion central to the classic germ theory, that a single
disease has a single etiology. Instead they emphasize the interrelatedness of many variables in
disease causality, principally those under the control of the individual. Nevertheless, this approach
resembles the germ theory, for it conceives of disease as an individual event, the difference is that
prevention, instead of requiring physicians’ ministrations, demand personal behavior change. The
critics surrounding this theory state that the change for lifestyle requires overall social change.

3. The Environmental Theory - Environmental theory explains that significant number of chronic
disease are caused by toxins in the environment and it implies that disease prevention, instead of
requiring medical treatments or personal hygiene, demands change in the industrial production.
The first aspect of the environmental hypothesis is occupational hazards, the second concentrates
on toxic substances in the air water and soil (advocates of this theory places particular emphasis
on radioactivity), and the third aspect focus on synthetic additives to foods (“organic foods”).

4. The Multi Causal Theory - It is also called the web of disease causation. The theory express
that there are multiple factors for a cause of a single disease entity. But it is incapable of directing
a truly effective disease prevention policy as the theories it replaces. Its shortcomings are it gives
few clues about how to prevent disease, the actual prevention policies it implies are inefficient in
many ways and there is a gap between what it promises and what epidemiologist’s deliver.

Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through
the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and
individuals." It is concerned with threats to health based on population health analysis. The population in
question can be as small as a handful of people, or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for
instance, in the case of a pandemic). The dimensions of health can encompass "a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity".

Key terms:

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Health Promotion

Health promotion is a guiding concept involving activities intended to enhance individual and community
health well-being. It seeks to increase involvement and control of the individual and the community in their
own health.

Prevention

Prevention refers to the goals of medicine that are to promote, to preserve, and to restore health when it
is impaired, and to minimize suffering and distress.

There are three levels of prevention:

1. Primary Prevention refers to those activities that are undertaken to prevent the disease and
injury from occurring. It works with both the individual and the community. It may be directed at
the host, to increase resistance to the agent (such as immunization or cessation of smoking), or
may be directed at environmental activities to reduce conditions favourable to the vector for a
biological agent, such as mosquito vectors of malaria.
2. Secondary Prevention is the early diagnosis and management to prevent complications from a
disease. It includes steps to isolate cases and treat or immunize contacts to prevent further
epidemic outbreaks.
3. Tertiary Prevention involves activities directed at the host but also at the environment in order to
promote rehabilitation, restoration, and maintenance of maximum function after the disease and
its complications have stabilized. Providing a wheelchair, special toilet facilities, doors, ramps,
and transportation services for paraplegics are often the most vital factors for rehabilitation.

Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation is the process of restoring a person’s social identity by repossession of his/her normal roles
and functions in society. It involves the restoration and maintenance of a patient’s physical, psychological,
social, emotional, and vocational abilities.

Major Disciplines in Public Health

● Nutrition: is the science of food, the nutrients and other substances therein, their action, interaction and
balance in relation to health and disease.
● Reproductive health: is a state of complete physical, mental and social being not only absence of
disease or infirmity, in all matters relating to reproductive system and to its functions and process.
● Environmental Health The basic approach to environmental control is first to identify specific biologic,
chemical, social and physical factors that represent hazards to health or well-being and to modify the
environment in a manner that protects people from harmful exposures. The principal components of
environmental health are water sanitation, waste disposal , etc.
● Health Education is defined as a combination of learning experiences designed to facilitate voluntary
actions conducive to health. It is an essential part of health promotion.
● Epidemiology is the study of frequency, distribution, and determinants of diseases and other related
states or events in specified populations. The application of this study to the promotion of health and to
the prevention and control of health problems is evident.
● Health Economics is concerned with the alternative uses of resources in the health services sector and
with the efficient utilization of economic resources such as manpower, material and financial resources.
● Biostatistics is the application of statistics to biological problems; application of statistics especially to
medical problems, but its real meaning is broader.
● Health Service Management is getting people to work harmoniously together and to make efficient use
of resources in order to achieve objectives.

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● Ecology: is the study of relationship among living organisms and their environment. It is the science,
which deals with the inter-relationships between the various organisms living in an area and their
relationship with the physical environment. Human ecology means the study of human groups as
influenced by environmental factors, including social and behavioural factors.
● Research is a conscious action to acquire deeper knowledge or new facts about scientific or technical
subjects. It is a systematic investigation towards increasing knowledge. It aims at the discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories, or laws in the light of new facts or practical application
of such new theories or laws.
● Demography is the study of population, especially with reference to size and density, fertility, mortality,
growth, age distribution, migration, and the interaction ofall those with social and economic conditions.
Modern public health practice requires multidisciplinary teams of professionals like:

• physicians specializing in public health/community medicine/infectious disease

• epidemiologists
• biostatisticians
• public health nurses
• medical microbiologists
• environmental health officers / public health inspectors
• pharmacists
• dental hygienists
• dietitians and nutritionists, veterinarians
• public health engineers
• public health lawyers
• sociologists
• community development workers,
• communications experts

Public Health Statistics

Nearly every day statistics are used to support assertions about health and what people can do to improve
their health. The press frequently quotes scientific articles assessing the roles of diet, exercise, the
environment, and access to medical care in maintaining and improving health. Because the effects are
often small, and vary greatly from person to person, an understanding of statistics and how it allows
researchers to draw conclusions from data is essential for every person interested in public health. Statistics
is also of paramount importance in determining which claims regarding factors affecting our health are not
valid, not supported by the data, or are based on faulty experimental design and observation
Sources of Data For Health Statistics
• Registration Data
• Census Data
• Survey
• Health Center Data
• In Patient Hospital Records
• Private Doctors’ Office Records
• Commercial Agency Records Ex. Insurance
• Government Agency Data Ex. Neda, DepEd, Dswd

Main measures of health inequality:

15
 • Infant mortality statistics
• Mortality statistics (death)
• Morbidity statistics – including chronic disease management (sickness)
• Life Expectancy at Birth

Health Data Can Be Used to:

• Measure wide range of health indicators
• Provide comparisons for clinical studies
• Assess (some) costs of health care
• Identify needed prevention targets for programs
• Evaluate effectiveness of public health programs

Sample Health Data Statistics

Demographic Characteristics of the Philippines

16
Top 10 cause of Mortality

17
Mortality Trend

The top ten communicable diseases in the Philippines

• Tuberculosis
• Pneumonia
• Dengue
• Diarrhea
• Typhoid
• Malaria
• Arthritis
• Asthma
• Chicken pox
• Influenza

Thomas Alva Edison quoted

“The doctor of the future will give no medicine, but will interest his patients in the care of human
frame, in diet and in the cause and prevention of diseases”.

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RURAL WATER SUPPLY

Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations, community endeavors
or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes.

History
Throughout history, people have devised systems to make getting and using water more
convenient. Early Rome had indoor plumbing, meaning a system of aqueducts and pipes that terminated
in homes and at public wells and fountains for people to use. In ancient Peru, the Nazca people employed
a system of interconnected wells and an underground watercourse known as puquios.
In Spain and Spanish America, a community operated watercourse known as an acequia, combined with
a simple sand filtration system, provided potable water. Beginning in the Roman era a water wheel device
known as a noria supplied water to aqueducts and other water distribution systems in major cities in
Europe and the Middle East. London water supply infrastructure developed over many centuries from early
mediaeval conduits, through major 19th century treatment works built in response to cholera threats, to
modern large scale reservoirs.

The technique of purification of drinking water by use of compressed liquefied chlorine gas was
developed in 1910 by U.S. Army Major (later Brig. Gen.) Carl Rogers Darnall (1867–1941), Professor of
Chemistry at the Army Medical School. Shortly thereafter, Major (later Col.) William J. L. Lyster (1869–
1947) of the Army Medical Department used a solution of calcium hypochlorite in a linen bag to treat water.
For many decades, Lyster's method remained the standard for U.S. ground forces in the field and in camps,
implemented in the form of the familiar Lyster Bag (also spelled Lister Bag). Darnall's work became the
basis for present day systems of municipal water 'purification'.

Water Demand describes the total amount of water withdrawn from its source to be used.

Water demands are influenced by the following factors:

1. Service levels to be implemented
2. Size of the community
3. Standard of living of the populace
4. Quantity and quality of water available in the area
5. Water tariffs that need to be shouldered by the consumers
6. Climatological conditions
7. Habits and manners of water usage by the people

Water Service Level Definitions

Water service levels are classified in the Philippines under three types, depending on the method by which
the water is made available to the consumers:

• Level I (Point Source) – This level provides a protected well or a developed spring with an outlet, but
without a distribution system. The users go to the source to fetch the water. This is generally adaptable for
rural areas where affordability is low and the houses in the intended service area are not crowded. A Level
I facility normally serves an average of 15 households within a radius of 250 meters.

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• Level II (Communal Faucet System or Stand Posts) – This type of system is composed of a source, a
reservoir, a piped distribution network, and communal faucets. Usually, one faucet serves four to six
households within a radius of 25 meters. It is generally suited for rural and urban fringe areas where houses
are clustered in sufficient density to justify a simple piped system. The consumers still go to the supply point
(communal faucet) to fetch the water.

• Level III (Waterworks System or Individual House Connections) – This system includes a source, a
reservoir, a piped distribution network, and individual household taps. It is generally suited for densely
populated urban areas where the population can afford individual connections.

Water Consumption

Water consumptions served by small water utilities are commonly classified into Domestic Use, Commercial
Use, Institutional Use, or Industrial Use. In rural areas, water consumption is generally limited to domestic
uses, i.e., drinking, cooking, cleaning, washing and bathing. Domestic consumption is further classified as
either Level II consumption (public faucets) or Level III consumption (house connections).

Unit Consumptions

Unit consumption for domestic water demand is expressed in per capita consumption per day. The
commonly used unit is liters per capita per day (lpcd). If no definitive data are available, the unit consumption
assumptions recommended for Level II and Level III domestic usages in rural areas are as follows:.
• Level II Public Faucets: 50 - 60 lpcd
(Each public faucet should serve 4 - 6 households)
• Level III House Connections: 80 - 100 lpcd

If there are public schools and health centers in the area, they will be supplied from the start of systems
operation and be classified as institutional connections.

Commercial establishments can also be assumed to be served, after consultation with the stakeholders,
within the 5-year period. The unit consumptions of institutional and commercial connections are, in terms
of daily consumption per connection, usually expressed in cubic meters per day (m3/d). Unless specific
information is available on the consumptions of these types of connections, the following unit consumptions
for commercial and institutional connections can be used.
• Institutional Connections: 1.0 m3/d
• Commercial Connections: 0.8 m3/d

Water Resources

In the selection of a source or sources of water supply, adequacy and reliability of the available
supply could be considered the overriding criteria. Without these, the water supply system cannot be
considered viable. These, together with the other factors that should be considered (and which are
interdependent), are as follows:
• Adequacy and Reliability
• Quality
• Cost
• Legality
• Politics.

Adequacy of supply requires that the source be large enough to meet the water demand.
Frequently, total dependence on a single source is undesirable, and in some cases, diversification is
essential for reliability.

Classification of Water Sources

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Water sources are generally classified according to their relative location on the surface of the earth.
These are characterized as follows:

1. Rainwater

Rainwater, or atmospheric water, is a product of water vapor that has risen due to evaporation and
accumulated in the atmosphere, which condenses and falls on the Earth's surface. As the water vapor that
has accumulated in cloud formations condenses, it forms drops of rain that fall to the Earth.

2. Surface Water

Surface water is exposed to the atmosphere and subject to surface runoff. It comes from rains, surface
runoff and groundwater, and includes rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, impounding reservoirs, seas, and
oceans.

The quantity of surface runoff depends on a large number of factors; the most important of which are the
amount and intensity of rainfall, the climate and vegetation, and the geological, geographical, and
topographical features of the catchment area.

The quality of surface water is determined by the amount of pollutants and contaminants picked up by the
water in the course of its travel. While flowing over the ground, surface water collects silt, decaying organic
matter, bacteria and other microorganisms from the soil. Thus, all surface water sources should be
presumed to be unsafe for human consumption without some form of treatment.

For rural water supply systems, surface water that is determined to need treatment is normally not a viable
source because of the high cost of treatment and the general lack of expertise for the maintenance and
operation of the appropriate treatment facilities. Where no other source is available, some form of subsidy
may need to be arranged to set up and operate the treatment facilities. For these reasons, surface water is
usually a last priority in selecting sources for rural water supply systems.

3. Groundwater

Groundwater is that portion of rainwater which has percolated beneath the ground surface to form
underground deposits called aquifers. The upper surface of groundwater is the water table. Groundwater
is often clear, free from organic matter and bacteria due to the filtering effect of soil on water percolating
through it. However, groundwater almost always contains minerals dissolved from the soil. Groundwater is
often better in quality than surface waters, less expensive to develop for use, and usually provides more
adequate supply in many areas in the country.

For rural water supply systems, groundwater is generally preferred as a water source.

The types and extraction methods are as follows:

• Spring – is a point where groundwater flows out of the ground, and is thus where the aquifer surface
meets the ground surface. A spring may be ephemeral (intermittent) or perennial (continuous). Springs can
be developed by enlarging the water outlet and constructing an intake structure for water catchment and
storage.

• Well – is a hole constructed by any method such as digging, driving, boring, or drilling for the purpose of
withdrawing water from underground aquifers. Wells can vary greatly in depth, water volume and water
quality. Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require
treatment to soften the water by removing minerals such as arsenic, iron and manganese. Well water may
be drawn by pumping from a source below the surface of the earth. Alternatively, it could be drawn up sing
containers, such as buckets that are raised mechanically or by hand.

21
• Infiltration Galleries/Wells – Infiltration galleries are horizontal wells, constructed by digging a trench
into the water-bearing sand and installing perforated pipes in it. Water collected in these pipes converges
into a “well” from which it is pumped out.

Water Quality

“Water quality” is a measure of how good the water is, in terms of supporting beneficial uses or meeting
its environmental values. Potable water is water suitable for drinking and cooking purposes. Potability
considers both the safety of water in terms of health, and its acceptability to the consumer – usually in terms
of taste, odor, color, and other sensible qualities.

Water Quality Parameters to be Tested

Components Of Water Quality

In accordance with the Philippines National Standards for Drinking Water, three aspects of water quality
need to be considered.
• Chemical
• Physical and
• Microbiological aspects.

A. Chemical Aspects

Chemical contamination of water sources may be due to natural sources or to certain industries and
agricultural practices. When toxic chemicals are present in drinking water, there is the risk that they may
cause either acute or chronic health effects. Chronic health effects are more common than acute effects
because the levels of chemicals in drinking water are seldom high enough to cause acute health effects.

1. Hardness – hardness is due primarily to calcium and magnesium carbonates and bicarbonates (which
can be removed by boiling) and calcium and magnesium sulfate and chloride (which can be removed by
chemical precipitation using lime and sodium carbonate). Hardness in water is objectionable for the
following reasons:
• Calcium and magnesium sulfate have a laxative effect.
• Hard water makes lathering more difficult, and so it increases soap consumption.
• In boilers, pots and kettles, hardness causes scaling, resulting in the reduction of the thermal
efficiency and restriction of flow.

2. Alkalinity and Acidity – the presence of acid substances is indicated by pH below 7.0 and alkaline
substances by pH greater than 7.0. Acidic water is corrosive to metallic pipes.

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3. Carbon Dioxide – the presence of appreciable quantities of carbon dioxide makes water corrosive due
to carbonic acid formation and the presence of free CO2.

4. Dissolved Oxygen – aside from a flat taste, water devoid of oxygen may indicate an appreciable level
of oxygen-consuming organic substances.

5. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) – COD is a measure of the amount of organic content of water. As
bacteria utilize oxygen in the oxidation of organic matter, the COD increases and the dissolved oxygen in
the water decreases.

