DIRECTED STUDIES (V/I)

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF THE

HIMALAYAS

Submitted By:
Name : Swastika Regmi
Roll : B. Arch 71043
Date : (January/2019)

Kathmandu Engineering College

Department of Architecture
Abstract

The purpose of this research is to answer the questions above in order to understand the
vernacular architecture of the Himalayan region of Nepal and use that understanding to design
a building in the region as an optimal design.
This research will use precedent studies, interviews, observations and installation to
investigate ways in which the vernacular architecture of the Himalayan region withstands the
cold climate of the region. The research will also study the local construction technologies that
are currently being in use in the Himalayan region of Nepal. Through the literature review,
standards for such climate responsive design and construction technologies will be taken and
compared to the case studies that will be done in order to achieve the required result to
understand the architecture of the Himalayan region.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the possibility to
complete this report. I thank my colleagues from Kathmandu Engineering College who
provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they may not agree
with all of the interpretations/conclusions of this paper.
I thank Asso. Prof. Moon Singh Dongol, Asso. Prof. Sweta Shrestha, Sr. Lec. Subash Phuyal
and Sr. Lec. Suchita Bajracharya for assistance with comments that greatly improved the
manuscript.
I would also like to show my gratitude to Sustainable Mountain Architecture, Chakupat for
sharing their pearls of wisdom with me during the course of this research. I am also immensely
grateful to my seniors and fellow classmates for their and insights on the matter that helped a
great deal with the completion of this research paper.

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Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................. i
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ ii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ v
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... viii
1. Introduction and Background .......................................................................................... 1
The Himalayas ......................................................................................................... 1
The Himalayan Region of Nepal .............................................................................. 1
1.2.1. People of the Himalayan Region....................................................................... 3

Architecture in the Himalayas .................................................................................. 5

Problem Statement .................................................................................................. 6
Main Research Question ......................................................................................... 6
Sub-Research Questions ......................................................................................... 6
Research Objectives ................................................................................................ 6
Limitations ............................................................................................................... 6
Methodology ............................................................................................................ 7
2. Climatic Condition of the Himalayan Region ................................................................... 8
Climate Responsive Design Strategies .................................................................... 8
Climate Responsive Design in Vernacular Houses ................................................ 10
3. Literature Review .......................................................................................................... 12
Vernacular Stone Architecture ............................................................................... 13
3.1.1. Trench ............................................................................................................ 15

3.1.2. Tie Beam ........................................................................................................ 16

3.1.3. Beams and Columns ...................................................................................... 17

3.1.4. Walls............................................................................................................... 21

3.1.5. Roof Truss ...................................................................................................... 24

3.1.6. Roofing Material.............................................................................................. 25

4. Case Studies ................................................................................................................ 27

Himalesque, Jomsom ............................................................................................ 27
Sherpa Houses, Khumbu Villages.......................................................................... 35
4.2.1. Building Materials and Constructional Details ................................................. 37

5. Comparative Analysis ................................................................................................... 40

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 Climate Responsive Design ................................................................................... 40
Construction Technology ....................................................................................... 42
5.2.1. Trenches (Foundation).................................................................................... 42

5.2.2. Beams and Columns (Structure) ..................................................................... 43

5.2.3. Walls............................................................................................................... 43

5.2.4. Roof Truss and Material.................................................................................. 44

6. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 45
7. References ................................................................................................................... 46

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List of Figures

Figure 1-1: The Himalayan Mountain Range .......................................................................... 1

Figure 1-2: Physical Regions of Nepal ................................................................................... 1

Figure 1-3: A family in the Himalayan Region ........................................................................ 3

Figure 1-4: Traditional village house in the remote Himalayan mountains of Nepal ................ 5

Figure 1-5: A traditional house in the Langtang region of Nepal ............................................. 5

Figure 2-1: Physiographic Regions of Nepal .......................................................................... 8

Figure 3-1: A house made out of stone in the Annapurna region.......................................... 13

Figure 3-2: A house in the Himalayas showing construction details ..................................... 13

Figure 3-3: Typical construction requirements for a house in the Himalayan region ............. 14

Figure 3-4: Setting out building foundation; Trench Plan ...................................................... 15

Figure 3-5: Trenches for foundation ..................................................................................... 15

Figure 3-6: Timber shoring for trenches ............................................................................... 15

Figure 3-7: Concrete trench foundation ................................................................................ 15

Figure 3-8: Rubble trench foundation ................................................................................... 15

Figure 3-9: Typical tie beam in construction ......................................................................... 16

Figure 3-10: Tie beam connection with footing, beams and columns ................................... 16

Figure 3-11: Tie beam in elevation ....................................................................................... 16

Figure 3-12: Tie beams for stone masonry ........................................................................... 17

Figure 3-13: Timber used as the primary structural material for beams and columns ........... 17

Figure 3-14: Load path in beam and column ........................................................................ 19

Figure 3-15: Maintaining a continuous load path and avoiding concentrated loads .............. 19

Figure 3-16: Showing critical areas of spanning members ................................................... 19

Figure 3-17: Typical timber beam and column connections .................................................. 20

Figure 3-18: Stone Masonry ................................................................................................. 22

Figure 3-19: Stone wall construction details ......................................................................... 23

Figure 3-20: Stone wall construction .................................................................................... 23

Figure 3-21: Two king post trusses linked to support a roof ................................................. 24

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Figure 3-22: Different truss details ....................................................................................... 24

Figure 3-23: Slate roofing..................................................................................................... 25

Figure 3-24: Slate roofing..................................................................................................... 26

Figure 3-25: Roof tiling details.............................................................................................. 26

Figure 4-1: Himalesque, Jomsom Radio Station .................................................................. 27

Figure 4-2: Himalesque; Exterior .......................................................................................... 27

Figure 4-3: A room inside Himalesque ................................................................................. 28

Figure 4-4: Plan of the building showing thick exterior walls ................................................. 29

Figure 4-5: A view of the divided wall ................................................................................... 29

Figure 4-6: Blending with the environment ........................................................................... 30

Figure 4-7: Courtyard planning and design .......................................................................... 30

Figure 4-8: Interior; Broadcasting Station ............................................................................. 31

Figure 4-9: Furnitures from solid tree trunks......................................................................... 31

Figure 4-10: Site Plan .......................................................................................................... 31

Figure 4-11: Roof Plan ......................................................................................................... 32

Figure 4-13: Floor Plan ........................................................................................................ 33

Figure 4-12: Building Section ............................................................................................... 33

Figure 4-14: Building Section ............................................................................................... 33

Figure 4-15: East Elevation .................................................................................................. 34

Figure 4-16: North Elevation ................................................................................................ 34

Figure 4-17: West Elevation ................................................................................................. 34

Figure 4-18: Namche Bazaar; a popular Sherpa settlement of the Khumbu region .............. 35

Figure 4-19: A Sherpa house in modern times ..................................................................... 35

Figure 4-20: A Sherpa house ............................................................................................... 35

