ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT

1
 The topic of magnetic braking has dramatically increased in
popularity in recent years. Since 1987, numerous articles about magnetic
braking were published. These articles describe both experiments dealing
with magnetic braking, as well as the theory behind the phenomenon.
Magnetic braking works because of induced currents and Lenz's law. If you
attach a metal plate to the end of a pendulum and let it swing, its speed will
greatly decrease when it passes between the poles of a magnet.

When the plate enters the magnetic field, an electric field is induced in
metal and circulating eddy currents are generated. These currents act to
oppose the change in flux through the plate, in accordance with Lenz's Law.
The currents in turn heat the plate, thereby reducing its kinetic energy. The
practical uses for magnetic braking are numerous and commonly found in
industry today. This phenomenon can be used to damp unwanted nutations
in satellites, to eliminate vibrations in spacecrafts, and to separate
nonmagnetic metals from solid waste

Mechatronics is a hybrid technological field which evolved from the

combination of mechanical, electronics & Software engineering.
Automobiles need high degree of safety to protect the occupants and their
property. Bearing this in senses we come up with a new concept of Electric
pulse Magnetic Braking (E.P.M.Braking).

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 When the driver applies force on the brake pedal the magnitude is
sensed by the pressure transducer which in turn sends the actuating signals
to microprocessor. This intelligent device sends pulsating D.C. current from
the capacitor to the power pack. The power pack develops sufficient torque
to decelerate or stop the vehicle as per the driver's requirement. The torque
produced is directly proportional to the force applied on the brake pedal, as
the intensity of the actuating signal from the pressure transducer is directly
proportional to the pulsating D.C. current supplied to the power pack.
Another important aspect of this braking system is that the power
pack also acts as a generator, which results in additional power generation.
We have also incorporated artificial intelligence. Logic gates for backup-
circuit for safety and shift current for shifting the power pack from
generating mode to braking mode and vice-versa to generator power.

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4
 Chapter 1

Introduction

5
1.0 Introduction

The key objective of this project is to introduce and prepare a working

model of eddy current brakes. The problems faced in conventional frictional
brakes; i.e. fading, overheating, very short life span etc. precedes the
motivation of the work, presented in the report, followed by the statement of
problem and objectives.

1.1 Brakes

A brake is a device which inhibits motion. Most commonly brakes use

friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other methods of energy
conversion may be employed. For example regenerative braking converts
much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use.
Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored
forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Still other braking methods even
transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the
energy to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take
other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water
or air). Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as
drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with
both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.

6
Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (K = mv2 / 2), an
object traveling at 10 kilometers per second has 100 times as much energy as
one traveling at 1 kilometer per second, and consequently the theoretical
braking distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In
practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air
drag rises quickly with speed.

Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc
brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling
downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake.

When the brake pedal is pushed the caliper containing piston pushes the pad
towards the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is
similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes towards the drum which also
slows the wheel down.

1.2 General Principle of Brake System

The principle of braking in road vehicles involves the conversion of

kinetic energy into thermal energy (heat). When stepping on the brakes, the
driver commands a stopping force several times as powerful as the force that
spots the car in motion and dissipates the associated kinetic energy as heat.
Brakes must be able to arrest the speed of a vehicle in short periods of time
regardless how fast the speed is. As a result, the brakes are required to have
the ability to generating high torque and absorbing energy at extremely high
rates for short periods of time. Brakes may be applied for a prolonged
periods of time in some applications such as a heavy vehicle

7
descending a long gradient at high speed. Brakes have to have the
mechanism to keep the heat absorption capability for prolonged periods of
time.

1.3 Conventional Friction Brake

The conventional friction brake system is composed of the following basic

components:

The “master cylinder” which is located under the hood is directly connected
to the brake pedal, and converts the drivers’ foot pressure into hydraulic
pressure. Steel “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the “slave
cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in
extreme temperature conditions, fills the system. “Shoes” or “pads” are
pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” or “rotors,” thus
causing drag, which slows the car. Two major kinds of friction brakes are
disc brakes and drum brakes.

Disc brakes use a clamping action to produce friction between the “rotors”
and the “pads” mounted in the “caliper” attached to the suspension
members. Disc brakes work using the same basic principle as the brakes
on a bicycle: as the caliper pinches the wheel with pads on both sides, it
slows the vehicle.

