Battery Sizing

From Open Electrical

Contents
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1 Introduction
1.1 Why do the calculation?
1.2 When to do the calculation?
2 IEEE Definitions
3 Battery Characteristics and Types
3.1 Battery Components
3.2 Battery Lifespan
3.3 Battery Charging Stages
3.3.1 Depth of Discharge (DOD)
3.4 Determining battery state of charge
3.5 Amp-Hour rating & Capacity
3.6 Renewable Applications
3.6.1 Maintenance & Monitoring
3.6.2 Future Trends
4 Calculation Methodology
4.1 Step 1: Collect the battery loads
4.2 Step 2: Construct the Load Profile
4.3 Step 3: Select Battery Type
4.4 Step 4: Number of Cells in Series
4.5 Step 5: Determine Battery Capacity
5 Worked Example
5.1 Step 1 and 2: Collect Battery Loads and Construct Load Profile
5.2 Step 3: Select Battery Type
5.3 Step 4: Number of Cells in Series
5.4 Step 5: Determine Battery Capacity
6 Computer Software
6.1 Android App
7 What Next?

Introduction
This article looks at the sizing of batteries for stationary applications (i.e. they don't move). Batteries are used in many
applications such as AC and DC uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems, solar power systems, telecommunications,
emergency lighting, etc. Whatever the application, batteries are seen as a mature, proven technology for storing electrical
energy. In addition to storage, batteries are also used as a means for providing voltage support for weak power systems (e.g.
at the end of small, long transmission lines).

Why do the calculation?

Sizing a stationary battery is important to ensure that the loads being supplied or the power system being supported are
adequately catered for by the battery for the period of time (i.e. autonomy) for which it is designed. Improper battery sizing
can lead to poor autonomy times, permanent damage to battery cells from over-discharge, low load voltages, etc.

When to do the calculation?

The calculation can typically be started when the following information
is known:

Battery loads that need to be supported

Nominal battery voltage
Autonomy time(s)

IEEE Definitions
IEEE Std. 485-1997 provides some definitions related to the battery
sizing terminology:

battery duty cycle: The loads a battery is expected to supply for

specified time periods.

cell size: The rated capacity of a lead-acid cell or the number of positive
plates in a cell. Figure 1. Stationary batteries on a rack (courtesy of
Power Battery)
equalizing charge: A prolonged charge, at a rate higher than the normal
float voltage, to correct any inequalities of voltage and specific gravity
that may have developed between the cells during service.

full float operation: Operation of a dc system with the battery, battery charger, and load all connected in parallel and with
the battery charger supplying the normal dc load plus any charging current required by the battery. (The battery will deliver
current only when the load exceeds the charger output.)

period: An interval of time in the battery duty cycle during which the load is assumed to be constant for purposes of cell
sizing calculations.

rated capacity (lead-acid): The capacity assigned to a cell by its manufacturer for a given discharge rate, at a specified
electrolyte temperature and specific gravity, to a given end-of-discharge voltage.

valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) cell: A lead-acid cell that is sealed with the exception of a valve that opens to the
atmosphere when the internal gas pressure in the cell exceeds atmospheric pressure by a preselected amount. VRLA cells
provide a means for recombination of internally generated oxygen and the suppression of hydrogen gas evolution to limit
water consumption.

vented battery: A battery in which the products of electrolysis and evaporation are allowed to escape freely to the
atmosphere. These batteries are commonly referred to as “flooded.”

Battery Characteristics and Types

Battery Components

Battery technology has not changed much in the last 100 years. The standard construction method involves flooding lead
plates in sulfuric acid. The chemical reaction between the positively charged lead plate and the negatively charged acid
allows the battery to store and “give” electricity. The thickness of the lead plate is closely related to the lifespan of the
battery because of a factor called “Positive Grid Corrosion”. The positive lead plate gradually wears away over time.
Thicker plates are used in deep cycle batteries. This usually translates to a longer battery life. Although plate thickness is not
the only factor related to longer lifespan, it is the most critical variable.