Figure 4-21: Framework of a Sherpa house ......................................................................... 36

Figure 4-22: Sherpa house; architectural drawings .............................................................. 36

Figure 4-23: Position of main beams and shelf capitals........................................................ 37

Figure 4-24: Position of main beams and shelf capitals........................................................ 38

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Figure 4-25: Method of building floor in dwelling houses ...................................................... 38

Figure 4-26: Window frames are secured in the walls by tenons or projecting tongues of
wood .................................................................................................................................... 39

Figure 5-1: Himalesque; section........................................................................................... 42

Figure 5-2: Sherpa house; section ....................................................................................... 42

Figure 5-3: Sherpa house .................................................................................................... 42

Figure 5-4: Himalesque; exterior course rubble masonry wall .............................................. 43

Figure 5-5: Sherpa house; mud plastered masonry wall....................................................... 43

Figure 5-6: Himalesque; stone used as roofing material on terrace ...................................... 44

Figure 5-7: Sherpa house; timber truss with slate and wood as roofing material .................. 44

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List of Tables

Table 2-1: Mean Temperature of Dhunche............................................................................. 9

Table 2-2: Relative Humidity of Dhunche ............................................................................... 9

Table 2-3: Mean Precipitation at Dhunche ............................................................................. 9

Table 3-1: Availability of Traditional Building Materials in the Himalayan Region ................. 12

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VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN THE HIMALAYAN REGION

1. Introduction and Background

The Himalayas
The Himalayas are inhabited by 52.7 million people, and are spread across five
countries: Nepal, India, Bhutan, China and Pakistan. Some of the world's major rivers —
the Indus, the Ganges and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra — rise in the Himalayas, and their
combined drainage basin is home to roughly 600 million people. The Himalayas have a
profound effect on the climate of the region, helping to keep the monsoon rains on the Indian
plain and limiting rainfall on the Tibetan plateau. The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the
cultures of the Indian subcontinent. (Yang, 2004) (Wadia, 1931)

Figure 1-1: The Himalayan Mountain Range

The Himalayan Region of Nepal

Nepal has been geographically divided into three physical regions: Himalayan region, Hilly
region, and Terai. Himalayan is the northern part, Hilly lies on the middle and Terai on the
south with each of these regions having their own unique characteristics.

Figure 1-2: Physical Regions of Nepal

Himalayan region lies in the northern part of Nepal and is the least developed. The Himalayan
range situated on this part is the youngest and loftiest fold of mountains in the world. Its

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tremendous height is supposed to be due to subsequent uplifts during later periods of Tertiary
Era. This mountain zone encompasses about 25% of the total area of the country.
The height of the mountains run from about 3,600 m. to 8,848 m. above sea level. Here,
snowline occurs at the altitude of about 5,000 m. and the portions above this line are
perpetually capped with snow. There are 4 peaks of over 8,100 m, 13 peaks of over 7,600 m
and 240 peaks of over 6,000 m confined to this mountain region. (Apollo, 2017)
It also possesses a number of gorges, passes, glaciers, waterfalls and fascinating peaks.
Out of the highest peaks in the world, eight including Mt. Everest (world’s highest) and Mt
Kanchenjunga (world’s third highest) fall in this region.
The Himalayan mountain range extends in an east-west direction for about 850 km. and
commands a north-south breadth ranging from 24 Km. to 48 Km. The glaciers formed out of
sliding snow have produced several U-shaped valleys and lake basins. Almost all the
prominent rivers of Nepal are conceived to have originated out of the melting of glaciers. These
rivers and glaciers have greatly molded the original landscape of this mountain zone.
Though stretching the entire length of north Nepal, the Himalayan Mountain is not a single
continuous range; for it is carved at its various sections by various antecedent rivers like the
Karnali, Gandaki, Koshi, and so on. Near the river breaks on or close to the border are located
various high passes such as Kodari, Rasuwa, Mustang, Namja and so on. But most of the
Himalayan passes, owing to the thick deposit of snow, remain closed during winter months.
Trade and communication between Nepal and Tibet are, however, conducted through those
passes during other months of the year.
The climate is cold and topography is harsh. It consists of coniferous (lower part) and alpine
and tundra (upper part) vegetation. Due to difficult and harsh topography, this region is less
developed in terms of infrastructures. Though unsuitable for agriculture and poor in
infrastructures, the region has great potential of development in tourism, animal rearing, and
horticulture. It is the shelter for 6.7 % of the total population of Nepal and is sparsely populated
with the settlement of 34 people per sq. km. (Sahayogi, 2014)
The Himalayas (above 3,000 m) comprises mountains, alpine pastures and temperate forests
limited by the tree-line (4,000 m) and snow line (5,500 m). Eight of the 14 eight-thousanders
of the world lie in Nepal: Sagarmatha or Mount Everest (8,848 m), Kanchenjunga (8,586 m),
Lhotse (8,516 m), Makalu (8,463 m), Cho Oyu (8,201m), Dhaulagiri (8,167 m), Manaslu (8,163
m) and Annapurna (8,091 m). The inner Himalayan valley (above 3,600 m) such as Mustang
and Dolpa are cold deserts sharing topographical characteristics with the Tibetan
plateau.Nepal holds the so called “waters towers of South Asia” with its 6,000 rivers which are
snow-fed or dependent on rain. The perennial rivers include Mahakali, Karnali, Narayani and
Koshi rivers originating in the Himalayas. Medium-sized rivers like Babai, West Rapti, Bagmati,
Kamla, Kankai and Mechi originate in the Midlands and Mahabharat range. A large number of
seasonal streams, mostly originating in Siwaliks, flow across the Terai. (Pradhan, 2017)

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1.2.1. People of the Himalayan Region

1.2.1.1. Ethnicity

This entire range of the Himalayan Mountains serves as home to more than 50 million people,
with another 450 million settled at the base of it. And this entire population flourishes on the
resources that flow from the Himalayas.
Today, the Himalayan population can be classified into three ethnic types, namely Aryans,
Mongoloids and Negroids. But the truth about its original inhabitants is still a point of debate.
There is a belief that the first settlement in the Himalayas began in 1500 BC when a warrior
tribe called Khasa migrated to its western range. This was followed by the migration of Tibeto-
Burman people from Southeast Asia to the eastern and central Himalayas in the early part of
the millennia. These people were called the Kiratas. However, if one takes into account the
Hindu epics and Puranas, then it is deduced that the native inhabitants of the Himalayan region
were the Kinnars, Kiratas, Kulinds and Kilinds, with later migration of the Darads and Khasas.
Segregate people in terms of their faith, the Middle Himalayan and sub-Himalayan valleys are
predominantly inhabited by the Hindus. Same is the case for the region from eastern Kashmir
to Nepal. (Geetika, 2016)
The Greater Himalayan region in the north is mainly dominated by Tibetan Buddhists, with
them being found from Ladakh to north-eastern India. In the eastern Himalayan region of India
and nearby areas of eastern Bhutan, the culture and faith practised is similar to those followed
in Yunnan Province of China and Northern Myanmar. In Nepal, both Tibetan and Hindu
cultures flourish, and as a result, this Himalayan nation has a mixed cultural identity.
There is a complex blend of racial patterns in the people of Nepal. The dominant castes of
Hindus, namely Chetri, Brahmin and Thakur, along with others, speak Nepali. The Tamangs,
Limbus, Magars and Gurungs of Mongoloid strains dominate the middle hills and form the
organised groups of tribal hill farmers. The Sherpas from the Solo Khumbu region of the
northeast are among the many groups of Bhutiyas that speak in Tibetan dialects.