Drum brakes consist of a heavy flat-topped cylinder, which is sandwiched

between the wheel rim and the wheel hub. The inside surface of the drum is
acted upon by the linings of the brake shoes.

8
When the brakes are applied, the brake shoes are forced into contact with the
inside surface of the brake drum to slow the rotation of the wheels.

Air brakes use standard hydraulic brake system components such as braking
lines, wheel cylinders and a slave cylinder similar to a master cylinder to
transmit the air-pressure-produced braking energy to the wheel brakes. Air
brakes are used frequently when greater braking capacity is required.

1.4 Brake Fading Effect

The conventional friction brake can absorb and convert enormous energy
values (25h.p. Without self-destruction for an 5-axle truck, Reverdin 1974),
but only if the temperature rise of the friction contact materials is
controlled. This high energy conversion therefore demands an appropriate
rate of heat dissipation if a reasonable temperature and performance stability
are to be maintained. Unfortunately, design, construction, and location
features all severely limit the heat dissipation function of the friction brake
to short and intermittent periods of application. This could lead to a ‘brake
fade’ problem (reduction of the coefficient of friction, less friction force
generated) due to the high temperature caused by heavy brake demands.
The main reasons why conventional friction brakes fail to dissipate heat
rapidly are as follows:

- Poor ventilation due to encapsulation in the road wheels,

- Diameter restriction due to tire dimensions,

- Problems of drum distortion at widely varying temperatures.

It is common for friction-brake drums to exceed 500 °C surface

temperatures when subject to heavy braking demands, and at temperatures of

9
this order, a reduction in the coefficient of friction (‘brake fade’) suddenly
occurs (Grimm, 1985). The potential hazard of tire deterioration and bursts
is perhaps also serious due to the close proximity of overheated brake
drums to the inner diameter of the tire.

Chapter 2
Literature Survey

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2.1 Introduction
This chapter pertains to the literature survey on magnetic properties of
materials and there classification.

2.2 Literature on Magnetic Properties

The basic principal of electromagnet is as follows:
Oersted found that a magnetic field is established around a current carrying
conductor. Magnetic field exists as long as there is current in the wire. The
direction of magnetic field was found to be changed when direction of
current was reversed.
Conclusion a moving charge produces electric as well as magnetic field.
We are using toroid as electromagnet, a toroid can be considered as a ring
shaped closed solenoid. Hence it is like an endless cylindrical solenoid ( a
cylindrical coil of many tightly wound turns of insulated wire with generally
diameter of the coil smaller than its length is called a solenoid.

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 FIG. 2.1 TOROID

Magnetic field generated by toroid at distance r from the central periphery of

the core,

B= (µ*N*i)/(2Пr)

Where,

B, is the magnetic field generated

µ, is the absolute permeability of air

i, is the current supplied in wire and

N, is the no. of turns or loops of wire on core

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2.2.1 Magnetic Flux, Φ

The number of magnetic lines of force passing normally through a surface is

defined as magnetic flux. Its SI unit is Weber (wb).

2.2.2 Magnetic Flux Density, B

When a piece of a magnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field

the substance becomes magnetized. The number of magnetic lines of
induction inside a magnetized substance crossing unit area normal to their
direction is called magnetic induction or magnetic flux density. Its SI unit is
Tesla or wb/m2 or N/amp-m.

2.2.3 Magnetic Permeability

It is the degree or extent to which magnetic lines of force can enter a

substance and is denoted by µ.

2.2.4 Magnetic Materials

They are classified in three categories:

1. Diamagnetic materials:

Diamagnetism is the intrinsic property of every material and it is

generated due to mutual interaction between the applied magnetic

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 field and orbital motion of electrons. Examples: Bismuth, Cu, H2O,
gold.

2. Paramagnetic materials:

In these substances the inner orbits of atoms are incomplete. The

electron spins are uncoupled, consequently on applying a magnetic
field the magnetic moment generated due to spin motion align in the
direction of magnetic field and induces magnetic moment in its
direction due to which the material gets feebly magnetized. In these
materials the electron no. are odd. At high enough temperatures, all
strong magnetic materials become paramagnetic. Examples:
aluminum, potassium.

