Colombia

This article is about the country. For other uses and ber to the OECD.[15] Colombia has a diversified econ-
spellings, see Colombia (disambiguation). omy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth
Not to be confused with Columbia (disambiguation). prospects in the long run.[16][17]

Coordinates: 4°N 72°W / 4°N 72°W

Colombia (/kəˈlʌmbiə/ kə-LUM-biə or /kəˈlɒmbiə/ kə- 1 Etymology
LOM-biə; Spanish: [koˈlombja]), officially the Repub-
lic of Colombia (Spanish: República de Colom- The name “Colombia” is derived from the last name
bia ),[Note 1] is a transcontinental country largely situated of Christopher Columbus (Italian: Cristoforo Colombo,
in the northwest of South America, with territories in Spanish: Cristóbal Colón). It was conceived by the
Central America. Colombia shares a border to the north- Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a ref-
west with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil erence to all the New World, but especially to those
and to the south with Ecuador and Peru.[11] It shares its portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name
maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819,
Jamaica, the Dominican Republic and Haiti.[12] It is formed from the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New
a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela,
departments. The territory of what is now Colombia was Ecuador, and northwest Brazil).[18]
originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the
Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to
exist as independent states, the former Department of
The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period Cundinamarca adopted the name "Republic of New
of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Granada". New Granada officially changed its name in
Viceroyalty of New Granada, with its capital at Bogotá. 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name
Independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 was again changed, this time to United States of Colom-
the "Gran Colombia" Federation was dissolved. What is bia, before finally adopting its present name – the Repub-
now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of lic of Colombia – in 1886.[18]
New Granada. The new nation experimented with feder-
alism as the Granadine Confederation (1858), and then To refer to this country, the Colombian government uses
the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Repub- the terms Colombia and República de Colombia.
lic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Panama se-
ceded in 1903. Since the 1960s the country has suffered
from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, which
escalated in the 1990s but then decreased from 2005
2 History
onward.[13] Colombia is one of the most ethnically and
linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby Main articles: History of Colombia and Timeline of
possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has Colombian history
also been influenced by Colombia’s varied geography, and
the imposing landscape of the country has resulted in the
development of very strong regional identities. The urban
centres are mostly located in the highlands of the Andes 2.1 Pre-Columbian era
mountains.
Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainfor-
est, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific
coastlines. Ecologically, it is one of the world’s 17
megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse
of these per square kilometer.[14] Colombia is a middle
power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest econ-
omy in Latin America,[4] is part of the CIVETS group of
six leading emerging markets and is an accessing mem- San Agustín Ar-
chaeological Park

1
2 2 HISTORY
Lost City
Owing to its location, the present territory of Colom-
bia was a corridor of early human migration from
Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and 2.2
Amazon. The oldest archaeological finds are from the
Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley
100 km southwest of Bogotá.[19] These sites date from
the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE). At Puerto
Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period
(~8000–2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate
that there was also early occupation in the regions of El
Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca. The oldest pot-
tery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto,
dates to 5000–4000 BCE.[20]
Muisca raft. The figure refers to the ceremony of the legend of
El Dorado.
Aboriginal people inhabited the territory that is now
Colombia by 10,500 BCE. Nomadic hunter-gatherer
tribes at the El Abra and Tequendama sites near present-
day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cul-
tures from the Magdalena River Valley.[21] Between 5000
and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to
agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and
pottery appeared. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE,
groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya,
and Tairona developed the political system of cacicazgos
with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques.
The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now
the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high
plateau (Altiplano Cundiboyacense) where they formed
the Muisca Confederation. They farmed maize, potato,
quinoa and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets,
ceramic handicrafts, coca and salt with neighboring na-
tions. The Taironas inhabited northern Colombia in
the isolated Andes mountain range of Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta.[22] The Quimbayas inhabited regions of the
Cauca River Valley between the Occidental and Central
cordilleras.[23] Most of the Amerindians practiced agri-
culture and the social structure of each indigenous com-
munity was different. Some groups of indigenous people
such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but
others had less bellicose attitudes.[24] The Incas expanded
their empire onto the southwest part of the country.[25]
Spanish rule
The nautical science was a key pillar of the Iberian expansion.
The contributions of the Spanish Alonso de Santa Cruz were rel-
evant, one of the leading scientific figures of the Casa de Con-
tratación.
Alonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus)
reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499.[26][27] Spanish ex-
plorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first explo-
ration of the Caribbean littoral in 1500.[28] Christopher
Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502.[29] In
1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedi-
tion to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá
and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del
Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the conti-
nent. [Note 2][30]
Santa Marta was founded in 1525,[31] and Cartagena in
1533.[32] Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Que-
sada led an expedition to the interior in April, 1536, and
christened the districts through which he passed "New
Kingdom of Granada". In August, 1538, he founded pro-
visionally its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Bacatá,
2.2 Spanish rule 3

and named it “Santa Fe”. The name soon acquired a suf-
fix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá.[33][34] Two other
notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior
took place in the same period. Sebastián de Belalcázar,
conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali,
in 1536, and Popayán, in 1537;[35] from 1536 to 1539,
German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed the
Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental
in a search for El Dorado, the “city of gold”.[36][37] The
legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the
Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the
16th and 17th centuries.[38]
In 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other
Spanish possessions in South America, became part of
the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital at Lima.[39] In
1547, New Granada became the Captaincy-General of
New Granada within the viceroyalty.
In 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal de-
cree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audi-
ence of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised
the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán,
Guayana and Cartagena.[40] But important decisions were
taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the In-
dies.[41][42]
these alliances would be key to defeating other groups
of Amerindians.[43] Indigenous peoples in New Granada
experienced a decline in population due to conquest as
well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which they
had no immunity.[44][45] With the risk that the land was
deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to the gov-
ernors, conquerors and their descendants creating large
farms and possession of mines.[46]
In the 16th century, Europeans began to bring slaves
from Africa. The Spanish empire didn't engage in the
slave trade directly, but instead the Spanish empire re-
lied on the asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly
from Portugal, France, England and the Netherlands) the
license to trade enslaved people to their colonies.[47][48]
Also there were people who defended human rights and
freedom of oppressed peoples.[Note 3][Note 4] The indige-
nous peoples could not be enslaved because they were
legally subjects of the Spanish Crown [53] and to protect
the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership
and regulation were established: resguardos, encomien-
das and haciendas. Repopulation was achieved by allow-
ing colonization by farmers and their families who came
from Spain.[46][54][55]

Attack of the British army commanded by Admiral Edward Ver-

non on Cartagena de Indias. The battle resulted in a major defeat
for the British Navy and Army during the War of Jenkins’ Ear,
1739–48.[56]

In the 16th century, the nautical science in Spain reached

a great development thanks to numerous scientific fig-
ures and nautical science was a key pillar of the Iberian
expansion.[57]
In 1717 the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally
created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally
be reestablished in 1739. The Viceroyalty had Santa
Fé de Bogotá as its capital. This Viceroyalty included
Peter Claver was a Spanish-born Jesuit priest who dedicated his some other provinces of northwestern South America
life to helping the African slaves, giving them a sense of their own which had previously been under the jurisdiction of
personal dignity. the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond
mainly to today’s Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama. So,
Indigenous groups were loyal only to their own communi- Bogotá became one of the principal administrative cen-
ties and for this reason the conquistadors made frequent ters of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along
alliances with different groups of indigenous peoples, with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained some-
4 2 HISTORY

what backward compared to those two cities in several the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed,
economic and logistical ways.[58][59] headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio.[69][70] Despite the suc-
After Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, cesses of the rebellion, the emergence of two distinct ide-
Cartagena quickly became the British forces’ top target ological currents among the liberators (federalism and
but an upset Spanish victory during the War of Jenk- centralism) gave rise to an internal clash which con-
ins’ Ear, a war with Great Britain for economic control tributed to the reconquest of territory by the Spanish.
of the Caribbean cemented Spanish dominance in the The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan
Caribbean until the Seven Years’ War.[56][60] Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated
in the uprisings. The retribution stoked renewed rebel-
The 18th-century priest, botanist and mathematician José lion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made pos-
Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Ca- sible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-born
ballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of the nature Simón Bolívar, who finally proclaimed independence in
of the New Granada. Started in 1783, this became known 1819.[71][72] The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in
as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada which 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in
classified plants, wildlife and founded the first astronom- Venezuela.[73][74][75]
ical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá.[61] In
July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt The territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada be-
reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis. came the Republic of Colombia, organized as a union
In addition, historical figures in the process of indepen- of the current territories of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador,
dence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as Venezuela, parts[76]of Guyana and Brazil and north of
the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas, the scientist Marañón River. The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821
Francisco Antonio Zea, the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano adopted a constitution for the new Republic.[77][78] Simón
and the painter Salvador Rizo.[62][63] Bolívar became the first President of Colombia, and Fran-
cisco de Paula Santander was made Vice President.[79]
However, the new republic was unstable and three coun-
2.3 Independence tries emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in
1830 (New Granada, Ecuador and Venezuela).[80][81]

The Battle of Boyacá was the decisive battle which would ensure
the success of the liberation campaign of New Granada.

Since the beginning of the periods of conquest and col-

onization, there were several rebel movements against
Spanish rule, but most were either crushed or remained
too weak to change the overall situation. The last one
that sought outright independence from Spain sprang Formation of the present Colombia since the Viceroyalty of New
up around 1810, following the independence of St. Granada's independence from the Spanish Empire.
Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided
some support to the eventual leaders of this rebellion: Colombia was the first constitutional government in South
Simón Bolívar and Francisco de Paula Santander.[64][65] America,[82] and the Liberal and Conservative parties,
A movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño, who op- founded in 1848 and 1849 respectively, are two [83] of
posed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas.
[84][85]
the viceroyalty.[66] Cartagena became independent in Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851.
November 1811.[67] Took place the formation of two Internal political and territorial divisions led to the dis-
independent governments which fought a civil war – solution of Gran Colombia in 1830.[80][81] The so-called
a period known as the Foolish Fatherland.[68] In 1811 "Department of Cundinamarca" adopted the name "New
2.4 20th century
Granada", which it kept until 1858 when it became
the “Confederación Granadina” (Granadine Confedera-
tion). After a two-year civil war in 1863, the "United
States of Colombia" was created, lasting until 1886,
when the country finally became known as the Repub-
lic of Colombia.[82][86] Internal divisions remained be-
tween the bipartisan political forces, occasionally ignit-
ing very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the
Thousand Days’ War (1899–1902).[87]
2.4 20th century
The United States of America’s intentions to influence the
area (especially the Panama Canal construction and con-
trol) led to the separation of the Department of Panama
in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation.[88] The
United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven
years after completion of the canal, for redress of Pres-
ident Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and
Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the
Thomson–Urrutia Treaty.[89] Colombia was engulfed in
the war with Peru over a territorial dispute involving the
Amazonas department and its capital Leticia.[90]
The Bogotazo in 1948
Soon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political
stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that
took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s,
a period known as La Violencia (“The Violence”). Its
cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two
leading political parties, which subsequently ignited af-
ter the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate
Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948.[91][92] The ensuing
riots in Bogotá, known as El Bogotazo, spread through-
out the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000
Colombians.[93]
Colombia entered the Korean War when Laureano
Gómez was elected as President. It was the only Latin
American country to join the war in a direct military role
as an ally of the United States. Particularly important was
the resistance of the Colombian troops at Old Baldy.[94]
From 1953 to 1964 the violence between the two polit- On 4 July 1991, a new Constitution was promulgated.
ical parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed
the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated as positive by Colombian society.[102][103]
5
The defenders of human rights as Javier de Nicoló and Héctor
Abad Gómez are considered heroes for their work in peace-
building.
with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of
General Gabriel París Gordillo.
After Rojas’ deposition, the Colombian Conservative
Party and Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create the
"National Front", a coalition which would jointly govern
the country. Under the deal, the presidency would alter-
nate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for
16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other
elective offices. The National Front ended “La Violen-
cia”, and National Front administrations attempted to in-
stitute far-reaching social and economic reforms in co-
operation with the Alliance for Progress. In the end,
the contradictions between each successive Liberal and
Conservative administration made the results decidedly
mixed. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many
social and political problems continued, and guerrilla
groups were formally created such as the FARC, ELN,
EPL, MAQL, PRT, CRS and M-19 to fight the govern-
ment and political apparatus.
Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an
asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict between the
government forces, left-wing guerrilla groups and right-
wing paramilitaries.[95] The conflict escalated in the
1990s,[96] mainly in remote rural areas.[97] Since the be-
ginning of the armed conflict, human rights defenders
have staged heroic acts that shows us the importance of
standing up against injustice and fight for the respect for
human rights, despite staggering opposition.[Note 5][Note 6]
Five out of the seven guerrilla groups decided to demo-
bilize after peace negotiations in 1989–1994.[13]
The United States has been heavily involved in the con-
flict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s the U.S.
government encouraged the Colombian military to attack
leftist militias in rural Colombia. This was part of the
U.S. fight against communism.[101]
6 3 GEOGRAPHY