Figure 1-3: A family in the Himalayan Region

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1.2.1.2. Culture and Way of Life

In the Himalayas, one would be surprised to see that each distinct community and valley has
its own socio-cultural methods to face the varied challenges of life. And this is when they are
literally cut-off from the rest of the world population. However, the somewhat common
geographical factors have meant that these distinct cultures are similar to one another. The
fact remains that physical isolation of the Himalayan people has had one positive result, and
that is the preservation of centuries-old knowledge.
Another aspect that holds true for all those dwelling in the Himalayas and its foothills is that
they worship mountain as their life-giver, preserver and protector. All the communities living in
the Himalayan region are nature-dependent, and strongly ethnic and religious. However, in
general sense, the people dwelling in the Himalayas are basically peace-loving. And this can
be totally experienced when exploring the various Himalayan destinations. Their warm
hospitality makes one realise that they are totally respectful towards the environment they live
in, and that their harsh living conditions do not hamper their spirits or way of enjoying life.
The Himalayan people are also known for their rich tapestry of traditional knowledge, which
spreads across medicine, architecture and agro-forestry. In terms of occupation, they can be
categorised as nomadic pastoralists and subsistence farmers; depending on their specific
location and agro-climatic conditions. The majority of the Himalayan population sustains itself
through agriculture and animal husbandry. (Geetika, 2016)
In the higher reaches of the Himalayas, society is quite liberal while in the lower ranges, it is
more conservative. The mountain women folk are responsible for all the sedimentary activities
like gathering fodder, fuelwood, farming and cooking while the men are responsible for trade
activities or managing the animal herds.
However, there has been some change seen in their lifestyle with the improvements of
transportation system and communication in the recent years. And modernization has
definitely affected their social and cultural systems in some way or the other. This specially
holds true for the frontier villages where there has been a sudden increase in trade and
tourism.

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Architecture in the Himalayas

Figure 1-4: Traditional village house in the remote Himalayan mountains of Nepal

Inclination of a civilization towards art and architecture represent the civilization’s aesthetic
expression of creativity. In this regard, Nepal’s ancient remnants of arts and architectural
heritages give reflections of Nepalese fond for creative arts and architectures that are the
characteristics of lived society and culture.
Himalayan region of Nepal is considered one of the more challenging areas to live, all around
the world. Despite all the challenges that the region faces, it can still be seen see how it has
not lost its authenticity and integrity regarding the architecture that persists even today.
Scarcity of mainstream construction materials and its suitability under challenging conditions
is one of the main reasons why the traditional architecture of many settlements is still intact.

Figure 1-5: A traditional house in the Langtang region of Nepal

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Problem Statement
Vernacular construction technologies and architecture in the Himalayan region in accordance
with the climatic condition of the region.

Main Research Question

How does the local architecture of the Himalayas withstand itself against the cold temperate
climate of the region?

Sub-Research Questions

a. What is the climatic condition of the cold temperate area?

b. What is the current context of vernacular architecture in the Himalayas?
c. What are the suitable construction technologies used in the region?
d. How do buildings sustain itself under the harsh climatic condition of the Himalayas?

Research Objectives

a. To study about the climatic conditions of the cold temperate region.

b. To understand the current situation of architecture in the Himalayas
c. To learn about local material science and their construction technologies
d. To understand the local point of view related to such architecture

Limitations
This research paper deals with the vernacular stone architecture of the Himalayan region of
Nepal and doesn’t correspond with the prevailing architecture of the vernacular architecture
of the Himalayan region of India, Pakistan, Bhutan and China.

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Methodology

Vernacular construction technologies and architecture in the Himalayan region in accordance with the
climatic condition of the region.

How does the local architecture of the Himalayas withstand itself against the cold
temperate climate of the region?

What is the climatic condition of the cold temperate area?

What is the current context of vernacular architecture in the Himalayas?

What are the suitable construction technologies used in the region?

How do buildings sustain itself under the harsh climatic condition of the Himalayas?

Literature Review Case Study

1. Climate of the alpine 1. Sustainable Mountain
evergreen region Architecture
2. Effects of natural hazards in 2. Current context of Architecture
the area in Himalayas
3. Architecture in the Himalayas 3. Construction Technologies
4. Construction Technologies 4. Local Perspective
5. Sustainable Approach

Standards Standards

Comparative Analysis

Conclusions and Recommendations

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2. Climatic Condition of the Himalayan Region

Figure 2-1: Physiographic Regions of Nepal

This report is primarily based on the vernacular architecture found at the middle mountain
region on the physiography of Nepal. For the study of the climate of the middle mountain
region, the administrative seat of the Rasuwa District, Dhunche was taken as the location for
study. It is located at an altitude of 2, 030 metres (6, 660 ft) and falls under cool temperate
climate zone.
Dhunche (28° 48' N, 85° 18' E) is situated in the Himalayan Mountains of Nepal. Summers are
significantly cooler than in Kathmandu while average temperature during winters are only little
colder. However, Dhunche is considerably more humid with an annual rainfall of almost 2,000
mm. The lowest precipitation occurs in November and December. Most rain falls in July and
August.

Climate Responsive Design Strategies

In cool temperate climate, the use of solar radiation for passive heating is an effective design
strategy during the longer winter period from October to March. In contrast to warm temperate
climate, a compact building layout is recommended. During half of the year, active solar or
conventional heating is needed, particularly during night time. However, due to high solar
radiation in winter, solar passive heating combined with thermal mass (heavy walls and floors
with thermal time-lag of more than eight hours) can reduce the need for conventional heating
considerably. The rest of the year passive solar heating solely can provide comfort during cool
nights. From June to September, natural ventilation of the building is needed to avoid over-
heating during the day. Openings should be medium sized and protection from heavy rains as
well as adequate rainwater drainage is necessary.

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Table 2-1: Mean Temperature of Dhunche

Mean Temperature (°C)

30

25

20

15

10

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Minimum Maximum

Table 2-2: Relative Humidity of Dhunche

Relative Humidity (%)

100

80

60

40

20

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Minimum Maximum

Table 2-3: Mean Precipitation at Dhunche

Precipitation (mm)
600

500

400

300

200

100

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

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Climate Responsive Design in Vernacular Houses

The following design strategies must be taken into account during the construction of buildings
in the cool temperate climate region in order to withstand the temperature of the region. The
study of Sherpa houses and Tamang houses were done in order to understand design
strategies in more detail.