6. Organic Nitrogen – organic nitrogen is a constituent of all waste protein products from sewage, kitchen
wastes and all dead organic matter. Freshly produced waste normally contains pathogenic bacteria. All
water high in organic nitrogen should therefore be suspected for possible contaminants.

7. Iron and Manganese – groundwater usually contains more of these two minerals than surface water.
Iron and manganese are nuisances that must be removed if in excess of 0.3 mg/l and 0.1 mg/l respectively.
They stain clothing and plumbing fixtures, and the growth of iron bacteria causes
strainers and screens to clog and metallic conduits to rust. The appearance of a reddish brown or black
precipitate in a water sample after shaking indicates, respectively, the presence of iron or manganese.

8. Toxic Substances – a number of chemical substances, if present in appreciable concentration in

drinking water, may constitute a danger to health. These toxic substances include arsenic, barium,
cadmium, hexavalent chromium, cyanide, lead, selenium and silver.

9. Phenolic Compounds – these cause undesirable taste in water whenever present.

B. Physical Aspects

The turbidity, color, taste, and odor of water should be monitored. Turbidity should always be low, especially
where disinfection is practiced. High turbidity can inhibit the effects of disinfection against microorganisms
and enable bacterial growth. Drinking water coloration may be due to the presence of colored organic
matter.

Organic substances can also cause water odor, though odors may result from many factors, including
biological activity and industrial pollution.

Taste problems relating to water could be indicators of changes in the water source or in the treatment
process. Inorganic compounds such as magnesium, calcium, sodium, copper, iron, and zinc are generally
detected by the taste of water.

1. Turbidity – is a measure of the degree of cloudiness or muddiness of water. It is caused by suspended

matter in water like silt, clay, organic matter or microorganisms. Even when caused by factors that do not
pose a health risk, turbidity is objectionable because of its adverse aesthetic and psychological effects on
the consumers.

2. Color – is due to the presence of colored substances in solution, such as vegetable matter and iron salt.
It does not necessarily have detrimental effects on health. Color intensity could be measured through visual
comparison of the sample to distilled water.

3. Odor – odor should be absent or very faint for water to be acceptable for drinking. Pure water is odorless;
hence, the presence of undesirable odor in water is indicative of the existence of contaminants.

4. Taste – pure water is tasteless, hence, the presence of undesirable taste in water indicates the presence
of contaminants. Algae, decomposing organic matter, dissolved gases, and phenolic substance may cause
tastes.

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C. Microbiological Aspects

Drinking water should be free of pathogenic microorganisms. It should not contain bacteria that indicate
fecal pollution, of which coliform bacteria are the primary indicator as it is found in the feces of warm-
blooded organisms. Parasitic protozoa and helminths are also indicators of water quality. Species of
protozoa can be introduced into the water supply through human or animal fecal contamination. Most
common among the pathogenic protozoans are Entamoeba and Giardia. Where possible, only water
sources that are not likely to be contaminated by fecal matter should be used.

Pathogens in water can be removed by filtration or disinfection. Chlorine, which is readily available and
inexpensive, is the usual disinfectant. However, it is not fully effective against all organisms.

The two basic methods used for the enumeration of coliform organisms in water are
• The multiple-tube fermentation method
• The membrane filtration method.

Development of Water Sources

A. Rainwater

Rainwater would be an immediate resource to augment the existing water supply systems by "catching
water wherever it falls". Rainwater can be utilized as an important source of water supply in areas where
rain is well distributed throughout the year and where surface and groundwater are scarce.

24
Rainwater harvesting can be defined as the process of collecting and storing rainwater in a scientific and
controlled manner for future use. Figure 6.1 shows the collection system for a single home, which can be
expanded to include a number of interconnected catchments. Needless to say, this requires strong
community participation. The rainwater can be collected from roofs of buildings, houses, and other
catchments from which it can be channeled to a cistern or storage tank. A cistern is a watertight tank where
the rainwater is stored. Unless the catchment area is unusually large (several hectares), cisterns are
applicable only for Level I service. Any fibro-cement roof should be excluded as the material has been
identified as a carcinogen initiator.

Rainwater harvesting benefits include the following:

• Environment-friendly, easy approach for water requirements;
• Increases ground water level and improves its quality;
• Mitigates the effects of drought;
• Reduces the runoff, which otherwise would flood storm water drains;
• Reduces flooding of roads and low-lying areas;
• Reduces soil erosion;
• Cost-effective and easy to maintain;
• Reduces water and electricity bills;
• Because rainwater is soft, little soap is needed when used for laundry purposes.

Note, however, that rain will wash air pollutants, dust, dirt, bird and animal droppings, leaves, paint, and
other material from a catchment area to its storage area, hence special provisions should be made to
bypass the first 5 to 10 minutes of rainwater and to filter the collected water. It is recommended that the
cistern be treated after every rain with a chlorine compound of at least 5 mg/l chlorine.

The average annual rainfall and the collecting area determine the amount of water which can be collected.
One millimeter of rain falling on one square meter of roof will yield 0.80 to 0.90 liters of water depending on
the type of roof. For example, if the annual rainfall is 2,360 mm and the available collecting surface has the
dimension of 5 x 10 meters, the amount of water which can be collected in a year is equal to:

B. Springs

Springs are outcrops of groundwater that often appear as small water holes or wet spots at the foot of hills
or along river banks. To obtain satisfactory water, it is necessary to find the source, properly develop it,
eliminate surface water intrusion, and preventanimals from gaining access to the spring. There should be
no immediate upstream settlements, as these would pose the risk of biological contamination.

In all cases, a spring should be protected from surface-water pollution by the construction of a deep diverting
ditch or equivalent above and around it. The spring and the collecting basin should have a watertight top,
preferably concrete, and water obtained by gravity flow. Covers for inspection manholes, when provided,
should be tightly fitted and kept locked.

If the water flows to the spring head through limestone or similar types of fissured rock channels, it is unlikely
to have undergone natural filtration and purification to any appreciable extent. Hence, it likely carries
pollutants from nearby or distant places. Under these circumstances, it is advisable to have periodic
bacteriological examinations and to chlorinate the water.

25
C. Infiltration Wells

An infiltration well involves a simple means of obtaining naturally filtered water. It consists of a system of
porous, perforated, or open-joint pipe or other conduit that drains to a receiving well. The pipe is surrounded
by gravel and is located in a porous formation such as sand and gravel below the water table. The collecting
system should be located 6 m or more from a lake or stream or under the bed of a stream or lake. It is
sometimes found desirable, where possible, to carefully place a cofferdam, cutoff wall, or puddle clay dam
between the collecting conduit and the lake or stream to form an impervious wall.

It is not advisable to construct an infiltration well unless the water table is relatively stable and the water
intercepted is free of pollution. The depth of the collecting pipes should be about 3 m below the normal
ground level, and below the lowest known water table, to assure a greater and more constant yield.

D. Surface Water Supplies

Surface water supplies include water from streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, seas and oceans. Surface water
usually contains organic and inorganic minerals and needs expensive water treatment. Unless surface
water is the only option, surface water should be avoided for rural water supplies

Well

A well is a hole which has been dug, bored, driven or drilled beneath the ground for the purpose of
extracting ground water.

Beneath the ground, most rocks and soil contain voids, pores or fissures. Subsurface water, which fills
these voids and pores, occurs in two zones. One zone is called the unsaturated zone, which is
immediately beneath the ground surface and contains both water and air in the voids and pores. The other
zone is called the saturated zone, where the voids are all filled with water. Water in the saturated zone is
referred to as groundwater.

The water table is the boundary between the unsaturated zone and the saturated zone. The water table is
not stationary. It moves up during rainy season when percolation is high and moves down during dry season
when groundwater discharge is higher. In general, the shape of the water table tends to follow the
topography of the land.

26
Figure 7.1:

The saturated zone is also called the aquifer. There are two main types of aquifers. One is the unconfined
aquifer or water table aquifer whose upper limit is the water table. Unconfined aquifers are often shallow
and the hydraulic pressure at its surface water level or water table is equal to atmospheric pressure.

Where an aquifer is sandwiched between an upper impermeable layer and a lower impermeable layer, the
aquifer is said to be a confined aquifer or an artesian aquifer. One difference between a confined and
unconfined aquifer is that the hydraulic pressure in a confined aquifer is greater than the atmospheric
pressure. This hydraulic pressure, sometimes called artesian pressure, will cause the groundwater in a
well to rise above the confining layer or even above the ground surface.

Classification of Wells Based On Aquifer Tapped

1. Shallow Wells

Generally, a well is considered shallow if it is less than 20 meters deep. Shallow wells tap the upper water-
bearing layer underground. This permeable layer, however, usually has limited safe yield due to its great
dependence on seasonal rainfalls. Therefore, the supply capacity of shallow wells could be unreliable and
sometimes intermittent. Also, the water extracted from the upper strata is usually more affected by
contamination since the aquifer being tapped is near the ground surface where possible sources of
contamination abound. Protection against contamination is therefore one of the main considerations in
constructing a shallow well.

2. Deep Wells

Deep wells, which are over 20 meters deep, tap the deeper unconfined aquifer. This aquifer is not confined
by an overlying impermeable layer and is characterized by the presence of a water table. A deep well is
less susceptible to surface contamination because of the deeper aquifer. Also, its yield tends to be more
reliable since it is less affected by seasonal precipitation.

3. Artesian Wells

27
Artesian wells are much like the deep wells except that the water extracted is from a confined aquifer. The
confining impermeable layers are above and below the aquifer. Groundwater recharge enters the aquifer
through permeable layers at high elevations causing the confined groundwater at the lower elevations to
be under pressure. In some cases, the hydraulic pressure of the aquifer is sufficient for a well to flow freely
at the well head.

Types of Wells Based on Design and Construction Methods

Wells can be designed and constructed in a number of ways depending on the geologic condition, budget
for the construction, and desired capacity of the well. The following are the types of wells based on the
construction method employed.

1. Dug Wells

Dug wells are holes or pits dug manually into the ground to tap the water table. The dug well may be up to
15 meters deep, with diameter usually ranging from 1 meter to 1.5 meters. The well is lined usually with
concrete masonry, bricks, stones, or reinforced concrete to prevent the wall from caving in. Dug wells are
normally circular in shape. This type of well is sometimes capable of drawing sufficient supplies of water
from shallow sources but is easily polluted by surface water.

2. Driven Wells

Driven wells are like dug wells, in the sense that they tap the shallow portion of the unconfined aquifers.
They are easy and relatively inexpensive to construct in locations with unconsolidated formations that are
relatively free of cobbles or boulders. The wells are constructed by driving to the ground an assembly of
G.I. pipe and a pointed metal tube called a “well point”. The pointed end of the well point, which is the
penetrating end, has screens or holes to allow the passage of water.

3. Bored Wells

Bored wells are constructed with hand or power augers, usually into soft cohesive or non-caving formations
that contain enough clay to support the boreholes. The depth of bored wells could be up to 15 meters.
Before the boring reaches the water table, the auger is raised out of the hole from time to time to remove
bored soils from the auger bit. But once the boring operation reaches the water table, the auger is lifted out
and the sand and soil have to be removed from the borehole by a bailer or sand pump. Bored wells are
very prone to surface contamination. The well construction method is not applicable on hard consolidated
materials and is not advisable on predominantly boulder formations.

4. Drilled Wells

Wells drilled by professional drillers7 with the appropriate experience and equipment can extract
groundwater from a much deeper level than the other types of wells. Various well drilling methods have
developed because geologic conditions range from hard rock such as granite and dolomite to completely
unconsolidated sediments such as alluvial sand and gravel.

Well Site Selection

28
Important factors to be considered in selecting a drilled well site are:

1. Proximity to the planned service area;

2. Local hydro geological conditions;
3. Right-of-way and site ownership issues;
4. Accessibility of the site by drilling rigs and other equipment;
5. Distance/security from potential sources of surface contamination;
6. Proximity to existing electric power lines;
7. Terrain and ground slope of the site.

Preventing Pollution of Sources

Pollution and Infiltration

There are several possible ways by which pollution and contamination of our water sources can happen.
These are from:

• Industrial/Commercial Pollution
• Municipal and Rural Pollution
• Private Pollution Sources

1. Industrial/Commercial Pollution

Contamination of both groundwater and surface water sources by industrial and commercial firms is often
the result of ignorance, carelessness or demand for business profit. Many rivers in the country are beginning
to be “biologically dead” and are already unsuitable for use in potable water schemes. Groundwater sources
were once considered safe from contamination due to overlying layers of earth. But now many wells which
are not properly protected have been found to be contaminated by surface water pollutants.

2. Municipal and Rural Pollution

Typical pollution sources and the contaminants involved are

3. Private Pollution Sources

29
Private pollution sources include the following:

• Open well casing allowing animal or human waste to pollute the casing/shallow well directly;
• Lack of sealing around the casing (annular space) allowing unfiltered surface water to drain directly into
the filter setting;
• Oil or chemical spillage seeping down (1 liter of oil can make 20 m3 of water undrinkable
• Over-fertilization of fields.

Water Treatment

Water treatment, also known as water purification, is the process of removing undesirable chemicals,
materials, and biological contaminants from raw water. The purpose of water treatment is to ensure that
the quality of the water to be supplied to the consumers is within acceptable standards.

Depending on the treatment method, the concentration of the undesirable particulates or contaminants may
be reduced or even eliminated. These contaminants includes suspended particles, dissolved elements and
minerals, bacteria, and algae that degrade the raw water quality.

The type or method of treating raw water depends mainly on the degree of concentration of unwanted
qualities in water. Table 10.1 on the next page presents the different treatment methods or processes and
the corresponding impurities that are effectively removed or reduced.

1. Preliminary Treatment

Pre-treatment is generally used when the raw water contains large amounts of floating debris (e.g. sticks
and leaves) as well as gravel, sand and soil sediments. The preliminary treatment process may include one
or a combination of the following sub-processes:
(a) screening/sieving
(b) pre-sedimentation
(c) pre-chlorination.

2. Aeration

This process is aimed at prolonging the contact time of the raw water and air in order to improve the
chemical and physical qualities. There are many types of aerators, some of them are:
• Gravity: Allowing water to flow in thin sheets over a series of steps or weirs.
• Spray: Spraying water in a well-ventilated tank.
• Diffuser: Use of baffles in a tank to lengthen the travel of water.
• Mechanical: Introducing air bubbles in the water with a mechanical device

Aeration methods are utilized where the following physical and chemical properties are found to be
unacceptable or over the permissible limits:

1. Taste and odor caused by dissolved gases like hydrogen sulfide;

2. Iron and manganese which are removed by oxidation. Dissolved iron and manganese, upon contact
with free oxygen from air will form an insoluble precipitate which could be removed by subsequent
filtration;
3. Obnoxious gases like H2S and CO2. Excessive carbon dioxide makes the water corrosive and
dissolves iron in the piping system.

30
3. Sedimentation

Water can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of many different sizes. Sedimentation,
or clarification, is the process by which suspended materials settle by gravity. Suspended materials may
be particles such as clay or silt originally present in the source water.

Sedimentation is accomplished by decreasing the velocity of the water being treated to a point below which
the particles will no longer remain in suspension. When the velocity no longer supports the transport of the
particles, gravity will remove them from the flow.

4. Slow Sand Filtration

Slow sand filtration is a cheap and simple method of purifying water. It uses local skills and materials. A
slow sand filter is basically a large tank containing the sand bed. Water is introduced at the top. It trickles
down through the sand bed to the underdrains and goes to the storage tank. The impurities in the water
are retained at the upper layers of the sand bed. In the process, a slimy layer (called sludge) consisting of
bacteria and microscopic plants grow. The sludge removes the organic matter and most of the pathogenic
microorganisms in water which might be smaller than the pores of the sand.