3. Ferromagnetic material:

In these materials, permanent atomic magnetic moments have strong

tendency to align themselves even without any external field.

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 Examples: iron, cobalt, nickel.

FIG 2.2 ATOMIC MOMENTS OF FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL

2.2.5 Skin Effect

Skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to

distribute itself within a conductor so that the current density near the
surface of the conductor is greater than that at its core. That is, the electric
current tends to flow at the "skin" of the conductor, at an average depth
called the skin depth. The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the
conductor to increase with the frequency of the current because much of the
conductor carries little current. Skin effect is due to eddy currents set up by
the AC current. At 60 Hz in copper, skin depth is about 8.5 mm. At high
frequencies skin depth is much smaller.
Because we are using DC current in our model there will be no skin effect;
but it will exist when we want to take current from the alternator.

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2.2.6 Hysteresis

Hysteresis refers to systems that have the effects of the current input (or
stimulus) to the system are experienced with a certain delay in time. Such a
system may exhibit path dependence, or "rate-independent memory".
Hysteresis phenomena occur in magnetic materials, ferromagnetic materials
and ferroelectric materials, as well as in the elastic, electric, and magnetic
behavior of materials, in which a lag occurs between the application and the
removal of a force or field and its subsequent effect. Electric hysteresis
occurs when applying a varying electric field, and elastic hysteresis occurs
in response to a varying force.Many physical systems naturally exhibit
hysteresis.
A piece of iron that is brought into a magnetic field retains some
magnetization, even after the external magnetic field is removed.Once
magnetized, the iron will stay magnetized indefinitely. To demagnetize the
iron, it would be necessary to apply a magnetic field in the opposite
direction. This is the effect that provides the element of memory in a hard
disk drive .

2.3 Eddy Current Description

Only one half of an electromagnet’s interaction with the disk is analyzed

because both sides of the magnet are symmetric. Additionally, any effect
that the proximity of the edge of the disk has on the strength of the forces
produced is assumed to be negligible by maintaining a small distance
between the edge of the electromagnets and the inner/outer edge of the disk.

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 d B
As by Faraday’s Law,    E  ds  V , where  B is the magnetic flux, t
dt
is time, and V is voltage. Additionally, using the basic relationship of
V
V  IR  I, it is assumed that the current induced in each differential
R

piece will be proportional to the induced voltage divided by the resistance of

V d B 1
said differential piece. Thus, I induced   and the radial flowing
R dt R
current is calculated in each element. As by the equation F  IL  B , where in
this case I is the induced differential current, L is the length of the element in
the direction of radial current flow, and B is taken to be the average strength
of the magnetic field over each differential element. The resulting quantity
by multiplying average braking or eddy current force acting on shaft with its
radius is the total torque exerted on the disk.

2.4 Various methods of producing induced e.m.f.

The magnetic flux can be changed by changing B, Ɵ or A .
Hence, there are three methods of producing induced e.m.f.
1. By changing the magnitude of the magnetic field B.
2. By changing the area A.
3. By changing the relative orientation of the surface area and the magnetic
field (Ɵ).

2.5 Applications of Eddy Currents

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Working of induction furnace is based on the heating effects of Eddy
Currents.
 Induction motors
 In Electromagnetic brakes
 In speedometers
 Electromagnetic shielding
 In Paddle Machine Brake
 In Turbine Brake

Voltage is induced when a magnet moves towards or away from a coil,

inducing a current in the coil. Faster the magnet’s motion, the greater the
induced current.

FIG 3.3 INDUCTION OF EDDY CURRENT

The induced voltage in a coil is proportional to the product of the number of

loops and rate at which the magnetic field changes within the loops.

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 Chapter 3

General Principle of Eddy Current Brakes

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Block Diagram

Working Principle

The eddy current brake consists of a magnetic yoke with electrical coils
positioned along the rail, which are being magnetized alternating as south
and north magnetic poles. This magnet does not touch the rail, as with the
magnetic brake, but is held at a constant small distance from the rail. It does

20
not move along the rail, exerting only a vertical pull on the rail. When the
magnet is moved along the rail, it generates a non-stationary magnetic field
in the head of the rail, which then generates electrical tension (Faraday's
induction law), and causes eddy currents. These disturb the magnetic field in
such a way that the magnetic force is diverted to the opposite of the direction
of the movement, thus creating a horizontal force component, which works
against the movement of the magnet. The braking energy of the vehicle is
converted in eddy current losses which lead to a warming of the rail.