2.5 21st century 3 Geography

Main article: Geography of Colombia
See also: Geology of Colombia, List of national parks of
Colombia, and List of rivers in Colombia
The geography of Colombia is characterized by its six
84° 82° 80° 78° 76° 74° 72° 70° 68°

TOPONIMIA
Cabo Camarón CLASIFICACIÓN OROGRÁFICA 16°
16° Cayos Vivorillo Banco Gorda
Bajo Alicia
Punta Patuca
CORDILLERA Sistema principal
Cayo Serranilla Bajo Nuevo
Serranía Sistema independiente
Laguna de Caratasca
Macizo Subsistema
Cabo Falso
Cayos de la LLANOS Planicies

HONDURAS Cabo Gracias a Dios

Media Luna
PENÍNSULA Orografía de costas

Pico Cristóbal Colón Alturas importantes

Laguna Bismuna 5775

GEOGRÁFICA
Cayos Misquitos
OCÉANO Océanos y mares
Punta Gorda Cayo Quitasueño
Cayo Serrana GOLFO DE URABÁ Lagos importantes
Laguna Pahara
Bahía Honda Otros cuerpos de agua
14° Laguna Karatá 14°
RÍO MAGDALENA Río caudaloso

Laguna de Wounta Río Cataumbo Río importante

Cayo Roncador
Isla Fuerte Islas e islotes
Isla Providencia
Cabo de la Vela Accidente costero

MAR CARIBE
NICARAGUA
Isla Aruba
Laguna de Perlas
Cayos Perlas
Islas San Andrés

Cayos del Suroeste

Bahía Honda
Punta Gallinas
Islas Los Monjes
Antillas Neerlandesas
Punta Perlas Cayos Alburquerque Bahía Portete Isla Bonaire
Serra Cabo San Román
Islas del Maíz nía
Cabo de la Vela
Macu de Isla Curazao
ira Punta Espada
12° Bahía de Blueflieds Bahía Manaure PENÍNSULA DE PENÍNSULA DE 12°
LA GUAJIRA PARAGUANÁ Islas de Aves
Bahía Cosinetas

Punta Cardón Archipiélago

Punta Manzanillo
Punta del Mono Los Roques
Boca de Camarones GOLFO DE VENEZUELA Punta Zamuro
Cabo de la Aguja

Bahía Punta Gorda

Bahía de
Santa Marta
Punta Castilla
Pico Simón Bolívar Punta Tucacas
C. GRANDE 5775 Pico Cristóbal Colón
5775
Sierra Nevada Golfo Triste
de Santa Marta

Perijá
Bahía de Cartagena

ía del
Islas del Rosario sar
Ce

into
Punta Limón Punta Barú Río
10° 10°

Serran
Jac
Archipiélago de

BE
Punta Mona LAGO DE MARACAIBO
COSTA RICA

San
Archipiélago San Bernardo
Punta Grande

RI
Golfo de de San Blas
GOLFO DE

a de
Nicoya Punta San Blas

CA
Punta Judas Archipiélago de MORROSQUILLO
RÍO

raní
Bocas del Toro Isla Fuerte MA
Punta Catedral
L GD

DE
Península Valiente ALE

Ser
NA
Isla Escudo de Veraguas ISTMO DE PANAMÁ o
C. Zapatosa

RA
Isla Tortuguilla mb
Golfo de los Mosquitos tau
Bahía de Coronado Ca

NU
Punta Arboletes Río
Cerro Guzmán

Río Zulia
2040
Isla del Caño
A
PANAMÁ LL
Cabo Tiburón

Río Sinú
Punta Llorona Península GOLFO
de Osa DE
VENEZUELA

N A
Cabo Matapalo Archipiélago de URABÁ

o
Golfo Dulce Las Perlas Golfo de

Jerónim

Lucas
ién
Bahía de Parita San Miguel Cerro Tacarcuna C. Ayapel
Península Burica

Dar
1875

L E
Serranía de
8° Punta Burica Islas Secas GOLFO DE PANAMÁ Cerro Jurisdicciones 8°

Serranía de San
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3850

el
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3058

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4100
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Atra
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Páramo Santurbán

Salt
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to
3960

M
4080

os

L
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Serran

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Alto Musinga Páramo del Almorzadero
3110

L
4093

Op
3850 Nevado del Cocuy

D E na

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5493 Cra

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rig
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4080

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Ya
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A L

los
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N
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de
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a
E
6° 6°

E
4100

ní
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1810 4650

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Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos signing the peace

3950

C O

Se
L L

I
T R
Páramo de Pisba
Golfo de Tribuga 3900
Farallones del Citará

R
3500 Páramo Guerrero
3300 Río Pauto

D E

V A
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ta

Í F I
Cerro Caramanta L. Fúquene L. Tota Me
3820 o

N
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Ensenada Catripe en Río
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A
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3285 oy A
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C E
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RÍO ORINOCO
Río
O

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4256 Nevado del Ruiz nd Cr
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S

agreement with FARC leader Timochenko.

Río avo
Cerro Tatamá Santa Isabel no Su
D

E
la Cus
Ensenada de Docampadó 4200 5100 iana r a
Nevado del Quindío
5150 Al
tip
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had

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Juan
Nevado del Tolima
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Cerro Roldanillo 3950
3650 5215
R

L
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I N
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Isla Cacahual
Cerro Calima
C

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D
3730
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L E
R A
Istmo Malaguita Páramo de Barragan Páramo de Sumapaz
4° 4500 4°
3820

R
Isla Malpelo Bahía Málaga

s
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Bahía de Buenaventura
Cerro Nevado

O
4560

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Páramo Las Hermosas

I L
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3600

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Punta Ají

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A N

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Río

Mac
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ay

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5750

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C O
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ac
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Cabo Manglares Volcán Petacas

The administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002–10),

910

NEG
4300

RO
Volcán Doña Juana
Bahía Ancón de Sardinas Volcán Galeras
4250 Río
Vau A
I C
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M

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rra
Río
A

adopted the democratic security policy which included

O E Ap

Se
ap

Río
A ori

Río
Ya
Ensenada de Mompiche s
R

rí

Me
Río San Miguel
U

say
SO SE

0° N 0°
S A ra
Punta Ballena Río
L ua
REPÚBLICA DE COLOMBIA
Caq
Río
uetá L ar
ac
Cabo Pasado Put Ar
um de
MAPA FÍSICO E HIDROGRÁFICO Bahía de Caráquez ayo ía

an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency

an
CONVENCIONES rr
Se
Río Mirití
Bahía de Manta Paraná
ALTIMETRÍA BATIMETRÍA
(msnm) (msnm) Cabo San Lorenzo

Isla de la Plata ECUADOR BRASIL

0
Ensenada de Cayo
4000 200
RÍO

Río
CAQ

campaign.[104] The Government economic plan also pro-

3000 500 Punta Leona

Ca
UET

hu
Á

Río
2000 1000

ina
Iga

rí
ra
1000 2000 Ensenada de Valdivia

Pa
2°

ran
2° Bahía de

á
500 3000
Santa Elena
200 4000 Punta Santa Elena
RÍO
PU
100 TU
MA
0 YO

moted confidence in investors.[105]

Punta Playas

Isla Puná
GOLFO DE
GUAYAQUIL

PERÚ
Isla Santa Clara

Bahía de Tumbes
Punta Malpelo
RÍO AMAZONAS
Isla Providencia
Punta Pico

4° 4°
0 (km) 200
Cabo Blanco
Isla San Andrés Isla Malpelo América del Sur

As part of a controversial peace process the AUC (right-

0 (mi) 100

84° 82° 80° 78° 76° 74° 72° 70° 68° Creado por Jorge Saldarriaga ("Shadowxfox")

wing paramilitaries) as a formal organization had ceased

Relief Map.
to function.[106] In February 2008, millions of Colom-
bians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed main natural regions that present their own unique char-
groups.[107] acteristics, from the Andes mountain range region shared
In 2012 the administration of President Juan Manuel with Ecuador and Venezuela; the Pacific coastal region
Santos (2010–present), began a dialogue in Havana, shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean coastal
Cuba between the Government of Colombia and guerrilla region shared with Venezuela and Panama; the Llanos
of FARC-EP with the aim to find a political solu- (plains) shared with Venezuela; the Amazon Rainforest
tion to the armed conflict. After almost four years region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador;
of peace negotiations, the Colombian state and the to the insular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic
FARC announced consensus on a 6-point plan towards and Pacific oceans.[118]
peace and reconciliation.[108] The Government also be-
Colombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the
gan a process of assistance and reparation for victims of east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador
conflict.[109][110]
and Peru;[11] it established its maritime boundaries with
The first peace accord was submitted to voters in a na- neighboring countries through seven agreements on the
tional referendum and was rejected with 50.2% vot- Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean.[12] It lies
ing against it and 49.8% voting in favor, on a 37.4% between latitudes 12°N and 4°S, and longitudes 67° and
turnout.[111][112] In October 2016, President Santos was 79°W.
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his resolute efforts Part of the Ring of Fire, a region of the world sub-
to bring the country’s more than 50-year-long war to an ject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions,[119] Colombia
end.[113] Santos renegotiated the accord and subsequently is dominated by the Andes (which contain the majority
the Colombian government and the FARC on November of the country’s urban centres). Beyond the Colombian
24 signed a revised peace deal,[114] which the Colombian Massif (in the south-western departments of Cauca and
congress approved.[115] Nariño) these are divided into three branches known as
Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend cordilleras (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occiden-
human rights, as expressed by HRW.[116] In terms of in- tal, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including
ternational relations, Colombia has moved from a period the city of Cali; the Cordillera Central, running between
of tension and animosity with Venezuela, towards a pos- the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and
itive outlook and a spirit of cooperation. Colombia has east respectively) and including the cities of Medellín,
also won a seat on the Security Council of the UN.[117] Manizales, Pereira and Armenia; and the Cordillera Ori-
3.1 Climate 7

The main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca,

Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo and Caquetá. Colom-
bia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain,
the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon
Basin. The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with
Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.[122]
Protected areas and the “National Park System” cover
an area of about 14,268,224 hectares (142,682.24 km2 )
and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory.[123]
Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforesta-
tion in Colombia are still relatively low.[124] Colombia is
the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total re-
newable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of
freshwater.[125]

3.1 Climate
Main article: Climate of Colombia

Colombians customarily describe their country in terms

of the climatic zones. Below 1,000 meters (3,281
ft) in elevation is the tierra caliente (hot land), where
temperatures are above 24 °C (75.2 °F). About 82.5%
of the country’s total area lies in the tierra caliente.[126]
The majority of the population can be found in the tierra
templada (temperate land, between 1,001 and 2,000 me-
ters (3,284 and 6,562 ft)), where temperatures vary be-
tween 17 and 24 °C (62.6 and 75.2 °F) and the tierra
fría (cold land, 2,001 and 3,000 meters (6,565 and 9,843
Colombia map of Köppen climate classification. ft)). In the tierra fría mean temperatures range between
12 and 17 °C (53.6 and 62.6 °F). Beyond the tierra fría
lie the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the
treeless grasslands of the páramos. Above 4,000 meters
ental, extending north east to the Guajira Peninsula and (13,123 ft), where temperatures are below freezing, is the
including Bogotá, Bucaramanga and Cúcuta.[118][120][121] tierra helada, a zone of permanent snow and ice.[126]
Peaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed 4,700 m
(15,420 ft), and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera
Oriental they reach 5,000 m (16,404 ft). At 2,600 m
(8,530 ft), Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the
world.[118]
East of the Andes lies the savanna of the Llanos, part of
the Orinoco River basin, and, in the far south east, the
jungle of the Amazon rainforest. Together these low-
lands comprise over half Colombia’s territory, but they • Ice cap climate in
contain less than 6% of the population. To the north the the Nevado del Ruiz
Caribbean coast, home to 21.9% of the population and
the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and
Cartagena, generally consists of low-lying plains, but it
also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain
range, which includes the country’s tallest peaks (Pico
Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the La
Guajira Desert. By contrast the narrow and discontin-
uous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía
de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and cov- • Alpine tundra
ered in dense vegetation. The principal Pacific port is climate in the Sumapaz Paramo
Buenaventura.[118][120][121]
8 3 GEOGRAPHY

in the Guajira Peninsula

• Oceanic climate in
Tota Lake
• Tropical wet and
dry climate in San Andrés y Providencia