Slow sand filters can achieve the following:

• Reduce bacterial count of raw water by 85% to 99%
• Reduce turbidity of the raw water by about 90% or more
• Reduce the concentration of color in raw water.

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RURAL EXCRETA DISPOSAL

Excreta Disposal is an important part of environmental sanitation. Its provision is listed by the WHO Expert
Committee on Environmental sanitation among the first basic steps which should be taken towards assuring
a safe environment in rural areas and small communities.

Excreta is defined as any waste matter discharged from human body such as feces and urine.

When urine and feces is diluted with water it formed a sewage called Black Water

Graywater - this is other wastewater from human activity such as washing, bathing, cooking etc.

Effect of inadequate and insanitary disposal of human feces

• Contamination of ground and other sources of water supplies
• Create opportunity for certain species of fly to lat their egg, breed and feed on the exposed
material and carry infections.
• Attracts domestic animals and rodents and other vermin which spreads the feces.
• Create intolerable nuisances

Three broad types of the sanitation practices that are promoted in developing countries
• Flush and discharges
• Drop and store
• Containment And Treatment Systems

Drop-and-Store Systems
• Pit latrines/pit privy
• VIP latrines
• Compost latrines
• Aqua Privy
• Bucket latrine
• Trench latrine
• Overhung latrine
• Borehole latrine
Drop-Flush-and-Discharge Systems
• Water carriage
• Pour-flush latrine
Individual containment and Treatment Systems
• Cesspools
• Septic tanks
• Soak pits
• Seepage pits

32
Drop-and-Store System

1. Pit Latrine

This system is known as traditional pit latrine, pit privy or out-house. Pit privy is the cheapest type of excreta
disposal system known. It is also considered the most common sanitation system in the world. It
is based on containment and indefinite storage of human excreta. It is now given another name based on
its function- “DROP-AND-STORE”. Drop and store requires for a hole to be dug in the ground. As its name
indicates the excreta is deposited in this hole for until it is full after which the content will be pumped out or
filled up by soil to remain underground forever.

Pit Latrine among other things require:

• A reasonable amount of open space,
• Soil condition that can be dug easily,
• A low ground water level
• Site that is never flooded.

A pit latrine should be properly constructed not only to isolate feces but also to give :
• Comfort (no smell, give privacy);
• Prevent accident, pollution and fly breeding;
• Not spoiling the living environment.

Site Selection

Sitting the pit latrine is the first most important measures to take. A bad location could in the future be
source of ground water or surface water pollution, soil and food contamination, and may create odor or
unsightly condition. A pit privy should be located down slope from water sources such as wells, springs or
surface water. There may not be danger if the pit did not penetrate through the underground water
formation. But, shallow wells are usually less than 20 meters, which means the water bearing to such wells
is the soil water. In this case there will be a chance that the pit latrine, which normally has a depth of 3 to 5
meters, could contaminate the well. If ground water does not enter the pit and the soil is uniformly compact,
there should be no danger to a well at very short distance of at least 15 meters.

It should also be located at least 10 meters away from kitchen and the living house. Flies that may have
access to the pit may travel to the kitchen to contaminate the food. The odor that may emanate from the pit
may also be nuisance for people inside the house.

Advantage of a Pit Latrine

• Low cost
• Can be built easily
• Use of all type of anal cleansing (stone, corn cob, leaves, grass) materials may be used
• Minimal water requirement

Disadvantage of a Pit Latrine

• Fly and mosquito nuisance
• Waste can not be recycled
• Smell problem
• Lack of space for relocating new ones when full
• Potential for ground water pollution
• Difficulty of construction in rocky soil or Bolden laden subsoil

33
 Pit latrine

2. VIP Latrine

Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) is a technical modification of simple pit latrines mentioned above. It is also a
drop-and-store technology. The difference of VIP from the traditional one is the ventilation arrangement and
a concrete slab cover. The pit is ventilated using large diameter pipe extending above the roof of the VIP.
When it is ventilated wind passing over the top of the vent pipe causes a flow of air from the pit through the
vent pipe to the atmosphere and a down draught from the superstructure through the squat hole or seat in
to the pit. This continuous flow of air removes smells resulting from the decomposing excreta in the pit and
vents the gases to the atmosphere at the top of the vent pipe rather than through the superstructure.

There are three common types of VIP latrines

1. Single pit VIP
2. Alternating double pit VIP (Permanent VIP)
3. Multiple-pit VIP (Shared)

34
 VIP latrine

Advantages of a VIP Latrines

• Low annual cost
• Easy construction and maintenance
• All types of anal cleansing materials can be used
• Absence of odor and minimal fly & mosquito nuisance

Disadvantage of a VIP Latrine

• Lack of space for relocating the pit in urban areas
• Potential for ground water pollution
• Relatively expensive than simple pit latrine
• The door need to be always closed

3. Compost latrine

Composting is a biological process in which, under controlled conditions, bacteria, worms, and other types
of organisms break down organic substance to make humus, rich, stable medium in which roots thrive. In
a composting toilet human excreta, along with additional bulking agents such as vegetables scraps, straw,

35
wood shaving (saw dust) are deposited into a processing chamber where soil based micro-organisms
decompose the solids as is naturally accomplished. Temperature, airflow, and other factors such as
moisture control promote optimal conditions for composting. The humus produced by this process is an
excellent soil conditioner, free of disease producing pathogens.

The compost toilet appeared to meet all requirements. It could be installed inside homes; it would not pollute
groundwater with urine and feces; it could be built above ground level, away from feet, flies, dogs or other
animals.

A composting toilet will achieve optimal conditions for biological decomposition. This means that sufficient
oxygen must be able to penetrate the compost heap to maintain aerobic conditions. The material in the
composting vault should have a moisture content of 50-60 %, the carbon: nitrogen balance or ratio should
be within the range of 15:1 to 30: 1 and the temperature of the composting vault should be above 15 oC.

Compost Latrine

4. Aqua Privy

The aqua privy was considered to be one of the viable technologies that can fulfil the criteria or requirement
as laid out by Ehlers and Steel. The aqua privy consists of a tank filled with water into which a chute or
drop-pipe carry the urine and feces. Aqua privy is similar to a septic tank. Human excreta undergo anaerobic
decomposition in both systems; the sludge is also accumulated in the bottom of the tanks. Both systems
also need a soakage pit or subsurface drain system for the effluent.

As far as possible the use of local materials for the construction of aqua privy is recommended. The need
to make aqua privy watertight demand the use of concrete or cement product.

The advantage of aqua privy is that it can be constructed above ground especially in areas where the
ground water is high or rocky formation will not allow digging of pits.

The anaerobic decomposition process in aqua privy will produce gases such as methane, which is
offensive. The vent should be installed below the slab but above the scum line to avoid pipechoking. The

36
pipe vent should be extended above the superstructure. The vent pipe is preferred to be plastic as the gas
could very easily corrode metals.

Aqua Privy

5. Bucket Latrine

Bucket latrine was one of the types of technologies used in many parts of the world. This type of system
was once popularly used in the crowded township of Harar. In India it was the basic installation. The excreta
or night soil as is sometimes called is removed and disposed away from the residential areas. The waste
is dumped in the open exposed to flies, runoff, animals etc. hence contaminating
the environment. The people who remove the bucket when full were considered untouchables.

This type of installation has health hazard for the scavengers or transporters, the environment (Water body
and soil) and the community in general. Smell, fly breeding and other exposed unsanitary condition prohibit
the continuous use of this type of installation.

Because of especially the stigma attached to the scavengers it has become very expensive to higher some
one to transport, clean the bucket and the bucket site, thus, this type of installation is now considered to be
expensive to operate and maintain.

In general the contamination it causes in sidewalks, when waste spillover at site, the fly breeding problem
and other disadvantages will make bucket latrine one of the uneconomical and unsanitary installation.

37
6. Trench Latrines

Trench latrines are those latrines that are constructed usually for emergencies such as natural disasters
and wars. It is a temporary installation which is a long and shallow pit having a cross section of not more
than 40 cm. width 40 cm. Depth and length as desired as it depends on the number of people intended to
be served. The whole concept is that a number of people will use it for a short period of time after which
the content of the pit will be filled with earth and left to decompose. If necessary another trench will be dug
for use.

For best use of the trench latrine and to discourage flies and minimize smell users should be encouraged
to cover the feces with earth after defecation. The urine, which normally falls outside the pit, may also cause
smell and attract flies. In this case it is advisable to discourage users from doing so rather to incorporate it
with the feces in the pit so that it will be covered with the soil after defecation.

The advantage of a trench latrine is its being installed on the top layer of the soil where the aerobic
saprophytic bacteria are most numerous and active. Their presence will activate decomposition and reduce
the smell within a short period of time.

38
 Trench Latrine

7. Overhung Latrines

Overhung latrines are not known in Ethiopia. These types of latrines are common in areas where people
live in water logged or near by rivers. Some African countries, Far Eastern and southeastern countries use
them a lot.

The overhung latrines consist of a superstructure and a latrine floor built on top of a wood, concrete or
metal frame or pole above water along banks of water or coastal flats. In areas where this type of installation
is used, the contamination of the river water is inevitable. It has been mentioned in many literatures that
those countries in Asia that are using such systems have to transport water from a distance or use highly
contaminated water.

Overhung Latrine

39
8. Borehole Latrine

Borehole latrine is a latrine, which is usually dug in soft ground using an augur. Such latrines are dug with
different diameter of augur. An augur is a metal shaft that is rotated by people. The soil is bailed out with
the augur once in a while.

The disadvantage of borehole latrines is that many latrines can be dug within a very short period of time
provided that the soil is soft. The other advantage is that it is accident free.

The disadvantage of borehole latrine is being a small diameter hole it may not be used for many years.
Secondly, to compensate the diameter and to increase its life people tend to dig deeper pits, which
ultimately may contaminate the underground water table.

Borehole Latrine

Drop-and-flush Systems

1. Pour-flush Latrine

All flash latrines need to have a water seal to avoid smell and fly breeding. Therefore, pour flash latrines
are also called water-seal latrines. This technology is also known as Flush-and Discharge. A person may
defecate inside or near the house and pour an amount (usually one litter) of water to flush out the excreta
away from the squatting area. This system requires a squatting arrangement, piping to take away the
excreta to a sewer or septic tank. This has to accommodate to flush out 400-500 liters of urine and 50 liters
of feces a person generates per year with 15, 000 liters of water. However the water to be used does not
need to necessarily be clean water unless the system is connected to the running water.

Thus whenever we use the flush-and-discharge process the problem of liquid waste comes into our head.
The human feces are a dangerous component in the sewage system. It contaminates not only the harmless
urine but also the huge amount of pure water used for flushing the excreta.

40
Advantages of Pour Flush Latrine
• It can be installed inside homes
• It is inexpensive
• Need low volume of water for flushing
• It can be upgraded to connect to a sewer systems
• Need easy construction or maintenance
• There is potential for resource recovery
• Can act as wash water disposal facility

Disadvantage of Pour Flush Latrine

• They requires sullage disposal facility
• At least 4 Liters of water per day per person has to be available throughout the year
• Bulky anal cleansing materials are not used.
• The water seal units are frequently broken when rodding to clean blockages
• Cleaning involves removal of fresh night soil, which is serious contaminant.

Pour flush Latrine

2. Water Carriage System

The difference between Water Carriage System and the water flush is that the water carriage system is
usually connected to a sewerage system. In order to carry the excreta to the sewers adequate water
has to be used to flush it. For this reason the water carriage system as the name implies, is a system where
the user is not concerned about the waste once it is flushed away to the sewers. However,
many installations depend on septic tank or cesspool as receiver of the wastewater. In this case, household
has to think of the waste in the septic tank as the households for the pour flush latrines do for the leaching
pits.

41
 Water Carriage Latrine

Individual containment and Treatment Systems

1. Cesspools

A cesspool is a large diameter hole dug in the ground to receive waste matter from kitchen and toilets. A
cesspool is confused with septic tank. We see cesspools constructed in institution and individual homes
with dry masonry and cover slab with no other effluent design like septic tanks.

Cesspools can be considered as an individual treatment system. In the cesspool untreated liquid waste
from lavatories, kitchen, or WC are channeled with the ultimate objectives of getting the liquid part leached
into the soil formation and the solid to be retained and digested anaerobically in the tank.

When the system fails to function (no seepage or percolation) because of clogging or over saturation the
contents of the cesspool over flaw to the ground surface causing nuisance and health hazard. It is very
important to cover the cesspool manhole and provide a long vent. If that is not arranged smell may pass
through the opening and cause nuisance. If vents are not arranged gas produced might explode.

42
 Cesspool

2. Septic Tanks

Septic tank is a horizontal continuum flaw, one story sedimentation tank of masonry (cement plastered from
inside), or concrete. Fiberglass or pre-cast ferro-cement tank is also manufactured for thep urpose. It is
designed to contain and treat all the sewage or wastewater generated in the household.

In the septic tank sewage and wastewater is allowed to flaw slowly to permit suspended matter settle at the
bottom. The tank is designed in such a way that it will be able to hold or retain the waste until anaerobic
decomposition is established. After anaerobic action and in the process some of the suspended organic
matter is changed into liquid and gaseous substances.

43
3. Soak Pits

A soak pit in its simplest form is a hole dug in the ground filled with stones, broken bricks etc. (Soak) or
lined with bricks or stone masonry (seepage), to receive any Grey water or liquid effluent from septic tanks,
kitchen or lavatory. Its purpose is to assimilate the waste received into the underground system. The broken
bricks or stones function in creating pockets or void space for the wastewater
to trickle down the hole.

However, the space between the stones or bricks may be clogged with grease, or silt unless precautionary
measures are taken. When such system is clogged it overflows to ultimately cause nuisance and disease
hazard.

Soak Pit

4. Seepage Pits

Seepage pits may not be necessarily built in the same manner with soak pits. Seepage pit is not filled with
rocks or bricks rather it is lined with open joints. In this system the liquid is assumed to infiltrate through the
soil. Water pass outside of the pit through the open joints

44
Sewer Systems

Three (3) Classification of Sewer System

1. Sanitary Sewer System– Carries only sanitary sewage plus whatever infiltration that may enters
the system.
2. Storm Sewer System – Designed to collect surface run-offs during and after periods of rainfall
3. Combined Sewer System – One sewer system to collect both the sanitary sewage and storm
drainage

Two (2) types of Community Sewer System according to their discharging type

1. Separated System – Two system of different discharging, one for sanitary sewage and the other
for storm drainage
2. Combined System – are designed for collection and conveyance of both sanitary sewage and
storm surface runoff in one conduit.

Advantages of Separated System

1. Being smaller in size sewers are economical

2. There is no risk of stream pollution as no overflows are to be provided
3. Quantity of sewage to be treated is small.
4. If the pumping of sewage at the treatment work is necessary, pumping cost would make less as
there is no additional volume of water to be pumped.

Disadvantages of Separated System

1. Unless laid at steep gradient, self-polishing velocity cannot be assured. A flushing in the sewer
shall have to be done.
2. Subsequent overflows of sewage maybe present due to unauthorized rain water collection.
3. Double house plumbing is another disadvantage.
4. Maintenance cost for two systems is greater than one.

Advantages of Combined System

1. Rainwater keeps sewage fresh making it easier and economical for treatment purposes.
2. Dilution is also an advantage.
3. Automatic flushing is provided by storm water.
4. Because of the bigger size of sewer, cleaning becomes easier.

Disadvantages of Combined System

1. The bigger size of the sewer would involve larger excavation.

2. There is a tendency of silting up materials due to low velocity of flow during dry part of the year.
3. The cost of pumping and treatment would increase due to large quantity of sewage to be
handled.
4. Overflowing under worst condition may endanger public health.