Settlement Pattern
Settlements in cool temperate climate must be denser than those in warm temperate hills.
Sherpa villages are mostly built on the beds of old lakes in broader valleys or on sizeable
ledges between the mountainside and river gorges. The settlements of the Tamang tribe are
compactly built. Several houses must be attached to each other reducing the exterior wall
surface exposed to the coldness. Preferably, the streets of must be paved with stones like the
ones found in Tamang villages.

Building Form and Orientation

Traditional houses in this climate zone must have a more elongated form than those in colder
alpine climate. Also, L-shaped building form is preferred. Tamang houses in Langtang region
have a compact rectangular shape, being attached to each other they create a more elongated
building volume. If possible, the longer façade must be oriented towards the sun to enhance
solar gains. The houses of the Sherpa tribe in Khumbu village (Everest region) stand in small
groups together on the slopes of a natural amphitheater. Their elongated building volume is
generally standing parallel to the slope.

Building Stories and Internal Space Arrangement

Sherpa as well as Tamang houses have two stories. The internal vertical space arrangement
of these houses leads to thermal buffer zones which have an insulating effect to keep the main
areas as warm as possible.
Semi-open spaces play also an important role in Nepal’s traditional architectures in cool
temperate climate where residents use the open area for drying newly harvested crops and
also act as comfortable spaces for sun basking during winters.

Walls
Walls are usually made of locally available stones or mud with a thickness of up to one meter.
Stonework is made either dry or bound together with rudimentary mortar made of soft clayed
earth. In Sherpa houses, mostly inner and especially outer walls are plastered with clayed
earth and then painted because the plaster is also an excellent weatherproofing material. In
Tamang houses, the outer walls are made of dry stonework while the entry façade of the first
floor is made of timber. Inner walls of main living spaces are often planked with timber.

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Roof
Due to heavy rains, pitched roofs are more frequently used in the traditional architecture of
the cool temperate mountain climate. Either in Sherpa and Tamang houses, the roof rest on
a wooden pillar and beam structure. Wood or slate (if available) is often used as roofing
material in form of square or rectangular roofing tiles. Heavy stones are placed on top to
prevent them from being blown off by heavy monsoon winds.

Foundation, Floor and Ceiling

The Sherpa houses are built on a platform which is made of locally available stones. The
double wooden ceilings of these houses are supported by a framework of timber pillars and
beams. Carpets are often laid above the wooden floor in the main living areas. Tamang
houses are slightly elevated attached to each other forming a terrace structure. The interior
structure including floors and ceiling are completely made of timber. Often the main entry
façade is also timber cladded.

Openings
Doors and windows of the Sherpa houses are faced to south-east direction for an effective
exposure to the winter sun. Also houses in Langtang villages are observed to face south-east.
No openings are placed in the back side of the houses which are not sun-faced. In Sherpa
houses, wooden windows with finely carved decoration and colorful paintings. The actual
opening of those windows is rather small. Often shutters are used to close the openings
completely during night and the cold winter season.

Traditional settlements in cool temperate climate tend to be more compact than in the warmer
climate zone. Locally available stones, which are used for walls and timber, are also the
dominating material for floor, ceilings, interior cladding of wall and roofing. Like in warm
temperate climate, the high thermal mass of the building is favorable to store solar thermal
gains during sunny winter days for the cooler nights. Due to the heavy precipitation during
monsoon, season roofs are pitched and mostly covered by wood slate and stones. Openings
tend to be smaller than in warm temperate climate that leads to the reduction of heat losses.
Internal spaces are arranged vertically creating a thermal buffer on the upper and lower level
for the main living area. In conclusion, the mountain houses in the cool temperate climate of
Nepal must be very well adapted to the local climate conditions. They fulfil the most important
design strategy – compact building layout and orientation towards the sun. (Bodach, Lang, &
Hamhaber, 2016)

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3. Literature Review

Region Geomorphic Width Altitude Main Rock Soil Typical Available

Unit (km) (m) Type Type Vegetation Traditional
Building
Materials
Himalayan Fore Himalaya 20-70 2000- Gneisses, Low Evergreen Abundant:
Region 5000 schists and fertile coniferous stones,
marbles glacial forest up to rocks, mud
soil 4000m, alpine Scarce:
grassland up to timber and
4500m other
Higher 10-60 >5000 Gneisses, Low No vegetation biogenic
Himalaya schists and fertile materials
marbles glacial
soil
Inner and 5-50 2500- Gneisses, Low Scarce
Trans 4000 schists and fertile Vegetation
Himalayan marbles; in glacial
Valleys Trans soil
Himalayan
Valley: also,
finer
sediments
from
limestone,
shale,
sandstone

Table 3-1: Availability of Traditional Building Materials in the Himalayan Region

The above table shows the abundance of stones, rocks and mud on the Himalayan region.
Thus, for this research paper, the vernacular stone, mud and timber architecture of the
Himalayan region has been studied. (Bodach, Lang, & Hamhaber, 2016)

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Vernacular Stone Architecture

Figure 3-1: A house made out of stone in the Annapurna region

Wood, mud and stone are the oldest building materials of men. While mud bricks and wood
have mostly used for buildings like residential houses or stables, stone was used to erect
important and impressive like temples which were meant for extremely long and should endure
for centuries or even thousands of years. Men regarded stone as everlasting because the
phenomenon of enhanced weathering due to environmental pollution did not exist in former
times.
The physical and mechanical properties of natural stone narrow its use as a building material.
Stone has high compressive, however, low tensile strength which is about 10-30 times lower
than compressive strength. It has therefore to be taken into account that stone should only be
loaded with compressive forces because otherwise a failure of the whole construction cannot
be excluded. (Siegesmund & Snethlage, 2008)

Figure 3-2: A house in the Himalayas showing construction details

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Figure 3-3: Typical construction requirements for a house in the Himalayan region

The above shown picture classifies construction requirements of a building in the Himalayan
region into the following main parts:

 Trench
 Tie Beam
 Beams and Columns
 Walls
 Roof Truss
 Roofing Material

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3.1.1. Trench

Figure 3-4: Setting out building foundation; Trench Plan

Trenches are created as the first step of creating a foundation wall. Trench shoring is often
used in trenchworks to protect workers and stabilize embankments.

Figure 3-5: Trenches for foundation Figure 3-6: Timber shoring for trenches

After trenches are made and proper shoring for them is done, foundations are constructed
suitable to the construction technique and according to the availability of materials. Some
suitable foundation types for stone architecture are:

Figure 3-8: Rubble trench foundation Figure 3-7: Concrete trench foundation

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3.1.2. Tie Beam

Figure 3-9: Typical tie beam in construction

Placement of tie beam depends on the function of the beam. If tie beam is being used to
connect two footings (to distribute eccentric loading of one footing to the other) then it has to
be placed at the footing level.
However, if tie beam is being used to reduce the unsupported length of the columns, or as a
grade beam to act as a support for wall/partition between the two columns, then it is placed
near the surface.

