Center for Industrial Sensors and Measurements

Department of Materials Science & Engineering

Group Inorganic Materials Science
Literature review

Ferrites for UHF applications

Lanlin Zhang
MSE The Ohio State University
Group Inorganic Materials Science
2041 College Road, 281 Watts Hall
Columbus OH 43210-1178
USA
Zhang.471@osu.edu

05021/IMS/llz June 2006

Table of Contents
Table of Contents 2

1 Introduction 3

2 Intrinsic properties of ferrites 4

2.1 Spinels 4
2.1.1 Structure and compositions 4
2.1.2 Ferrimagnetism 4
2.2 Hexagonal ferrites 5
2.2.1 Structures and compositions 5
2.2.2 Ferrimagnetism 6
2.3 Garnets 6
2.3.1 Structure and compositions 6
2.3.2 Ferrimagnetism 6
2.4 Comparisons among types of ferrites 7

3 Synthesis of polycrystalline ferrites 8

3.1 Bulk ferrites 8
3.2 Ferrite films 9
3.3 Nanocomposites 9

4 High frequency properties of ferrites 11

4.1 Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic resonance 11
4.2 Wave propagation in ferrites 11
4.3 Damping and losses 12
4.3.1 Intrinsic aspects 12
4.3.2 Extrinsic aspects 14

5 Practical designs 15
5.1 Chemistry compositions 15
5.2 Preparation technology 15

References 17

Symbols 19

Distribution List 20
1 Introduction
Signal and power electronics are making an increased use of ultrahigh frequencies
(UHF), to minimize product sizes, increase production quantity and lower manufacturing
cost.
In the UHF range of 300 MHz to 3 GHz, ferrimagnetic iron oxides (ferrites [1]) are
especially useful because they combine the properties of a magnetic material with that of
an electrical insulator [2]. Ferrites have much higher electrical resistivity than metallic
ferromagnetic materials, resulting in minimization of the eddy current losses, and total
penetration of the electromagnetic (EM) field. Furthermore, the widespread use of
ferrites rests upon a remarkable flexibility in tailoring the magnetic properties, ease of
preparation, and a favorable cost price. Hence ferrites are frequently applied as circuit
elements, magnetic storage media like read/write heads, non-reciprocal and non-linear
devices, such as phase shifters and Faraday rotators.
The electromagnetic properties of ferrites are affected by operating conditions such as
field strength, temperature and frequency. Generally, ferrites have relatively low Curie
temperatures (TC) and their magnetization may fluctuate upon temperature variation in
the UHF range. Also due to their magneto-crystalline anisotropy, the frequency range of
some ferrites is limited by the occurrence of ferromagnetic resonance (FMR), the so
called Snoek’s limitation [3]. Therefore, magnetic losses, power dissipations and thermal
stability in ferrites need particular attention.
Ferrites include a wide range of materials with various crystal structures, compositions
and applications. In this report, a short literature survey is presented about specific types
of ferrites, which can be applied at UHF with low-loss and low-cost. First of all, the
crystal structures and basic magnetisms of the three types of ferrites are reviewed. Then,
the fundamental magnetic behaviors and limitations for the UHF range are discussed, as
well as possible technical solutions. This is followed by a summary of preparation
methods for bulk, film and granular ferrites with a few typical examples of the latest
developments. In the final section, particular attentions are paid to the unresolved issues
in minimization of losses in ferrites. Ca, V substituted yttrium-iron garnets, as an
example of low-loss ferrites, will be discussed since they are considered for the MURI
project “Fabrication of magnetic photonic arrays for miniature antennas” [4]. Reduction
of both magnetic and dielectric losses is expected by delicate control of chemical
compositions and ceramic fabrication routes.
2 Intrinsic properties of ferrites
Commonly used ferrites are primarily classified into three types: spinels, hexagonal
ferrites and garnets, according to their primary crystal lattice. Generally, ferrimagnetism
arises from the antiparallel alignment of the magnetic moments on transition metal ions,
present on different magnetic sublattices. The origin of the antiparallel coupling can be
explained by super-exchange of valence electrons between the filled p-orbitals of O2- and
unfilled d-orbitals of the transition metal cations. In ferrites, the oppositely directed
magnetic moments do not exactly cancel, thus a net magnetic moment results [1,5,6].

