NUS/ECE EE4101

Electromagnetic Radiation
1. Radiation Mechanism
When electric charges undergo acceleration or
deceleration, electromagnetic radiation will be
produced. Hence it is the motion of charges (i.e.,
currents) that is the source of radiation.
Yet not all current distributions will produce a strong
enough radiation for communication. We will first
study some typical current distributions and the
radiation fields that they produce.

Hon Tat Hui

1 Electromagnetic Radiation
NUS/ECE EE4101

2. Vector and Scalar Potentials

From Maxwell’s fourth equation:
Β  0

For any vector function A,

    A   0

So we can write:

B  A

Hon Tat Hui

2 Electromagnetic Radiation
NUS/ECE EE4101

From Maxwell’s first equation:

  E   j B
  j   A 
Then,
  E  jA   0

For any scalar function ,

    0
So we can write:
E  j A  

That is, E    j A

Hon Tat Hui
3 Electromagnetic Radiation
 NUS/ECE EE4101

From Maxwell’s second equation:

  H  J  jωD
1
    A  J  jω    j A 

    A    2 A   J  jω  ω2  A
 2 A  k 2 A    J      A  jω 
k 2  ω2 
We can further specify the divergence of A according to
Lorentz’s gauge as:

  A   jω
Hon Tat Hui
4 Electromagnetic Radiation
NUS/ECE EE4101

Using Lorentz’s gauge, we have:

2 A  k 2 A   J
Now, the first, the second, and the last Maxwell’s
equations have been satisfied. To satisfy the third one,
put E    j A into the third equation,
D  

E 


     j A  


  k  
2 2


Hon Tat Hui
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NUS/ECE EE4101

A and  are called vector and scalar potentials and they

satisfy the following inhomogeneous Helmholtz equations:

  k  
2 2


2 A  k 2 A   J
k 2   2 

Note that each component of A is governed by the same

scalar equation as that for . Hence it suffices to solve
only one scalar equation, namely, the inhomogeneous
Helmholtz equation.

Hon Tat Hui

6 Electromagnetic Radiation
NUS/ECE EE4101

3. Solutions to the Vector and Scalar Potentials

Solutions to the vector and scalar potentials are (see
Supplementary Notes):
1 e jkR
 R     R'  dv '
4 v ' R
 e jkR
A( R )   J  R'  dv '
4 v ' R

R R = field point
R' R’ = source point
R R = |R-R’|

Hon Tat Hui

7 Electromagnetic Radiation
NUS/ECE EE4101

Once the potentials are known, the electric and magnetic

fields can be found from:

1
H  A

1
E H
j

Hon Tat Hui

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NUS/ECE EE4101

4. Hertzian Dipole (length << )

z
The source is represented in
(x,y,z) while the field is in (r,,).

Field point
Source point
(r,,)
varies along R’ 
the dipole. R
y
d/2


x

Hon Tat Hui

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NUS/ECE EE4101

Current density: J  z   I z  / A  zˆ I A  constant

d

μ 2
I e  jkR
A  x,y,z   zˆ d A A R dx' dy'dz'
4π
2

R  R  R'  x  x2   y  y2  z  z2

 x2  y2  z 2
r Here x’ = y’ = 0 & z’ ≈ 0
(source at origin)
Very short dipole
Independent of primed coordinate!
Hon Tat Hui
10 Electromagnetic Radiation
NUS/ECE EE4101

Therefore: d

μI  e  jkr  2
μId  e  jkr 
A  x,y,z   zˆ    dz   zˆ  
4 π  r  d 4π  r 

2
A has only the z component. Convert Az to spherical (Ar,
A, A) components first.
Id e 
  jkr
Ar  Az cos     cos 
4  r 
Id  e  jkr 
A   Az sin      sin 
4  r 
A  0
Hon Tat Hui
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NUS/ECE EE4101

E and H fields can now calculated and expressed in

spherical coordinates as:
1
H r  H θ  E  0 H

A

1
jkId sin θ  1  e   jkr E
j
H
H  1   
4π  jkr  r 

Id cos θ 1 1   e 
 jkr


Er  η   2 
  
2π  r jkr  r 
kId sin θ  1 1  e  jkr 
Eθ  jη 1  
2 

4π  jkr kr   r 

Hon Tat Hui

12 Electromagnetic Radiation
NUS/ECE EE4101

 jkr
Near fields: When kr << 1, kr  0 & e 1

Id  sin θ
H 
4πr 2
ηId  cos θ
Er   j
2πkr 3
ηId  sin θ
Eθ   j
4πkr 3

See animation “Near Field – Electric 2D”

See animation “Near Field – Electric 3D”

Hon Tat Hui

13 Electromagnetic Radiation
NUS/ECE EE4101

Far fields: When kr >> 1, all terms vary with the

(important case) factors 1/r2 and 1/r3 vanish.
kId  e  jkr 
Eθ  j   sin θ
4  r 
kId  e  jkr 
H  j   sin θ
4  r 
Note that for far fields:
1. Er = Hr = E = 0.
2. E  H and transverse to the r direction, a TEM wave.
3. Both E and H are in phase..
4. In free space, the wave impedance  = E / H is equal
to 0, i.e.,  = 0 = 120  = 377.
Hon Tat Hui
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NUS/ECE EE4101

Electric field lines surrounding a Hertzian dipole at a given instant

See animation “Far Field – Electric 2D” See animation “Far Field – Electric 3D”
Hon Tat Hui
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NUS/ECE EE4101

5. Half-Wave Dipole (length = 0.5 )

z
Far Field point R
Dipole  (r,,)
R’ R
z’ r R= r - z’cos
y
h = /4
See Supplementary Notes
for the exact derivation of R.
x