Figure 3-10: Tie beam connection with footing, beams and columns

Figure 3-11: Tie beam in elevation

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At places where stone is used as the principle building material for construction purposes,
RCC tie beams or in some cases timber tie beams are placed at various intervals in order to
strengthen the building such as at the DPC level and the sill levels

Figure 3-12: Tie beams for stone masonry

3.1.3. Beams and Columns

The primary construction technique used for structural members, beam and column, is timber
framing. It is a traditional method of construction using heavy timbers, creating structures using
squared-off and carefully fitted and joined timbers with joints secured by large wooden pegs.
The most common method of construction with timber is the box frame method. A simple
timber frame is made of straight vertical and horizontal pieces with a common rafter roof
without purlins.

Figure 3-13: Timber used as the primary structural material for beams and columns

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3.1.3.1. Framing Layout Considerations

a. Layout Spacings and Spans

Less Ideal Layout:

 Unequal Spans
 Unequal Spacings

Ideal Layout:
 Equal Spans
 Equal Spacings
 Avoid Stiff-Soft areas
 Repetition
 Efficiency

b. Load Path Continuity

Structural loads (gravity and lateral) must follow a continuous load path from roof to
foundation. In multi-storey construction, to work around the building features, may require
numerous load path “steps” in lieu of a single vertical load path. In many situations, general
building layout is complete before structural design begins. Understanding impacts of wall,
column, opening layout on structural system efficiency will aid in providing more cost-effective
solutions.

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Figure 3-14: Load path in beam and column

Figure 3-15: Maintaining a continuous load path and avoiding concentrated loads

c. Spanning Members

Moment Critical Zones are locations of maximum localized bending stresses which should
not be affected with holes and notches. Locations of maximum localized shear stresses
which should not be affected with holes and notches. (Landreman, 2015)

Figure 3-16: Showing critical areas of spanning members

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3.1.3.2. Connections in Timber Structures

To achieve good joint design and structural detailing, the following general principles should
be observed:
a. Avoid connections that can trap moisture. Ensure proper drainage and ventilation of
especially the end-grain.
b. Avoid exposing unprotected timber to the weather. If capping is used, ensure that all
the moisture can escape and that the capping is properly ventilated. Capping that leaks
and is not ventilated will hasten the onset of and promote fungal decay.
c. Avoid placing especially the end-grain of timber in direct contact with concrete.
Concrete is hygroscopic and will increase the moisture content on the interface
between the concrete and the timber. If possible, leave an air gap between the timber
and the concrete. If the timber cannot be supported away from the concrete, insert a
steel plate between the timber and the concrete. The steel plate will act as a moisture
barrier.
d. If moisture can enter at bolt holes, treat the timber in the hole with a preservative that
does not leach out. If leaching is a problem, the bolts can be covered with a grease or
a silicon sealant.
e. Use chemically treated timber where moisture ingress could be a problem. Remember
that CCA treatment stops fungal decay but not swelling and shrinkage due to moisture
ingress. Always treat timber with an additional water-repellent.
f. Corrosion resistant fasteners should be used in salt-water or seaside environment.
Corrosion resistance in ascending order: steel, aluminium, stainless steel, copper and
copper alloys.
g. Where possible, transfer forces through direct bearing, thereby shortening the load
path.

Figure 3-17: Typical timber beam and column connections

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3.1.4. Walls

The craft of stonemasonry (or stone craft) involves creating buildings, structures,
and sculpture using stone from the earth, and is one of the oldest trades in human history.
These materials have been used to construct many of the long-lasting,
ancient monuments, artifacts, cathedrals, and cities in a wide variety of cultures.

Stone masonry uses all types of natural stone: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary; while
some also use artificial stone as well.

a. Igneous Rocks
Granite is one of the hardest stones, and requires much different techniques to sedimentary
stones that it is virtually a separate trade. Generally, however, it is used for purposes that
require its strength and durability, such as curbstones, countertops, flooring, and breakwaters.
b. Metamorphic
Marble is a fine, easily worked stone, that comes in various colours, but mainly white. It has
traditionally been used for carving statues, and for facing many Byzantine and buildings of the
Italian Renaissance.
Slate is a popular choice of stone for memorials and inscriptions, as its fine grain and hardness
means it leaves details very sharp. Its tendency to split into thin plates has also made it a
popular roofing material.
c. Sedimentary
Many of the world's most famous buildings have been built of sedimentary stone, from Durham
Cathedral to St Peter's in Rome. There are two main types of sedimentary stone used in
masonry work, limestones and sandstones. (Elpel, Stone Masonry Construction: A Brief
Overview, 2016)

3.1.4.1. Types of Stone Masonry and Masons

a. Fixer Masons
This type of masons has specialized into fixing the stones onto the buildings. They might do
this with grouts, mortars and lifting tackle. They might also use things like single application
specialized fixings, simple cramps, and dowels as well as stone cladding with things like epoxy
resins, mastics and modern cements.

b. Memorial Masons
These are the masons that make headstones and carve the inscriptions on them. Today’s
stonemasons undergo training that is quite comprehensive and is done both in the work
environment and in the classroom. It isn’t enough to have hands-on skill anymore. One must

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also have knowledge of the types of stones as well as its best uses and how to work it as well
as how to fix it in place.
c. Rubble Masonry
When roughly dressed stones are laid in a mortar the result is a stone rubble masonry.

d. Ashlar Masonry
Stone masonry using dressed (cut) stones is known as ashlar masonry.

e. Stone Veneer
Stone veneer is used as a protective and decorative covering for interior or exterior walls and
surfaces. The veneer is typically 1 inch (2.54 cm) thick and must weigh less than 15 lb per
square foot (73 kg m−2) so that no additional structural supports are required. The structural
wall is put up first, and thin, flat stones are mortared onto the face of the wall. Metal tabs in
the structural wall are mortared between the stones to tie everything together, to prevent the
stonework from separating from the wall.

f. Slipform Stonemasonry
Slipform stonemasonry is a method for making stone walls with the aid of formwork to contain
the rocks and mortar while keeping the walls straight. Short forms, up to two feet tall, are
placed on both sides of the wall to serve as a guide for the stone work. Stones are placed
inside the forms with the good faces against the form work. Concrete is poured behind the
rocks. Rebar is added for strength, to make a wall that is approximately half reinforced
concrete and half stonework. The wall can be faced with stone on one side or both sides.

Stone walls are usually made of local materials varying

from limestone and flint to granite and sandstone. However, the quality of building stone
varies greatly, both in its endurance to weathering, resistance to water penetration and in its
ability to be worked into regular shapes before construction. Worked stone is usually known
as ashlar, and is often used for corners in stone buildings. Granite is very resistant to
weathering, while some limestones are very weak. Other limestones, such as Portland stone,
are more weather-resistant. (Elpel, Stone Building, 2015)

Figure 3-18: Stone Masonry

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Figure 3-19: Stone wall construction details

Figure 3-20: Stone wall construction

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3.1.5. Roof Truss

A timber roof truss is a structural framework of timbers designed to bridge the space above a
room and to provide support for a roof. Trusses usually occur at regular intervals, linked by
longitudinal timbers such as purlins. The space between each truss is known as a bay. Earlier
roofs had been supported by coupled rafters – pairs of rafters linked by horizontal beams. But
such roofs were structurally weak, and lacking any longitudinal support were prone to racking,
a collapse resulting from horizontal movement.