3.2 Biodiversity
Main articles: Fauna of Colombia and Flora of Colombia
• Mediterranean cli-
mate in Boyacá Department

Bassaricyon neblina,
the first new carnivoran species found in the Americas in
• Cold desert climate 35 years can be found in Colombia
near Villa de Leyva

Phyllobates terri-
• Tropical rainfor-
bilis,[127] one of the endemic species of Colombia
est climate in the Amazon Rainforest

Colombia is one of the megadiverse countries in

biodiversity,[128] ranking first in bird species.[129] As for
plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plant
species, equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species,
this is even more remarkable given that Colombia is con-
sidered a country of intermediate size.[130] Colombia is
the second most biodiverse country in the world, lag-
• Tropical savanna ging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times
climate in Los Llanos bigger.[14][131]
Colombia is the country in the planet more characterized
by a high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species
by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of
endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere
else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the
Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of
bird, more than in Europe and North America combined,
Colombia has 10% of the world’s mammals species, 14%
• Hot desert climate of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of
4.1 Foreign affairs 9

the world.[132] seat Senate.[139][140] The Senate is elected nationally and

Colombia has about 2,000 species of marine fish and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral
is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish. districts.[141] Members of both houses are elected to serve
Colombia is the country with more endemic species of four-year terms two months before the president, also by
butterflies, number 1 in terms of orchid species and ap- popular vote.[142]
proximately 7,000 species of beetles. Colombia is sec-
ond in the number of amphibian species and is the third
most diverse country in reptiles and palms. There are
about 2,900 species of mollusks and according to esti-
mates there are about 300,000 species of invertebrates in
the country. In Colombia there are 32 terrestrial biomes
and 314 types of ecosystems.[133]

4 Government and politics

Main article: Government of Colombia
See also: Colombian Constitution of 1991
The government of Colombia takes place within the
Colombia’s Palace of Justice.

The judicial branch is headed by four high courts,[143]

consisting of the Supreme Court which deals with penal
and civil matters, the Council of State, which has spe-
cial responsibility for administrative law and also provides
legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court,
responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian
constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, re-
sponsible for auditing the judicial branch.[144] Colombia
operates a system of civil law, which since 2005 has been
applied through an adversarial system.
Despite a number of controversies, the democratic secu-
Casa de Nariño, is the official home and principal workplace of rity policy has ensured that former President Uribe re-
the President of Colombia. mained popular among Colombian people, with his ap-
proval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in
framework of a presidential participatory democratic re- 2009.[145] However, having served two terms, he was con-
public as established in the Constitution of 1991.[103] In stitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010.[146]
accordance with the principle of separation of powers, In the run-off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Min-
government is divided into three branches: the executive ister of defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69% of the
branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch.[134] vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas
Mockus. A second round was required since no candidate
As the head of the executive branch, the President of received over the 50% winning threshold of votes.[147]
Colombia serves as both head of state and head of gov- Santos won nearly 51% of the vote in second-round elec-
ernment, followed by the Vice President and the Council tions on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rival Óscar Iván
of Ministers. The president is elected by popular vote to Zuluaga, who won 45%. His term as Colombia’s presi-
serve four-year term (In 2015 the Colombia’s Congress dent runs for four years beginning 7 August 2014.[148]
approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment
that eliminated the one-term limit for presidents).[135]
At the provincial level executive power is vested in 4.1 Foreign affairs
department governors, municipal mayors and local ad-
ministrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such Main article: Foreign relations of Colombia
as corregimientos or comunas.[136] All regional elections See also: Diplomatic missions of Colombia
are held one year and five months after the presidential
election.[137][138] The foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the Pres-
The legislative branch of government is represented na- ident, as head of state, and managed by the Minister of
tionally by the Congress, a bicameral institution compris- Foreign Affairs.[149] Colombia has diplomatic missions in
ing a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102- all continents.[150]
10 4 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

The executive branch of government is responsible for

managing the defense of Colombia, with the President
commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Ministry
of Defence exercises day-to-day control of the military
and the Colombian National Police. Colombia has
466,713 active military personnel. And in 2014 3.1%
of the country’s GDP went towards military expenditure,
placing it 18th in the world. Colombia’s armed forces are
the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest
spender on its military after Brazil.[152][153]
The Colombian military is divided into three branches:
the National Army of Colombia; the Colombian Air
Force; and the Colombian Navy. The National Police
functions as a gendarmerie, operating independently from
the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire
country. Each of these operates with their own intelli-
gence apparatus separate from the national intelligence
agency (ANIC, in Spanish).[154]
The National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, spe-
cial brigades and special units;[155] the Colombian Navy
by the Naval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean,
the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the
The VI Summit of the Pacific Alliance: President of Colombia,
South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast
Juan Manuel Santos is second from the left. Guards, Naval Aviation and the Specific Command of
San Andres y Providencia;[156] and the Air Force by 15
air units.[157] The National Police has a presence in all
Colombia was one of the 4 founding members of the municipalities.
Pacific Alliance, which is a political, economic and co-
operative integration mechanism that promotes the free
circulation of goods, services, capital and persons be- 4.3 Administrative divisions
tween the members, as well as a common stock exchange
and joint embassies in several countries.[151] Colombia is Main articles: Departments of Colombia and
also a member of the United Nations, the Organization Municipalities of Colombia
of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American See also: List of cities in Colombia and Corregimientos
States, the Union of South American Nations and the of Colombia
Andean Community of Nations.
Colombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital
district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also
4.2 Military serves as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca).
Departments are subdivided into municipalities, each of
which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are
in turn subdivided into corregimientos in rural areas and
into comunas in urban areas. Each department has a local
government with a governor and assembly directly elected
to four-year terms, and each municipality is headed by a
mayor and council. There is a popularly elected local ad-
ministrative board in each of the corregimientos or comu-
nas.[158][159][160][161]
In addition to the capital four other cities have been
designated districts (in effect special municipalities), on
the basis of special distinguishing features. These are
Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Buenaventura.
Some departments have local administrative subdivi-
Arpía III of the Colombian Air Force. sions, where towns have a large concentration of popula-
tion and municipalities are near each other (for example
Main article: Military of Colombia in Antioquia and Cundinamarca). Where departments
have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés
 11

and Vichada), special administrative divisions are em- comes of informal workers rose only 9%).[170] Colombia
ployed, such as “department corregimientos", which are has Free trade Zone (FTZ),[171] such as Zona Franca del
a hybrid of a municipality and a corregimiento.[158][159] Pacifico, located in the Valle del Cauca, one of the most
Click on a department on the map below to go to its article.
striking areas for foreign investment.[172]

5 Economy
Main article: Economy of Colombia
See also: Agriculture in Colombia and Industry of
Colombia
Historically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanised

Colombia’s gross domestic product by sector for the second half

of the year 2015.

rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 17%

of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generat-
ing just 6.1% of GDP; 21% of the workforce were em- The Colombian Stock Exchange is part of the Latin American
Integrated Market (MILA).[173]
ployed in industry and 62% in services, responsible for
37.3% and 56.6% of GDP respectively.[16][106][162][163] Colombia is rich in natural resources, and its main ex-
Colombia’s market economy grew steadily in the latter ports include mineral fuels, oils, distillation products,
part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product precious stones, forest products, pulp and paper, coffee,
(GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per meat, cereals and vegetable oils, cotton, oilseed, sugars
year between 1970 and 1998. The country suffered a and sugar confectionery, fruit and other agricultural prod-
recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth ucts, food processing, processed fish products, beverages,
since the Great Depression), and the recovery from that machinery, electronics, military products, aircraft, ships,
recession was long and painful. However, in recent years motor vehicles, metal products, ferro-alloys, home and
growth has been impressive, reaching 6.9% in 2007, one office material, chemicals and health related products,
of the highest rates of growth in Latin America.[164] Ac- petrochemicals, agrochemicals, inorganic salts and acids,
cording to International Monetary Fund estimates, in perfumery and cosmetics, medicaments, plastics, animal
2012 Colombia’s GDP (PPP) was US$500 billion (28th fibers, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, leather,
in the world and third in South America). construction equipment and materials, cement, software,
[174]
Total government expenditures account for 28.7 percent among others.
of the domestic economy. Public debt equals 41 per- Colombia is also known as an important global source of
cent of gross domestic product. A strong fiscal climate emeralds,[175] and over 70% of cut flowers imported by
was reaffirmed by a boost in bond ratings.[165][166][167] the United States are Colombian.[176] Non-traditional ex-
Annual inflation closed 2016 at 5.75% YoY (vs. 6.77% ports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales
YoY in 2015).[168] The average national unemployment as well as the diversification of destinations of export
rate in 2015 was 8.9%,[169] although the informality is the thanks to new free trade agreements.[177] Principal trad-
biggest problem facing the labour market (the income of ing partners are the United States, China, the European
formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor in- Union and some Latin American countries.[178][179]
12 5 ECONOMY

The electricity production in Colombia comes mainly provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it
from renewable energy sources. 69.97% is obtained and institutions like Apps.co provide. Co-working spaces
from the hydroelectric generation.[180] Colombia’s com- have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and
mitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014 small.[193][194] Organizations such as the Corporation for
Global Green Economy Index (GGEI), ranking among the biological research for the support of young people inter-
top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency ested in scientific work has been successfully developed
sectors.[181] in Colombia.[195] The International Center for Tropical
The financial sector has grown favorably due to good Agriculture based in Colombia investigates the increas-
ing challenge of global warming and food security.[196]
liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and in
general to the positive performance of the Colombian Important inventions related to the medicine have been
economy.[17][182][183] The Colombian Stock Exchange made in Colombia, such as the first external artificial
through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the elec-
offers a regional market to trade equities.[184][185] Colom- tronics engineer Jorge Reynolds Pombo, invention of
bia is now one of only three economies with a perfect great importance for those who suffer from heart fail-
score on the strength of legal rights index, according to ure. Also invented in Colombia were the microkeratome
the World Bank.[186] and keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamen-
In 2015, the National Administrative Department of tal basis of what now is known as LASIK (one of the
Statistics (DANE) reported that 27.8% of the population most important techniques for the correction of refractive
were living below the poverty line, of which 7.9% in “ex- errors of vision) and the Hakim valve [197]
for the treatment
treme poverty”. 171,000 people have been lifted out of of Hydrocephalus, among others. Colombia has be-
[5]
poverty. The Government has also been developing a gun to innovate in military technology for its army and
process of financial inclusion within the country’s most other armies of the world; especially in the design and
vulnerable population.[187] creation of personal ballistic protection products, mil-
itary hardware, military robots, bombs, simulators and
Recent economic growth has led to a considerable radar.[198][199][200][201][202][203][204][205]
increase of new millionaires, including the new en-
Some leading Colombian scientists are Joseph M. Tohme,
trepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US
$1 billion.[188][189] researcher recognized for his work on the genetic diver-
sity of food, Manuel Elkin Patarroyo who is known for his
Tourism in Colombia is an important sector in the coun- groundbreaking work on synthetic vaccines for malaria,
try’s economy. Foreign tourist visits were predicted to Francisco Lopera who discovered the “Paisa Mutation”
have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 2.98 million in or a type of early-onset Alzheimer’s,[206] Rodolfo Llinás
2015.[190][191] known for his study of the intrinsic neurons proper-
ties and the theory of a syndrome that had changed
the way of understanding the functioning of the brain,
5.1 Science and technology Jairo Quiroga Puello recognized for his studies on the
characterization of synthetic substances which can be
Main article: Science and technology in Colombia used to fight fungus, tumors, tuberculosis and even some
Colombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science viruses and Ángela Restrepo who established accurate
diagnoses and treatments to combat the effects of a dis-
ease caused by the Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, among
other scientists.[207][208][209]

5.2 Infrastructure
Main article: Transport in Colombia
Transportation in Colombia is regulated within the func-
tions of the Ministry of Transport [210] and entities such as
the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) responsible for the
Highways in Colombia (13,000 km),[211] the Aerocivil,
responsible for civil aviation and airports,[212] the
National Infrastructure Agency, in charge of concessions
through public–private partnerships, for the design, con-
COLCIENCIAS is a Colombian Government agency that supports struction, maintenance, operation, and administration of
fundamental and applied research. the transport infrastructure,[213] the General Maritime
Directorate (Dimar) has the responsibility of coordinat-
and technology.[192] iNNpulsa, a government body that ing maritime traffic control along with the Colombian
promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, Navy,[214] among others and under the supervision of the
6.1 Languages 13

Port of Cartagena.