2.1 Spinels
2.1.1 Structure and compositions
Spinels have the general formula
MeO·Fe2O3, where Me represents a divalent
transition ion or a combination of ions
having an average valence of two [1]. In
spinel ferrites, the relatively large oxygen
anions form a cubic close packing with ½
of the octahedral and ⅛ of the tetrahedral
interstitial sites occupied by metal ions.
Figure 2.1 shows a cubic unit cell
containing eight formula units, in which
tetrahedral and octahedral sites are labeled
as A and B respectively.
The distribution of cations over A- and B- Figure 2.1: Two octants of the spinel unit cell. A
and B represent tetrahedrally and octahedrally
sites is determined by their ionic radius, coordinated sites respectively [7].
electronic configurations and electrostatic
energy in the spinel lattice [1]. Cations like Zn2+ and Cd2+, show a marked preference for
the A sites, thus their spinels are obtained with a formula Me2+[ Fe32+ ]O4, where the Fe3+
ions between brackets are on the B-sites. When cations have stronger B-site preference
than Fe3+, as is the case for Mn2+, Ni2+ and Co2+, Fe3+ can occupy A-sites to form inverse
spinels, denoted as Fe3+[Me2+Fe3+]O4.

2.1.2 Ferrimagnetism
The spinel crystal structure can be considered in terms of A-site and B-site magnetic
sublattices. In the Néel model of ferrimagnetism, there are three super-exchange
interactions: A-A, B-B and A-B, which are all antiferrimagnetic. The A-B interaction has
the greatest exchange energy, primarily due to the small cation-O2- bonding lengths and
the favorable cation-O2--cation bonding angle [1]. The dominance of the A-B interaction
results in antiparallel alignment between the magnetic moments in the two types of
sublattices, and also parallel alignment of the cations within each sublattice, despite the
A-A or B-B antiferrimagnetic interaction. Therefore in the inverse spinel, the spin
moments of Fe3+ on B-sites cancel out with those of Fe3+ on A-sites. The net
2 Intrinsic properties of ferrites 5

magnetization of the solid is ascribed to the uncompensated magnetic moments from all
the divalent ions at B-sites.
The best magnetic properties are obtained
with mixed ferrites, which contain more
than one divalent cation, such as NiZn and
MnZn ferrites. The substitutions influence
the degree of the inversion, the strength of
the super-exchange, the magnetic moment,
and the Néel temperature (TN), at which
antiferromagnetic materials become
paramagnetic. Typical examples are:
• the saturation magnetization (Ms) of
MgMn ferrite can be varied from 1200
to 2800 G, depending on the degree of Figure 2.2: Composition diagram of ferrites,
indicating hexagonal ferrite phases: M, W, Y, and Z,
inversion upon the sintering conditions and spinel S, adapted from [1].
[2];
• addition of Zn2+ at A-sites increases Ms, but reduces TN [1];
• small amounts of Co2+ reduce the crystal anisotropy, because the anisotropy of Co
partly compensates that of Fe [1,5].

2.2 Hexagonal ferrites

2.2.1 Structures and compositions
The group of ferrites possessing hexagonal
crystal structures is referred to hexagonal
ferrites. Four types of hexagonal ferrites
are distinguished and indicated as M, W, Y
and Z as shown in the composition diagram
in figure 2.2. They correspond to
(BaO+MeO)/Fe2O3 ratios of 1:6, 3:8, 4:6
and 5:12 respectively. Me can be a
transition cation or a combination of
cations as it would occur in spinels. The
crystal and magnetic structure of the
different types of hexagonal ferrites are
remarkably complex, as shown for the most
important M-type BaFe12O19 in figure 2.3.
The elementary unit cell contains 10
oxygen layers, sequentially constructed
from 4 blocks, S (spinel), R (hexagonal),
S* and R*. S* and R* have equivalent
atomic arrangements as S and R, but are Figure 2.3: Structure of M type BaFe12O19 [8].
rotated 180° about the c axis with respect to
S and R. An S or S* block consists of two O2- layers; while an R or R* block contains
three O2- layers, with one oxygen site in the middle layer substituted by a Ba2+ ion [8].
6 Ferrites for UHF applications