Battery Lifespan

Most of the loss incurred in charging and discharging batteries is due to internal resistance, which is eventually wasted as
heat. Efficiency ratios are relatively high considering that most lead acid batteries are 85 to 95 percent efficient at storing the
energy they receive. Deep cycle batteries used in renewable energy applications are designed to provide many years of
reliable performance with proper care and maintenance. Proper maintenance and usage play a major role in battery lifespan.
Toiling over your battery bank daily with complex gadgets and a gallon of distilled water, however, is not necessary. The
most common causes of premature battery failure include loss of electrolyte due to heat or overcharging, undercharging,
excessive vibration, freezing or extremely high temperatures, and using tap water among other factors

Battery Charging Stages

There are three basic stages in charging a battery: bulk, absorption, and float. These terms signify different voltage and
current variables involved in each stage of charging.

Bulk Charge: In the first stage of the process, current is sent to the batteries at the maximum safe rate, batteries will
accept it until voltage is brought up to nearly 80-90 percent full charge level. There are limits on the amount of current
the battery and/or wiring can take.

Absorption Charge: In the second stage, voltage peaks and stabilizes and current begins to taper off as internal
resistance rises. The charge controller puts out maximum voltage at this stage.

Float Charge: This can also be referred to as trickle charging or a maintenance charge. In this stage, voltage is
reduced to lower levels in order to reduce gassing and prolong battery life. The main purpose of this stage is basically
to maintain the battery’s charge in a controlled manner. In Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) the charger sends small,
short charging cycles or “pulses” when it senses small drops in voltage.

Depth of Discharge (DOD)

The Depth of Discharge (DOD) is used to describe how deeply the battery is discharged. If the battery is 100% fully
charged, it means the DOD of this battery is 0%. If the battery has delivered 30% of its energy, here are 70% energy
reserved, the DOD of this battery is 30%. And if a battery is 100% empty, the DOD of this battery is 100%. DOD always
can be treated as how much energy that the battery delivered.

Determining battery state of charge

There are a few ways to determine the state of charge on a battery, each with their own level of accuracy. As there is no
direct method to measure a battery’s state of charge, there are numerous ways to go about it. One way to gauge a battery is
by measuring its static voltage and comparing it to a standardized chart. This is the least accurate method, but it only
involves an inexpensive digital meter. Another method of gauging the battery involves measuring the density or specific
gravity of the sulfuric acid electrolyte. This is the most accurate test, yet it is only applicable to the flooded types. This
method involves measuring the cell’s electrolyte density with a battery hydrometer. Electrolyte density is lower when the
battery is discharged and higher as the cells are charged. The battery’s chemical reactions affect the density of the electrolyte
at a constant rate that is predictable enough to get a good indication of the cell’s state of charge. Using an amp-hour meter
one can also obtain an accurate indication of the battery’s state of charge. Amp-hour meters keep track of all power moving
in and out of the battery by time, and the state of charge is determined by comparing flow rates.

Amp-Hour rating & Capacity

All deep cycle batteries are classified and rated in amp-hours. Amp-hours is the term used to describe a standardized rate of
discharge measuring current relative to time. It is calculated by multiplying amps and hours. The generally accepted rating
time period for most manufacturers is 20 hours. This means that the battery will provide the rated amperage for about 20
hours until it is down to 10.5 volts or completely dead. Some battery manufacturers will use 100 hours as the standard to
make them look better, yet it can be useful in long-term backup calculations.