Types of Sewer according to their usage

1. House sewer – the extension from building drain to the public sewer.
2. Lateral sewer – a sewer which is designed to received a house sewer.
3. Ground or Sub-main sewer – a branch sewer which receives discharge from two or more lateral
sewer.
4. Main sewer – Collect the flow from two or more sub-main and which serves as an outlet for large
area.

45
 5. Intercepting sewer – a sewer that receives dry weather flow from a number of transverse sewer
and frequently additional undetermined quantities of storm sewer and conducts such water to a
point of final disposal.
6. Outfall sewer – a sewer that receives wastewater from a collection system or from a treatment
plant and carries it to a point of final discharge.
7. Fuel sewer – a sewer used when conveying crude sewage.
8. Surface water or Storm water sewer – a sewer used when conveying rain water.

Design Consideration for a Sewer System

a. Design Period usually ranges from 20 to 50 years

b. Sewage Volume
1. Average Dry-Weather Flow – determines loading to be imposed on major treatment plant
unit.
2. Peak Wet-Weather Flow – determines the hydraulic capacity of collection of sewer, pumps
and channel.
3. Infiltration and Inflows
c. Design Flow = Maximum hourly flow + Infiltration + Industrial waste flow
d. Minimum Earth Covering = 0.90 to 1.50 meter
e. Lateral Separation – 3 meters minimum from water supply lines
f. Vertical Separation – 0.30 meter minimum from water supply lines
- 0.15 meter minimum from gas pipes
g. Pipe material should be one type between any manholes with the pipe laid in a straight line
and uniform slope.
h. Normally pipes are placed at the same slope as the road surface but keeping in mind the
maximum and minimum velocity should be maintained.
i. Commercial Size of Sewer Pipes
Increment Size (mm) Available Size (mm)
50 200 – 300 200, 250, 300
75 300 – 900 375, 450, 525, 600
675, 750, 825, 900
150 900 – above 1050, 1200, 1350, 1500, etc

Factors to be considered for Collection Sewer

a. Minimum Velocity – 0.60 meter/sec (2ft/sec) to prevent settling of suspended solids and
clogging in sewer.
b. Maximum Velocity – 3.0 meters/sec (10 ft/sec) to prevent scouring and erosion of sewer wall.
c. Minimum pipe diameter
a. 200 mm for sanitary sewer
b. 300 mm for storm sewer
d. Manhole spacing
a. 120 meter maximum for sewer with 375 mm in diameter & below
b. 180 meter maximum for sewer with 450 mm in diameter & above
e. Manholes are used as junction structures for every change in sewer sizes or diameter,
direction or alignment and slope or grade.
f. Sewer lay-out is dictated by topography, sewage pumping station maybe needed in flat areas
to avoid very deep sewer.
g. Use either Chezy’s formula or Manning’s Formula for hydraulic design of gravity sewer.

Chezy’s Formula: V=C√RS

Where: R = A/P A – Cross-sectional area

P – wetted perimeter
S – Slope

46
 C – Chezy’s Constant
1
R6
C= , Manning’s Coefficient
n

2 1
1
Manning’s Formula: V= R3 S2
n

Other Value for C

Kutter’s C: Bazin’ C:
23 +1n
+0.00155
S 87
C= C=
n 0.00155
1+√ (23+ S ) 1+ √m
R R

If pipe is flowing full

R = A = πD2 / 4 = D/4
P πD

Sample Problem 2

Design the lateral sewer to serve an area of 2,000 persons with an average sewage flow of 380
lpcd. The amount of infiltration is 120,000 lpd/km length of sewer with the pipe being 120 meter. Use the
maximum hourly flow of 200% of average as basis of design plus infiltration. Assume no industrial waste
flow. At what minimum slope should the pipe be laid using Manning’s Formula with n = 0.015. Assume
design period of 30 years. Assume the pipe is flowing full with minimum velocity

Solution:
Qave = 380 L/person day x 2,000 person = 760,000 L/day
Qave = 760,000 Lday → m3/sec
= 760,000 L/day x 1m3/1000L x 1 day/24H x 1 H/3600 sec
= 0.0088 m3/sec
Qmax = 200% of Qave
= 2 (0.0088 m3/sec)
= 0.0176 m3/sec

Note: If Qmax is not given, use Qmax = Qave (m)

Where m = 5 P – the population in thousand
P0.2
1.25 ≤ m ≤ 2.50
Suppose we are not given Qmax, solve m
m = 5 = 4.35 > 2.5, use m = 2.5
20.2
Qmax = Qave(m) = (0.0088 m3/sec) x 2.5
= 0.022 m3/sec
Qmax = 0.0176 ≈ 0.02 ≈ 0.022 m3/sec

Design flow = Qmax + Infiltration + Industrial sewage flow

Design flow = Qtotal
Qmax = max hourly flow = 0.0176 m3/sec

47
 Infiltration = 120,000 L/day /km x 0.120 km x 1 day/24H x 1 H/3600 sec x 1 m3/1000L
= 0.000167 m3/sec
Industrial waste flow = 0
Qtotal = max hourly flow + infiltration + industrial waste flow
= 0.0176 m3/sec + 0.000167 m3/sec + 0
= 0.017767 m3/sec (Design Flow)

From: Q = Av
A = Q = 0.017767 m3/sec = 0.0296 m2
v 0.6 m/sec (minimum)
A = πD2 /4
4A 4(0.0296)
D=√ =√ = 0.194 m or 194 mm say 200 mm Ø pipe
π π

At what minimum slope should the pipe be laid on the ground

to maintain minimum velocity of 0.6 m/sec?

v = 0.6 m/sec (min. velocity)

D = 200 mm = 0.2 m, R = D/4
n = 0.015

v = 1/n R2/3 S1/2

0.6 = (1/0.015)(0.2/4)2/3 S1/2
S1/2 = 0.06631
S = (0.06632)2 = 0.0044 = 0.44%

Sample Problem 3

Using the total sewage flow from sample problem 2, design the submain collecting sewage from 10
laterals and determine the minimum slope in which the pipe is to be laid. Length of submain sewer = 1.2
km. Use min. velocity of flow.

From sp#2, Qtotal = 0.017767 m3/sec

Qmax = Qtotal x 10
= 0.017767 m3/sec x 10
= 0.17767 m3/sec
Qinfiltration = 120,000 L/day /km x 1.2 km x 1m3/1000L x 1 day/(24x3600) sec
= 0.000167 m3/sec
Qtotal = Qmax + infiltration
= 0.17767 m3/sec + 0.00167 m3/sec + 0
= 0.17934 m3/sec (Design Flow)

From: Q = Av
A = Q = 0.17934 m3/sec = 0.2989 m2
v 0.6 m/sec (minimum)
A = πD /4
2

48
 4A 4(0.2989)
D=√ =√ = 0.616 m or 616 mm say 675 mm Ø pipe
π π

At what minimum slope should the pipe be laid on the ground

to maintain minimum velocity of 0.6 m/sec?

v = 0.6 m/sec (min. velocity)

D = 675 mm = 0.675 m, R = D/4
n = 0.015

v = 1/n R2/3 S1/2

0.6 = (1/0.015)(0.675/4)2/3 S1/2
S1/2 = 0.0295
S = (0.0295)2 = 0.0008686 = 0.08686%

Sample Problem 4

Design a sanitary sewer with a slope of 0.004 that will serve an area of 8 hectares with a population
density of 500/hectare. The average flow is 85% of water consumption of 500 lpcd and maximum infiltration
of 40,000 L/day-has. Sewer is flowing full with Manning’s n = 0.013.

Solution:

Total population = 500 person/ha x 8 has = 4,000 persons

Total water consumption = 500 lpcd x 4,000 persons = 2,000,000 L/day
= 2,000,000 L/day → m3/sec
= 2,000,000 L/day x 1 m3/1000L x 1 day/(24 x 3600) sec
= 0.02315 m3/sec
Average Sewage Flow = 85% of water consumption
= 0.85 (0.023 m3/sec)
= 0.01968 m3/sec

Qtotal = Qmax + Infiltration + industrial waste flow

Qmax = m(Qave), m = 5 /P0.2 = 5/40.2 = 3.43 > 2.5, use m = 2.5
= 2.5 (0.01968 m3/sec)
= 0.0492 m3/sec
Infiltration = 40,000 L/day-has x 8 has x 1 m3/1000L x 1 day/(24 x 3600) sec
= 0.0037 m3/sec
Industrial waste flow = 0
Qtotal = 0.0492 m3/sec + 0.0037 m3/sec + 0
= 0.0529 m3/sec

From: Q =Av
v = Q = 0.0527 m3/sec
A πD2 /4
v = 0.068 → eq. 1
D2

49
From Manning’s Formula: S =0.004 & n = 0.013
v = 1/n R2/3 S1/2
= (1/0.013) x (D/4)2/3 x (0.0040)1/2
= 1.93D2/3 → eq. 2
Solving eq.1 & eq. 2
v=v
0.068 = 1.93D2/3
D2
0.068 = D2/3 x D2
1.93
0.0352 = D2/3 + 6/3
0.0352 = D8/3
D = 0.03523/8
= 0.285 m = 285 mm, use 300 mm Ø pipe.

Other Velocity Formula

Hazen – Williams
0.63 0.54
V=0.849 CR S

Common Value for C

Brick Sewer 100
Cast Iron
Cement lined 130 – 140
Unlined 120
Plastic 140 – 150

Partially filled conduit

The conditions of partially filled conduit are frequently encountered in environmental engineering,
particularly in the case of sewer line.

Sample Problem 5

Determine the velocity of flow in a pipe laid with S = 0.05 if the pipe is flowing with a depth of 90%
using the following formula: (D = 250 mm)

a. Manning’s formula w/ n = 0.015

b. Kutter’s formula w/ n = 0.014
c. Hazen-William formula w/ C = 130 (concrete)

50
Solution:

θ 0.4D 0.5D
0.4D
θ/2
D
0.9D
Cos θ/2 = 0.4D
0.5D
0.5D
θ = 2 Cos-1 (0.4/0.5)
θ = 73.74⁰
R = A = Cross-sectional Area of Water
P Wetted Perimeter of pipe

Where:
A = Acircle – Asector + Atriangle

Acircle = π D2 / 4 = 0.785D2
Asector = Acircle (θ/360⁰) = 0.785D2 (73.74⁰/360⁰) = 0.161D2

Atriangle = (½ bh) 2 = bh = (√(0.5D)2 - (0.4D)2 ) 0.4 D = 0.12D2

A = 0.785D2 – 0.161D2 + 0.12D2 = 0.75D2

P = Pcircle – Psector

Pcircle = π D
Psector = π D (θ/360⁰) = π D (73.74⁰/360⁰) = 0.205 πD

P = π D – 0.205 πD = 0.795 π D = 2.50D

Therefore: R = A = 0.75D2 = 0.3D = 0.3 (0.250 m) =0.075 m

P 2.50D

Solving for velocity of flow

• Manning’s Formula
v = 1/n R2/3 S1/2
= (1/0.015)(R)2/3S1/2
= (1/0.015)(0.075 m)2/3 (0.05)1/2
= 2.65 m/sec

• Kutter’s Formula
23 + 1n + 0.00155
S
C= n 0.00155
1+ √ (23+ S )
R

51
 1
23 + 0.05 + 0.00155
0.014
C=
1+ √0.014 (23+ 0.00155
0.05
)
0.075

C = 43.38

Subtitute in Chezy’s Formula for v

v = C√RS
v = 43.38√0.075(0.05)
v = 2.66 m/sec

• Hazen-William’s Formula
v = 0.849 CR0.63S0.54
= 0849 (130)(0.075)0.63(0.05)0.54
= 4.28 m/sec

Sample Problem 6

A semi-circular concrete flume having a radius of 1.5 meter has a depth of flow of 1.20 meter.
Determine the discharge flowing in the flume if Manning’s n= 0.012 and S=0.001.

r = 1.5m

β Cos β = 0.3/1.5
0.3 1.5m
0.3m β β = Cos-1 (0.2)
1.5 m β = 78.46⁰
1.2 x
m 2β = 2(78.46⁰) = 156.92⁰
m
x = √1.52 -0.32 = 1.47 m

R=A A - cross sectional area of flowing water

P P – Wetted perimeter

A = Asector – Atriangle
Asector = Acircle (2β/360⁰) = πD2/4 (2β/360⁰) = {π[(2)(1.5)]2/4} {156.92⁰/360⁰}
= 3.09 m2
Atriangle = 2 x 1/2bh = bh = (1.47)(0.3)
= 0.44 m2
A = 3.09 – 0.44 = 2.65 m2

P = Circumference (2β/360⁰)
= 2πr (2β/360⁰) = 2π(1.5)(156.92⁰/360⁰)
= 4.12 m

R = A = 2.65 m2 = 0.64 m
P 4.12 m

52
Manning’s Velocity
v = 1/n R2/3 S1/2 = (1/0.012)(0.64)2/3 (0.001)1/2
= 1.96 m/sec

Discharge Q
Q = Av
= (2.64 m2)(1.96 m/sec)
= 5,174 m3/sec

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Open channel flow – is the flow in which the surface of the liquid is at atmospheric pressure. Such flow may
be laminar or turbulent, uniform or varied and sub-critical, critical, or supercritical.

For uniform open channel flow, Chezy’s equation for velocity is still applicable.
V = C √RS

Sample Problem 7

The canal as shown is laid on a slope of 0.00016. When it reaches a railroad embankment, the flow is
to be carried by 2 concrete pipes (n = 0.012) laid on a slope of 2.5 meter in 1000 meter. What size of pipes
should be used? For canal, n = 0.020.

7.32 m

1.22 m
d

6.1 m

Solution:

7.32 m x = 7.32 – 6.1 = 1.22

z = √1.222 + 1.222 = 1.725

1.22 m z P = 1.22 + 6.1 + 1.725 = 9.045 m

d A = ½(6.1 + 7.32)(1.22) = 8.1862 m2

R = A/P = 8.1862/9.045 = 0.905 m.

6.1 m x

53
 2 1
1
v = R 3 S2
n
2 1
1
v= (0.905)3 (0.00016)2
(0.02)
v = 0.592 m/sec

Q = Av
= (8.1862)(0.592)
= 4.844 m3/sec

For Concrete Pipes:

Qcp = Q/2 (for one pipe)
= 4.844/2 = 2.422 m3/sec

If pipe is flowing full: R = d/4

Qcp = Av = (πd2/4)(1/n R2/3 S1/2)
2.422 = (πd /4)[(1/0.012)(d/4)2/3(2.5/1000)1/2)
2

d = 1.26 meters

Sample Problem 8

Water is to flow at a rate of 30 m3/sec in the concrete channel as shown in the figure. Find the required
vertical drop of the channel bottom per kilometer length. Manning’s n = 0.013.

4m

1.6 m
3.6 m

2m

A = 1.6(4) + ½(4 + 2)(2)

= 12.4 m2

P = 3.6 + 2 + 2√2 + 1.6

= 10.03 m

R = A/P = 12.4/10.03 = 1.24 m

Q = Av
Q = A (1/n)(R2/3S1/2)
30 = (12.4)(1/0.013)(1.242/3)S1/2
S = 0.00074

Therefore, the vertical drop = 0.74 m or 74 cm/km

54
SEWER APPURTENANCES

Sewer appurtenances are the various accessories on the sewerage system and are necessary for the
efficient operation of the system. It includes the ff:

1. Manhole
2. Street Inlets
3. Catch basins
4. Flushing Devices
5. Sand, Grease and Oil Traps
6. Regulators
7. Junctions
8. Outlets
9. Inverted Siphons
10. Sewer crossings

Manholes: Manholes are the openings of either circular or rectangular in shape constructed on the
alignment of a sewer line to enable a person to enter the sewer for inspection, cleaning and flushing. They
serve as ventilators for sewers, by the provisions of perforated manhole covers. Also they facilitate the
laying of sewer lines in convenient length.