2.2.2 Ferrimagnetism
Each block in the M-type hexagonal Table 2.1: Types of 3+lattice sites and spin
ferrites has 6 interstitial Fe3+ ions in 3 directions of interstitial Fe ions in S, S* R and R*
blocks [8].
different types of lattice sites, having
parallel or opposite spin directions, as Tetragonal Octahedral
listed in table 2.1. In the R or R* block, S and S* ↓↓ ↑↑↑↑
the super-exchange interactions force
Fe3+(I) antiparallel aligned with Fe3+(II) R and R* - ↑↑↑↓↓
and Fe3+(III), whereas the latter two are
parallel with each other, as shown in figure 2.3. These strongly preferred alignments are
imposed on the adjacent S and S* blocks, and account for the uniaxial magnetization
anisotropy of the crystal along the c axis [5]. The entire unit cell has a net magnetic
moment of 20 μB, where the Bohr magneton μB is the magnetic moment produced by one
unpaired electron.

2.3 Garnets
2.3.1 Structure and compositions
The general formula for garnets is
Me3Fe5O12, where Me is one of the rare
earth metal ions, including Y, La and Gd.
The cubic unit cell contains 8 formula units
or 160 atoms, which can be described as a
spatial arrangement of 96 O2- with
interstitial cations. A well-known garnet,
yttrium iron garnet Y3Fe5O12 (YIG) is
shown in figure 2.4. The coordination of
the cations is considerably more complex
than spinels, with 24 Y3+ in dodecahedral
sites, 24 Fe3+ ions in tetrahedral sites and
16 remaining Fe3+ in octahedral sites.
Similar to spinels and hexagonal ferrites, a
wide range of transition metal cations can
Figure 2.4: Unit cell structure of YIG, showing
substitute Y3+ or Fe3+; especially rare earth cation coordination structure [6]: Fe3+( : ) in
ions may replace the ions on octahedral and tetragonal site at; Fe3+(●) in octahedral site at (0 ¼
dodecahedral sites. Each type of lattice site
⅜) and Y3+(○) in docedahedral sites at ( ¼ ⅛ ½) and
will accept other metal ions with a suitable (0 ¼ ⅝).
size: 0.9…1.05 Ǻ for substitution at
dodecahedral sites, 0.65…0.8 Ǻ at octahedral sites and 0.4…0.64 Ǻ at tetrahedral sites.
Thus pentavalent ions such as V5+ and As5+ can occupy tetrahedral sites, while Ca2+
substitute ions on dodecahedral sites [9].

2.3.2 Ferrimagnetism
In YIG, Y3+ with no 4f electrons does not have a magnetic moment; three Fe3+ ions on
tetrahedral sites align antiparallel with two Fe3+ on octahedral sites. The dominant
antiferromagnetic exchange between these two types of Fe3+ results in a net magnetic
2 Intrinsic properties of ferrites 7

moment of 5 µB per formula unit. In the case Me3+ has a permanent magnetic moment,
the Me3+ ions form a third magnetic sublattice. At low temperatures, the overall
magnetization is parallel to that of Me3+; whereas at increased temperatures, the Me3+
behave paramagnetically in the exchange field produced by the strong Fe3+ coupling [5].
Therefore, a compensation temperature TCmp, will be observed in the magnetization
curve, when the sign of the spontaneous magnetization reverses.
The magnetic properties of YIG can be tailored in a very wide range, since all three
different crystallographic sites are available for substitutions by different metal cations
with various valence states. For instance, Sc substitutions at octahedral sites raise Ms up
to 1900 G; whereas Al or Ga substitutions at tetragonal sites can lower Ms to 300 G.