Ridge Beam
Purlins

Common Rafters

Figure 3-21: Two king post trusses linked to support a roof

The top members of a truss are known generically as the top chord, bottom members as the bottom
chord, and the interior members as webs. In historic carpentry the top chords are often
called rafters, and the bottom chord is often referred to as a tie beam. There are two main types of
timber roof trusses: closed, in which the bottom chord is horizontal and at the foot of the truss, and
open, in which the bottom chords are raised to provide more open space, also known as raised
bottom chord trusses.

Figure 3-22: Different truss details

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3.1.6. Roofing Material

Figure 3-23: Slate roofing

Slate can be made into roofing slates, a type of roof shingle, or more specifically a type of roof
tile, which are installed by a slater. Slate has two lines of breakability – cleavage and grain –
which make it possible to split the stone into thin sheets. Slate is particularly suitable as a
roofing material as it has an extremely low water absorption index of less than 0.4%, making
the material waterproof. In fact, this natural slate, which requires only minimal processing, has
the lowest embodied energy of all roofing materials. Natural slate is used by building
professionals as a result of its beauty and durability. Slate is incredibly durable and can last
several hundred years, often with little or no maintenance. Its low water absorption makes it
very resistant to frost damage and breakage due to freezing. Natural slate is also fire resistant
and energy efficient.
Slate roof tiles are usually fixed (fastened) either with nails, or with hooks. Nails were
traditionally of copper, although there are modern alloy and stainless-steel alternatives. Both
these methods, if used properly, provide a long-lasting weathertight roof with a lifespan of
around 80–100 years. Tiles are installed and set on mortar and grouted along the edges.
Chemical sealants are often used on tiles to improve durability and appearance, increase stain
resistance, reduce efflorescence, and increase or reduce surface smoothness. Tiles are often
sold gauged, meaning that the back surface is ground for ease of installation. (Slate Roof
Central, 2014)

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Figure 3-24: Slate roofing

Figure 3-25: Roof tiling details

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4. Case Studies

Himalesque, Jomsom

Figure 4-1: Himalesque, Jomsom Radio Station

Introduction

Architect: Kim in-cheurl + Archium Architects

Designer: Jo joon-young
Location: Nepal, Mustang, Jomsom
Programme: FM Radio Broadcasting
Site area: 1,500㎡

Building area: 747.81㎡

Building scope: 1F
Structure: Masonry Structure + RC Structure
Outside finishing: On site stone, wood
Inside finishing: On site stone, wood + 8mm thk glass
Structural engineer: KYA Structural engineers co. ltd.
Construction work: Sambu (Nepal) Pvt. Ltd.
Mechanical engineer: ENG Energy Design Lab & Geuk
dong electronic design lab
Design period: May 2012 – September 2012
Construction period: September 2012 – July 2013 Figure 4-2: Himalesque; Exterior

Client: MBC + KOICA

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Located in Jomsom, Nepal, (a town at an altitude of 2700m near the Himalayan mountain
range) is an architectural project called the Himalesque, constructed in 2013 by Archium, a
Korean studio. The building serves as a radio station for local residents and visitors. It was
built with sustainability in mind and utilised locally available materials and labour.

Himalesque is constructed with a thick

outer wall made of locally sourced stone.
Some of the rooms are lined with the
same large rocks that are used for the
external walls, and other walls are
constructed from tightly packed smaller
stones at the back. With the climate in
mind, an outer wall was constructed of
gneiss stone that wraps around the main
building. The wall’s purpose is to protect
Figure 4-3: A room inside Himalesque
the workers and visitors from the strong
winds but at the same time it merges and blends with the surrounding rocky mountains.

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Figure 4-5: A view of the divided wall

Figure 4-4: Plan of the building showing thick exterior walls

The Himalesque project has qualities that make it vernacular like a Sherpa house, however,
this building goes further than just a stone structure with a wooden framework. The architects
thought in depth about the use of natural lighting and how to integrate foreign materials such
as glass and reinforced concrete in order to make the building better adapted to the climate
and make it more sustainable. (Griffiths, 2014)
The head architect, Kim In-Cheurl said “traditional approach is not enough to solve the natural
light and ventilation” when asked about how he incorporated lighting into this building and what
construction methods he used to maintain a suitable internal temperature. To overcome these
problems, he designed the building such that the thick walls are divided and a gap is created.
The outer wall is stone which acts as an insulation from the wind and the inner wall is large
glazing to let in light and ventilation. This is very different compared to the small windows in
Sherpa houses which let in hardly any natural light.

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Situated on a ledge close to the banks of

the Kali Gandaki River, 3000 metres
above sea level, the building was
designed to utilise locally available
materials and labour. To protect
employees and guests from the strong
winds prevalent in the region, the building
is enveloped in walls made from a local
stone called gneiss that also helps the
radio station merge with the surrounding
landscape of rock-strewn mountains. Figure 4-6: Blending with the environment

Influenced by the arrangement of vernacular houses, the building's meeting rooms and
broadcasting facilities are organized around courtyards that allow natural light to reach glazed
walls and windows. An antenna rises from the centre of the largest courtyard and is
surrounded by strings of colourful flags. Cement columns support the ceilings of cloisters
surrounding the courtyards, helping to shield the interiors from direct sunlight.

Figure 4-7: Courtyard planning and design

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Stools carved by hand from solid tree trunks furnish several of the rooms, which are paved in
the same irregular stone slabs used for the outdoor spaces. Wood was used for window
frames and doors to provide a warm and tactile contrast to the imposing stone surfaces that
form the walls, floors and ceilings. (Himalesque / ARCHIUM, 2014)

Figure 4-8: Interior; Broadcasting Station Figure 4-9: Furnitures from solid tree trunks

Architectural Drawings

Figure 4-10: Site Plan

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Figure 4-11: Roof Plan

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Figure 4-13: Floor Plan

Figure 4-12: Building Section

Figure 4-14: Building Section

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Figure 4-15: East Elevation

Figure 4-16: North Elevation

Figure 4-17: West Elevation

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Sherpa Houses, Khumbu Villages