Advantages

 The device should be used in heavy automobiles as an accessory.

 It is highly suitable at high speed.

 It works on electricity and consumes very small amount of power for

a tiny time period.

 Can be easily controlled and resettable.

 Very light weight and low maintenance.

 Consumes small space therefore installation is easy.

 Running cost is small.

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Applications of Eddy Currents

 Induction motors
 In Electromagnetic brakes
 In speedometers
 Electromagnetic shielding
 In Paddle Machine Brake
 In Turbine Brake.

3.1 Working Principle

The working principle of the electric retarder is based on the creation of

eddy currents within a metal disc rotating between two electromagnets,
which sets up a force opposing the rotation of the disc. If the
electromagnet is not energized, the rotation of the disc is free and accelerates
uniformly under the action of the weight to which its shaft is connected.
When the electromagnet is energized, the rotation of the disc is retarded and
the energy absorbed appears as heating of the disc. If the current exciting
the electromagnet is varied by a rheostat, the braking torque varies in
direct proportion to the value of the current. It was the Frenchman Raoul
Sarazin who made the first vehicle application of eddy current brakes. The
development of this invention began when the French company Telma,
associated with Raoul Sarazin, developed and marketed several generations
of electric brakes based on the functioning principles described above
(Reverdin, 1974).

A typical retarder consists of stator and rotor. The stator holds 16 induction
coils, energized separately in groups of four. The coils are made up of
varnished aluminum wire mounded in epoxy resin. The stator assembly is

22
supported resiliently through anti-vibration mountings on the chassis frame
of the vehicle. The rotor is made up of two discs, which provide the braking
force when subject to the electromagnetic influence when the coils are
excited. Careful design of the fins, which are integral to the disc, permit
independent cooling of the arrangement.

3.2 Characteristic of Electromagnetic Brakes

It was found that electromagnetic brakes can develop a negative power

which represents nearly twice the maximum power output of a typical
engine, and at least three times the braking power of an exhaust brake
(Reverdin 1974). These performances of electromagnetic brakes make them
much more competitive candidate for alternative retardation equipments
compared with other retarders. By using the electromagnetic brake as
supplementary retardation equipment, the friction brakes can be used less
frequently, and therefore practically never reach high temperatures. The
brake linings would last considerably longer before requiring maintenance,
and the potentially “brake fade” problem could be avoided. In research
conducted by a truck manufacturer, it was proved that the electromagnetic
brake assumed 80 percent of the duty which would otherwise have been
demanded of the regular service brake (Reverdin 1974). Furthermore, the
electromagnetic brake prevents the dangers that can arise from the prolonged
use of brakes beyond their capability to dissipate heat. This is most likely to
occur while a vehicle descending a long gradient at high speed. In a study
with a vehicle with 5 axles and weighing 40 tons powered by an engine of
310 bhp traveling down a gradient of 6 percent at a steady speed between 35

23
and 40mph, it can be calculated that the braking power necessary to maintain
this speed is the order of 450hp. The braking effect of the engine even with a
fitted exhaust brake is approximately 150h.p. The brakes, therefore, would
have to absorb 300hp, meaning that each brake in the 5 axles must absorb 30
h.p, which is beyond the limit of 25 h.p. that a friction brake can normally
absorb without self-destruction. The electromagnetic brake is well suited to
such conditions since it will independently absorb more than 300h.p
(Reverdin 1974). It therefore can exceed the requirements of continuous
uninterrupted braking, leaving the friction brakes cool and ready for
emergency braking in total safety.

The installation of an electromagnetic brake is not very difficult if there is

enough space between the gearbox and the rear axle. It does not need a
subsidiary cooling system. It does not rely on the efficiency of engine
components for its use as do exhaust and hydrokinetic brakes. The
electromagnetic brake also has better controllability. The exhaust brake is an
on/off device and hydrokinetic brakes have very complex control system.
The electromagnetic brake control system is an electric switching system
which gives it superior controllability.