2.4 Comparisons among types of ferrites

Different crystal structures and atomic interactions in ferrites lead to diverse magnetic
properties and hence applications. Spinels can be adapted for 3-30 GHz applications by
selecting the proper chemical composition [10-12]. For instance, Li ferrite is frequently
used in microwave devices owing to its square hysteresis loop and a high TN [1]; Ni
ferrites are preferred for high power applications because of its stable magnetic properties
upon frequency and temperature variations. However, spinel ferrites exhibit the well
known Snoek’s limitation [3], i.e. spinel ferrite of a high permeability has a low natural
resonance frequency, due to the cubic magnetocrystalline anisotropy. More details about
this phenomenon will be discussed in the next chapter.
In contrast to spinels, garnets are rather weakly ferrimagnetic, due to their large formula
unit. Garnets contain only trivalent ions; therefore no electron hopping occurs through
the materials, leading to an extremely high resistivity and a low magnetic loss, even at
high frequencies. Among the best UHF magnetic materials, single crystalline YIG has a
narrowest resonance linewidth ∆H ≈ 0.1 G at 10 GHz. Its saturation magnetization,
temperature sensitivity and magnetocrystalline anisotropy can also be tuned by changing
the compositions [4,8].
Recently, much attention is devoted to application of hexagonal ferrites for the
1…100 GHz band because of their intrinsic uniaxial anisotropy. The plane perpendicular
to the c axis, is an easy plane for magnetization rotation. This makes that their
permeability values can surpass the Snoek’s limitation [13]. The hexagonal ferrites are
expected to be useful for ultrahigh frequency applications, for example permanent
magnets. However, in practice it is found difficult to reduce the loss factor of these
materials. Furthermore, due to their complex crystal structure, the synthesis requires
higher calcination and sintering temperatures than spinel ferrites. This, in turn, leads to
potential processing problems: component evaporation, valence variation and changing
oxygen stoichiometry. These difficulties have been obstacles in the production of
hexagonal ferrites for high-frequency applications, especially on industrial scale.
3 Synthesis of polycrystalline ferrites
Low-cost and reliable polycrystalline ferrites are used in industrial applications, although
they may have less favorable magnetic properties than single crystal ferrites. For UHF
applications, polycrystalline ferrites are required to have high density, fine grains and
without defects.
Ferrite raw materials
3.1 Bulk ferrites
Most of the bulk ferrites are prepared by a Formulation
(weigh, batching)
standard ceramic co-firing route described
in figure 3.1 [1,9]. Raw material Mixing/milling
oxides/chlorides/carbonates are first (ball milling/attritor mill/pan
granulation)
stoichiometrically mixed to yield
homogeneous powders, using dry, or more Drying
commonly, by wet milling, followed by (spray drying/filter pressing/pan
drying)
water removal by heating. During
calcination or presintering, the raw Calcination
materials are then reacted to form the ferrite (at 1000ºC)

phase. Typically the reaction temperature Pulverization

for spinels is 900…1200ºC, while it may be (ball milling/attitor milling)
as high as 1450ºC for hexagonal ferrites
and garnets [9], because of their complex (“ceramic Decant Granulation
cake”) (adding organic binders,
structures. After calcination, the heavily Wet pressing spray drying)
agglomerated lumps formed must be milled (applying magnetic Dry pressing
again to homogenize/adjust their field)
CIP
compositions and to obtain a more uniform (optional)
and small particle size. At the end of the Sintering
(at 1200-1400ºC) HP
milling cycle, organic binders are added to (optional)
facilitate the particle packing during shape
Finishing
forming. The ferrites are finally fired to (diamond wheel grinding)
dense materials, possibly at controlled and
Figure 3.1: Flow chart of standard ceramic
programmed pO2 , to obtain cations in the processing of ferrite components [12].
right valence state.
Other advanced technologies, applied in bulk ferrite production are:
• co-precipitation [14], freeze-drying, gel processing and self-propagating combustion
for preparing ferrite powders with accurate chemical compositions;
• cold isostatic pressing (CIP), hot pressing (HP), tape casting and roll compaction for
shaping ferrite powders.
3 Synthesis of polycrystalline ferrites 9