Man-holes are provided at all junctions of two or more sewers, whenever diameter of sewer changes,
whenever direction of sewer line changes and when sewers of different elevations join together. Sewer
larger than 1.5 m in diameter need a fewer manhole since it can be entered readily.

(a)
(b) Brick Manhole (b) Concrete Manhole

Street inlets: Street inlets are the openings through which storm water is admitted and conveyed to the
storm sewer or combined sewer. The inlets are located by the sides of pavement with maximum spacing
of 30 m. Their design and location requires consideration of how far water will be permitted to extend in the
street under various conditions.

55
 Maximum permissible depth of water in the gutter = 150mm (6 in.)
Gutter
Flood Water
Road Pavement
150 mm
(6 in) Cross Slope

A flow in inlet is commonly calculated by using Manning’s Equation, modified for triangular section:

z
Q=k n s1/2 y8/3

Where : Q = Gutter Flow

z = reciprocal of the cross-slope of gutter
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
s = Gutter slope
y = depth of water at curb
k = Constant depending on unit and equal 0.38 (m3/s, m)
or 0.56 (ft3/s. ft)

Sample Problem 9

A street has a slope of 1%, n = 0.018, a cross slope of 4%, and curb height of 150 mm. The street width
is 10 m. and 3.5 m. must be kept clear at design condition. What is the maximum flow which can be carried
by gutter?

1%

150 Water 4% Water Curb

y Gutter
mm
x 3.5 m x

10 m.

Solution:

2x = 10 – 3.5m
2x = 6.5m x
x = 6.5/2 = 3.25 m y
y = x (cross slope) z = 1/ cross slope
4%
y = 3.25 (0.04) z = 1 / 0.04
y = 0.13 m = 130 mm < 150 mm (curb height) z = 25
z
Q = k s1/2 y8/3
n
25 1/2 8/3
Q = (0.38) ( ) 0.01 0.13
0.018
Q = 0.23 m3/sec

56
Classification of Inlets

A. According to location
1. Inlets in sumps
2. Inlets on grade
3. Inlets on grade w/ gutter depression
B. According to design
1. Curb opening (Curb Inlet)
2. Grate (Gutter Inlet)
3. Combination Inlet

Inlet in sumps – are those which is located at low points in the street systems where
water which is not removed by the inlet will pond rather than pass by.

Inlets on grade – are usually designed to permit 5 to 15% of upstream flow to pass the
structure.
Direction of
flowing water Inlet on grade

Inlet in sumps

Inlets on grade with depression

y
a
Where a= depression height

Curb Inlet Grate Inlet Combination Inlet

Curb Inlet

Curb inlet in sumps have a capacity equal to:

Q = ky1/2L

57
Where: y = depth at gutter
L = Length of curb opening
k = constant dependent on units and equal to 1.66 (m3/s, m) or
3.0 (ft3/s, ft)
Note: The flow calculated using this equation is often reduced by 10% as an
allowance for clogging.

Grate inlet in sumps have a capacity equal to:

Q = kAy1/2
Where: y = depth at curb
A = open area of grate
k = constant dependent on units and equal to 2.96 (m3/s, m) or
5.37 (ft3/s, ft)
Note: The flow calculated using this equation is often reduced by 25% as an
allowance for clogging.

Inlet on Grade

The flow intercepted per unit length by a curb inlet on grade is given by:

Q k
= y [(a+y)5/2 - a5/2 ] (w/ gutter depression) y
L
a

Q 3/2
=ky (w/out gutter depression) y
L

Where : Q/L = flow intercepted per unit length

y = depth at curb above normal gutter grade
a = depression of gutter at inlet below normal level elsewhere
k = constant dependent on units and equal to 0.39 (m3/s, m) or
0.70 (ft3/s, ft)
Note: The flow calculated using this equation is often reduced by 25% as an
allowance for clogging.

Fig. 1 - Ratio of intercepted flow to total flow for inlets on grade

58
Sample Problem 8

A gutter with z = 20, n = 0.015 and a slope of 1% carries a flow of 0.25 m3/s. For a curb depression of
60 mm, find the required inlet length to intercept the entire flow and the capacity of a 3-meter long curb
inlet.

Solution:
z
Q=k s1/2 y8/3
n
3
Qn 8
y= [ ]
kzs1/2
3
(0.25)(0.015) 8
y= [ 1/2
]
0.28(20)(0.01)
y = 0.137m
Flow per unit length
Q k
= [(a+y)5/2 - a5/2 ]
L y
0.39
= [(0.06+ 0.137)5/2 - 0.065/2 ]
0.137
Q/L = 0.0465 m3/s per meter

The inlet length for complete interception

Q/La = 0.0465 m3/s / m Q = 0.25 m3/sec
La = Q = 0.25 m3/sec = 5.38 m
3
0.0465 m /s / m 0.0465 m3/s / m

If 3-m inlet is used, the fraction of flow intercepted is:

L = 3m = 0.56
La 5.38 m
a = 0.06 = 0.44
y 0.137

From Fig. 1, by plotting L/La against a/y

Q/Qa = 0.75
Q = 0.75 Qa
= 0.75 (0.25 m3/s)
= 0.19 m3/s

Conclusion: This example illustrates the importance of bypassing a portion of flow. One may observe that
an inlet which is 56% of the length required for total interception will remove 75% of the flow.
By passing thus uses inlet structure more efficiently.

59
Catch Basins: Catch basin is an inlet with a basin which allows debris to settle out. The outlet pipe is
usually trapped in order to prevent escape of odors from the sewer, a provision that also causes retention
of floating matters.

Present practice however, emphasizes good sewer grades and careful construction and simple inlets are
preferred. The water held in catch basin frequently produces mosquitoes and may itself be a source of
odors. If they are to function properly, they must be frequently cleaned and this is expensive.

Flushing Devices: It resembles a manhole but it is equipped with a siphon placed in the bottom. A
connection to the water supply systems provides a small but consistent supply of water so regulated that
the tank will fill at least once daily. When the tank is full, the siphon goes into operation and quickly
discharges the water down the sewer. The usual flush is about 200 gallons of water.

Sand, Grease and Oil Traps: A device to filter grease, oil, and fats coming from the kitchen sinks, auto
repair shops, gas stations, etc, before entering the sewer.

Regulator: A device that diverts sewage flow from one sewer into another. The regulator usually goes into
action when sewage flow reaches a predetermined amount. It may then divert all the sewage into another
channel or only that part above the predetermined flow at which it begins to function.

Junction Structure: A chamber constructed to facilitate the meeting of two or more sewer. Junctions in a
large storm sewer are not made in manholes but rather by joining the lines in gradual fashion which will
minimize head losses.

Sewer Outlets: It discharges treated sewage into small streams or rivers. An apron of concrete should be
provided on the bank below the head wall. It is advisable to place a flap valve or automatically closing gate
on the outlet discharging treated sewage to prevent muddy flood from water from backing up into the
sewage treatment plant when stream level is high.

Inverted siphons: A section of sewer which is dropped below the hydraulic grade line in order to avoid an
obstacle such as railway or highway cut, a subway or a stream. It normally includes multiple pipe and an
entrance structure designed to divide the flow among them so that the velocity in those pipes in use will be
adequate to prevent deposition of solids.

Design Criteria for an inverted siphon

1. Must have 2 or 3 sewer pipes

2. Must maintain a cleansing velocity at least 0.9 m/sec at all times.

60
Sample Problem

Design an inverted siphon for the ff. flow:

Qmin = 40 LPS @ pipe 1
Qave = 92 LPS @ pipes 1 & 2
Qmax = 190 LPS @ pipe 1, 2 & 3

Solution:

1. First pipe carrying the minimum flow

A= Q = 0.04 m3/sec = 0.044 m2
V 0.9 m/s
A= πD 2
; 0.044 m2 = πD2
4 4
D = 0.238 m
Note: use a lower commercial pipe diameter.
The excess discharge will be carried out by the next pipe.
Use D or D1 = 200 mm.

Solve for Pipe Capacity Q1 of D1 at minimum velocity 0.90 m/s

Q1 = A1V
= π (0.2)2 (0.9 m/s)
4
= 0.028 m3/sec

61
 2. Second Pipe will carry excess discharge from average flow.
Qave = 0.092 m3/sec
Qexcess @ average flow = Qave – Q1
Qe = 0.092 – 0.028
Qe = 0.064 m3/sec
A= Qe = 0.064 m3/sec = 0.071 m2
V 0.9 m/s
A= πD2 ; 0.071 m2 = πD2
4 4
D = 0.301 m
Note: use a lower commercial pipe diameter.
The excess discharge will be carried out by the next pipe.
Use D or D2 = 300 mm.

Solve for Pipe Capacity Q2 of D2 at minimum velocity 0.90 m/s

Q2 = A2V
= π (0.3)2 (0.9 m/s)
4
= 0.0636 m3/sec

3. Third Pipe will carry excess discharge from Maximum flow.

Qmax = 0.190 m3/sec
Qexcess @ maximum flow = Qmax – Q1 – Q2
Qe = 0.190 – 0.028 – 0.0636
Qe = 0.0984 m3/sec
A= Qe = 0.0984 m3/sec = 0.109 m2
V 0.9 m/s
A= πD 2
; 0.071 m2 = πD2
4 4
D = 0.372 m
Note: use a larger commercial pipe diameter so that
diameter is not so small for the maximum flow.
Use D or D3 = 375 mm.

Solve for Pipe Capacity Q3 of D3 at minimum velocity 0.90 m/s

Q3 = A3V
= π (0.375)2 (0.9 m/s)
4
= 0.099 m3/sec
Siphon Capacity = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 0.028 + 0.0636 + 0.099
= 0.1906 m3/s > Qmax = 0.190 m3/s (ok)

Sewer Crossings: It is frequently possible to cross depression on small watercourses without resorting to
inverted siphons. One way of solving it by installing a sewer crossing. Crossing is a sewer pipe installed
across small water courses by suspending the pipe from a truss or by supporting it with piers. However
much vibration will occur and a cast iron pipes should be used with special coupling.

62
Wastewater Treatment System

Wastewater Treatment Facilities – are designed to speed up the natural purification process that occurs
in natural waters and to remove contaminants in wastewater that might otherwise interfere with
natural process in the receiving waters.

The natural waters in streams, rivers, lakes and reservoir have a natural waste assimilative capacity
to remove solids, organic matter even toxic chemicals in wastewater, however, it is a long process.

3 Major categories of municipal wastewater treatment

1. Primary treatment (Physical Process)
2. Secondary treatment (Biological Process)
3. Tertiary treatment (Combination of physical, biological and chemical process)

3 basic goals of wastewater treatment process

1. To produce clean effluent
2. To protect public health and natural resources
3. To have an ambient environment

Preliminary treatment system

- are designed to physically remove or cut up the larger suspended and floating materials, and to
remove the heavy inorganic solids and excessive amount of oil and grease.
- It’s main objective is to protect pumping equipment and subsequent treatment units.

Preliminary treatment consist of the following devices or method

1. Flow measurement devices and regulators
2. Racks and screen (Screening bulge item)
3. Comminuting Devices (grinders, cutters)
4. Flow equalization
5. Grit chambers
6. Pre-aeration tanks
7. Chlorination (for disinfection)

Disinfection of sewage is practice for the following purposes;

1. Where water supplies are endangered
2. If there is a shell beds in sewage
3. To protect bathing beaches

The quality of wastewater is not substantially improved by preliminary treatment.

Primary Treatment System

- Is to reduce the flow velocity of the wastewater sufficiently to permit suspended solids to settle,
i.e. to remove settleable solids. Floating materials are also removed by skimming.
- A primary treatment device may be called a settling tank or basin.
Settling tanks may be divided into four:
1. Plain sedimentation with mechanical sludge removal.
2. Two-story tank (Imhoff tank)
3. Upflow clarifier with mechanical sludge removal
4. Septics tank

63
Auxillary units when chemical are applied in a settling tank
1. Chemical feeder
2. Mixing devices
3. Flocculators
4. Sludge management treatment

Quality of wastewater under Primary treatment system

1. Removes approximately 50% to 70% of total suspended solid from wastewater
2. The BOD removal efficiency is 25% to 35%
3. When coagulants are applied, a total o 80% to 90% of TSS are removed.
4. Approximately 10% of the phosphorus corresponding insoluble is normally removed.
5. Biological activity in wastewater is negligible.

In many cases, especially in developing countries, primary treatment is adequate to permit the
wastewater effluent discharge.

Secondary treatment system

- Is used to remove the soluble and colloidal organic matter which remains after the primary
treatment.
- Secondary treatment is commonly referred as the biological process.

Biological Treatment – consist of application of controlled natural process in which a very large number of
microorganisms consume soluble and colloidal organic matter from the wastewater in a relatively
small container over a reasonable time.

Two Groups of Secondary Treatment Devices

1. Attached Growth Process
a. Trickling Filters
b. Rotating Biologic Contactors
c. Intermitting Sand Filters

2. Suspended Growth Process

a. Activated Sludge
b. Contact Stabilization Tank
c. Sequencing Batch Reactors
d. Aerobic and anaerobic digestors
e. Anerobic filters
f. Stabilization pond
g. Aerated lagoons

Secondary treatment processes may remove more than 85% of BOD and TSS. However, they
are not effective for the removal of nutrients, heavy metals, non-biodegradable organic matter,
bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. Disinfection is needed to reduce densities of
microorganisms.

64
Advanced Treatment System
- The methods and processes that remove more contaminants from wastewater than the
conventional treatment.
- The term advanced treatment may be applied to any system that follows the secondary, or that
modifies or replaces step in the conventional process.
- A tertiary system is the third treatment step that is used after primary and secondary process.

Goals of Advanced Treatment Process

1. To remove nitrogen, phosphorous, and suspended solids including BOD
2. To meet certain regulations for specific conditions.

Advanced processes use some processes for drinking water treatment such as;
1. Chemical coagulation
2. Wedge-wire screen
3. Granular media filter
4. Diatomaceous earth filters
5. Micro-screening
6. Ultrafiltration
7. Nanofiltration

Techniques used by advanced treatment for the control of Nitrogen

1. Biological assimilation
2. Nitrification
3. Denitrification
4. Ion exchange
5. Breakpoint Chlorination
6. Air stripping

65
REFUSE DISPOSAL

Refuse Disposal System - technique for the collection, treatment, and disposal of the solid wastes of a
community. The development and operation of these systems is often called solid-waste management.

Solid-Waste Management - the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is discarded
because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful. Improper disposal of municipal solid waste can
create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions in turn can lead to pollution of the environment and to
outbreaks of vector-borne disease—that is, diseases spread by rodents and insects. The tasks of solid-
waste management present complex technical challenges. They also pose a wide variety of administrative,
economic, and social problems that must be managed and solved.

Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from combined residential, industrial and
commercial activities in a given area. It may be categorised according to its origin (domestic, industrial,
commercial, construction or institutional); according to its contents (organic material, glass, metal, plastic
paper etc); or according to hazard potential (toxic, non-toxin, flammable, radioactive, infectious etc).