Superintendency of Ports and Transport.[215]

The target of Colombia’s government is to build 7,000
km of roads for the 2016–2020 period and reduce travel
times by 30 per cent and transport costs by 20 per
cent. A toll road concession programme will comprise
40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to in- Population density of Colombia.
vest nearly $50bn in transport infrastructure, including:
railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable
banized countries in Latin America. The urban pop-
again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion
ulation increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to
of Bogotá’s airport.[216]
nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at
76%.[223][224] The population of Bogotá alone has in-
creased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately
6 Demographics 8 million today.[225] In total seventy-two cities now have
populations of 100,000 or more (2015).[226] As of 2012
Colombia has the world’s largest populations of internally
Main article: Demographics of Colombia
displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 mil-
See also: List of Colombian Departments by population
lion people.[227]
With an estimated 49 million people in 2017, Colom-
bia is the third-most populous country in Latin Amer- The life expectancy is 74.8 years in 2015 and in-
ica, after Brazil and Mexico.[3] It is also home to the fant mortality is 13.6 per thousand in 2015.[228][229] In
third-largest number of Spanish speakers in the world af- 2013, 93.6% of adults and 98.2% of youth are literate
ter Mexico and the United States.[217] At the beginning and the government spends about 4.9% of its GDP in
of the 20th century, Colombia’s population was approx- education.[230]
imately 4 million.[218] The birth rate remained at high Colombia is ranked third in the world in the Happy Planet
levels until the early 1970s, but since then, Colombia Index.
has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality,
and population growth rates.[219] Colombia is projected to
have a population of 50.2 million by 2020 and 55.3 mil-
lion by 2050.[220] These trends are reflected in the coun-
6.1 Languages
try’s age profile. In 2005 over 30% of the population was
under 15 years old, compared to just 6.3% aged 65 and Main article: Languages of Colombia
over.[221] The total fertility rate was 1.9 births per woman See also: Colombian Spanish
in 2014.[222]
The population is concentrated in the Andean high- More than 99.2% of Colombians speak Spanish, also
lands and along the Caribbean coast, also the popula- called Castilian; 65 Amerindian languages, two Creole
tion densities are generally higher in the Andean re- languages, the Romani language and Colombian Sign
gion. The nine eastern lowland departments, compris- Language are also spoken in the country. English has of-
ing about 54% of Colombia’s area, have less than 6% ficial status in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia
[8][231][232][233]
of the population. [120][121]
Traditionally a rural society, and Santa Catalina.
movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid- Including Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for
20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most ur- Colombia in the Ethnologue database. The specific num-
14 6 DEMOGRAPHICS

ber of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors

consider as different languages what others consider to be
The 2005 census reported that the “non-ethnic popula-
varieties or dialects of the same language. Best estimates
tion”, consisting of whites and mestizos (those of mixed
recorded 71 languages that are spoken in-country today—white European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted
most of which belong to the Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora– 86% of the national population. 10.6% is of African
Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and ancestry. Indigenous Amerindians comprise 3.4% of
Saliban language families. There are currently about the population. 0.01% of the population are Roma.
850,000 speakers of native languages.[234][235] An extraofficial estimate considers that the 49% of the
Colombian population is Mestizo or of mixed European
6.2 Ethnic groups and Amerindian ancestry, and that approximately 37%
is White, mainly of Spanish lineage, but there is also a
Main article: Human biological diversity and ethnicity large population of Middle East descent; among the upper
in Colombia class there is a considerable input of Italian and German
ancestry.[2]

Colombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending
from the original native inhabitants, Spanish colonists,
Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and
20th-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle
East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage.[236]
The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is
influenced by colonial history.[237] Whites tend to live
mainly in urban centers, like Bogotá, Medellín or Cali,
and the burgeoning highland cities. The populations
of the major cities also include mestizos. Mestizo
campesinos (people living in rural areas) also live in the
Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed
with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms. Mestizos in-
clude artisans and small tradesmen that have played a ma-
jor part in the urban expansion of recent decades.[238]
Many of the Indigenous peoples experienced a reduction
in population during the Spanish rule [239] and many oth-
ers were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the
remainder currently represents over eighty distinct cul-
tures. Reserves (resguardos) established for indigenous
peoples occupy 30,571,640 hectares (305,716.4 km2 )
(27% of the country’s total) and are inhabited by more
than 800,000 people.[240] Some of the largest indige-
nous groups are the Wayuu,[241] the Paez, the Pastos, the
Emberá and the Zenú.[242] The departments of La Gua-
jira, Cauca, Nariño, Córdoba and Sucre have the largest
indigenous populations.[1]

Colombians with Arab ancestry.

The Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia

People with African ances-
(ONIC), founded at the first National Indigenous
try in Colombia are concentrated mostly in coastal areas.
Congress in 1982, is an organization representing the in-
digenous peoples of Colombia. In 1991, Colombia signed
and ratified the current international law concerning in-
digenous peoples, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Conven-
tion, 1989.[243]
Black Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the
coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and
continuing into the 19th century. Large Afro-Colombian
communities are found today on the Caribbean and Pa-
cific coasts. The population of the department of Chocó,
running along the northern portion of Colombia’s Pacific
coast, is over 80% black.[244] British and Jamaicans mi-
Amerindian population of grated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providen-
Colombia by municipality in 2005. cia. A number of other Europeans and North Americans
6.4 Largest cities 15

migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th 6.4 Largest cities
centuries, including people from the former USSR dur-
ing and after the Second World War.[245][246]
7 Culture
Many immigrant communities have settled on the
Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from Main article: Culture of Colombia
the Middle East. Barranquilla (the largest city of See also: Festivals in Colombia and Colombian folklore
the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities
have the largest populations of Lebanese, Palestinian,
Phoenician and other Middle Easterners.[247][248] There Colombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and
are also important communities of Chinese, Japanese, the broader American continent, and as such has been
Romanis and Jews.[236] There is a major migration trend hit by a wide range of cultural influences. Native Amer-
of Venezuelans, due to the political and economic situa- ican, Spanish and other European, African, American,
tion in Venezuela.[249][250] Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as
other Latin American cultural influences, are all present
in Colombia’s modern culture. Urban migration, indus-
6.3 Religion trialization, globalization, and other political, social and
economic changes have also left an impression.
Main article: Religion in Colombia
Many national symbols, both objects and themes, have
See also: Freedom of religion in Colombia
arisen from Colombia’s diverse cultural traditions and
The National Administrative Department of Statistics
aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian peo-
ple, have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia
are promoted by the government through the Ministry of
Culture.

7.1 Literature
Main article: Colombian literature
Colombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era;

Salt Cathedral of Zipaquirá

(DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate

reports are difficult to obtain. However, based on various
studies and a survey, about 90% of the population ad-
heres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%) are
Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) ad-
here to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism). Some
4.7% of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5%
claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific reli-
gion. 1.8% of Colombians adhere to Jehovah’s Witnesses
and Adventism and less than 1% adhere to other reli-
gions, such as Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Mormonism, The Nobel literature prize winner, Gabriel García Márquez.
Hinduism, Indigenous religions, Hare Krishna move-
ment, Rastafari movement, Orthodox Catholic Church, a notable example of the period is the epic poem known
and spiritual studies. The remaining people either did not as the Legend of Yurupary.[255] In Spanish colonial times
respond or replied that they did not know. In addition to notable writers include Hernando Domínguez Camargo
the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombians reported that and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola, Juan Ro-
they did not practice their faith actively.[251][252][253] dríguez Freyle (El Carnero) [256] and the nun Francisca
While Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic coun- Josefa de Castillo, representative of mysticism.
try by baptism numbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution Post-independence literature linked to Romanticism
guarantees freedom of religion and all religious faiths and highlighted Antonio Nariño, José Fernández Madrid,
churches are equally free before the law.[254] Camilo Torres Tenorio and Francisco Antonio Zea.[257]
16 7 CULTURE

turias Award for Letters. Other leading contemporary

authors are Fernando Vallejo (Rómulo Gallegos Prize)
and Germán Castro Caycedo, the best-selling writer in
Colombia after García Márquez.[265]

7.2 Visual arts

Main article: Colombian art

Work of the painter,

Jorge Isaacs was one of the greatest exponents of Colombian lit-

erature in the nineteenth century.

In the second half of the nineteenth century and

early twentieth century the literary genre known as
costumbrismo became popular; great writers of this pe- Vargas Swamp Lancers. Artwork Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt.
riod were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs and Rafael
Pombo (the latter of whom wrote notable works of chil- and sculptor Fernando Botero
dren’s literature). Within that period, authors such as José
Asunción Silva, José Eustasio Rivera, León de Greiff,
Porfirio Barba-Jacob and José María Vargas Vila devel-
oped the modernist movement.[258][259] In 1872, Colom-
bia established the Colombian Academy of Language, the
first Spanish language academy in the Americas.[260] Can-
delario Obeso wrote the groundbreaking Cantos Popu-
lares de mi Tierra (1877), the first book of poetry by an
Afro-Colombian author.[261][262]
Mural by Santiago
Between 1939 and 1940 seven books of poetry were Martínez Delgado
published under the name Stone and Sky in the city
of Bogotá that significantly impacted the country; they
were edited by the poet Jorge Rojas.[263] In the follow- Colombian art has over 3,000 years of history. Colom-
ing decade, Gonzalo Arango founded the movement of bian artists have captured the country’s changing political
“nothingness” in response to the violence of the time;[264] and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and medi-
he was influenced by nihilism, existentialism, and the ums. There is archeological evidence of ceramics being
thought of another great Colombian writer: Fernando produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the
[266][267]
González Ochoa. During the boom in Latin American Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE.
literature, successful writers emerged, led by Nobel lau- The earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been
reate Gabriel García Márquez and his magnum opus, One attributed to the Tumaco people [268] of the Pacific coast
Hundred Years of Solitude, Eduardo Caballero Calderón, and date to around 325 BCE. Roughly between 200
Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Álvaro Mutis, a writer who BCE and 800 CE, the San Agustín culture, masters of
was awarded the Cervantes Prize and the Prince of As- stonecutting, entered its “classical period”. They erected
7.3 Architecture 17