From the foregoing, it is apparent that the electromagnetic brake is an

attractive complement to the safe braking of heavy vehicles.

3.3 Eddy currents

Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux in any magnetic field a back
e.m.f is produced in the object causing that change which results production

24
of a current in such a way that it resists the cause of change of magnetic
flux; this current is known as Eddy current.

3.4 Eddy Current Generation

Eddy Currents are induced current that exist in a solid. A changing magnetic
flux over an area of the solid will produce an Eddy Current which will create
a magnetic field opposing the field producing the Eddy Currents. The
opposition of this generated magnetic field is dependent on the changing
area. As the area of flux increases the Eddy Current generation is in a
“negative” direction. With a decreasing area exposed to the flux the
generated Eddy Currents will act in the opposite, “positive”.

FIGURE 2.2 EDDY CURRENT GENERATION DIAGRAM

The figure shows one plate at two instances in time. The first instant models
the plate just entering the magnetic field directed into the page. The swirl

25
indicated on the plate illustrates the direction of the Eddy Current. The
Eddy Current in position one has a “negative” direction or counter clockwise
direction. The second position shows the Eddy current swirl going in the
“positive” direction, or clockwise, as the plate has a decreasing area passing
through the flux. Essentially, at the middle of the field there is no Eddy
Current generation and also acts as the point in which the Eddy Current
generation changes direction. The diagram also shows a force, Fb , which
represents the force created by the Eddy Currents that are generated. The
force created by the Eddy Currents will always oppose the direction of
motion. The magnetic field generated by the Eddy Currents will oppose one
another in position one of figure 1, and attract each other as the area is
decreasing, thereby creating a force that always opposes the direction of the
plate’s motion. The force produce by the Eddy Current generation is
proportional to the conductivity of the material, the speed of plate or the rate
of change of flux and the magnitude of the magnetic field, B.

3.5 Types of Eddy Current Brakes

Electromagnetic brakes are similar to electrical motors; non-ferromagnetic

metal discs (rotors) are connected to a rotating coil, and a magnetic field
between the rotor and the coil creates a resistance used to generate electricity
or heat. When electromagnets are used, control of the braking action is made
possible by varying the strength of the magnetic field. A braking force is
possible when electric current is passed through the electromagnets. The
movement of the metal through the magnetic field of the electromagnets

26
creates eddy currents in the discs. These eddy currents generate an opposing
magnetic field, which then resists the rotation of the discs, providing braking
force. The net result is to convert the motion of the rotors into heat in the
rotors.

3.5.1 Linear eddy current brakes

It consists of a magnetic yoke with electrical coils which are being

magnetized alternately. This magnet does not touch the rail (held at approx 7
mm). When the magnet is moved along the rail, it generates a non-stationary
magnetic field which generates electrical tension and causes eddy currents.

These disturb the magnetic field in such a way that the magnetic force is
diverted to the opposite of the direction of the movement. The braking
energy of the vehicle is converted in eddy current losses which lead to a

27
warming of the rail.

FIG3.3 LINEAR EDDY CURRENT BRAKES IN ICE 3

3.5.2 Circular eddy current brakes

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When electromagnets are used, control of the braking action is made
possible by varying the strength of the magnetic field. A braking force is
possible when electric current is passed through the electromagnets. The
movement of the metal through the magnetic field of the electromagnets
creates eddy currents in the discs.

These eddy currents generate an opposing magnetic field, which then resists
the rotation of the discs, providing braking force. The net result is to convert
the motion of the rotors into heat in rotors.

FIG2. 4 CIRUCULAR EDDY CURRENT BRAKES

Eddy current brakes at the Intamin roller coaster Goliath in Walibi World
(Netherlands) The first train in commercial circulation to use such a braking

29
is the ICE 3.Modern roller coasters use this type of braking, but utilize
permanent magnets instead of electromagnets, and require no electricity.
However, their braking strength cannot be adjusted.

Radial Clearance Eddy-current Retarders are specifically designed to be

used in long-distance sigh seeing cars between 8 meters and 10 meters. They
are light in weigh, and easy in installation and maintenance. With a small
moment of inertia of rotor and low electric power consumption, they won’t
increase the burden of the cars. Output torque matches the type of the car, so
they have the obvious effects of slowing down. At the same time, they can
effectively reduce the friction of service braking system, prevent the
overheating of wheel boss, and avoid the flat tire.