3.2 Ferrite films

As the industry turns to integrated high
frequency devices, planar magnetic
elements are required for compatibility with
strip line and microstrip systems. The
typical thickness of these planar
components is 0.1-0.2 mm, depending on
the operation frequency. First of all, the
discrepancy between the thermal regimens
of ferrite preparation and semiconductors
should be solved for further device
development. Therefore investigations are
focused on low-temperature synthesis of
ferrites. Secondly high-power operations
require an enhanced instability threshold of
the ferrite above the power specification, as
well as a good spreading of energy.
Ferrites are brittle materials; so internal and Figure 3.2: Schematic of the spin-spray ferrite
plating method [15].
external stresses should be avoided to
prevent cracking and peeling of the film. The compositions need to be adjusted to reduce
magnetostriction, which is the change of the ferrite crystal dimensions upon
magnetization. And, of course, low-loss microstructures must be maintained.
The most promising methods for preparation of ferrite films are: spin spraying, pulsed
laser deposition (PLD), plasma vapor deposition (PVD), cyclic dip and jet vapor
deposition (JVD). Ni0.28Zn0.18Fe2.54O4 ferrite films are prepared by spin spraying at 90ºC
on glass substrates of a precursors solution, consisting of FeCl2(+FeCl3)+NiCl2+ZnCl2
and an oxidizing solution of NaNO2+CH3COONH4, as illustrated in figure 3.2. The film
is 0.40 μm thick with a ferromagnetic resonance of 1.2 GHz, exceeding Snoek’s limit for
the bulk ferrite, while maintaining a high permeability ~30 at 1 GHz [15]. Among all of
these methods the PLD technique is most studied and applied to deposit a variety of
oxide films, including all three types of ferrites, with good magnetic and dielectric
properties, and moderate growth rates. PLD has been successfully applied for
preparations of high quality hexagonal barium ferrite BaFe12O19 film [16], and Li-Zn
ferrite film [17] by optimizing preparation conditions, such as pulse rate, cooling rate and
substrate surface. However, problems with the microstructure of films have been
reported as well. Additionally, ferrite thin films, prepared from ferrite nanoparticles, are
reported to result in good magnetic properties.

3.3 Nanocomposites
In this report we consider nanocomposites to consist of magnetic nanoparticles embedded
in a non-magnetic matrix, either inorganic or organic. These materials are believed to be
promising because the space confinement during synthesis results in individually
dispersed particles with limited agglomeration and narrow particle size distribution. The
matrices play an important role in retarding the motion of the particles as well as the
grain growth during the crystal formation. The particle size and distribution, morphology
10 Ferrites for UHF applications

and crystal structures that determine the magnetic properties [18], are controlled by the
composition of the matrixes, embedding concentration and processing conditions.
Chemical methods are frequently adopted,
such as sol-gel routes for nickel ferrites in
silica [19-21]. Si(OC2H5)4 (TEOS) is often
used as a precursor for silica gels because it
is easily hydrolyzed and catalyzed by dilute
HCl to homogeneous gels that are
monolithic and transparent. Figure 3.3
shows the microstructure of NiFe2O4/SiO2
composites prepared by a sol-gel method
[20].

Figure 3.3: TEM image of 50wt% NiFe2O4/SiO2

composite.
4 High frequency properties of ferrites
UHF applications of ferrites are based on the unique interactions of EM radiation with
ferrites. These high frequency properties depend on the motion of magnetic dipoles in
the presence of a constant magnetic field and a superimposed radio-frequency (RF)
magnetic field.