Figure 4-18: Namche Bazaar; a popular Sherpa settlement of the Khumbu region

The Sherpas are an ethnic group of Nepalese people that inhabit the valleys around the base
of Mount Everest and the Himalayas. Traditionally, Sherpas specialize in agriculture and trade
but are also highly skilled mountaineers and routinely serve as guides to Himalayan Mountain
explorers.
Permanent settlements are found at
heights of 3,000-3,500m such as
Namche Bazaar. During the winters,
when the climate is especially harsh,
inhabitants descend down to temporary
houses at lower altitudes and return
only when spring starts.
Vernacular Sherpa houses have an
elongated and wide shape, constructed
of stone with an interior wooden frame
Figure 4-19: A Sherpa house in modern times
and consists of two storeys. All of the
local community help with building
houses, using simple tools and
construction methods.
The stonework is either dry, or held
together by basic mortar composed of
soft, clayey earth. This construction
method is not the sturdiest, however it is
compensated by thick walls up to 1m
giving it a high self-weight and making
the walls robust. Figure 4-20: A Sherpa house

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Walls are plastered with clayey earth filling in the cracks between the stones and is also a
great weatherproofing material against the heavy rainfall during the monsoon season.
Vernacular Sherpa houses also respond to the strong winds present at high altitudes by having
roofing made of stones cut into slabs allowing it to resist the winds by sheer force of weight
alone. (Sestini & Somigli, 1978)

Wood is used to make the interior framework of the

house, the windows and door frames. The timber is
obtained from mainly pine and fir trees from local
forests and usually cut on site using simple hand
tools. It is used due to its physical and mechanical
properties such as its resistance to bending and
shearing stress, thus allowing it to provide support
for the floor and roofing.

Figure 4-21: Framework of a Sherpa house

In the two-storied Sherpa houses, the ground floor serves as byre and storage space for
firewood, hay and forage. The second floor is the living quarters which is built around a hearth,
where the domestic and social life of the family takes place. Culturally, the hearth is a key
point of the house, used for cooking and heating. It is an area of comfort especially during the
monsoon season when the whole house becomes damp and the fire is the only source of
heat.

Figure 4-22: Sherpa house; architectural drawings

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4.2.1. Building Materials and Constructional Details

Used separately, wood and stone, the materials most readily available in Khumbu, are not
sufficient to build an edifice, whether dwelling house or gompa, in its entirety. Used separately,
however, they do have distinct functions. Wood is used to build the inner framework or
supporting structure of pillars and beams, and stone the thick outer walls enclosing it, the
former being separate from the latter.
In simple, straightforward terms, the wooden supporting structure consists of vertical pillars on
which rest horizontal beams, often repeated in upper floors. Unlike conventional structural
methods in which the various parts of a compound steel structure, for instance, are welded or
riveted together, in Khumbu beams are not fastened to pillars, but merely rest on the large
shelf-capitals surmounting them. The origins of an inner wooden framework consisting of
upright pillars and horizontal beams resting on shelf-capital; and outer stone walls, are indeed
ancient and are common in Chinese architecture. A framework of this kind is functional in that
there is ample space between the pillars for such activities as religious ceremonies.
In Khumbu, stone is more readily available than wood and therefore widely used, especially
in buildings in which equilibrium is dependent upon the force of gravity, that is to say, in solid
vertical structures in which compressive stress is caused by the weight of the material used to
build them. The use of stone in simple horizontal structures such as an architrave or beam
resting on the capitals of pillars, or else in more complex structures such as arches and vaults,
is totally unknown not only in the Khumbu valley, but in the whole of the Himalayan region as
well.

Figure 4-23: Position of main beams and shelf capitals

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The arrangement of three beams supporting the rafters

of the ridge or sloping roof is similar to that supporting
the upper floor, with the exception of the central ridge
beam or purlin which is naturally raised above the other
two on either side. Compared with that in the rooms on
the upper and ground floors below, roofing timber is
better finished and carefully joined together. These
three elements—pillar, shelf-capital and beam—are not
fastened together, but rest upon one another, though
dowels or headless pegs are fitted into them to facilitate
positioning and alignment. Geometrical patterns such
as a series of tapering roundels, or animals such as
Figure 4-24: Position of main
elephants and monkeys, are often carved on shelf-capitals beams and shelf capitals
in monasteries.

A secondary framework of joists, the cross-section of each of which is rectangular in shape,

is placed on top of the main framework of beams, its purpose being to support the floor above.
The joists are placed on the beams edgewise, that is, with the widest face vertical. Although,
statically, the resistance between beams and joists is noticeably diminished, there is a definite
increase in long-term stability. Boards, placed to fill in the space between the joists, function
as the ceiling of rooms on the ground floor below, and not as the floor of the rooms above.
This method is mainly used in religious buildings such as monasteries. In dwelling-houses,
since the ground floor is generally used as a
byre for cattle and as storage space, and there
is consequently little need for a proper ceiling,
the secondary framework of joists with boards in
between supporting the floor above is far more
rudimentary and barely finished: instead of
boards being placed in between them, the joists
are in fact covered with rough pieces of wood.
In huts at summer pastures on higher-lying
ground, where a finished board floor is
unnecessary, and, moreover, where timber is
hard to come by, saplings or bushes found on
the spot are used instead of boards.

Figure 4-25: Method of building floor in dwelling

houses

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Figure 4-26: Window frames are secured in the

walls by tenons or projecting tongues of wood

The supporting framework of the roof, which is always of the ridge or sloping type, consists of
numerous rafters laid close together on the main beams without projecting beyond the walls
to form eaves. In dwelling-houses, eaves are simple and are formed by causing the roofing
material to project beyond the walls. On the other hand, in gompa or monasteries, eaves are
an independent structure built separately from the supporting framework of rafters.
Wood is much used as roofing material. Square or oblong roofing-tiles, similar in shape to
shingles on the roofs of houses in the Italian Alps and Dolomites, are laid on the rafters in line
with the hip or slope of the roof. Heavy stones are placed on top to prevent them from being
blown off. Wood is also much used to make partitions between rooms in dwelling-houses and
monasteries. Allegorical scenes or geometrical patterns are painted in vivid colours on
partitions in the latter. Partitions consist of a number of battens forming a stout framework able
to withstand stress in such areas as doorways and corners. Boards are placed in between the
battens and are held in place by being inserted into grooves cut in the edges of the latter. Door
frames in partitions are also made of wood. (Sestini & Somigli, 1978)

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5. Comparative Analysis
Climate Responsive Design
S.N. Title Standards
(Literature Review)
1. Settlement Must be denser than those
Pattern in warm temperate hills
2. Building Form Must have a more
and Orientation elongated form than those
in colder alpine climate. L-
shaped building form is
preferred
3. Building Stories Internal vertical space
and Internal arrangement of these
Space house must lead to thermal
Arrangement buffer zones which have an
insulating effect to keep the
main areas as warm as
possible
4. Walls Use of locally available
stone and mud is preferred.
Increases thermal mass
which helps with the climate
of the region.
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Case Study
Himalesque Sherpa House
Singly standing building. Mostly built on the beds
Settlement pattern not of old lakes in broader
studied valleys or on sizeable
ledges between the
mountainside and river
gorges. Compact
Settlement
Building form inspired by Sherpa houses in
the local settlement Khumbu stand in small
architecture of the groups together on the
village. Elongated form slopes of a natural
along the north-south amphitheatre.
orientation for maximum Elongated building
sunlight exposure. volume is generally
standing parallel to the
slope.
One storey building with Sherpa houses have
compact internal two stories. Thermal
planning used for buffer zones create
various requirements of insulating effect to keep
the radio station various areas warm.
Himalesque is Sherpa houses, mostly
constructed with a thick inner and especially
outer wall made of outer walls are made of
locally sourced Gneiss stone and plastered with
stone. clayed earth and then
painted.
40
 VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN THE HIMALAYAN REGION