Renewable Applications

There are three main types of batteries that are commonly used in renewable energy systems, each with their own
advantages and disadvantages. Flooded or “wet” batteries are the most cost efficient and the most widely used batteries in
photovoltaic applications. They require regular maintenance and need to be used in a vented location, and are extremely well
suited for renewable energy applications. Sealed batteries come in two varieties, the gel cell and Absorbed Glass Mat
(AGM) type. The gel cell uses a silica additive in its electrolyte solution that causes it to stiffen or gel, eliminating some of
the issues with venting and spillage. The Absorbed Glass Mat construction method suspends the electrolyte in close
proximity with the plate’s active material. These batteries are sealed, requiring virtually no maintenance. They are more
suitable for remote applications where regular maintenance is difficult, or enclosed locations where venting is an issue.

a) Flooded Lead Acid (FLA)

Flooded lead acid batteries are the most commonly used batteries, and have the longest track record in solar electric systems.
They usually have the longest life and the lowest cost per amp-hour of any of the other choices. The downside is that they do
require regular maintenance in the form of watering, equalizing charges and keeping the terminals clean. These cells are
often referred to as “wet” cells, and they come in two varieties: the serviceable, and the maintenance-free type (which means
they are designed to die as soon as the warranty runs out). The serviceable wet cells come with removable caps, and are the
smarter choice, as they allow you to check their status with a hydrometer.

b) Gelled Electrolyte Sealed Lead Acid (GEL)

Gel sealed batteries use silica to stiffen or “gel” the electrolyte solution, greatly reducing the gasses, and volatility of the cell.
Since all matter expands and contracts with heat, batteries are not truly sealed, but are "valve regulated". This means that a
tiny valve maintains slight positive pressure. AGM batteries are slowly phasing out gel technology, but there still are many
applications for the gel cells. The recharge voltage for charging Gel cells are usually lower than the other styles of lead acid
batteries, and should be charged at a slower rate. When they are charged too fast, gas pockets will form on the plates and
force the gelled electrolyte away from the plate, decreasing the capacity until the gas finds its way to the top of the battery
and recombines with the electrolyte.

c) Sealed Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM)

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) is a class of valve-regulated lead acid battery (VLRA) in which the electrolyte is held in glass
mats as opposed to freely flooding the plates. This is achieved by weaving very thin glass fibers into a mat to increase
surface area enough to hold sufficient electrolyte for the lifetime of the cell. The advantages to using the AGM batteries are
many, yet these batteries are typically twice the cost of their flooded-cell counterpart. On the plus side, these cells can hold
roughly 1.5 times the amp hour capacity of a similar size flooded battery due to their higher power density. Another factor
that improves their efficiency is the higher lead purity used in AGM cells. Because of their sandwich construction, each plate
no longer has to support its own weight. Their low internal resistance allows them to be charged and discharged much faster
than other types. AGM cells function well in colder temperatures and are highly resistant to vibration. There are many
advantages to using the AGM cells over their flooded counterpart that are beyond the scope of this article.

Maintenance & Monitoring

Proper maintenance and monitoring will greatly extend the life of your batteries. Flooded batteries need to be checked
regularly to make sure electrolyte levels are full. The chemical reaction releases gases, as water molecules are split into
hydrogen and oxygen. This, in turn, consumes water and creates the need to replace it regularly. Only distilled water should
ever be used in batteries, and you should never add any kind of acid solution. The connections from battery to battery and to
the charging and load circuits should always be kept clean and free of corrosion. Corrosion is created upon charging, when a
slight acid mist forms as the electrolyte bubbles. Corrosion buildup will create a good deal of electrical resistance, eventually
contributing to a shortened battery life and malfunctions. A good way to keep up on the terminals is to regularly clean them
with a baking soda solution

Future Trends

Companies world-wide are quickly adjusting to the increased global market for solar systems by developing batteries that
are better suited for photovoltaic systems. At some distant point in the future, it is likely that lead-acid batteries will become
extinct, as newer technologies in lithium ion and Nickel metal hydride continue to evolve. Because lead-acid batteries are
under the hood of virtually every car, advancements in lead-acid technology, however are still being made. New
developments in lead-acid technology usually originate in the auto industry. Efficiency ratings are constantly going up, as
new sensors and improved materials are helping batteries achieve longer lifespan.
Calculation Methodology
The calculation is based on a mixture of normal industry practice and technical standards IEEE Std 485 (1997, R2003) (htt
p://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/mostRecentIssue.jsp?punumber=4899) "Recommended Practice for Sizing Lead-Acid Batteries
for Stationary Applications" and IEEE Std 1115 (2000, R2005) (http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/mostRecentIssue.jsp?punumbe
r=6976) "Recommended Practice for Sizing Nickel-Cadmium Batteries for Stationary Applications". The calculation is
based on the ampere-hour method for sizing battery capacity (rather than sizing by positive plates).