4.1 Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic resonance

The magnetization of the ferrites is primarily due to spin moments of the electrons [1]. In
a DC bias magnetic field H0, the magnetic moment M will precess around the direction
of the bias field. The classical equation of magnetization motion, without damping, is
dM
= γ(M × H ) (4.1)
dt
where H is the sum of external and internal magnetic fields and in this case H = Hi, the
sum of all the DC fields within the ferrites. For an infinite medium without anisotropy,
ge
magnetostriction or imperfections, Hi = H0. γ = = 2.8MHz/G ; in which qel is the
2mc
absolute value of the electronic charge, me is the mass of the electron, c is the velocity of
light and the Landé g-factor equals 2 for pure spin moments. If a UHF field is
superimposed perpendicularly to the bias field, the overall magnetic fields can be
expressed as
H =H i +he jωt (4.2)
where h and ω represent the amplitude and frequency of the UHF field.
Correspondingly, there will be alternating component of the magnetization
M =M 0 +me jωt (4.3)
where M0 is the Ms at a given temperature, and m is the magnetization caused by the RF
field. It is assumed that the precession angle remains very small, therefore
H i  h and M 0  m . Substitution of (4.2) and (4.3) into (4.1) results in a singularity
when ωr = γH 0 , which is defined as the ferromagnetic resonance condition. At
resonance, the spin system absorbs much energy from the UHF field, due to the strong
interaction between the magnetization and the UHF field.
In ferrimagnetic materials, individual magnetic sublattices have different magnetization
properties with their own γ factors. In the UHF range, however, the strong mutual
coupling results them resonate altogether at the same frequency and in the same phase
[1]. The resonance condition is ωr = γ eff H 0 , where γeff is the effective gyromagnetic ratio
which is a combination of individual sublattices.

4.2 Wave propagation in ferrites

Due to the vector nature of the RF field and RF magnetization, the relationship between
the UHF field h(t) and the magnetic induction b(t), can be expressed by application of
Maxwell’s equations
12 Ferrites for UHF applications

⎛ μ -iκ 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
b = ⎜ iκ μ 0 ⎟ h (4.4)
⎜ 0 0 1⎟
⎝ ⎠
where b and h are the alternating components of the internal magnetic field. In order to
solve (4.4), assume a simple case with an infinite ferrite medium without loss, magnetic
anisotropy or defects. The solution for a plane EM wave, propagating through this
medium in the direction of magnetization, results in two fundamental modes with
opposite polarizations and different permeabilities:
4πM s
μ+ = μ + κ = 1 +
H + ω/ γ
(4.5)
4πM s
μ− = μ − κ = 1 +
H − ω/ γ
in which κ is non-zero at all frequencies so that μ + ≠ μ − . For a fixed length of medium,
one mode of polarization dominates and determines the effective permeability of the
ferrite to be either left or right circularly polarized. This is the basis of the linear
applications of UHF ferrites; equivalent to the magneto-optic Faraday rotation, i.e. the
polarization plane of the light beam is rotated as it transmits through a magnetized
sample. At the resonant frequency ωr, the field energy is strongly absorbed by the ferrite
if the rotation of the circularly polarized UHF field corresponds to the precession
direction of the magnetic moments. On the other hand, an oppositely polarized field will
have a much weaker interaction. Thus, by changing the direction of the bias field, and
hence the rotation of the magnetic moments, the interaction between the UHF field and
ferrites can be controlled: for one field direction the ferrite transmits it; for the opposite
direction, absorbs it. This effect enables the operation of nonreciprocal devices in signal
processing.

4.3 Damping and losses

4.3.1 Intrinsic aspects
In reality, damping must be considered, which is responsible for the magnetic losses in
ferrites. The magnetic energy, absorbed from the RF field, dissipates and is finally
converted to heat. The damping term can be introduced into (4.1) by addition of the
Landau-Lifshitz formula, which includes a damping factor λ. Damping depends on the
frequency of the RF field, the temperature and the crystal structure. The complex
susceptibility is then rewritten as
χ = χ '− iχ " (4.6)
where χ' is the component of b in phase with h; χ" is the components of b that is 90° out
of phase with respect to h. The resonance peak widens and becomes less intense with
increasing damping.
4 High frequency properties of ferrites 13