raised ceremonial centres, sarcophagi, and large stone 7.3 Architecture

monoliths depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphhic
forms out of stone.[267][269]
Colombian art has followed the trends of the time, so
during the 16th to 18th centuries, Spanish Catholicism
had a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popular
baroque style was replaced with rococo when the Bour-
bons ascended to the Spanish crown.[270][271] More re-
cently, Colombian artists Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago
Martínez Delgado started the Colombian Murial Move-
ment in the 1940s, featuring the neoclassical features of Rogelio
Art Deco.[266][267][272][273] Salmona’s Torres del Parque.
Since the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a dis-
tinctive point of view, reinventing traditional elements
under the concepts of the 20th century. Examples of
this are the Greiff portraits by Ignacio Gómez Jaramillo,
showing what the Colombian art could do with the new
techniques applied to typical Colombian themes. Car-
los Correa, with his paradigmatic “Naturaleza muerta
en silencio” (silent dead nature), combines geometrical
abstraction and cubism. Alejandro Obregón is often
Monumental
considered as the father of modern Colombian painting,
hypogea of the Tierradentro culture.
and one of the most influential artist in this period, due
Main article: Architecture of Colombia
to his originality, the painting of Colombian landscapes
See also: Muisca architecture
with symbolic and expressionist use of animals, (specially
[267][274][275]
the Andean condor). Fernando Botero, Omar
Rayo and Oscar Murillo are some of the Colombian Throughout the times, there have been a variety of
artists featured at the international level.[266][276] [277][278] architectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples
to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (mili-
The Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th cen-
tary and religious), Republican, transition and modern
turies was mostly devoted to religious depictions of eccle-
styles.[286]
siastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools of
sacred sculpture. During the early period of the Colom- Ancient habitation areas, longhouses, crop terraces, path-
bian republic, the national artists were focused in the pro- ways, cemeteries, hypogeums and necropolises are all
duction of sculptural portraits of politicians and public part of the architectural heritage of indigenous peo-
[287]
figures, in a plain neoclassicist trend.[279] During the 20th ples. Some prominent indigenous structures are
century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold the preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of
[288]
and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better un- Tequendama, Tierradentro (a park that contains
derstanding of national sensitivity. [267][280] the largest concentration of pre-Columbian monumental
shaft tombs with side chambers),[289] the largest collec-
Photography in Colombia began with the arrival in the
tion of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in
country of the Daguerreotype that was brought by the
South America, located in San Agustín, Huila.[269][290]
Baron Gros in 1841. The Piloto public library has Latin
Lost city (an archaeological site with a series of terraces
America’s largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7
carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and sev-
million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 un-
eral circular plazas) and also stand out the large villages
til 2005.[281][282]
mainly built with stone, wood, cane and mud.[291]
The Colombian press has promoted the work of the
Architecture during the period of conquest and coloniza-
cartoonists. In recent decades, fanzines, internet and
tion is mainly derived of adapting European styles to local
independent publishers have been fundamental to the
conditions, and Spanish influence, especially Andalusian
growth of the comic in Colombia.[283][284][285]
and Extremaduran, can be easily seen.[292] When Euro-
peans founded cities two things were making simulta-
neously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town
square, street), and the location of a tangible point of
orientation.[293] The construction of forts was common
throughout the Caribbean and in some cities of the in-
terior, because of the dangers that represented the hos-
tile indigenous groups and the pirates who roamed the
seas.[294] Churches, chapels, schools, and hospitals be-
18 7 CULTURE

7.4 Music

Main article: Music of Colombia

Guatavita La Nueva, architectural site with colonial and neo-

Spanish elements.

longing to religious orders cause a great urban impact.[295] Musical Regions of

Baroque architecture is used in military buildings and Colombia.
public spaces.[296] Marcelino Arroyo, Francisco José de
Caldas and Domingo de Petrés were great representatives
of neo-classical architecture.[295]
The National Capitol is a great representative of
romanticism.[297] Wood is extensively used in doors, win-
dows, railings and ceilings during the colonization of
Antioquia. The Caribbean architecture acquires a strong
Arabic influence.[298] The Teatro Colón in Bogotá is a lav-
ish example of architecture from the 19th century.[299]
The quintas houses with innovations in the volumetric
conception are some of the best examples of the Re-
publican architecture; the Republican action in the city
focused on the design of three types of spaces: parks
with forests, small urban parks and avenues and the
Gothic style was most commonly used for the design of
churches.[300]
Deco style, modern neoclassicism, eclecticism folklorist
and art deco ornamental resources significantly influ-
Colombian tiple
enced the architecture of Colombia, especially during
the transition period.[301] Modernism contributed with
new construction technologies and new materials (steel, Colombian music blends European-influenced guitar and
reinforced concrete, glass and synthetic materials) and song structure with large gaita flutes and percussion
the topology architecture and lightened slabs system also instruments from the indigenous population, while
have a great influence.[302] The most influential architects its percussion structure and dance forms come from
of the modern movement were Rogelio Salmona and Fer- Africa. Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musi-
nando Martínez Sanabria.[303] cal environment.[306] Many musicians, composers, music
The contemporary architecture of Colombia is designed producers and singers from Colombia are recognized[307] in-
to give greater importance to the materials, this architec- ternationally such as Shakira, Juanes or Carlos Vives.
ture takes into account the specific natural and artificial Caribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such as
geographies and is also an architecture that appeals to the cumbia (it is played by the maracas, the drums, the
senses.[304] The conservation of the architectural and ur- gaitas and guacharaca), porro (it is a monotonous but
ban heritage of Colombia has been promoted in recent joyful rhythm), mapalé (with its fast rhythm and con-
years.[305] stant clapping) and the "vallenato", which originated in
7.5 Popular culture 19

the northern part of the Caribbean coast (the rhythm and Santa Catalina is usually accompanied by a mandolin,
is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, and a tub-bass, a jawbone, a guitar and maracas. Some popu-
accordion).[308][309][310][311][312] lar archipelago rhythms are the Schottische, the Calypso,
[332][333]
The music from the Pacific coast, such as the currulao the Polka and the Mento.
is characterized by its strong use of drums (instruments
such as the native marimba, the conunos, the bass drum,
the side drum and the cuatro guasas or tubular rattle). 7.5 Popular culture
An important rhythm of the south region of the Pacific
coast is the contradanza (it is used in dance shows, as a re- Main articles: Theater of Colombia, Cinema of Colom-
sult of the striking colours of the costumes).[308][313][314] bia, and Media of Colombia
Marimba music, traditional chants and dances from the Theater was introduced in Colombia during the
Colombia South Pacific region are on UNESCO’s Repre-
sentative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Hu-
manity.[315][316][317]
Important musical rhythms of the Andean Region are the
danza (dance of Andean folklore arising from the trans-
formation of the European contredance), the bambuco
(it is played with guitar, tiple[318] and mandolin, the
rhythm is danced by couples), the pasillo (a rhythm in-
spired by the Austrian waltz and the Colombian “danza”,
the lyrics have been composed by well-known poets),
the rajaleña (it is performed by people that play the
queco flute, the tiple, the carangano and the drum), the
sanjuanero (it originated in Tolima and Huila Depart-
ments, the rhythm is joyful and fast).[319][320][321][322][323]
Apart from these traditional rhythms, salsa music has
The Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is one of the
spread throughout the country, and the city of Cali is con- biggest theater festivals in the world.[334]
sidered by many salsa singers to be 'The New Salsa Cap-
ital of the World'.[308][324][325]
Spanish colonization in 1550 through zarzuela compa-
nies. Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of
Culture and a number of private and state owned orga-
nizations. The Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bo-
gotá is the cultural event of the highest importance in
Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the
world.[334] Other important theater events are: The Fes-
tival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales
Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa
Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture “Cultural
Invasion” (Bogotá).[335][336][337]
Although the Colombian cinema is young as an industry,
Colombian-style salsa dancing more recently the film industry was growing with support
from the Film Act passed in 2003.[339] Many film fes-
The instruments that distinguish the music of the Eastern tivals take place in Colombia, but the two most impor-
Plains are the harp, the cuatro (a type of four-stringed tant are the Cartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest
guitar) and maracas. Important rhythms of this region film festival in Latin America, and the Bogotá Film Fes-
are the joropo (a fast rhythm and there is also tapping tival.[338][340][341]
as a result of its flamenco ancestry) and the galeron (it is Some important national circulation newspapers are El
heard a lot while cowboys are working).[308][326][327][328] Tiempo and El Espectador. Television in Colombia has
The music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced two privately owned TV networks and three state-owned
by the indigenous religious practices. Some of the mu- TV networks with national coverage, as well as six re-
sical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical in- gional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations. Pri-
strument of ceremonial type, consisting of a pair of vate channels, RCN and Caracol are the highest-rated.
large cylindrical drums), the quena (melodic instrument), The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a
the rondador, the congas, bells, and different types of department or more and its content is made in these par-
flutes.[329][330][331] ticular areas.[342][343][344]
The music of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia Colombia has three major national radio networks:
20
The Cartagena Film Festival is the oldest cinema event in Latin
America. The central focus is on films from Ibero-America.[338]
Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, a state-run national
radio; Caracol Radio and RCN Radio, privately owned
networks with hundreds of affiliates. There are other na-
tional networks, including Cadena Super, Todelar, and
Colmundo. Many hundreds of radio stations are regis-
tered with the Ministry of Information Technology and
Communications.[345]
7.6 Cuisine
Main article: Colombian cuisine
Colombia’s varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse
The arepa with chorizo is a fast food in Colombia
fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of
the ethnic groups. Colombian dishes and ingredients
vary widely by region. Some of the most common
ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tu-
bers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes;
meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and
seafood.[346] Colombia cuisine also features a variety of
tropical fruits such as cape gooseberry, feijoa, arazá,
dragon fruit, mangostino, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora
(blackberry), lulo, soursop and passionfruit.[347][348][349]
7 CULTURE
Colombia is one of the world’s largest consumers of fruit
juices. [350]
Among the most representative appetizers and soups are
patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina
(chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato
and corn soup). Representative snacks and breads are
pandebono, arepas (corn cakes), aborrajados (fried sweet
plantains with cheese), torta de choclo, empanadas and
almojábanas. Representative main courses are bandeja
paisa, lechona tolimense, mamona, tamales and fish
dishes (such as arroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions
where kibbeh, suero, costeño cheese and carimañolas are
also eaten. Representative side dishes are papas criol-
las al horno (roasted Andean potatoes), papas chorreadas
(potatoes with cheese) and arroz con coco (coconut rice).
Organic food is a current trend in big cities, although in
general across the country the fruits and veggies are very
natural and fresh.[351]
Representative desserts are buñuelos, natillas, Maria
Luisa cake, bocadillo made of guayaba (guava jelly),
cocadas (coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied
guava peels), torta de natas, obleas, flan de arequipe,
roscón, milhoja, and the tres leches cake (a sponge cake
soaked in milk, covered in whipped cream, then served
with condensed milk). Typical sauces (salsas) are hogao
(tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian-style ají.[352]
Some representative beverages are coffee (Tinto),
champús, cholado, lulada, avena colombiana, sugarcane
juice, aguapanela, aguardiente, hot chocolate and fresh
fruit juices (often made with sugar and water or
milk).[353]
7.7 Sports
Main article: Sport in Colombia
Tejo is Colombia’s national sport and is a team sport
Nairo Quintana: Colombian Champion of the Giro d'Italia and
the Vuelta a España.
that involves launching projectiles to hit a target.[354] But
of all sports in Colombia, football is the most popular.
Colombia was the champion of the 2001 Copa América,
in which they set a new record of being undefeated,
 21

Life expectancy at birth in 2000 was 70.99 years; the life

expectancy increased to 74.8 years by 2015.[228] Health
standards in Colombia have improved very much since
the 1980s, healthcare reforms have led to the massive
improvements in the healthcare systems of the country.
Although this new system has widened population cov-
erage by the social and health security system from 21%
(pre-1993) to 96% in 2012,[366] health disparities persist,
with the poor continuing to suffer less attention in their
medical procedures.

