Standard washers have two main purposes: To distribute the pressure of the

nut evenly over the surface, so that the surface isn't damaged, and. To ensure
that the nut is pressed against a smooth surface, reducing the chance that it'll
gradually loosen because it's in contact with an uneven surface.

Washer is a disk-shaped thin plate with a centre hole used to distribute the load
of a threaded fastener. Washers are also used as spacer, spring, for distributing
load, pre-loading screws, to reduce vibration (rubber washer). Washers are
made of metal, plastic, rubber or fiber.

Washers can be categorised in three types: Plain Washer, Spring Washer, Lock
Washer

Plain Washer

Plain Washer are used to distribute load to prevent damage to the surface being
assembled. Plain (Millar) washers are also used to provide electrical insulation.

Flat washer / Type A plain washer

Flat Washer / Plain Washer are thin, flat, and circular washers used with screw,
nut or a bolt to distribute load to relatively larger area.

Flat washers sometimes also used to secure a relatively larger hole with smaller
screw

Fender washer

Fender Washers are washers with larger outside diameter as compared to the
inside diameter. These washers can distribute the load to relatively larger area
as compared to flat washers.

Fender Washers has application in Automobile, plumbing, sheet metal and

electrical applications, attaching signs, panelling and drywall.
Shoulder Washer

Shoulder washers are used for insulating screw, wire or any other part from an
assembly. Flange on the shoulder washer is used to locate the bushing when it
is installed or to provide a thrust bearing surface.

Shoulder washers are available in materials like Fiber-glass, fibre, phenolic,

nylon, PCTFE, PTFE & Metals

C-Washer

C- Washer are designed to be slide in and out of position on a bolt or shaft in a

partially completed assembly or can be used as a retention device on a grooved
shaft to keep components in place.

Countersunk Washer

Countersunk washer is used as a flat washer for flat head / countersunk

screws. When secured countersunk washer provide a flush surface and are
available in several shapes including: 90 degree countersunk, angle
countersunk, flanged, un-flanged, and rolled flange among others.
Spring washer

Spring washers are used to provide axial load to fasteners in case of vibration,
shock.

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CNC Machining is a process used in the manufacturing sector that involves the
use of computers to control machine tools. Tools that can be controlled in this
manner include lathes, mills, routers and grinders. The CNC in CNC Machining
stands for Computer Numerical Control.

Code Category Function

Move in a straight line at last speed commanded by a

G01 Motion
(F)eedrate

G02 Motion Clockwise circular arc at (F)eedrate

G03 Motion Counter-clockwise circular arc at (F)eedrate

G codes are preparatory codes

M03 M-Code Spindle ON (CW Rotation)

M04 M-Code Spindle ON (CCW Rotation)

M05 M-Code Spindle Stop

M06 M-Code Tool Change

M codes are machine codes

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Sheet Metal is something between 0.154 to 6.35 mm thick. Above this thickness
is plate and below this thickness is called foil.

Many different types of metal can be made into sheet metal,

including aluminum,brass, copper, steel, titanium, tin and stainless steel. Sheet
metal is available in a variety of different metal types and thicknesses. Choosing
the right sheet metal gauge and thickness is essential to any metal fabrication
project.

Sheet metal forming process

MELTING - POURING into a rectangular mould- PICKLING (cleaning with the help
of chemicals)-ROLLING-ANNEALING

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A fastener (US English) or fastening (UK English)[1] is a hardware device that

mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together. In general, fasteners
are used to create non-permanent joints; that is, joints that can be removed or
dismantled without damaging the joining components.[2] Welding is an example
of creating permanent joints. Steel fasteners are usually made of stainless
steel, carbon steel, or alloy steel.

Permanent joints are intended to stay put. They may make use of adhesives,
nails, rivets, or one of the heat processes of brazing,soldering or welding.

In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints; that

is, joints that can be removed or dismantled without damaging the joining
components.

How blind rivets work

Blind rivets are installed in a tight hole that passes through the materials being
riveted (Step 1 & 2). A riveter is used to pull the mandrel back while holding the
rivet in place (Step 3). As the mandrel is pulled back it deforms the rivet pushing
the sides outward until the mandrel snaps (Step 4). This expanded size forms the
back side of the rivet holding the materials together.
 Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

A lap joint or overlap joint is a joint in which the members overlap. Lap joints
can be used to join wood, plastic, or metal.

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Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, and sometimes other elements. Because of
its high tensile strength and low cost, it is a major component used
in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances,
and weapons.

Iron is the base metal of steel. Iron is able to take on two crystalline forms
(allotropic forms), body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on
its temperature. In the body-centered cubic arrangement, there is an iron atom
in the center and eight atoms at the vertices of each cubic unit cell; in the face-
centered cubic, there is one atom at the center of each of the six faces of the
cubic unit cell and eight atoms at its vertices. It is the interaction of
the allotropes of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, that gives
steel and cast iron their range of unique properties.

The iron-carbon diagram (also called the iron-carbon phase or equilibrium

diagram) is a graphic representation of the respective microstructure states
depending on temperature (y axis) and carbon content (x axis).

Alloy additions also suppress (lower) the melting range. Pure iron (Fe) has a fixed
melting point of 1535°C, chromium (Cr) 1890°C and nickel (Ni) 1453°C compared
to a range of 1400-1450 °C for type 304 stainless steel.

The best-known grade is Type 304, also known as 18/8 and 18/10 for its
composition of 18% chromium and 8%/10% nickel, respectively. The second
most common austenitic stainless steel is Type 316. The addition of 2%
molybdenum provides greater resistance to acids and to localized corrosion
caused by chloride ions.

Gray iron, or grey cast iron, is a type of cast iron that has a graphitic
microstructure. It is named after the gray color of the fracture it forms, which is
due to the presence of graphite. It is the most common cast iron and the most
widely used cast material based on weight.

Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than
2%.[1] Its usefulness derives from its relatively low melting temperature. It is
made by reducing iron ore in a blast furnace.

Stainless steel has low carbon content below 1%(0.15-0.25)