Definition of some types of solid wastes

• Refuse: It is a general name given to all wastes except liquid waste. It includes all putrescible (decompose
rapidly by bacteria) and non putrescible (non decomposable) wastes.
• Garbage: Putrescible wastes resulting from the growing, handling, processing, cooking and consumption
of food. E.g. Vegetables, fruits, bones, bread, injera etc.
• Rubbish: represents all non-putrescible wastes except ash. There are two categories of rubbish:
A. Combustible; - organic in nature and includes items such as paper, cardboard, wood yard clippings,
bedding, plastics etc.
B. Non-combustible: - are inorganic materials, which include metals, glass, ceramics, and other
minerals.
• Ashes: an incombustible material that remains after a fuel or solid waste has been burnt.
• Infectious wastes: are wastes that contain or carry pathogenic organisms in part or in whole such as
wastes from hospitals and biological laboratories soiled with blood or bodily fluids
• Special wastes: are wastes from residential and commercial sources that includes.
- Bulky items (large worn out or broken household, commercial, and industrial items like, Furniture,
lamps, bookcases, filing cabinets, etc.)
- Consumer electronics (includes worn-out, broken, and other no- longer wanted items such as radios,
stereos, TV sets.
- White goods (large worn – out a broken household, commercial, and industrial appliances such as
stoves, refrigerators, dishwashers, clothes washers and dryers)
• Organic waste: Food waste, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, rubber, leather, wood, yard wastes.
• Inorganic waste: Glass, crockery (cups, plates, etc) tin cans, aluminum, and other metals.
• Dead bodies: dead animals like dogs ,cows, donkey etc.

Functional elements of solid waste management program

The activities involved with the management of solid wastes from the point of generation to
final disposal have been grouped into six functional elements: 1) Waste generation: 2) On-site
handling, storage, and processing: 3) Collection: 4) Transfer and transport: 5) Processing and
recovery: and (6) Disposal.

Waste generation

66
Those activities in which materials are identified as no longer being of value and are either thrown away
or gathered together for disposal

On- site handling, Storage, and processing

Those activities associated with the handling, storage, and processing of solid wastes at or near the point
of generation

Collection

Those activities associated with the gathering of solid wastes and the hauling of wastes after collection to
the location where the collection vehicle is emptied.

Transfer and transport

Those activates associated with (1) the transfer of wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger
transport equipment and (2) the subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distance to the
disposal site.

Processing and recovery

Those techniques equipment and facilities used both to improve the efficiency of the other functional
elements and to recover usable materials, conversion products, or energy from solid wastes.

Disposal

Those activities associated with ultimate disposal of solid wastes including those wastes collected and
transported directly to a landfill site, semisolid wastes (sludge) from wastewater treatment plants
incinerator residue compost, or other substances from the wires solid waste processing plants that are of
no further use.

Resource recovery

Resource recovery means the obtaining of some economic benefit from material that someone has
regarded as waste. It includes
• reuse - being used for the same purpose again (such as refilling a soft drinks bottle);
• recycling - processing material so that it can be used again as the same material, such as the processing
of waste paper to make pulp and then new paper;
• conversion - processing the material to make something different (such as producing padding for clothing
and sleeping bags from plastic bottles, or producingcompost from food waste)
• energy recovery - usually referring to the burning of waste so that the heat can be used (for example, for
heating swimming pools). Another method of energy recovery is to collect the gas that is produced in very
large sanitary landfills and useit as a fuel or to generate electricity.

Solid waste disposal methods

Generally there are several methods of solid waste disposal that can be utilized. These methods are:

1. Ordinary open dumping - is the simplest and inexpensive method on trash disposal which only needs a
large scale of area to dump trashes. Usually, low swampy areas are chosen for it. Any solid trashes
that have been gathered only need to be piled up into two or four meters dumped in the available area
before it is recycled or destroyed

67
2. Controlled tipping/burial - This system can be done by digging shallow trenches, laying down the
generated waste in an orderly manner, compacting the waste manually or mechanically and covering
with adequate depth of earth or ash at the end of each day’s work. The process is repeated each day
systematically at appropriate locations.

3. Hog feeding - The feeding of garbage to hogs has been practiced for many years in different parts of
the world. But there is surprising high incidence of trichinosis among hogs which are fed with
uncooked garbage.

4. Incineration - is a process of burning the combustible components of garbage and refuse. Disposal of
solid waste by incineration can be effectively carried out in small scale in food service establishments
as well as in institutions such as hospitals, schools etc.

Generally there are two types of incinerators, the open and the closed systems. In the open system the
refuse is incinerated in a chamber open to the air; while the closed system contains a special chamber
designed with various parts to facilitate incineration. It requires a chimney of appropriate height to
provide a good flow of air thorough the combustion chamber.

5. Sanitary landfill - A method of controlled disposal of municipal solid waste (refuse) on land. The method
was introduced in England in 1912 (where it is called controlled tipping). Waste is deposited in thin
layers (up to 1 metre, or 3 feet) and promptly compacted by heavy machinery (e.g., bulldozers); several
layers are placed and compacted on top of each other to form a refuse cell (up to 3 metres, or 10 feet,
thick). At the end of each day the compacted refuse cell is covered with a layer of compacted soil to
prevent odours and windblown debris.

6. Composting - is the biological process of breaking up of organic waste such as food

waste, manure, leaves, grass trimmings, paper, worms, and coffee grounds, etc., into an extremely
useful humus-like substance by various micro-organisms including bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes
in the presence of oxygen. Composting is an effective method of solid waste disposal. Biodegradation
is a natural, ongoing biological process that is a common occurrence in both human-made and natural
environments.

7. Grinding and discharge in to sewer - There are three methods for the disposal of garbage into sewers.
a. Installation of individual grinders in houses and commercial establishments.
b. Installation of municipally operated grinding station located centrally.
c. Installation of grinders at sewage treatment plant and discharge grounded materials directly into
incoming raw sewage or digestion tanks.
.
8. Dumping into water bodies - The dumping of solid waste into water bodies such as streams, rivers, lakes,
seas, and oceans was once been one of the means of disposal. This is still practiced in some cities
and towns located on banks of rivers or sea shores, even though it can be ineffective due to the washing
of the wastes to the shores and interference of sanitation of the bathing area. Such a disposal method
would be effective if the risk to animals (fish) is taken into consideration and direction of wind blow
looked before dumping.

68
RODENT, MOSQUITO and FLY CONTROL

Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest, usually because it is
perceived to be detrimental to a person's health, the ecology or the economy.

Types of Pest Control

Biological pest control

Biological pest control is the control of one organism through the control and management of
natural predators and parasites. For example: mosquitoes are often controlled by putting Bt Bacillus
thuringiensis ssp. israelensis, a bacterium that infects and kills mosquito larvae, in local water sources. The
treatment has no known negative consequences on the remaining ecology and is safe for humans to drink.
The point of biological pest control, or any natural pest control, is to eliminate a pest with minimal harm to
the ecological balance of the environment in its present form.

Mechanical pest control

Mechanical pest control is the use of hands-on techniques as well as simple equipment, devices, and
natural ingredients that provide a protective barrier between plants and insects

Elimination of breeding grounds

Proper waste management and drainage of still water, eliminates the breeding ground of many pests.
Garbage provides food and shelter for many unwanted organisms, as well as an area where still water
might collect and be used as a breeding ground by mosquitoes. Communities that have proper garbage
collection and disposal, have far less of a problem with rats, cockroaches, mosquitoes, flies and other pests
than those that don't.

Open air sewers are ample breeding ground for various pests as well. By building and maintaining a proper
sewer system, this problem is eliminated. Certain spectrums of LED light can "disrupt insects’ breeding.

Poisoned bait
Poisoned bait is a common method for controlling rat populations, however is not as effective when there
are other food sources around, such as garbage. Poisoned meats have been used for centuries for killing
off wolves, birds that were seen to threaten crops, and against other creatures. This can be a problem,
since a carcass which has been poisoned will kill not only the targeted animal, but also every other animal
which feeds on the carcass. Humans have also been killed by coming in contact with poisoned meat, or by
eating an animal which had fed on a poisoned carcass.

Field burning
Traditionally, after a sugar cane harvest, the fields are all burned, to kill off any insects or eggs that might
be in the fields.

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Hunting
Historically, in some European countries, when stray dogs and cats became too numerous, local
populations gathered together to round up all animals that did not appear to have an owner and kill them.
In some nations, teams of rat catchers work at chasing rats from the field, and killing them with dogs and
simple hand tools. Some communities have in the past employed a bounty system, where a town clerk will
pay a set fee for every rat head brought in as proof of a rat killing.

Traps
With the many traps available on the market today you can easily remove mice and rats from homes. You
must first know what rodent needs to be removed, you can then decide what type of trap is the best suited
to your needs. The snap trap is the most widely used, it utilizes a trigger (sometimes shaped like cheese)
to hold bait, and kills the rodent by striking it behind the head with a wire rod or jaw. In some instances you
may wish to use glue traps also called glue boards. This type of trap requires the mouse or rat to attempt
to cross the trap so the glue can hold the rodent. After a catch is made you can euthanize the rodent and
dispose of it trap and all, or some glue boards will release the catch when you pour vegetable oil on them,
as the oil reacts with the glue to lose its grip. The last type of trap are live catch traps, this type of trap is
typically a repeating style so more than one animal can be caught at a time, they can also be released from
this trap in a new location if desired.

Pesticides
Spraying pesticides by planes, handheld units, or trucks that carry the spraying equipment, is a common
method of pest control. Crop dusters commonly fly over farmland and spray pesticides to kill off pests that
would threaten the crops. However, some pesticides may cause cancer and other health problems, as
well as harming wildlife.

Rodent

The word rodent comes from the Latin Rodere, meaning "to gnaw". All rodents are characterised by their
teeth. The incisors (front teeth) are reduced to a single pair above and below The gnawing habit of
rodents wears these to a chisel shaped cutting edge, and they continue growing from open roots
throughout he life of the animal.

Identification characteristics
Class – Mammalia;
Order – Rodentia;
Family – Muridae;
Genus- Rattus and Mus;
Species - Rattus rattus (Roof rat), Rattus norvegicus (Norway rat), and Mus musculus (house
mouse).

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Rats are identified by their peculiar shape and arrangement of the teeth. They have no canine teeth but
two pairs of strongly developed incisors (a pair on each jaw). Rats have diastema between the incisors
and the molors. These 4 teeth (incisors) grow continuously throughout the life of the rats.

Field identification of the three murine rodents:

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Investigation of rodent infestation

The presence of rat in a given house can be investigated by

1. Rat fecula (droppings) - A fresh fecula is soft, moist and bright in color while old fecula is dry, hard and
fray to touch. Generally the color and size of rat fecula depends on what the rat has eaten and the type of
rodent species respectively.

2. Foot print and tail marks – for fresh fecula the foot print and tail mark is clean and greasy, where as for
old fecula it is old and dusty.

3. Rat run ways – if a given area is infested by rats there exist a greasy markings on the pipe, beam, wire,
floor, wall, rafter etc. Habitually rat follow the same run way between food, water, and harborage.

4. Distraction marks- rat distract human properties like furniture, food, and clothing’s due to their gnawing
property.

Public Health Importance

Rats are capable of transmitting several important diseases to human. These diseases can be grouped
into three categories: Those diseases or injuries which are directly caused by rats.

Rat bite: Bites inflicted by rats can cause serious injuries to the victims. Infants, children and adults may
be exposed to the risk of rat- bite,

Rat - bite fever: This is a disease caused by a spirochete organism which may be harbored in the mouth,
particularly on the gum of rats. The organism enters through wounds inflicted by the rat - bite. The
organism does not affect the rodent; those diseases which are transmitted indirectly by foods or water
contaminated by the rat’s excreta and urine- e.g.

Salmonellosis: - a common food borne disease due to contamination of the food by faeces / urine
containing salmonella organism,
Trichinosis: is contracted by eating infected pork. The pig acquires the disease from rats, either by ingesting
dead infected rat or through contaminated rat excreta or urine,
Leptospirosis: a spirochetal disease contracted by handling or eating food infected with faeces or urine of
domestic and wild rodents;
Those which are spread by insects, fleas etc for which rats act as reservoir- e.g.
Plague: caused by the bacillus pasteurella pestis by the bite of rat flea known as xenopsyella cheopis,
Murine typhus:- caused by a rickettsial organism transmitted by the bite of or excreta of rat flea (xenopsylla
cheopis).

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Control Measures of Rodents

Before selecting a control method it is necessary to make a survey of the place in order to: Determine the
species and population density of rats in the area; determine the frequency of occurrence of rats’
infestation, their harborages, food sources etc. Once the survey data are compiled, the following control
methods can be applied:
• Environmental management (control) to deprive rats’ food, water shelter and harborage
• Rat proofing and rat stoppage
• Rat trapping: snap or cage trap
• Poisoning using rodenticides of acute or chronic actions.

Acute poisons include compounds of arsenic, strychnine, phosphorous, barium carbonate- they kill rats
in less than 24 hours.

Chronic poisons include such as warfarin which is anticoagulant that needs to be ingested at intervals
for a period of days or weeks. Here it should be noted that poisons are to be used with the highest
precautions to prevent danger of poisoning man and other domestic animals, and use of natural enemies
like cats.

Rodenticides

Rodenticides are chemicals that kill rodents. They usually need to be ingested, that is either eaten in the
form of a bait or taken into the body via the mouth while grooming.

An ideal rodenticide would have the following features:

• Toxic in small amounts
• Palatable to all pest species
• Slow acting
• Toxic only to the pest species
• No difference in susceptibility with age, sex or strain
• No development of immunity or physiological tolerance
• Minimal hazard to man and domestic animals
• Readily biodegradable
• Easily formulated
• Humane

Rodenticide formulations

There are many ways in which the rodenticide can be presented to the animal. These are known as
formulations and a knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of different formulations is important
when selecting a rodenticide for a particular species and habitat.

Baits are the most common way to present a rodenticide to the pest species. They can either be edible or
drinkable. Both edible and drinkable baits frequently contain coloured dyes. This is principally a safety

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measure used to indicate when a bait has been eaten by a non-target organism. In the UK all
anticoagulant rodenticides are coloured either red, blue, purple, grey or green.

Edible Baits.

Rats and mice are catholic in their taste, feeding on whatever is available. However, they do have a general
preference for cereals and so these usually form the base of edible baits. Most edible baits are pre-prepared
by the manufacturers, either ready mixed, or ready to use. Some edible baits come as loose cereals, others
are formed into blocks, pellets or rods using wax. These are still cereal based and usually also contain a
mould inhibitor (paranitrophenol or dehydroacetic acid). Such preparations prevent spillage and keep the
bait palatable for longer periods, especially in damp or humid conditions. However, there is some evidence
to suggest that they are less palatable than loose cereal baits. If palatability of the bait is a problem a
rodenticide concentrate should by used, added to a bait of the technician's own making. Under such
circumstances the bait most likely to succeed is the one on which the rodent pests are already feeding.
Addition of vegetable oil in the bait mix (5% w/w) usually further enhances the palatability.

Liquid Baits.

A liquid bait is particularly useful in dry and dusty conditions or where water supply is limited. Most rodents
require access to water, particularly rats. Mice also drink water when available but they can under some
circumstances gain sufficient moisture from their diet. Therefore, providing water in dry conditions is often
an ideal way of delivering a bait.Usual methods of presentation for liquid baits are trays or drinking fonts
such as those used in poultry houses. These should be sited in areas where rodents are active. Liquid bait
points present a greater risk to non-target species than edible baits because the rodenticide is usually at a
higher concentration and because a larger quantity can be ingested by a non-target organism in a given
time. Therefore, such bait points should be used only in areas with restricted access and frequent visits to
replenish the bait and maintain liquid levels are essential.

Contact Dusts

Rodents spend up to one fifth of their waking time grooming. By placing an inert dust mixed with a
rodenticide preparation on rodent runs (either directly on the surface or in boxes), the rodent running hrough
the dust will collect it on its fur and later ingest it whilst grooming. The dust is applied to the rodent runs
either with a spoon or dust gun. It should only be applied to areas from which it can be removed after the
operation is completed. Rodent uptake of the dust can easily be seen by observing fresh footprints in
smoothed-over dust. If the runs are not obvious in the first place, tracking dust (an inert preparation
containing no rodenticide) should be used.