A good measure for the dissipation is the

experimentally measured resonance
linewidth ∆H, or relaxation time τeff, where
2
τ eff = . For UHF applications, ferrites
γΔH
with a narrow resonance linewidth are
required. As discussed, single-crystal YIG
has the narrowest intrinsic linewidth
ΔH = 0.1 G at 10 GHz and relaxation time
τeff ~ 10-7 s. Polycrystalline ferrites have a
broader ΔH on the order of 10-100 G, and
correspondingly shorter τeff.
There are several mechanisms responsible
for the damping of magnetization
[1,5,6,22,23].
• The uniform precession of magnetic
moments can couple into degenerate Figure 4.1: Dependence of ΔH on the relative
density of polycrystalline YIG at room-temperature
spinwave modes having the same [6].
frequency (spin-spin relaxation). This
coupling may be promoted by
imperfections or inhomogeneity in the
crystal, such as porosity, impurities, and
surface pits. Particularly in poly-
crystalline materials, porosity [24] and
anisotropy of random-oriented grains
contribute greatly to the losses. An
example of this effect is shown in
figure 4.1 for YIG, for which the
dependence of ΔH on density is linear
and steep.
• Energy may also be transferred from
the uniform mode into lattice vibrations
(spin-orbital relaxation) through
dopants, which couple to both the
magnetic spin system and the crystal
lattice. This can result in an increase of
∆H, up to several orders of magnitude.
The most important effect of spin-
orbital damping is a maximum ∆H at a
certain temperature and frequency. Figure 4.2: Dependence of ΔH on temperature
Examples are shown in figure 4.2 for and frequency for a 34 μm thick YIG film [25].
the case of YIG. On the other hand, large losses can be avoided if the material is used
at conditions different from those at maximum ΔH.
In polycrystalline ferrites, losses due to domain wall movement cannot be ignored but
this should be prevented by magnetizing the ferrite to near saturation by the external bias
14 Ferrites for UHF applications

field. In addition to magnetic loss, dielectric losses must be considered. Ferrites can
have considerable conductance as a result of electron hopping between Fe2+ and Fe3+ or
other impurities. This “eddy current” loss is negligible at low frequencies, but becomes
more important at UHF. With modern preparation technology, the dielectric loss tan(δ)
can be controlled down to 10-4, by careful control of the chemical composition of ferrites.
For instance, improvements were made by increasing the grain boundary resistivity
through appropriate doping. Dopants reported in literature, that have this effect, include
the glass forming dopant SiO2, and segregating Nb2O5, ZrO2 and Ta2O5 [26-28].

4.3.2 Extrinsic aspects

Due to the finite dimensions of practical
devices, the magnetization distribution in
ferrites is not uniform, in particular for
planar geometries. For a thin film of tens
of nanometers thickness, the aspect ratio
still can be regarded as infinite. However,
in practice, these layers often have a
thickness in the range of 100 μm and
comparable lateral dimensions. As a result,
inhomogeneous demagnetizing effects
cannot be neglected and therefore result in
non-uniformly distributed magnetization
and internal fields. Figure 4.3 shows the
calculated distribution of magnetization in
the top layer of a thick YIG film in an Figure 4.3: Inhomogeneous magnetization
external field normal to the film surface distribution M(r) in a bias field with H = 1750 G
[27]. perpendicular to the disk surface of a YIG disk with
a 10:1 aspect ratio.
5 Practical designs
As discussed in the earlier chapters, the devices for the UHF applications must have
stable properties in the operation frequency and temperature, and more importantly low
losses to ensure their favorable functions. For example, in the MURI project
“Fabrication of the magnetic photonic arrays (MPAs)”, ferrimagnetic (F) layers,
providing Faraday rotation effect, combine with anisotropic dielectric layers to form the
MPAs for UHF applications [5]. The magnetic loss in the F layers must be as low as
possible, and the dielectric loss should be minimized to preferably < 10-5. Although the
literatures report the enhanced magnetic properties by appropriate doping and preparation
technology, there lack systematic examinations on controlling losses in ferrites especially
at UHF or higher frequencies.