Colombia is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Through health tourism, many people from over the world
Skating Championships. travel from their places of residence to other countries
in search of medical treatment and the attractions in the
countries visited. Colombia is projected as one of Latin
conceding no goals and winning each match. Interest- America’s main destinations in terms of health tourism
ingly, Colombia has been awarded “mover of the year” due to the quality of its health care professionals, a good
twice.[355] number of institutions devoted to health, and an immense
inventory of natural and architectural sites. Cities such
Colombia is a mecca for roller skaters. The national
as Bogotá, Cali, Medellín and Bucaramanga are the most
team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed
visited in cardiology procedures, neurology, dental treat-
Skating Championships.[356] Colombia has traditionally
ments, stem cell therapy, ENT, ophthalmology and joint
been very good in cycling and a large number of Colom-
replacements among others for the medical services of
bian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of
high quality.[367]
cycling.[357]
A study conducted by América Economía magazine
In baseball, another sport rooted in the Caribbean Coast,
ranked 22 Colombian health care institutions among the
Colombia was world amateur champion in 1947 and
top 43 in Latin America, amounting to 51 percent of the
1965. Baseball is popular in the Caribbean, mainly in
total.[365]
the cities Cartagena, Barranquilla and Santa Marta. Of
those cities have come good players like: Orlando Cabr-
era, Edgar Rentería[358] who was champion of the World
Series in 1997 and 2010, and others who have played in 9 Education
Major League Baseball.[359]
Main article: Education in Colombia
Boxing is one of the sports that more world champions
[360][361] The educational experience of many Colombian chil-
has produced for Colombia. Motorsports also oc-
cupies an important place in the sporting preferences of
Colombians; Juan Pablo Montoya is a race car driver
known for winning 7 Formula One events. Colombia also
has excelled in sports such as BMX, judo, shooting sport,
taekwondo, wrestling, high diving and athletics, also has
a long tradition in weightlifting and bowling.[362][363][364]

8 Health
Main article: Health care in Colombia

M5 building - National University of Colombia, designed by

Pedro Nel Gómez

dren begins with attendance at a preschool academy un-

til age five (Educación preescolar). Basic education (Ed-
ucación básica) is compulsory by law.[368] It has two
Colombia
leads the annual ranking of the best clinics and hospitals stages: Primary basic education (Educación básica pri-
in Latin America.[365] maria) which goes from first to fifth grade – children from
22
Mario Laserna Building - University of Los Andes
six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (Edu-
cación básica secundaria), which goes from sixth to ninth
grade. Basic education is followed by Middle vocational
education (Educación media vocacional) that comprises
the tenth and eleventh grades. It may have different voca-
tional training modalities or specialties (academic, tech-
nical, business, and so on.) according to the curriculum
adopted by each school.[369]
After the successful completion of all the basic and mid-
dle education years, a high-school diploma is awarded.
The high-school graduate is known as a bachiller, because
secondary basic school and middle education are tradi-
tionally considered together as a unit called bachiller-
ato (sixth to eleventh grade). Students in their final year
of middle education take the ICFES test (now renamed
Saber 11) in order to gain access to higher education (Ed-
ucación superior). This higher education includes un-
dergraduate professional studies, technical, technologi-
cal and intermediate professional education, and post-
graduate studies. Technical professional institutions of
Higher Education are also opened to students holder of
a qualification in Arts and Business. This qualifica-
tion is usually awarded by the SENA after a two years
curriculum.[370]
Bachilleres (high-school graduates) may enter into a pro-
fessional undergraduate career program offered by a uni-
versity; these programs last up to five years (or less
for technical, technological and intermediate professional
education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to
six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine. In
Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; stu-
dents go directly into a career program at a university or
any other educational institution to obtain a professional,
technical or technological title. Once graduated from the
university, people are granted a (professional, technical
or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to
practice the career they have chosen. For some profes-
sional career programs, students are required to take the
Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate aca-
demic education.[369]
11 NOTES
Public spending on education as a proportion of gross
domestic product in 2013 was 4.9%. This represented
16.9% of total government expenditure. The primary
and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 114.9%
and 93% respectively. School-life expectancy was 13.5
years. A total of 93.6% of the population aged 15 and
older were recorded as literate, including 98.2% of those
aged 15–24.[230]
10 See also
• Index of Colombia-related articles
• Outline of Colombia
•
•
11 Notes
[1] IPA transcription of "República de Colombia": [reˈpuβlika
ðe koˈlombja].
[2] Balboa is best known for being the first European to see
the Pacific Ocean in 1513, which he called Mar del Sur
(or “Sea of the South”) and would facilitate Spanish ex-
ploration and settlement of South America.
[3] A royal decree of 1713 approved the legality of Palenque
de San Basilio founded by runaway slaves as a refuge in
the seventeenth century. The people of San Basilio fought
against slavery, thereby giving rise to the first free place in
the Americas.[49] Its main leader was Benkos Biohó, born
in West Africa.[50] The cultural space of Palenque de San
Basilio was declared in 2005 as a “Masterpiece of Oral
and Intangible Heritage of Humanity” by UNESCO.
[4] Peter Claver was a Spanish who traveled to Cartagena in
1610. On March 19, 1616 he was ordained as a Jesuit
priest. Peter cared for the African slaves for thirty-eight
years, championing their freedom and persuading the
Governor of Cartagena to grant them days of the rest on
Sundays and holidays. After four years of sickness, Peter
died in 1654. Two services were held for him: the official
funeral, and a separate memorial attended by his African
friends. In 1888, the Roman Catholic Church canonized
Peter. He is now Known as the patron saint of African-
Americans, slaves and the Republic of Colombia.[51][52]
[5] Héctor Abad was a prominent medical doctor, university
professor, and human rights leader who developed practi-
cal public health programs for people with economic dis-
advantage in Medellín. The increasing violence and hu-
man rights abuses of the 1970s and 1980s led him to fight
for social justice in his community, but his political views
put him at odds with those in power and Abad was killed
in 1987. His son said he learned something from his father
that the murderers don't know how to do: to use words to

express the truth – a truth that will last longer than their
lie.[98][99]
[6] Javier de Nicoló was an Italian-born salesian priest who
developed a program that has offered more than 40,000
young people the education and moral support they
needed to become productive citizens. De Nicoló ar-
rived in Colombia a year after the bogotazo, and he knew
first-hand what war did to families. During World War
II, Javier pursued his vocational training in a slaughter-
house, after bombing raids destroyed his high school.[100]
12 References
[1] “visibilización estadística de los grupos étnicos” (PDF).
Censo General 2005. Departamento Administrativo Na-
cional de Estadistica (DANE). Retrieved 15 June 2013.
[2] Bushnell, David & Rex A. Hudson (2010) "The Society
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 33

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34 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text
• Colombia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia?oldid=760888375 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Bryan Derksen, Koyaanis
Qatsi, -- April, Andre Engels, Scipius, Youssefsan, Danny, Christian List, Enchanter, SimonP, Drbug, Zoe, Olivier, Leandrod, Infrog-
mation, JohnOwens, Liftarn, Gabbe, Mic, Ixfd64, Eurleif, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Docu, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Snoyes, TUF-KAT,
Notheruser, Glenn, Marteau, Silthor~enwiki, Nikai, Llull, Jiang, CarlKenner, Ruhrjung, Rob Hooft, Samuel~enwiki, Tobias Conradi,
Conti, Popsracer, Adam Bishop, Randyc~enwiki, WhisperToMe, Wik, Quux, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Furrykef, Grendelkhan, Mor-
wen, Taxman, Mattworld, Fibonacci, Garry Saint, Esquire, Omegatron, Samsara, Hoopes, Quoth-22, Joy, Jumaca~enwiki, Renato Ca-
niatti~enwiki, Secretlondon, T6435bm, Hajor, Robbot, Vardion, Dale Arnett, Chrism, Rolando, Moncrief, Romanm, Egon, Academic
Challenger, ThaGrind, Caknuck, Hadal, Saforrest, LX, JackofOz, Profoss, Isopropyl, Lupo, Seth Ilys, Pengo, Dina, Rdkamp, Nukak,
Phil5329, Danfeder, Jpta~enwiki, Nichalp, Tom harrison, TDC, Peruvianllama, Bkonrad, Curps, Michael Devore, David Johnson, Can-
tus, Rick Block, Duncharris, DO'Neil, Luis rib, Mboverload, Juancarlos2004, Falcon Kirtaran, Gzornenplatz, Avala, Bobblewik, Jrdioko,
Edcolins, Golbez, SonicAD, Utcursch, Alexf, Knutux, Slowking Man, Quadell, Ran, Antandrus, CSTAR, Tio Rojo~enwiki, Secfan, Al-
Andalus, Tothebarricades.tk, Bumm13, Comics, Kigoe, Sam Hocevar, Pgreenfinch, JeffreyN, Ukexpat, Acad Ronin, Dcandeto, Sarcelles,
Demiurge, Mzabaluev, Adashiel, Canterbury Tail, D6, Poccil, DanielCD, EugeneZelenko, An Siarach, A-giau, Discospinster, Rich Farm-
brough, Guanabot, Vsmith, Mrosten, HeikoEvermann, EliasAlucard, Dave souza, Jeffsmith, SpookyMulder, Chadlupkes, Bender235,
Ngchen, ESkog, Foolip, Brian0918, Uli, Livajo, Yasis, Sluj, Zscout370, MBisanz, El C, Cap'n Refsmmat, Bletch, Szquirrel, Kwamik-
agami, Phil websurfer@yahoo.com, Mwanner, Shanes, Susvolans, Sietse Snel, Cacophony, Serapio, Guettarda, Sole Soul, Bobo192,
Lgallon, Circeus, Hurricane111, Chtito, John Vandenberg, Walkiped, Shenme, Unquietwiki, Guiltyspark, Ertly, Jojit fb, Acjelen, Dar-
winek, Bawolff, PeterisP, MPerel, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka, Polylerus, Pharos, Solid Reign, Nsaa, Sanmartin, Jumbuck, Storm Rider,
Veronique, PedroPerez~enwiki, Alansohn, Qwe, Elpincha, JRaber, Buaidh, Managementboy, Rd232, Mr Adequate, Andrewpmk, An-
drew Gray, Cjthellama, AzaToth, Lectonar, Water Bottle, Julianortega, Echuck215, Lightdarkness, Fritzpoll, Sligocki, TommyBoy, Dark
Shikari, Cdc, Bantman, CunningLinguist, Hu, Malo, Snowolf, Ross Burgess, ClockworkSoul, AfC, Ish ishwar, Irdepesca572, Pappa,
Garzo, KapilTagore, Harej, Amorymeltzer, Geraldshields11, W7KyzmJt, Kusma, Gene Nygaard, Balagan, Nightstallion, Blaxthos, Ali-
ceinlampyland, SmthManly, Dennis Bratland, Tariqabjotu, Wnorton, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, RHaworth, TigerShark, Nugget-
boy, Myleslong, Madchester, MatthewJ, JFG, WadeSimMiser, Chochopk, Apokrif, Kelisi, Kglavin, Bkwillwm, Schzmo, Ferg2k, Mnts,
Jleon, I64s, Optichan, Steinbach, Male1979, Kralizec!, Wayward, Dtaw2001, MarcoTolo, Chlewey, Palica, Dysepsion, Tslocum, Richard-
Weiss, Sareini, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Descendall, Cuchullain, BD2412, Kbdank71, DePiep, Mendaliv, Sebastiankessel,
Electionworld, Ciroa, Canderson7, Wikix, Rjwilmsi, Jake Wartenberg, Gryffindor, Sdornan, Hhst, Funnyhat, Crazynas, HappyCamper,
Daniel Collins, Lendorien, DoubleBlue, Ucucha, Sango123, FayssalF, SAK, Sgkay, FlaBot, Ground Zero, Andymadigan, Gillian Tipson,
CalJW, Latka, Estrellador*, Nihiltres, Crazycomputers, Who, Wikimonitor, Skillz187, RexNL, Gurch, AlexCovarrubias, Tequendamia,
Jrtayloriv, KFP, Intgr, ViriiK, TeaDrinker, Tardis, Malhonen, Tedder, McDogm, Srleffler, Silivrenion, Elviajeropaisa, Idaltu, Andreji,
Theshibboleth, Victor12, Butros, WouterBot, King of Hearts, Stormscape, CJLL Wright, Chobot, Jersey Devil, Nagytibi, Jared Preston,
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der, Hilighter555, UkPaolo, Jodine Sparks, Roboto de Ajvol, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, RobotE, Sceptre,
Hairy Dude, RussBot, Longbow4u, Zafiroblue05, Splash, Pigman, Andres77, Splette, Garrysaint, SpuriousQ, Casey J. Morris, Stephenb,
Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas, Wimt, Ugur Basak, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Nahallac Silverwinds, EWS23, Bachrach44, Aeu-
soes1, The Ogre, Grafen, Yurinator180, Mfcabrera, Deskana, Welsh, SivaKumar, RazorICE, Michalis Famelis, Pgehr, CharlesWiki,
Irishguy, Mshecket, Renata3, Robdurbar, THB, RUL3R, Misza13, AlbertR, Semperf, Petufo, Tony1, Ospalh, Dbfirs, BOT-Superzerocool,
Gadget850, Bota47, Tachyon01, Jpeob, Maunus, Martinwilke1980, Ilmaisin, Wknight94, Mxcatania, AjaxSmack, Kmusser, Vodka Mar-
tini, Shaken Not Stirred, Superdude99, 21655, Lt-wiki-bot, Barryob, Thnidu, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, Chanheigeorge, SMcCandlish,
Dspradau, Tevildo, Mastercampbell, GraemeL, Aeon1006, JoanneB, Red Jay, Alias Flood, Firezx, ALL YOUR COCAINE ARE BE-
LONG TO US, JLaTondre, David Biddulph, X3210, Allens, Bluezy, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Junglecat, Ief, TLSuda, Citylover, DVD
R W, West Virginian, Luk, Mlibby, Schizobullet, Sardanaphalus, Vanka5, Attilios, Chicocvenancio, RaiderAspect, Drcwright, Smack-
Bot, YellowMonkey, Bushhopper, Saravask, David Kernow, Hux, ThreeDee912, Honza Záruba, Herostratus, Prodego, KnowledgeOfSelf,
Hydrogen Iodide, Stev0, David.Mestel, Unyoyega, Ikip, Bomac, WilyD, KocjoBot~enwiki, Patrickneil, EncycloPetey, Delldot, Paxse,
Opinoso, Chagual, Kintetsubuffalo, HalfShadow, Francisco Valverde, SmartGuy Old, Commander Keane bot, Yamaguchi , Gilliam,
Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, The Famous Movie Director, Betacommand, Oscarthecat, Skizzik, Polaron, Afa86, Fetofs, Izehar, JRSP, Chris the
speller, Master Jay, Timbouctou, Rkitko, Ian13, Stubblyhead, SweetP112, BabuBhatt, Pylori, Jaw101ie, MalafayaBot, Kemet, ShaunM,
Rosameliamartinez, Akanemoto, Bazonka, Jfsamper, DHN-bot~enwiki, Sb617, Colonies Chris, Darth Panda, RuudVisser, Kotra, Can't
sleep, clown will eat me, MaracaMaraca, Argyriou, OrphanBot, JedOs, Jennica, OOODDD, MJCdetroit, JonHarder, Rrburke, Wes!, Mor-
ton devonshire, Andy120290, JesseRafe, Addshore, Oxfam, SundarBot, Pascaweb, Stevenmitchell, Rarelibra, Khoikhoi, Nibuod, De-
cltype, Nakon, RaCha'ar, Kneale, Dreadstar, Zero Gravity, Nathans, Jklin, KeithB, Aaker, Mbhskid520, Dmfallak, ElizabethFong, Be-
jnar, Kukini, Jdtoutant2, Ohconfucius, JLogan, SashatoBot, Lmcm1990, FunkyFly, Rory096, Robomaeyhem, Ser Amantio di Nicolao,
Ju98 5, Franc13, Zahid Abdassabur, Marzolian, Kuru, Khazar, Oskilian, Metaphoria, J 1982, SilkTork, Mbralchenko, Gobonobo, Blin-
utne, Accurizer, Green Giant, NongBot~enwiki, Camilo Sanchez, Ckatz, MarkSutton, Rkmlai, Kyphe, Stwalkerster, Shangrilaista, Noah
Salzman, Mr Stephen, Childzy, Girmitya, Waggers, Johnmc, Ryulong, Irn, Naaman Brown, Peter Horn, Skinsmoke, Jose77, Ryanjunk,
Darry2385, Josecuervo123, Oesamudio, ShakingSpirit, Supaman89, DabMachine, Quaeler, Ardo191, BranStark, Iridescent, V6g3h7,
Motbob, Mijotoba, Joseph Solis in Australia, ArchonMeld, Igoldste, Unar~enwiki, Oscarva~enwiki, Spudstud, Tony Fox, Civil Engi-
neer III, Mulder416sBot, Courcelles, Linkspamremover, Anger22, Tom.carvajal, Kaltter, Fdp, Slobot, Thricecube, Tawkerbot2, Dlo-
hcierekim, Daniel5127, Galati, HistorySherlock, La recta final, JForget, S23678, Conorobradaigh, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Lightningfro,
NKSCF, Hildenja, Risoto2000~enwiki, JohnCD, Baiji, RUDO, Colombiano21, Kylu, Dgw, Orthuberra, ShelfSkewed, Erick91, Wegge-
Bot, Logical2u, Shizane, Moreschi, Zurkhardo, Cormacross, Qrc2006, Mattbuck, TJDay, Equendil, Newyorkkino, Cydebot, Asiguere,
Tendancer, Nebular110, Ryan, Perfect Proposal, Steel, Aristophanes68, Yussef90, Jacobovillegas, Orquidea0, Michaelas10, Gogo Dodo,
Mightymelanie, Hebrides, Llort, Vampiric.Media, Damifb, Eu.stefan, Dancter, Superfo, Q43, Tawkerbot4, Shirulashem, Christian75,
DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Telex, Emustonen, Narcisso, DBaba, Optimist on the run, Stephen dove, ObjectivityAlways, Kozuch, Gokusand-
wich, Chakos7777, Ebyabe, Omicronpersei8, Salondono85, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, XXDucky21Xx, Maziotis, FrancoGG, Gleon,
Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Biruitorul, Calvin7199, Vlcmkd2, Wikid77, Coelacan, Unicyclopedia, Qwyrxian, Rusl, Bytebear, HappyInGeneral,
Gryspnik, N5iln, Andyjsmith, Oliver202, 1allair, Newton2, Marek69, John254, Bobblehead, Tellyaddict, JustAGal, Ram4eva, NigelR,
Dgies, CharlotteWebb, Therequiembellishere, Nick Number, ColBog, Parsifal2~enwiki, Big Bird, Blackbyrus, X96lee15, Natalie Erin,
Rompe, RoboServien, AlefZet, Escarbot, Dantheman531, Ssprince, Hmrox, David Liuzzo, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Ale-
14.1 Text 35