The focus of this calculation is on standard lead-acid or nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries, so please consult specific supplier
information for other types of batteries (e.g. lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, etc). Note also that the design of the battery
charger is beyond the scope of this calculation.

There are five main steps in this calculation:

1) Collect the loads that the battery needs to support

2) Construct a load profile and calculate the design energy (VAh)
3) Select the battery type and determine the characteristics of the cell
4) Select the number of battery cells to be connected in series
5) Calculate the required Ampere-hour (Ah) capacity of the battery

Step 1: Collect the battery loads

The first step is to determine the loads that the battery will be supporting. This is largely specific to the application of the
battery, for example an AC UPS System or a Solar Power System.

Step 2: Construct the Load Profile

Refer to the Load Profile Calculation for details on how to construct a load profile and calculate the design energy, E , ind

VAh.

The autonomy time is often specified by the Client (i.e. in their standards). Alternatively, IEEE 446, "IEEE Recommended
Practice for Emergency and Standby Power Systems for Industrial and Commercial Applications" has some guidance
(particularly Table 3-2) for autonomy times. Note that IEEE 485 and IEEE 1115 refer to the load profile as the "duty cycle".

Step 3: Select Battery Type

The next step is to select the battery type (e.g. sealed lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, etc). The selection process is not covered in
detail here, but the following factors should be taken into account (as suggested by IEEE):

Physical characteristics, e.g. dimensions, weight, container material, intercell connections, terminals
application design life and expected life of cell
Frequency and depth of discharge
Ambient temperature
Charging characteristics
Maintenance requirements
Ventilation requirements
Cell orientation requirements (sealed lead-acid and NiCd)
Seismic factors (shock and vibration)

Next, find the characteristics of the battery cells, typically from supplier data sheets. The characteristics that should be
collected include:

Battery cell capacities (Ah)

Cell temperature
Electrolyte density at full charge (for lead-acid batteries)
Cell float voltage
 Cell end-of-discharge voltage (EODV).

Battery manufacturers will often quote battery Ah capacities based on a number of different EODVs. For lead-acid batteries,
the selection of an EODV is largely based on an EODV that prevents damage of the cell through over-discharge (from over-
expansion of the cell plates). Typically, 1.75V to 1.8V per cell is used when discharging over longer than 1 hour. For short
discharge durations (i.e. <15 minutes), lower EODVs of around 1.67V per cell may be used without damaging the cell.

Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) don't suffer from damaged cells due to over-discharge. Typical EODVs for Ni-Cd batteries are
1.0V to 1.14V per cell.

Step 4: Number of Cells in Series

The most common number of cells for a specific voltage rating is shown below:

Rated
Lead-Acid Ni-Cd
Voltage
12V 6 9-10
24V 12 18-20
48V 24 36-40
125V 60 92-100
250V 120 184-200

However, the number of cells in a battery can also be calculated to more accurately match the tolerances of the load. The
number of battery cells required to be connected in series must fall between the two following limits:

Vdc (1 + Vl,max )
(1) Nmax
=
Vc

Vdc (1 − Vl,min )
(2) Nmin
=
Veod

where N max is the maximum number of battery cells

Nmin is the minimum number of battery cells

Vdc is the nominal battery voltage (Vdc)
Vl,max is the maximum load voltage tolerance (%)
Vl,min is the minimum load voltage tolerance (%)
Vc is the cell charging voltage (Vdc)
Veod is the cell end of discharge voltage (Vdc)

The limits are based on the minimum and maximum voltage tolerances of the load. As a maximum, the battery at float
voltage (or boost voltage if applicable) needs to be within the maximum voltage range of the load. Likewise as a minimum,
the battery at its end of discharge voltage must be within the minimum voltage range of the load. The cell charging voltage
depends on the type of charge cycle that is being used, e.g. float, boost, equalising, etc, and the maximum value should be
chosen.