Rodenticidal Gels

These products, recently introduced, work on the same principle as contact dusts but using a gelatinous
paste as the rodenticide carrier. They have the advantage of being less likely to contaminate surrounding
areas by air currents.

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Rodenticidal Wicks

These products are another recent development. The system uses two fibre wicks impregnated with
rodenticide. These are incorporated into a tube which can be placed in the runs. The tube allows access
for house mice but not for any animal that is markedly larger. The system works by the mouse brushing
against the wick which transfers rodenticide onto the mouse's fur. This is then ingested by subsequent
grooming..

Mosquitoes

Mosquitoes -have a world wide distribution. Mosquitoes are notorious as proven vectors of some of the
most devastating human diseases. There is little need to document the impact on human public health of
malaria, yellow fever, filariasis, and several mosquito-borne diseases of arboviral etiology. Rift Valley fever
and the equine encephalitis are important livestock diseases transmitted by mosquitoes. Although over
2,500 species of mosquitoes have been described worldwide in 18 genera and subgenera, those species
of greatest importance as vectors of pathogenic agents are found in the genera Aedes, Culex, Anopheles,
and Mansonia.

Mosquitoes are one of the most important groups of biting dipterans, which have:
• long slender body
• Long needle shaped piercing mouth parts.
• Scales on the thorax, legs, abdomen, and wings.
• Three pairs of long thin legs.
• one pair of functional wing

Mosquitoes are very small (3-6mm) with easily fragile physical appearance, and they can be sexed by
examining their antennae (male-feathery, female-short, invisible).

Life cycle

The mosquito has four distinct stages in its life cycle: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The adult is an active
flying insect, while the larvae and pupae are aquatic and occur only in water. Depending on the species
eggs are laid either on the surface of water or are deposited on moist soil or other objects that will often be
flooded. One method of classifying mosquitoes, which is important in the control of the larval stage, is by
the type of habitat in which the eggs are laid. Those species that lay eggs singly on the moist soil usually
near the edge of temporary pools of water are known as flood water mosquitoes. These eggs only hatch
after they have been flooded by water. Psorophora, Aedes, and Ochlerotatus mosquitoes are floodwater
mosquitoes which are most abundant shortly after spring rainfall. Those species that lay eggs on the surface
of the water, either clumped in rafts or as single floating eggs, are known as permanent water mosquitoes.
Anopheles, Culiseta, and Culex are permanent water mosquitoes found. Floodwater mosquitoes are
usually pests in April and May, with permanent water mosquitoes being problems later in the summer.

The females usually mate only once but produce eggs at intervals through out their life. In order to be able
to do so most female mosquitoes require a blood meal. Male do not suck blood but feedon plant juice.

Feeding Habits
• Female mosquitoes feed on animals and humans.
• Most spp. Show a preference for certain animals or for humans.
• Mosquitoes are attracted by the body odors, carbon dioxide and heat emitted from the animal or person

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Mosquitoes that bite person to obtain blood meal are called Anthropophagic and those that prefer feeding
on non human are called Zoophagic.

Anophelinae (Anopheles Mosquitoes)

Anopheles have spotted wings, that is the dark and pale scales are arranged in small blocks or areas on
the veins. The number, length and arrangement of these dark and pale areas differ considerably in different
species and provide useful characters for species identification.

Most Anopheleses are crepuscular or nocturnal in their activities. Thus blood feeding and oviposition
normally occur in the evenings, at night or in the early mornings around sunrise. Some species such as An.
albmanus malaria vector in centeral and south America bite people mainly outdoors (exophagic) from about
sunset to 21 hours.

Both before and after blood-feeding some species will rest in houses (endophilic) whereas others will rest
outdoors (exophilic) in a variety of natural shelters such as amongst vegetation, in rodent burrows, in cracks
and cervices in trees, under bridges, in termite mounds, in caves and among rock fissures and cracks in
the ground. Most Anopeles species are not exclusively exophagic or endophagic, exophilic or endophilic
but exhibit mixture of these extremes of behaviour.

Public Health Importance of Anopheles mosquitoes

1. Biting Nuisance

Although Anopheles mosquitoes may not be disease vectors in an area they may constitute a biting
nuisance. Usually, however, it is the culicine mosquitoes, especially Aedes and psorohora species
that cause biting problems.

2. Malaria

Malaria is a serious vector-borne disease affecting a greater proportion of the world’s population than any
other vector transmitted diseases. Over 200 million cases of malaria occur every year, and the number is
increasing. Large areas of regions where malaria had been controlled are now suffering again from this
significant public health problem.

3. Filariasis

A disease caused by parasites: a disease caused by parasitic worms filaria that inflames and obstructs
the lymphatic glands, sometimes resulting in elephantiasis. Microfilariae ingested with the blood-meal
pass into the stomach of the mosquito.

Control of Anopheles Mosquitoe

Egg
• Alteration of natural breeding sites
- Filling
- draining
• Burnt oil application on the breeding areas
• Abate (Temphose)
- Bacterial larvicide – B. sphaericus and B. thurgensies
• Biological control - Fishes-Gambusia

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Adult
• Personal protection measures
- repellents
- treated bed nets (pyrethroids)
• Application of insecticides
- DDT- 2gm. /m2
- Malathion
Culicinae Mosquittoes

The subfamily culicinae contains 34 genera of mosquitoes, of which the medically most important ones are
Culex, Aedes, Psorophora, Mansonia, Haemagogus and Sabethes. The genera Culex, Aedes and
Mansonia. are found in both temperate and tropical regions, whereas psorophora species are found only
in North, Central and South America. Haemagogus and Sabethes mosquitoes are restricted to Central and
South America.

Public Health importance of Culex

1. Biting Nuisance

In several areas of the world a lot of money is spent on mosquito control, not so much because mosquitoes
are vectors of disease but because they are such troublesome bitters.

2. Lymphatic Filariasis

Lymphatic filariasis is rarely life-threatening. It causes widespread and chronic suffering, disability, and
social stigma. It can lead to grotesquely swollen limbs - a condition known as elephantiasis.

3. Encephalitis

This is an arthropod-borne viral infection that attacks the central nervous system and causes inflammation
of the brain. In the U.S. there are three major kinds: Eastern, Western and St. Louis encephalitis. These
diseases are normally transmitted between animal populations and occasionally to people. Culex tarsalis
and Cx. pipiens are two common encephalitis vectors.

Aedes Mosquitoes

Although some Aedes species breed in marshes and ground pools, including snow-melt pools in Arctic and
sub arctic areas, many especially tropical species, are found in natural or man made container-habitats
such as tree-holes bamboo stumps, leaf axils, rock-pools, village pots, tin cans and tyres. The life cycle of
Aeds Mosquitoes from eggs to adults can be rapid, taking as little as about 7 days, but it more usually takes
10-12 days; in temperate species the life cycle may last several weeks to many months, and some species
over winter as eggs or larvae. Adults of most Aedes species bite mainly during the day or early evening.
Most biting occurs out of doors and adults usually rest out of doors before and after feeding.

Public Health importance of Aedes Mosquitoes

1. Yellow fever

Yellow fever is a zonoosis, essentially a disease of forest monkeys,which occasionally transmitted to

humans. It is an acute disease of short duration which often causes death. The yellow fever virus mainly
occurs in population of monkeys in dense forests and thedisease is transmitted from monkey to monkey by
forest dwelling mosquitoes called Aedes africanus in Africa, heamagogus and sabeths in south and central
America
Yellow fever. is usually an acute and highly fatal viral disease although it's occasionally only a mild infection.
It probably originated in Africa and was brought to the New World on slave ships. There

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are two epidemiological types of the disease, urban and jungle yellow fever.

2. Dengue fever

This viral disease is commonly called break bone fever. It is characterized by a sudden high fever, severe
headache, backache and pain in the joints. Dengue is transmitted from person to person by Aedes aegypti
and Ae. albopictus. There are four strains or types and at least one or all four are found throughout much
of the world. Recovering victims are generally immune to future infections, but only from the strain they
were infected with. Therefore, a person can potentially experience all four different strains of dengue.

Mosquito Abatement (Management)

A. Long-term methods. Long-term abatement methods focus on controlling water where mosquitoes
breed. Ditching, pumping, filling and similar measures can take much time, labor and equipment to give
long-term results.
(1) Stream and pond management:
(a) Improving natural draining.
(b) Stream flushing
(c) Impounded water.
(2) Managing aquatic vegetation.
(3) Coastal marshes.
(4) Fish.
(5) Pumping.
(6) Filling and grading.
(7) Ditching.

B. Temporary methods. Larvicides and adulticides are the most important temporary mosquito abatement
methods. Pest managers should use such temporary measures to give immediate relief from mosquitoes
and when more permanent measures are lacking or in planning.
(1) Larval management.
(2) Adult control
(a) Indoors
(b) Outdoors.

C. Contingency considerations. Mosquitoes are generally the most important arthropods managed in
contingency operations because of the number, types and distribution of diseases they
transmit.
(1) Individual protective measures.
(2) Unit protective measures.
(3) Area protective measures

House fly

The common House fly is medium sized (1/6 to 1/4 inch long,) generally gray in color with the female usually
large than the male. The thorax bears four narrow black stripes. The female fly has a much wider space
between the eyes than the male.

Breeding places

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Houseflies can breed practically in any moist, decaying or fermenting human, animal and plant wastes. The
following are some of the favourite breeding media:
1. Human excreta: whenever exposed in open latrines, seepage pits, septic tanks or in open field.
2. Animal wastes: horse manure, cow-dung,etc. whenever moist and decomposing.
3. Garbage: whenever moist and exposed.
4. Practically in any moist, rotting organic matter.

Public Health importance

Flies have been implicated as disease vectors fro thousands of years. Specially the housefly has been
known to be the most dangerous contaminant of food, and transmitter of food borne and other diseases.
The explanation for this trait lies in its anatomical structure, peculiar breeding and feeding habits, and its
close companionship to human beings and his habitations. The housefly is known as a mechanical
transmitter of disease agents, which means that it carries through its body parts disease agents (pathogens)
from sources of infections to foods, food contact surfaces, to human eyes, and other exposed body parts.

Prevention and Control

Sanitation for the House Fly

Sanitation procedures not only include the obvious (clean trash receptacles, etc.) but also doing the little
things that can help reduce the number of house flies in and around a structure. Indoors, make sure that
all trash cans are thoroughly cleaned before trash bags are used. All trash bags need to be secured before
disposing in an outdoor container.

Exclusion

House flies enter homes by several means: doors which do not close properly or that do not have a good
fit; windows without screens or with screens in ill repair. Flies also enter buildings through tiny cracks around
windows and doors; seal or caulk these areas.

Sprays

Space sprays and pheromone traps can be helpful tools in eliminating indoor blowflies, but the elimination
of their breeding sources is the only guaranteed way to eliminate them. Make certain that all possible
sanitation measures have been implemented before relying on chemical sprays to eliminate flies.

Baits

Use baits inside dumpsters and the area around such trash containers, if there are no non-target animals
(dogs or children) in the immediate area. Are there homeless people going through the trash at night? If so,
do not bait inside the container, but bait the area surrounding the receptacle. Baits should be re-applied
after every cleaning or rainfall.

Non-chemical Measures

The use of devices such as ultra violetlight traps, sticky fly traps, fly swatters, and baited fly traps can
eliminate many flies inside a home, but the fly swatter is the most economical control method for the
occasional fly.

Cockroaches

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There are almost 4000 species of cockroaches. About 50 species have become domestic pests and the
most important medically are Blattela germanica (the German cockroach), Blattella orientalis (the oriental
cockroaches) and periplaneta Americana (the American cockroach). Cockroaches are some times called
roaches or steambugs. They have almost a world-wide distribution. Cockroaches almost certainly aid in the
transmission and harbourage of various pathogenic viruses, bacteria, protozoa and helminthes.

Public Health Importance

1. Nuisance- the presence of cockroaches in houses and hotels, etc has for a long time been regarded as
highly undesirable because of their dirty habits of feeding indiscriminately on both excreta and foods, and
their practice of excreting and regurgitating their partially digested meals over food

2. Mechanical disease transmission E.g. Typhoid fever, diarrheal diseases, etc The presence of
cockroaches in houses and hotels has for a long time been regarded as highly undesirable because of
their dirty habits of feeding indiscriminately on both excreta and foods, and their practice of excreting and
regurgitating their partially digested meals over food.

Control Measures

1. Sanitation

Ensuring that neither food nor dirty kitchen utensils are left out over night will help to reduce the number of
cockroaches but if they are present in adjoining or near-by houses, good hygiene in itself will not prevent
cockroaches from entering houses.

2. Insecticide application

Insecticidal spraying or dusting of selected sites such as cup-boards, kitchen furniture and fixtures, stoves,
refrigerators and near-by dust bins is recommended. Various commercial insecticides having a residual
effect can be painted to walls and other surfaces and remain effective for several months in killing
cockroaches. Boric acid powder (borax) still remains a very safe and useful chemical, acting
both as a contact insecticide and a stomach poison.

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FOOD AND MILK SANITATION

Food sanitation is more than just cleanliness. It included all practices involved in protecting food from risk
of contamination, harmful bacteria, poisons and foreign bodies, preventing any bacteria from multiplying to
an extent which would result in an illness of consumers; and destroying any harmful bacteria in the food
by thorough cooking or processing.
The primary tenet of food-service sanitation is absolute cleanliness. It begins with personal hygiene,
the safe handling of foods during preparation, and clean utensils, equipment, appliances, storage facilities,
kitchen and dining room.

Dangers of food borne illness

• Individual – Food borne illness are the greatest danger to food safety. It could result to illness or
diseases to an individual that would affect their overall health, work and personal lives.
1.Loss of family income
2.Increased insurance
3.Medical expenses
4.Cost of special dietary needs
5.Loss of productivity, leisure and travel opportunities
6.Death or funeral expense

Establishment – Food borne illness outbreak can cost an establishment thousands of pesos, it can even
be the reason an establishment is forced to closed.