jandro88, Luna Santin, Juligar, Seaphoto, Neumannk, Smi2le, Ozzieboy, Yomangani, Ybgursey, Quintote, Prolog, Tangerines, BigNate37,
Lusemer, EMPIR3, Jj137, Mack2, Modernist, Nhgill, Luckyvik78, Gdo01, Spencer, Alphachimpbot, Ymvaldez, Jaredroberts, Jdavid-
lara, Figma, ClassicSC, Ioeth, JAnDbot, Deflective, Aille, Davewho2, Midtoad, Pi.1415926535, MER-C, MarritzN, The Transhumanist,
Matthew Fennell, Roberto Pinto, Garueda, Andonic, Hobson, PhilKnight, Anthonyd3ca, TheEditrix2, SiobhanHansa, Acroterion, Ge-
niac, Bencherlite, Magioladitis, Connormah, Ramirez72, GomiTaroGeorge42, Drhlajos, Jaysweet, Fitnr, Drlatino~enwiki, Bongwarrior,
VoABot II, Miguelemejia, AuburnPilot, Dentren, Will231982, Psycosonik, Trnj2000, Hasek is the best, JNW, Darthkurai, Manderiko,
Tedickey, Brain40, Master12616, Lazv, Twsx, Góngora, Jhw57, Manuelch10, Avicennasis, László Szegedi~enwiki, Midgrid, Ccarroll,
Bubba hotep, Catgut, Eiyuu Kou, Gabriel Kielland, Sourside21, Ksanyi, Axel.schmidt, Torchiest, BilCat, Elinruby, Allstarecho, Politi-
calJunkie, 3idiot, Glen, Rif Winfield, DerHexer, JaGa, Fastestdogever, M.epperley, Mschiffler, Cehc84, G.A.S, Stephenchou0722, S3000,
FisherQueen, MartinBot, Cheifsguy, John Doe or Jane Doe, Arjun01, Robin63, Axlq, Doncartel, Chris Bolin, Mschel, R'n'B, Commons-
Delinker, AlexiusHoratius, Nono64, VirtualDelight, Pekaje, PrestonH, Lilac Soul, Dudmaker, Tgeairn, Jorjborjs, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of
the Wizards, Cic10joseluisy, ABlake, Trusilver, EscapingLife, JamesR, Bogey97, UBeR, Numbo3, Anas Salloum, Uncle Dick, Djezi,
Crackbaby, Ramsey2006, Jerry, Bbrolita, Derlay, Sherdmm, Acalamari, Paris1127, St.daniel, It Is Me Here, Sergioroa, Katalaveno,
Skinny McGee, Abhijitsathe, DarkFalls, McSly, Koven.rm, DannyBoi969, Jrdragster11, Rocket71048576, Bobleethax, AntiSpamBot,
Quarma, Ricardocolombia, Plasticup, Hoffmansk, GhostPirate, Will824, Joshafina, InspectorTiger, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, Facorread,
BlakeNewman, Flatterworld, Student7, Mik3jon3s769, Wikiuser12345, Rumpelstiltskin223, Shoessss, Smitty, 2help, KylieTastic, Comet-
styles, STBotD, DH85868993, Jjhcap99, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., 2eet2eet, Tiwonk, Bonadea, Cardinal2, JennieC621, MartinBotIII, Ja 62,
Andy Marchbanks, SoCalSuperEagle, GrahamHardy, CardinalDan, Jmcdon10, Madclone, ChaosNil, Rick570, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag,
CWii, Thomas.W, Kinbushi, ABF, Murderbike, Flyingidiot, Jeff G., Indubitably, Aust is cool, Butwhatdoiknow, Harfarhs, Promero221,
Lear’s Fool, Clegs, Blakidpeas11, R dartayet, Barneca, Philip Trueman, Rkt2312, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Moogwrench, Tupac Kurupira,
Maximillion Pegasus, Rocker246, Malinaccier, Kww, Oopshla, Lesanges, Vipinhari, LaNicoya, GDonato, NPrice, Dchall1, Rei-bot, An-
dres rojas22, Z.E.R.O., Anonymous Dissident, Dtonn, Scoelho86, JayC, Rapuello, Qxz, Marcopolo7890, Christopheryoungone, Deltap-
olarix, Lradrama, Imasleepviking, Corvus cornix, Sandhillcrane, DyceBot, Dogwood197, Gospina~enwiki, Canaima, LeaveSleaves, ^de-
monBot2, Shawti1, Bbobjoe1, Vgranucci, Wikiperuvian, Bizarrobizarro, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Totazo, Shadowxfox, Madhero88, Rock-
oloco~enwiki, Augusto80, AmberAlert1713, Rocko66, Billinghurst, RandomXYZb, Usergreatpower, Dirkbb, SQL, SallyBoseman, Syn-
thebot, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Sevela.p, AndresTM, HeirloomGardener, Qworty, Onceonthisisland, AlleborgoBot, Symane, Blabliblu,
Caritoandsmiley, Enc Company Agent, FlyingLeopard2014, Gus, EmxBot, TheXenocide, WiLLGT09, D. Recorder, Scottkosty, Thun-
derwing, Demmy, The Random Editor, Ponyo, EJF, Enkyo2, Jon33, SieBot, MDDCXA, Zenlax, Calliopejen1, Frans Fowler, Peter-
Canthropus, YonaBot, Caulde, Euryalus, BotMultichill, Jauerback, Jack Merridew, Amnestydaan, Susan12985, Jerahad, Jbmurray, Cal-
tas, Matthew Yeager, Polio18, Colormiles, Movieroad~enwiki, SE7, RJaguar3, Etherroyal, Snave62, Aeolopluton, Ranriv100, Calabrax-
this, Fillup321, Fredler Brave, Keilana, Happysailor, Flyer22 Reborn, Tiptoety, Perspicacite, Socal gal at heart, Oda Mari, Arbor to
SJ, Sman106, Monegasque, Lagrange613, Fedderico10, Tonysinclair, Oxymoron83, AngelOfSadness, Nuttycoconut, Canislupusarctos,
Hello71, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, Tombomp, Wamt90~enwiki, Hobartimus, Chrihern, Sanya3, Rupert Horn, BenoniBot~enwiki, Má-
tyás, Fratrep, Likeminas, DAS232, BrokeTheInterweb, OKBot, Dillard421, Svick, Power Society, Sarahfriedman, Msbarton86, StaticGull,
Capitalismojo, Georgequizbowl08, Tesi1700, Mygerardromance, Martin H., Roarboleda, Marcusito, Nn123645, Pinkadelica, DRTllbrg,
Denisarona, Jesus Cardona, JL-Bot, Jobas, Jimmy Slade, Occur Curve, Amazonien, Troy 07, ImageRemovalBot, Smashville, YSSYguy,
Loren.wilton, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Selecciones de la Vida, Andres-b-p, PipepBot, Isnidia3, Kotniski, Ricardo acevedo cabra,
The Thing That Should Not Be, Wellmer, Argus8888, Rubashkyn~enwiki, Fenix 2007, SeaValeYen, Arakunem, DaveNZ13, Senzan-
gakhona, Ivesiana, Drmies, Newstormer, Boing! said Zebedee, Moorekwesi, Calfaro, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Marxolang,
VandalCruncher, Blanchardb, Dwilches, Insaneness rules, Pras, Wilmesis, Cdulan, Puchiko, Education Is The Basis Of Law And Order,
DragonBot, Mkativerata, Excirial, Diegowarrior, Juglar, Jusdafax, Chrisman3003, Daysha305, Eeekster, Sebram, Enzeb, Medellin Traveler,
Mfa fariz, Pierslockhartwashere, Leonard^Bloom, Gwguffey, Yehitsluisa47, Lartoven, Rhododendrites, MacedonianBoy, EducaterDJ101,
Felipe78felipe, Arjayay, Peter.C, Jotterbot, Turnmeon~enwiki, Iohannes Animosus, Wprlh, Tnxman307, SoxBot, Razorflame, Malejotm,
The Red, Mickey gfss2007, Vanegas123, Aznsisco, Cocoliras, Polly, Thehelpfulone, Stepheng3, Thingg, Aitias, Dakota C, Samantha555,
Sometimes A Great Notion, Dancinfool188, Jucaagsa~enwiki, Aloxcon, Versus22, IJA, Johnuniq, Zaydn, Duhhitsminerva, Humanis-
ticmystic, Vanished User 1004, DumZiBoT, D4n13lur1b3, XLinkBot, Kurdo777, Staticshakedown, Gonzonoir, Kormin, Freshbakedpie,
BodhisattvaBot, PseudoOne, Jovianeye, Dthomsen8, DaL33T, Little Mountain 5, Tlcmgmt, WikHead, Mhsb, Sebas201227, Alexius08,
Noctibus, Luisfege, Dude527, Antney22, Eddinparis, Good Olfactory, Airplaneman, Gggh, Thatguyflint, Franz weber, HexaChord, Therib,
Chickenfeathers90, Sesbok, JuergenMascarenhas, Liu Tao, Addbot, Paper Luigi, Willking1979, Jojhutton, Prattlement, Corvus13~enwiki,
Betterusername, Non-dropframe, M.nelson, Trasman, AkhtaBot, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, MartinezMD, Fieldday-sunday, Canadian-
LinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Bushidoguy7, IonKing, Tomnaps, Mauricio0287, Brooklynfire696, Cst17, Laina1122, Enbay, Download,
CarsracBot, Ebrown6321, Forich, DFS454, Glane23, Bassbonerocks, AnnaFrance, LemmeyBOT, SamatBot, LinkFA-Bot, West.andrew.g,
Jaydec, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Mr.Xp, TriniMuñoz, AwOc, Tide rolls, JoseAwfulman, Krano, Jordankijak, Zorrobot, Jarble, Luckyz,
Lilmamaisbad, HerculeBot, Waltloc, LuK3, Megaman en m, Lach B, Josefveg17, Jackelfive, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81,
Vman404, Ping453, Amirobot, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Nallimbot, KamikazeBot, Resparragoza~enwiki, South Bay, Againme, Di-
girami, Suppjcs, Richigi, Michaelscottdoyle, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Puertorico1, DemocraticLuntz, Secret killer, DoctorJoeE, Hairhorn,
Kristen Eriksen, Angry Mushi, Engelberg, 1exec1, J142857z, IRP, Cptnono, Harrypotterisgay, AdjustShift, Spessart, Nononsenseplease,
Joel Amos, LlywelynII, IandI, Ulric1313, Dr Brains, Hatorresmantilla, Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, Alawadhi3000, Citation bot,
Pipeafcr, Xboxxboxxbox, Owlindaylight, Colombiankid228, DynamoDegsy, Choir2012, GB fan, ArthurBot, Taikah, Quebec99, Airbus30,
Tatarian, Parthian Scribe, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Sketchmoose, Beast432, Viola v, Sionus, Intelati, Transity, Tokstow, The sock that should
not be, Capricorn42, Vnzla15, Khajidha, Wperdue, Lucky to be me, Edubbs.eli, TechBot, Rougetree, FRIIKIITONA10692, Locos epraix,
BritishWatcher, Srich32977, Almabot, Raenita27, RadiX, GrouchoBot, Andrew010203, Jsgm90, Ppoorraa1122, ProtectionTaggingBot,
Larousse1995, Eluser, ArkinAardvark, Lalalallartdtgdvdfg, Frankie0607, Juan1996east1, There are no names left, Chrismiceli, Ribot-
BOT, SassoBot, Zumalabe, Robyn’sCharlie, Amaury, Ladyfabou, Spesh531, Trafford09, Pwebpc, Loganbear11, Moxy, MerlLinkBot,
Phette23, Shadowjams, Tabledhote, Color me Mauve, SchnitzelMannGreek, Erik9, Samwb123, SD5, Totono~enwiki, Al Wiseman,
Griffinofwales, Xktxrxn, TEDLEVITT, Mia444, Jumamuba, Dano84, Prari, FrescoBot, Archi95, Javiergonzalez999, Rsebastian2012,
Trcew400, Tobby72, Pepper, SpaceRocket, DiprotiumOxide, Thayts, Johnnymurda, Sky Attacker, Oldlaptop321, Sanfraa, Addicted04,
Alxeedo, Qwell the pell, TownDown, Gutenberg1, September777, Bambuway, Purpleturple, Armigo~enwiki, Enjoiforever, Hamburger-
Radio, Deutschervolke, Laciportbus, Diwas, Shogami, Chocolisto, KinaseD, Redrose64, DrilBot, Anthonio212, Biker Biker, Pinethicket, I
dream of horses, Elockid, HRoestBot, Micromesistius, NaelPITT, Blake24, LittleWink, Julio1994, Latino06, Rameshngbot, Feather Jonah,
A8UDI, Androsoma, RedBot, Impala2009, MastiBot, RandomStringOfCharacters, Fumitol, Footwarrior, Juanr2099, Jeppiz, Merlion444,
SkyMachine, Irbisgreif, Yosoyjm13, Von Karma, Abc518, Cl!ckpop, Elekhh, FoxBot, Nathaliamonroe, Cristianvega1290, TobeBot,
PeReIrAnO14, DixonDBot, Zulucho, TheStrayCat, EEIM, PlumillaDeSal, Jonkerz, Lotje, Chole41, RoadTrain, Carlosmunar, Vrenator,
36 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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shirt, Aswn, Snotbot, Frietjes, Jumamuba0594, Cntras, 08OceanBeach SD, Monsoon Waves, TAG-A-b10, ScottSteiner, Britol, Rezabot,
FiachraByrne, Richard3120, Widr, Omarecd, Ivandmunoz, Oddbodz, Mightymights, Helpful Pixie Bot, Josian74, T070012, Frank.manus,
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ChrisGualtieri, LilliKass, Khazar2, Snipz n' RPGz, S60113, Translavania, DLeandroc, Giso6150, Aurora320, JYBot, Tahc, Kodosbs,
Treemapper, Andresmpayan, Dexbot, Macielv200:, Vicyougurte, Malr210, Alburzador, Br'er Rabbit, Sminthopsis84, Hmainsbot1, We-
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lywilley, Littletice, EvergreenFir, Rcesaans, Lucholg3, Xxdropdotxx, Leviathan7, LifeEditorLatinAmerica, Roboting, Realanimals, Wared-
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SIDOROFF-BIARMSKII, Maxandjohndietter121, Pabloosena, Jedado1000, Danachos, Soranoch, Usman14pk, Blondeguynative, Luxure,
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Tátótát, Dougwash, St170e, Sietecolores, Savvyjack23, Monkbot, FabioRestrepo98, Filedelinkerbot, TheBoulderite, GinAndChronically,
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Nesralcaz, Adûnâi, Eurodyne, Rivolba, Poptropica339247, Wilhemkaulitz, BlasVilla, Underthecove, TaqPol, Omo Obatalá, David8302,
Sirimicunirocuero, Collebud88, MoreTomorrow, TheDavinator0208, Mll mitch, SantiagoZ12, Aldiazmo, Randall456677889, 13579ryan,
SeminoleNation, Vintagelashton, Viladive, Truman098, TPerson9, GeneralizationsAreBad, Andrés De La Vega, Baraqounipedro, Yopsa,
Epicrock98, TreasureHun7er5, AntonioLugoT, Jamunal, AnjAsay, Dios 21, KasparBot, Southwest40, Mysteriousguyzz, Eduardosabarain,
Ebieniek, Maxrainbowln, Adman1234, Pussyislife, Laura.garavito, BobcatNL, ControlCorV, Daisynians, GATO12, Colombianpubliclaw-
contributor., J34jhon, Torrie1975, Retention7, InternetArchiveBot, Falconandhalcon, JJMC89 bot, Hawaan12, GreenC bot, Ejohn319,
FinnishWarrior, Tisquesusa, Motivação, JShark and Anonymous: 3260