Assumption: I  I (z' )zˆ

 I m sin k h  z'  for z'  0
I ( z' )  I m sin k h  z'   
 I m sin k h  z'  for z'  0
Hon Tat Hui
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NUS/ECE EE4101

That is, the current distribution is a sinusoidal function as

shown below: z’

I ( z' )  I m sin k h  z' 

0 I(z’)
Im

Hon Tat Hui

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NUS/ECE EE4101

For a half-wave dipole, the exact field solutions are too

complicated. Hence only the far fields will be
determined. The half-wave dipole can be considered as
an assembly of many Hertzian dipoles joined together.
The far fields of the half-wave dipole are then the
summations of the far fields of the Hertizan dipoles.
Far-zone electric field of a Hertzian dipole at the origin:

k I ( z ' ) z '0 d  e  jkr 

dEθ  j   sin θ
4  r 

Hon Tat Hui

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NUS/ECE EE4101

Far-zone electric field of a Hertzian dipole at an arbitrary

position R’:

kI ( z ' )d  e  jkR 

dEθ  j   sin θ
4  R 
Far-zone electric field of a half-wave dipole:

jkI ( z ' ) e
 
h  jkR
Eθ   dEθ     sin θd
h
4  R 
k sin θ h
 e  jkR 
 j
4  h  I ( z ' )
 R 
d

Hon Tat Hui

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NUS/ECE EE4101

Now put in the current expression for I(z’) and use the
following substitutions for R (far-field approximation):
1 1

R r Note: R = r - z’cos
e  jkR  e  jkr e jkz 'cos
We have,

kI m sin θ  e  jkr

 h
Eθ  j    sin k ( h  z ' )e jkz 'cos dz '
4  r h
kI m sin θ  e  jkr  h
 j  2  sin k ( h  z ' )e jkz 'cos dz '
4  r  0
Hon Tat Hui
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NUS/ECE EE4101

The integration can be performed to yield the following

result:

 e  jkr 
Eθ  j 60 I m   F  
 r 
Eθ
H 


where

cos 2  cos  
F ( ) 
sin 
Hon Tat Hui
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NUS/ECE EE4101

6. Quarter-Wave Monopole

h = /4

Equivalent to h = /2
(image theorem)

Large conducting plane

Hon Tat Hui

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NUS/ECE EE4101

6.1 Image Theorem

For antennas mounted over or near a ground plane (a
very large perfectly conducting plane), virtual
sources (images) can be place below the ground
plane to account for reflections from the ground
plane. After introducing the image sources, the
electromagnetic field above the ground plane can be
considered as a sum of the electromagnetic fields
due to the real sources (above the ground plane) and
the image sources (below the ground plane), with the
ground plane removed. This is the image theory.

Hon Tat Hui

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Note that the image theory can only be applied to find

the fields above the ground plane but not below the
ground plane. Below the ground plane, the
electromagnetic field is strictly zero.

6.2 Method to place the image currents

1. The image currents are at the same perpendicular
distances (for example along the z axis) from the
ground plane as the real currents.
2. The image currents have the same parallel
coordinates (for example the x and y coordinates)
as the real currents.

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NUS/ECE EE4101

3. For vertical real currents, the image currents have

the same direction as the real currents. But for
horizontal real currents, the image currents have
the opposite directions as the real currents.

real current real current

z z’

z z’
image currrent image current

Hon Tat Hui

25 Electromagnetic Radiation
NUS/ECE EE4101

Using the image theorem, a /4 monopole antenna fed by

a source at its base radiates the same far fields in the
region above the ground plane as a /2 dipole antenna.
But there is no radiation below the ground plane. This
situation applies to other vertical wire antennas placed
above a large conducting pane, such as a Hertzian dipole.

Hon Tat Hui

26 Electromagnetic Radiation
NUS/ECE EE4101

Example 1
Find the maximum electric field intensity E of a half-wave
dipole at a distance of 10 km from the dipole. What is the
direction for maximum field intensity? Assume that the
dipole carries a current whose maximum value is Im at the
middle point of the dipole and the current varies at a
frequency of 3 GHz.
Solution
For a half-wave dipole, the electric field intensity in the far
field region is:

Hon Tat Hui

27 Electromagnetic Radiation
NUS/ECE EE4101

 e  jkr  cos 2  cos  

Eθ  j 60 I m  
 r  sin 
It has only the  component.
This field is maximum when  = /2.
 e  jkr 
Eθ   / 2  j 60 I m  
 r 
At 3 GHz, λ = 0.1 m, k = 2/λ= 20. Therefore at r = 10
km,
 e  j 200000 
Eθ   / 2  j 60 I m  
 10000 
Hon Tat Hui
28 Electromagnetic Radiation
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The variation of E with time at r = 10 km is:

  e  j 200000  jt 
Eθ t , r  10 km    / 2  Re j 60 I m  e 
  10000  

sin 2  3  109 t  200000 

60 I m

10000

Hon Tat Hui

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NUS/ECE EE4101

References:
1. David K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetic, Addison-
Wesley Pub. Co., New York, 1989.
2. John D. Kraus, Antennas, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
3. C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory, Analysis and Design, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New Jersey, 2005.
4. W. L. Stutzman and G. A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design,
Wiley, New York, 1998.
5. Fawwaz T. Ulaby, Applied Electromagnetics, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
New Jersey, 2007.
6. Joseph A. Edminister, Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems
of Electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1993.
7. Yung-kuo Lim (Editor), Problems and solutions on
electromagnetism, World Scientific, Singapore, 1993.

Hon Tat Hui

30 Electromagnetic Radiation