Select the number of cells in between these two limits (more or less arbitrary, though somewhere in the middle of the
min/max values would be most appropriate).

Step 5: Determine Battery Capacity

The minimum battery capacity required to accommodate the design load over the specified autonomy time can be calculated
as follows:
 Ed ( ka × kt × kc )
Cmin =
Vdc × kdod × ke

where C min is the minimum battery capacity (Ah)

Ed is the design energy over the autonomy time (VAh)

Vdc is the nominal battery voltage (Vdc)
ka is a battery ageing factor (%)
kt is a temperature correction factor (%)
kc is a capacity rating factor (%)
ke is a system efficiency (%)
kdod is the maximum depth of discharge (%)

Select a battery Ah capacity that exceeds the minimum

capacity calculated above. The battery discharge rate (C
rating) should also be specified, approximately the
duration of discharge (e.g. for 8 hours of discharge, use
the C8 rate). The selected battery specification is
therefore the Ah capacity and the discharge rate (e.g.
500Ah C10).

An explanation of the different factors:

Ageing factor captures the decrease in

battery performance due to age.

The performance of a lead-acid battery is

relatively stable but drops markedly at latter
stages of life. The "knee point" of its life vs
performance curve is approximately when
the battery can deliver 80% of its rated
capacity. After this point, the battery has
reached the end of its useful life and should
be replaced. Therefore, to ensure that battery
can meet capacity throughout its useful life,
an ageing factor of 1.25 should be applied
(i.e. 1 / 0.8). There are some exceptions, Table 1. Temperature correction factors for vented lead-acid cells
check with the manufacturer.
(from IEEE 485)
For Ni-Cd batteries, the principles are
similar to lead-acid cells. Please consult the battery manufacturer for suitable ageing factors, but generally,
applying a factor of 1.25 is standard. For applications with high temperatures and/or frequent deep discharges, a
higher factor of 1.43 may be used. For more shallower discharges, a lower factor of 1.11 can be used.

Temperature correction factor is an allowance to capture the ambient installation temperature. The capacity
for battery cells are typicall quoted for a standard operating temperature of 25C and where this differs with the
installation temperature, a correction factor must be applied. IEEE 485 gives guidance for vented lead-acid cells
(see figure right), however for sealed lead-acid and Ni-Cd cells, please consult manufacturer recommendations.
Note that high temperatures lower battery life irrespective of capacity and the correction factor is for capacity
sizing only, i.e. you CANNOT increase battery life by increasing capacity.

Capacity rating factor accounts for voltage depressions during battery discharge. Lead-acid batteries
experience a voltage dip during the early stages of discharge followed by some recovery. Ni-Cds may have
lower voltages on discharge due to prolonged float charging (constant voltage). Both of these effects should be
accounted for by the capacity rating factor - please see the manufacturer's recommendations. For Ni-Cd cells,
IEEE 1115 Annex C suggests that for float charging applications, K = rated capacity in Ah / discharge current
t

in Amps (for specified discharge time and EODV).

 System efficiency is an allowance for losses in the battery (e.g. coloumbic efficiency) and power electronics
(e.g. inverter and/or charger).

Worked Example
Step 1 and 2: Collect Battery Loads and
Construct Load Profile

The loads and load profile from the simple example in the
Energy Load Profile Calculation will be used (see the
figure right). The design energy demand calculated for this
system is E = 3,242.8 VAh.
d

Step 3: Select Battery Type

Vented lead acid batteries have been selected for this

example.