30
 Chapter 4
Equipments Used

31
4.1 Selection of Equipment

List of equipment required:

1. Prime mover to give angular moment to shaft
2. Electromagnet to create magnetic field around shaft perpendicular to
movement of shaft
3. Battery; source of electrical power input to brake
4. Tachometer

We have used D.C. motor as prime mover.

4.1.1 Prime Mover

We needed a prime mover to rotate the shaft and flywheel at high speed
around 1000rpm or more; because the induced eddy current is proportional
to the rate of change of flux which increases with speed of shaft.
Power 1.6hp @ 2800 rpm

Voltage 12 Volts DC

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 FIG 4.1 PRIME MOVER

4.1.2 Electromagnet
We required producing the magnetic field around the shaft; therefore we are
using electromagnet to get magnetic field around shaft only when desired to
stop the shaft. We are using 24 volt DC current supply through battery used
in trucks. Keeping the voltage same we have to draw more current to
achieve powerful magnetic field.
It can be achieved by using a thick wire or wire of AWG 20 or AWG 22
grade to reduce the resistance and increase the current drawn.
No of turns 500

Wire used AWG 36 Copper

External radii mm

Internal radii mm

33
Length mm

FIG 4.3 A ELECTROMAGNET

The electromagnets will be built and assembled by our team. We will use
standard coated copper wire AWG gauge 36 coiled around a ferrous metal
core. Coating the copper wire will prevent corrosion and increase the life of
the electromagnets and maintain the efficiency of the overall braking system.
The number of turns of copper around our ferrous material will determine
the strength of the induced magnetic field.

34
FIGURE 4.4 MAGNETIC FIELD LINES OF COIL PAIRS

35
 Chapter 6
Results and Discussion

36
6.1 Result
1. The maximum speed of shaft is 1000rpm (approx).
2. Reduction in speed after application of brakes from 1000rpm to
700rpm in 2.83seconds.
Percentage reduction in speed = 30%
3. Reduction of speed after 700rpm is not considerable or very small
because of very small rate of change of flux.

6.2 Advantages

1. The device should be used in heavy automobiles as an accessory.

2. It is highly suitable at high speed.
3. It works on electricity and consumes very small amount of power for
a tiny time period.
4. Can be easily controlled and resettable.
5. Very light weight and low maintenance.
6. Consumes small space therefore installation is easy.
7. Running cost is small.

6.3 Disadvantages
1 Higher initial cost.
2 Very large amount of heat generation.

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6.3 Conclusion

1. The eddy current brakes can be used as an accessory in heavy

automobiles with conventional friction brakes; because it is the
remedy of problems faced by conventional brakes like fading,
skidding, high maintenance requirement, low reliability, requirement
of servo mechanisms, breaking, higher weights etc.
2. This device is easy to install an cost incurred is small so can be used
in the automobiles manufactured.

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6.4 Future Enhancement

1. The eddy current increases with decrease in resistivity of material.

Therefore; there is scope of applying copper wire windings of AWG
20 or less to get highly conductive surface and minimum resistance
possible to increase the eddy current induced.
2. The magnetic field induced by electromagnet is not too large and can
be increased by supplying higher current. The stator is rated for
61amp at 12 volt and the supply of dc input is very small to
permissible limit.
So there is scope to enhance the input signal of electricity by applying
amplifiers.
3. Speed of shaft can be increased by providing a gear arrangement
instead of chain sprocket assembly of high gear ratios to get higher
speeds.
4. Frame should be grounded to solve vibration problem of frame and to
make it rigid.

39
 REFERENCES
Websites:
1. www.freepatentonline.com
2. www.wikipedia.com
3. www.telmaretarders.com
4. Prof. Peter R. Saulson “Electrical Power, Magnetism and
Electromagnetic Motors” aulson@physics.syr.edu
http://physics.syr.edu/courses/PHY101/Physics 263-4
5. Prof. S.K. Sahdev and Prof. R.K. Chaturvedi Dhanpat Rai & Co.
edition 1988 Page(2.1-2.49)

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