5.1 Chemistry compositions

Among the three types of ferrites, single crystal garnets have the narrowest ΔH and the
lowest dielectric loss, whereas polycrystalline garnets are used in practical applications
considering manufacturing cost. The most promising polycrystalline garnet, now
commercially available, is calcium, vanadium-substituted YIG (CVG) with ΔH ≤ 15 G,
tan(δ) ≤ 2×10-4 and a Curie Temperature (TC) around 235ºC [24,29-32]. The composition
of CVG is generally written as Y3-2xCa2xFe5-xVxO12, in which Bi3+ may also substitute for
part of the Y3+; while Al3+, In3+ or/and Ga3+ may substitute part of the Fe3+. The low
magnetic loss is primarily attributed to the V5+ substitution of Fe3+ in the tetrahedral sites,
whereas the Ca2+ substitution of Y3+ on dodecahedral sites is for charge compensation.
However, the currently available literature haven’t completely resolved the issues
regarding
• the possibility of simultaneous substitution by one cation on different lattice sites in
the complex ferrite structures, which would influence the overall magnetic properties,
• possible effects, introduced by dopants, on the shape or/and size of domains and/or
grains,
• optimization of all metal ion concentrations, to avoid phase segregation, such as the
very stable perovskite YFeO3 phase.

5.2 Preparation technology

Microstructural inhomogeneity must be minimized, especially for polycrystalline
materials, because it will cause dielectric and magnetic losses due to
• counter diffusion of cations through oxide lattices, leading to intermediate phases,
• the possibility of valence imbalance by stoichiometry variations,
• effects of porosity, voids, inclusions and local strain.
Considering the complicated chemical compositions of ferrites, citrate-gel method [24] is
the preferred method for powder synthesis, since it is very suitable for preparation of
homogenous multi-component metal oxides. The starting materials are first dissolved
stoichiometrically in a citric acid solution. The citric acid gels upon evaporation of
water, and provides a relatively rigid organic network in which cations are
homogeneously dispersed and stabilized. This homogeneity, in combination with smaller
particle size, may lead to much lower calcination and sintering temperatures.
16 Ferrites for UHF applications

The mechanical and electromagnetic properties of ferrites are largely affected by the
sintering process, which depends on the applied time-temperature-atmosphere program.
For example, garnets must be sintered in air or oxygen to ensure that all ions are in the
highest oxidation state to avoid excessive dielectric losses at UHF. Delicate sintering
process is rarely found in literatures, which may lead to poorly-defined chemical
compositions in the sintered samples and therefore unreliable characterization results.
Special attentions must also be paid to
• careful selection of precursor chemicals to maintain the chemical stoichiometry,
• possible decrease of the sintering temperature by doping,
• development of ceramic consolidation routes that target a high compact density, a
fine grain size, and a homogeneous microstructure,
• fabrication of pore-free microstructures to avoid dissipation by adsorbed molecules
like H2O.
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(b), 233 31-38 (2002).
18 Ferrites for UHF applications

19. L. Li, G. Li, R.L. Smith Jr and H. Inomata, “Microstructural evolution and magnetic
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Mater. Res. Bull., 40 105-13 (2005).
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Symbols
∆H Resonance linewidth.€
γ Gyromagnetic ratio.
γeff Effective gyromagnetic ratio in ferrimagnetic materials.
μ|μ Magnetic permeability.
μB Bohr magneton.
τeff Effective relaxation time in ferrimagnetic materials.
ωr Resonant frequency.
A site Tetrahedral sites in ferrites.
B site Octahedral sites in ferrites.
CIP Cold isostatic pressing.
CVG Calcium vanadium substituted yttrium iron garnet.
EM Electromagnetic field.
FMR Ferromagnetic resonance.
HP Hot pressing.
JVD Jet vapor deposition.
Me Metal cation.
PLD Pulsed laser deposition.
PVD Plasma vapor deposition.
RF Radio frequency.
TEOS Si(OC2H5)4.
UHF Ultrahigh frequency.
YIG Y3Fe5O12.
b Flux density.
H0|Hi|h|H Magnetic field.
f Frequency of electromagnetic field.
g Landé factor.
Ms Saturation magnetization.
tan(δ) Dielectric loss factor.
TC Curie temperature.
TN Néel temperature.
TCmp Compensation temperature.
x Substitution level.
Distribution List
Dr. Henk Verweij
Ohio State University
Department of Materials Science & Engineering
2041 College Road, Watts Hall 291A
Columbus OH 43210
USA