Step 4: Number of Cells in Series

Suppose that the nominal battery voltage is V = 120Vdc,

dc

the cell charging voltage is V = 2.25Vdc/cell, the end-of- Figure 2. Load profile for this example
c

discharge voltage is V = 1.8Vdc/cell, and the minimum

eod

and maximum load voltage tolerances are V = 10% and V

l,min
= 20% respectively.
l,max

The maximum number of cells in series is:

Vdc (1 + Vl,max )
Nmax =
Vc

120 × (1 + 0.2)
= = 64 cells
2.25

The minimum number of cells in series is:

Vdc (1 − Vl,min )
Nmin =
Veod

120 × (1 − 0.1)
= = 60 cells
1.8

The selected number of cells in series is 62 cells.

Step 5: Determine Battery Capacity

Given a depth of discharge k = 80%, battery ageing factor k = 25%, temperature correction factor for vented cells at 30
dod a

deg C of k = 0.956 and a capacity rating factor of k = 10%, the minimum battery capacity is:
t c

Ed × ka × kc × kt
Cmin =
Vdc × kdod

3, 242.8 × 1.25 × 1.1 × 0.956

= = 44.4 Ah
120 × 0.8
Load Profile

The load profile is constructed from the load list and is essentially a chart that shows the distribution of the loads over time.
The construction of the load profile will be explained by a simple example:

Suppose the following loads were identified based on the

Autonomy Method:

Autonomy
Description Load (VA)
(h)
DCS Cabinet 200 4
ESD Cabinet 200 4
Telecommunications Cabinet 150 6
Computer Console 90 2

The load profile is constructed by stacking "energy

rectangles" on top of each other. An energy rectangles has
the load VA as the height and the autonomy time as the
width and its area is a visual representation of the load's
total energy. For example, the DCS Cabinet has an energy Figure 3. Load profile constructed for this example
rectangle of height 200 (VA) and width 4 (hours). The load
profile is created by stacking the widest rectangles first, e.g. in this example it is the Telecommunications Cabinet that is
stacked first.

For the 24 Hour method, energy rectangles are constructed with the periods of time that a load is energised (i.e. the time
difference between the ON and OFF times).

Step 3: Calculate Design Load and Energy Demand

Design Load

The design load is the instantaneous load for which the power conversion, distribution and protection devices should be
rated, e.g. rectifiers, inverters, cables, fuses, circuit breakers, etc. The design can be calculated as follows:

Sd = Sp (1 + kg )(1 + kc )

Where S is the design load apparent power (VA)

d

Sp is the peak load apparent power, derived from the load profile (VA)
kg is a contingency for future load growth (%)
kc is a design margin (%)
It is common to make considerations for future load growth (typically somewhere between 5 and 20%), to allow future loads
to be supported. If no future loads are expected, then this contingency can be ignored. A design margin is used to account for
any potential inaccuracies in estimating the loads, less-than-optimum operating conditions due to improper maintenance, etc.
Typically, a design margin of 10% to 15% is recommended, but this may also depend on Client preferences.

Example: From our simple example above, the peak load apparent power is 640VA. Given a future growth contingency of
10% and a design margin of 10%, the design load is:

Sd = 640 × (1 + 0.1)(1 + 0.1) = 774.4 VA

Design Energy Demand

The design energy demand is used for sizing energy storage devices. From the load profile, the total energy (in terms of
VAh) can be computed by finding the area underneath the load profile curve (i.e. integrating instantaneous power with
respect to time over the autonomy or 24h period). The design energy demand (or design VAh) can then be calculated by the
following equation:

Ed = Et (1 + kg )(1 + kc )

Where E is the design energy demand (VAh)

d

Et is the total load energy, which is the area under the load profile (VAh)
kg is a contingency for future load growth as defined above (%)
kc is a design contingency as defined above (%)

Example: From our simple example above, the total load energy from the load profile is 2,680VAh. Given a future growth
contingency of 10% and a design margin of 10%, the design energy demand is:

Ed = 2, 680 × (1 + 0.1)(1 + 0.1) = 3, 242.8 VAh