Gland

biology
Written By:
The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica
See Article History
Alternative Title: gland system
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Gland, cell or tissue that removes specific substances from the blood, alters or concentrates
them, and then either releases them for further use or eliminates them. Typically, a gland
consists of either cuboidal or columnar epithelium resting on a basement membrane and is
surrounded by a plexus, or meshwork, of blood vessels. Endocrine, or ductless, glands (e.g.,
pituitary, thyroid, adrenal) secrete substances known as hormones directly into the
bloodstream rather than through ducts. Exocrine glands (e.g., salivary, sweat, digestive)
discharge their products through ducts.

Endocrine system
anatomy
Written By:
David O. Norris

Endocrine system, any of the systems found in animals for the production of hormones,
substances that regulate the functioning of the organism. Such a system may range, at its
simplest, from the neurosecretory, involving one or more centres in the nervous system, to
the complex array of glands found in the human endocrine system.
 

The glands of the human endocrine system.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Comparative endocrinologists investigate the evolution of endocrine systems and the role of
these systems in animals’ adaptation to their environments and their production of offspring.
Studies of nonmammalian animalshave provided information that has furthered research in
mammalian endocrinology, including that of humans. For example, the actions of ... (100 of
5,557 words)

The autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the
basic visceral processes needed for the maintenance of normal bodily functions. It operates
independently of voluntary control, although certain events, such as stress, fear, sexual
excitement, and alterations in the sleep-wake cycle, change the level of autonomic activity.
 

Schematic representation of the autonomic nervous system, showing distribution of

sympathetic and …

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The autonomic system usually is defined as a motor system that innervates three major types
of tissue: cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands. However, it also relays visceral sensory
information to the central nervous system and processes it so that alterations can be ... (100 of
39,628 words)

Bioelectric effects
Bioelectricity refers to the generation or action of electric currents or voltages in biological
processes. Bioelectric phenomena include fast signaling in nerves and the triggering of
physical processes in muscles or glands. There is some similarity among the nerves, muscles,
and glands of all organisms, possibly because fairly efficient electrochemical systems
evolved early. Scientific studies tend to focus on the following: nerve or muscle tissue; such
organs as the heart, brain, eye, ear, stomach, and certain glands; electric organs in some fish;
and potentials associated with damaged tissue.

Electric activity in living tissue is a cellular phenomenon, dependent on the cell membrane.
The membrane acts like a capacitor, storing energy as electrically charged ions on opposite
sides of the membrane. The stored energy is available for rapid utilization and stabilizes the
membrane system so that it is not activated by small disturbances.

Cells capable of electric activity show a resting potential in which their interiors are negative
by about 0.1 volt or less compared with the outside of the cell. When the cell is activated, the
resting potential may reverse suddenly in sign; as a result, the outside of the cell becomes
negative and the inside positive. This condition lasts for a short time, after which the cell
returns to its original resting state. This sequence, called depolarization and repolarization, is
accompanied by a flow of substantial current through the active cell membrane, so that a
“dipole-current source” exists for a short period. Small currents flow from this source through
the aqueous medium containing the cell and are detectable at considerable distances from it.
These currents, originating in active membrane, are functionally significant very close to their
site of origin but must be considered incidental at any distance from it. In electric fish,
however, adaptations have occurred, and this otherwise incidental electric current is actually
utilized. In some species the external current is apparently used for sensing purposes, while in
others it is used to stun or kill prey. In both cases, voltages from many cells add up in series,
thus assuring that the specialized functions can be performed. Bioelectric potentials detected
at some distance from the cells generating them may be as small as the 20 or 30 microvolts
associated with certain components of the human electroencephalogram or the millivolt of the
human electrocardiogram. On the other hand, electric eels can deliver electric shocks with
voltages as large as 1,000 volts.

In addition to the potentials originating in nerve or muscle cells, relatively steady or slowly
varying potentials (often designated dc) are known. These dc potentials occur in the
following cases: in areas where cells have been damaged and where ionized potassium is
leaking (as much as 50 millivolts); when one part of the brain is compared with another part
(up to one millivolt); when different areas of the skin are compared (up to 10 millivolts);
within pockets in active glands, e.g., follicles in the thyroid (as high as 60 millivolts); and in
special structures in the inner ear (about 80 millivolts).

A small electric shock caused by static electricity during cold, dry weather is a familiar
experience. While the sudden muscular reaction it engenders is sometimes unpleasant, it is
usually harmless. Even though static potentials of several thousand volts are involved, a
current exists for only a brief time and the total charge is very small. A steady current of two
milliamperes through the body is barely noticeable. Severe electrical shock can occur above
10 milliamperes, however. Lethal current levels range from 100 to 200 milliamperes. Larger
currents, which produce burns and unconsciousness, are not fatal if the victim is given
prompt medical care. (Above 200 milliamperes, the heart is clamped during the shock and
does not undergo ventricular fibrillation.) Prevention clearly includes avoiding contact with
live electric wiring; risk of injury increases considerably if the skin is wet, as the electric
resistance of wet skin may be hundreds of times smaller than that of dry skin.
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