• Loss of customers and sales

• Loss of prestige and reputation
• Lawsuits
• Increase insurance premiums
• Lowered employee morale
• Employee absenteeism
• Increase employee turn over
• Embarrassment

Definition of terms

• Food – Any substance whether simple, mixed or compounded that is used as food, drink,
confectionery or condiments.
• Safety – is overall quality of food fit for consumption.
• Sanitation – is a health of being clean and conducive to health.
• Cleanliness – is the absence of visible soil or dirt and is not necessarily sanitized.
• Microbiology - the branch of biology that deals with microorganisms and their effect on other
microorganisms.
• Microorganisms - organism of microscopic or submicroscopic size. (bacterium , protozoan).
• Food Infection - microbial infection resulting from ingestion of contaminated foods.
• Food Intoxication - type of illness caused by toxins. Under favorable condition certain bacteria
produce chemical compounds called toxins
• Food Spoilage - means the original nutritional value, texture, flavor of the food are damaged, the
food become harmful to people and unsuitable to eat.
• Food borne Illness – A disease carried or transmitted to people by food

Types of food contaminants:

• Biological Contaminant
• Physical Contaminant
• Chemical Contaminant

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Biological contaminant - may cause a food borne illness (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, biological
toxins)

• Examples:
• Sea food toxins
• Mushroom toxins
• Clostridium Botulinum
• Salmonella bacteria

Preventing Biological contaminant

• Purchase foods only on reputable supplier

• Do not use wild mushrooms
• Maintain good personal hygiene
• Observe proper hand washing
• Clean and sanitize equipment
• Maintain clean and sanitize facilities
• Control pests
** Cooking does not destroy toxins**

Physical Contaminant – any foreign object that accidentally find its way into food

• Hair
• Staple wire
• Dust
• Metal shavings
• Nails
• Earrings
• Hair clips
• Plastics
• metal
• Glass fragments
• Insects
• Extraneous vegetable matter
• Stones

Preventing Physical Contaminants

• Wear hair restraint
• Avoid wearing jewelry when preparing, cooking and holding foods (ring, earrings)
• Do not carry pencil or pen
• Do not wear nail polish or artificial nails when working with foods
• Clean can openers regularly
• Remove staple wire in the receiving area
• Place shields on lights

Chemical Contaminant – a chemical substance that can cause food borne illness. Substances normally
found in restaurant

• Toxic metals
• Pesticides
• Cleaning product
• Sanitizers
• Preservatives

Preventing Chemical Contaminants:

• Teach employees how to use chemicals

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 • Store chemicals in original containers to prevent accidental misuse, as well as leakage into food
• Make sure labels are clearly identify chemical contents of chemical containers
• Always chemical according to chemical recommendation
• Always test sanitizing solution
• Wash hands thoroughly after working with chemicals
• Wash foods in cold running water
• Monitor pest control operator and make sure chemicals do not contaminate foods

Utensils and equipment containing potentially toxic metals:

• Lead
• Copper
• Brass
• Zinc
• Antimony
• Cadmium
Highly acidic foods such as tomatoes or lemons can react with metals

Main Causes of Food Borne Illness

• Cross- Contamination
• Time-Temperature Abuse
• Poor Personal Hygiene

Cross Contamination
occurs when microorganisms are transferred from one surface or food to another.
The bacteria can transfer from:
1. Hand to food
2. Food to food
3. Equipment to food

Preventing
Hand to food:
✓ Wash hands properly
✓ Cover cuts, sores and wounds
✓ Keep fingernails short, unpolished & clean
✓ Avoid wearing jewelry, except for plain ring

How to wash hands?

• 1) Use the hand washing sink with running at approximately 100°F and liquid soap.
• 2) Lather hands and exposed arms
• 3) Rub hands for at least 20 seconds
• 4) Wash hands thoroughly, paying attention to fingernails
• 5) Rinse in clean running water. Turn off the faucet with paper towel in your hands
• 6) Dry hands using paper towel or air dryer. Not cloth or apron

Food to Food Contamination

- When harmful organisms from one food contaminate other foods. (raw meats, thawing meat on top of the
shelf where it can drip on the other foods)

Preventing food to food contamination

• Store cooked foods that will not be cooked in the refrigerator on a higher shelf than raw foods.
• Best to practice mix left over foods with fresh foods
• Wash fruits & veg, in a cold running water
• Do not let raw meat and raw vegetables be prepared on the same surface at the same time

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Equipment to Food Contamination
• How to prevent:
• Use separate cutting boards for different foods (meat- veg)
• Prepare raw foods in separate area from fresh and ready to eat foods
• Clean & sanitize equipment, work surfaces & utensils after preparing each foods
• Use specific containers for various food products.
• Make sure cloth and paper towel use for wiping spills are not used for any other purposes

TIME TEMPERATURE ABUSE – happens when the food is exposed to Temperature Danger Zone (41⁰F -
140⁰F) for more than 4 hrs

Time Temperature Abuse occur when:

• Food is not stored, prepared or held at a required temperature
• Food is not cooked or reheated to temperature high enough to kill harmful microorganisms
• Food is not cooled low enough fast
• Food is prepared in advance and not set to a safe required internal temperature while the food is
on hold

Preventing Time Temp. Abuse

• Never expose the food to Temperature danger zone: 41°F - 140°F
• Not to exceed 4 hours, except cool-down
• Document temperatures & time
• Includes receiving, storage, preparation, holding, serving, cooling, and reheating
• Pass food through danger zone quickly

Poor Personal Hygiene

Stay home if someone is suffering from these illnesses:
• Hepatitis A
• Shigella
• E-Coli Infection
• Salmonella
• * Sick employees must not work with foods*

Keeping Good Personal Hygiene

• Medicines should be kept inside the locker and away from foods
• Clean and cover cuts and wounds
• Never use bare hands when handling ready to eat foods
• Disposable gloves should be used once
• Take a bath everyday
• Wear appropriate attire
• Refrain from wearing jewelry, make ups, and nail polish
• Observe proper hand washing procedures at all times

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POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS FOODS
• Food most likely to become unsafe typically has the following characteristics:
• Water activity level of .85
• Ph level 4.6 to 7.5
• High protein content

• Fish
• Meat (beef, pork, lamb)
• Milk & milk products
• Cooked rice, beans
• Textured Soy Protein
• And meat alternatives
• poultry
• Sea foods
• Sprouts & raw seeds
• Sliced melons
• Eggs
• Baked/boiled potatoes
• Garlic in Oil Mixture

MILK SANITATION

Milk: the first food for young mammals

• Provides high quality protein, vitamins and minerals and is a source of energy
• Worldwide many mammilian species are used to produce milk and milk products Goats, sheep,
horses, yaks

Fluid Milk

• Collodial dispersion of the protein caesin and the whey proteins. It is an emulsion with fat globules
suspeneded in the water phase
• Composed mainly of water
o 87-89%
• Milk solids make up the other 12-13%
o Solids include the carbs, lactose, fat, protein and minerals
• Solids-not-fat
o Excludes the fat and includes the caesin, whey, lactose, proteins, minerals

• STERILIZATION- The application of high temperature for the purpose of destroying all types of
microorganisms.
• PASTEURIZATION- The application of heat to milk for the purpose of destroying pathogenic
microorganisms with minimum injury to the substance

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AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulates, or biological materials that
cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms such as food crops, or
damage the natural environment or built environment.

The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on
planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to
human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Pollutants

A substance in the air that can be adverse to humans and the environment is known as an air pollutant.
Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or
man-made. Pollutants can be classified as primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants are directly
produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motor
vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly.
Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary
pollutant is ground level ozone — one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog.
Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed
from other primary pollutants.

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

• Sulfur oxides (SOx) - especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO 2. SO2 is
produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain
sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide.
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are expelled from high temperature combustion,
and are also produced naturally during thunderstorms by electric discharge. Can be seen as the
brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with
the formula NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a
characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
• Carbon monoxide (CO)- is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product
by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major
source of carbon monoxide.
• Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often
divided into the separate categories of methane (CH 4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an
extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming.
• Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or fine
particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles
and the gas together. Sources of particulates can be man made or natural. Some particulates occur
naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea
spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various
industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Increased levels of fine particles in
the air are linked to health hazards such as heart diseases altered lung function and lung cancer.
• Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause cardiopulmonary disease.[3][4]

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• Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently banned from
use.
• Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH 3.
It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes
significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and
fertilizers.
• Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
• Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural
processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants include:

• Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is
a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from
large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern
smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in
the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with
the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
• Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NO x and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the
troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known
as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical
processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought
about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of
smog.
• Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NO x and VOCs.
Minor air pollutants include:

• A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean
Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive
• A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulates
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental
degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been
observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and
animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health and the
environment.

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Sources

Sources of air pollution refers to the various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for the
releasing of pollutants into the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories
which are:

Anthropogenic sources (man-made sources) mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel

• "Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and
waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices. In developing
and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass
includes wood, crop waste and dung]

• "Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound etc.

• Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management. Controlled or
prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration
or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled
fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest
trees, thus renewing the forest.

• Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents

• Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly flammable and may form
explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also anasphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed
space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by
displacement.

• Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry
Natural sources

• Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with few or no vegetation
• Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle
• Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally
occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health
hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such
as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.

• Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires

• Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on warmer days.
These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants—specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic
organic carbon compounds—to produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants. [7]
• Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

Health effects

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Air pollution is a significant risk factor for multiple health conditions including respiratory infections, heart
disease, and lung cancer, according to the WHO. The health effects caused by air pollution may include
difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac
conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room
visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far
reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual
reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure,
the individual's health status and genetics.

The most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide.
Both indoor and outdoor air pollution have caused approximately 3.3 million deaths worldwide. Children
aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of
total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution. [14]

Control devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation
devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is
emitted into the atmosphere.

• Particulate control
• Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
• Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a
particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the
force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration
devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove
fine particulates such as dust and smoke from the air stream.
• Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust
filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished
from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).
•
• Particulate scrubbersWet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term
describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas
streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing
liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other
contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.

• Scrubbers
• Baffle spray scrubber
• Cyclonic spray scrubber
• Ejector venturi scrubber
• Mechanically aided scrubber
• Spray tower
• Wet scrubber

• NOx control
• Low NOx burners

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 • Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
• Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
• NOx scrubbers
• Exhaust gas recirculation
• Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)

• VOC abatement
• Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon
• Flares
• Thermal oxidizers
• Catalytic converters
• Biofilters
• Absorption (scrubbing)
• Cryogenic condensers
• Vapor recovery systems

• Acid Gas/SO2 control

• Wet scrubbers
• Dry scrubbers
• Flue-gas desulfurization

• Mercury control
• Sorbent Injection Technology
• Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
• K-Fuel

• Dioxin and furan control

• Miscellaneous associated equipment

• Source capturing systems
• Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

ODOR CONTROL AND NOISE POLLUTION

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Odor
• Has insignificant effects on the global or national environment
• Has major effects on the local environment
– Nearest dwelling
– Greatest source of nuisance complaints

Operations % of nuisance complaints from odor

Swine 95
Broiler 75
Layer 66
Beef feedlots 50

– Sources
• Animal buildings and lots
• Manure treatment and storage
• Land application
• Silage
• Feed processing
• Dead animal disposal

Characteristics to describe odor

– Concentration
» Detection threshold - Volume of normal air needed to dilute odor sample to the point
where the difference is detected by 50% of the panel members
» Recognition threshold - Volume of normal air needed to dilute an odor sample to the
point that the panel can recognize the compound
– Intensity
» Describes the strength of the odor relative to different concentrations of n-butanol
– Persistence
» Amount of air needed to dilute air around a livestock unit to the point where the odor is
not smelled
– Hedonic tone
» Measurement of the unpleasantness of an odor
» Scale of measurement is 1 to 10
– Character descriptors
» A description of the smell

Health effects of odors

– Within buildings
Toxicity of two compounds
– Ammonia
– Hydrogen sulfide

Ammonia
Concentrations, ppm Exposure Effects
20 - Decreased disease resistance
50 < 1 day Eye and throat irritation, Severe cough
100 6 weeks Impaired pulmonary function
<150 < 1 day Scarring of upper and lower airway
500 30 min Sore nose and throat
<1000 - Irritation of upper respiratory tract
>4000 - Severe damage to upper & lower respiratory tract
5000 < 30 min Death

Hydrogen sulfide
– Most dangerous of gases

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 – Colorless
– Can be smelled at 1 ppm, but concentrations > 150 ppm inhibits smell
» Makes H2S particularly dangerous
» Requires monitoring equipment
– Gas is heavier than air
» Concentrates in pits and holding tanks
» Dangerous when agitated
– Acute toxicity

Concentration, ppm Exposure Human effects

100 > 1 hr Eye and nose irritation
200 1 hr Headache, dizziness
375 4 hr -
500 30 min Nausea, excitement, insomia
>500 - Severe pulmonary edema
1000 - Unconsiousness, death

Livestock management to reduce odors

– Reduce excessive protein feeding

• Reducing protein swine diets from 18 to 14% reduced odor components by 40 to 86%
– Reduce sulfur in mineral supplements
• Can reduce odor by 40%
• Utilize salts other than sulfates or sulfides for trace minerals
– Increase cellulose or other nonstarch polysaccharides in swine diets
– Mask odor with other odors
• Garlic powder has been used for poultry
– Feeding sarsaponin
• Extracted from yucca plant
• Inhibits urease
– Feeding zeolites
• Minerals that have cation exchange capacity
– Reduce dust from animals’ skin
• Increase quality of dietary fat
• Feed adequate zinc

Management of livestock facilities to manage manure odor

– Frequent cleaning of wet manure and feed from facilities

• Manure standing for more than 5 days will cause considerable offensive odor
– Use bedded systems
• Odor seems less offensive than liquid systems
• Addition of organic matter from bedding reduces odor
– Reduce dust within and outside buildings Use of chemical additives
– Alum (K Al(SO4)) will reduce some NH3 emissions
– Use Biofiltration - A system that uses aerobic bacteria to degrade gaseous odors from ventilated
air
– Use Biomass filters
• Walls of corn stalks, corn cob or other materials placed immediately outside ventilation fans
– Use windbreak walls
• Walls placed 10 – 20 ft downwind from ventilation fans
– Use natural windbreaks
• Rows of trees or other vegetation

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93
Noise Pollution

Noise pollution is the disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the activity or balance of human or
animal life.
 Sound that is unwanted or disrupts one’s quality of life is called as noise. When there is lot of noise
in the environment, it is termed as noise pollution.

 Sound becomes undesirable when it disturbs the normal activities such as working, sleeping, and
during conversations.

Health Effects
 Noise pollution can damage physiological and psychological health.
 High blood pressure, stress related illness, sleep disruption, hearing loss, and productivity loss are
the problems related to noise pollution.
 It can also cause memory loss, severe depression, and panic attacks.

Sources of Noise Pollution

 Transportation systems are the main source of noise pollution in urban areas.
 Construction of buildings, highways, and streets cause a lot of noise, due to the usage of air
compressors, bulldozers, loaders, dump trucks, and pavement breakers.
 Industrial noise also adds to the already unfavorable state of noise pollution.
 Loud speakers, plumbing, boilers, generators, air conditioners, fans, and vacuum cleaners add to
the existing noise pollution.

Solutions for Noise Pollution

 Planting bushes and trees in and around sound generating sources is an effective solution for noise
pollution.
 Regular servicing and tuning of automobiles can effectively reduce the noise pollution.
 Buildings can be designed with suitable noise absorbing material for the walls, windows, and
ceilings.
 Workers should be provided with equipments such as ear plugs and earmuffs for hearing protection

Impact of Noise on Vegetation

• It is well known to all that plants are similar to human being.
• They are also as sensitive as man.
• There should be cool & peaceful environment for their better growth.
• Noise pollution causes poor quality of crops

Impact of Noise on Animals

• Noise pollution damage the nervous system of animals.
• Animal looses the control of its mind.
• They become dangerous.

Impact of Noise on Property

• Loud noise is very dangerous to building, bridges and monuments.
• It creates waves which struck the walls and put the building in danger condition.
• It weakens the edifice of buildings

Control of Noise Pollution

(1) Control at source
(2) Control in the transmission path
(3) Using protective equipment.

Noise Control at Source

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The noise pollution can be controlled at the source of generation itself by employing following techniques
(a) Reducing the noise levels from domestic sectors
(b) Maintenance of automobiles
(c) Control over vibrations
(d) Low voice speaking
(e) Prohibition on usage of loud speakers
(f) Selection of machinery
(g) Maintenance of machines

Control in the transmission path

The change in the transmission path will increase the length of travel for the wave and get
absorbed/refracted/radiated in the surrounding environment. The available techniques are:
(a) Installation of barriers
(b) Installation of panels or enclosures
(c) Green belt development

Using protection equipment

• Protective equipment usage is the ultimate step in noise control technology, i.e. after noise reduction
at source and/or after the diversion or engineered control of transmission path of noise.
• The usage of protective equipment and the worker’s exposure to the high noise levels can be
minimized by following.
(a) Job rotation
(b) Exposure reduction
(c) Hearing protection

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