5. Roof Pitched roofs are more
frequently used in the
traditional architecture of
the cool temperate
mountain climate
6. Foundation, Rubble masonry foundation
Floor and is frequently used and is
Ceiling preferred the most due to
the local availability of
natural stone. Floor and
Ceiling along with structural
members are mainly
constructed with timber
7. Openings Small openings facing the
south-east direction for
effective exposure to winter
sun. Timber generally used.
Flat roof with the stones Pitched roof rest on a
used as slabs for the wooden pillar and beam
terrace structure with wood or
slate often used as the
roofing material
Rubble masonry - Built on a platform
foundation used. Load which is made of
bearing structure made locally available
with the Gneiss stone stones
used all around the - double wooden
building. Floor and ceilings of these
Ceiling also constructed houses are
with laid out flat stone supported by a
pieces framework of timber
pillars and beams
Openings on three sides Wooden windows with
of the buildings with finely carved decoration
small openings on the and colourful paintings.
exterior. Larger Doors and windows are
openings on the interior faced to south-east
facing the courtyard. direction
Made of timber and
glass.

Analysis

Due to the climate of the Himalayan region, taking that aspect into consideration while
designing buildings in the specific region is really important. By the cross-case analysis done
previously, it can be seen that both Himalesque and the Sherpa houses are well-adapted to
the climate of the region. Sherpa people have been living in the area for centuries. These
climate responsive design strategies have been passed down from generation to generation
and has been present since they came about to be. With the Himalesque project, prior to its
construction, architect Kim in-cheurl intricately studied the settlements around the Jomsom
area after his arrival in order to understand the architecture that prevails in the area. After a
thorough study of the settlement, he used those design strategies into his own design that led
to the construction of Himalesque as a prime example of a climate responsive architectural
design.

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Construction Technology

5.2.1. Trenches (Foundation)

Title Standards Case Study

(Literature Review) Himalesque Sherpa House
Trenches and Proper shoring must be done Rubble trench foundation Built on a platform of
Foundations after digging out trenches. (rubble masonry locally available stones.
Either rubble trench foundation).
foundation or concrete trench A centrally located
foundation are preferred concrete footing can be
found.

Rubble trench foundation

Figure 5-1: Himalesque; section

Concrete trench foundation

Raised platform foundation

Figure 5-3: Sherpa house Figure 5-2: Sherpa house; section

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5.2.2. Beams and Columns (Structure)

Title Standards Case Study

(Literature Review)
Beams and Timber framing with heavy
Columns timbers. Equal spans and
(Structure) spacings with proper load
path continuation and load
distribution.
Himalesque
Load bearing one storied
structure with Gneiss
stone used as the primary
building materials with the
use of mud as mortar
Sherpa House
Timber beam, column and
slab framing. Two storied
structure.

5.2.3. Walls

Title Standards Case Study

(Literature Review)
Walls Stone masonry with mud or
lime plaster, whichever is
readily available. Some
buildings also build walls
though bamboo framing and
mud plastering according to
the availability of materials.
Himalesque
Coursed rubble masonry
with mud mortar. Used as
a load bearing structure.
Sherpa House
Rubble masonry with mud
mortar and mud plaster
for better thermal mass
and thermal insulation.

Figure 5-4: Himalesque; exterior course Figure 5-5: Sherpa house; mud plastered
rubble masonry wall masonry wall

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5.2.4. Roof Truss and Material

Title Standards Case Study

(Literature Review)
Roof Truss and Pitched timber roof truss in
Materials order to resist the
repercussions of the cold
climate
Himalesque
Flat roof with no truss but
stone used as flooring
material for the terrace as
well as the ceiling material
for the lower floors
Sherpa House
Timber roof truss with
either slate or wooden
planks as the roofing
material.

Figure 5-6: Himalesque; stone used as roofing material

on terrace

Figure 5-7: Sherpa house; timber truss with slate and wood
as roofing material

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6. Conclusion

A civilization’s inclination towards art and architecture represents its aesthetic expression of
creativity. Nepal’s ancient remnants of art and architectural heritages reflects the fondness of
Nepali people towards creative art and architectures.
The people of the Himalayan region live a tough life. It is considered as one of the more
challenging areas to live all around the world. Despite all the repercussions of the harsh
climate and frequently occurring natural hazards, the place and the region has not lost its
authentic way of life and how it shaped the integral architecture of the region.
Due to the findings of this research paper it can be seen that the vernacular architecture in the
Himalayan region of Nepal is exactly what it is supposed to be. Through researches done on
aspects of climate responsive designs and the use of local materials and construction
technologies into building designs, the literature review provided information and standards
on how a building must be built or how a settlement must be planned. Such design strategies
and construction technologies have been implemented on the Himalayan region through
centuries. Nepal has few settlements even past the altitude of 5000m which fall under the
tundra climate and one of the main reasons why such settlements still exist is due to the fact
that buildings have followed standard protocol during their construction period.
The local construction technologies have been perfected over the course of time. Studies of
Sherpa houses of the Khumbu region and Himalesque, a newer construction for the Jomsom
region is a way of seeing how similar construction technologies have been implemented to
buildings in the current time learning from what has existed through many years. The architect
Kim in-cheurl intricately studied the existing settlement of the Jomsom region and the
architecture of the area in order to implement the characteristics of the place into the design
of the radio station. Few modern technologies have also been implemented into the building
to overcome the flaws that might have existed in the architecture of the region.
The Sherpa houses of the Khumbu region are the prime example of what vernacular
architecture in the Himalayan region must be. By the use of construction technologies that
have existed since a long period of time and its adaptation into the current landscape of the
region, it can safely be concluded that the vernacular architecture of the Himalayan region has
a sustainable character which is the reason why such architecture still exists in todays day
and time. Its authenticity and integrity reflect the life of the people and their characteristic of a
lived society and culture.

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7. References

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Apollo, M. (2017). The population of Himalayan regions – by the numbers: Past, present and future.

Bodach, S., Lang, W., & Hamhaber, J. (2016). Climate responsive building design of Vernacular
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http://www.dirtcheapbuilder.com/Home_Building/Stone_Masonry.htm

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Sestini, V., & Somigli, E. (1978). Sherpa Architecture.

Siegesmund, S., & Snethlage, R. (2008). Stone in Architecture.

Wadia, D. (1931). The syntaxis of the northwest Himalaya: its rocks, tectonics and orogeny.

Yang, Q. (2004). Himalayan Mountain System.

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