14.2 Images
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AdamandEve-FernandoBotero-20100414.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Botero’s Adam and Eve Original artist: Eustaquio
Santimano from Singapore.
• File:Alonso_de_Santa_Cruz_(MUNCYT,_Eulogia_Merle).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/
Alonso_de_Santa_Cruz_%28MUNCYT%2C_Eulogia_Merle%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Fundación Española para la
Ciencia y la Tecnología Original artist: Eulogia Merle
• File:Altar_catedral_de_sal.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Altar_catedral_de_sal.JPG License:
Public domain Contributors: Catedral de Sal, Coordinación Comercial / Salt Cathedral, Commercial Department, Mr. Fabian Mendoza A.,
Coordinador Comercial, Phone: 8529890, Zipaquirá, Colombia Original artist: Nidya Rincón
• File:Arabes_en_colombia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Arabes_en_colombia.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: fra
• File:Arepas_con_chorizo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Arepas_con_chorizo.jpg License: CC BY
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• File:BVC_Bogota.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/BVC_Bogota.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Brawmo
• File:Bailarines_de_Salsa_en_Cali.webm Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Bailarines_de_Salsa_en_
Cali.webm License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ORhLk4CErFs Original artist: Julian Andres Rodriguez
Nieto
• File:Barranquilla2_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Barranquilla2_001.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fernando Gutierrez
• File:Batalla_de_Boyaca_de_Martin_Tovar_y_Tovar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Batalla_de_
Boyaca_de_Martin_Tovar_y_Tovar.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Painting of Martín Tovar y Tovar exhibited in the Federal
Palace, Caracas Original artist: Martín Tovar y Tovar
• File:Bogotazo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Bogotazo.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Santiago Martinez Delgado Original artist: Daniel Pradilla Holguin
14.2 Images 37

• File:Cabo_de_La_vela.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Cabo_de_La_vela.JPG License: CC BY-

SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Petruss
• File:Cambios_territoriales_de_Colombia.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Cambios_territoriales_
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• File:Cartagena2011-Skyline-Habour.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/
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• File:Casa_presidencial_de_Bogotá.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Casa_presidencial_de_
Bogot%C3%A1.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Centro-Internacional-Bogotá.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Centro-Internacional-Bogot%
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• File:Coat_of_arms_of_Colombia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Coat_of_arms_of_Colombia.svg
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• File:Colciencias_271215.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Colciencias_271215.JPG License: CC
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• File:Colombian_Air_Force_Sikorsky_UH-60L_Arpía_III_(S-70A-41)_Ramírez-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
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jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: provided via email by author Original artist: Andrés Ramírez
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nal artist: ?
• File:Compass_rose_pale.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Compass_rose_pale.svg License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: svg version of Image:Compass-rose-pale.png, made to look similar to Image:Reinel compass rose.svg. Original artist:
Fibonacci
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main Contributors:
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• File:Defensa_de_Cartagena_de_Indias_por_la_escuadra_de_D._Blas_de_Lezo,_año_1741.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/en/7/7e/Defensa_de_Cartagena_de_Indias_por_la_escuadra_de_D._Blas_de_Lezo%2C_a%C3%B1o_1741.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
http://fundacionmuseonaval.com/tienda-on-line/tienda-museo-naval/laminas-y-grabados/defensa-de-cartagena-de-indias-por-la-escuadra-de-d-blas-de-lezo-a
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Luis Fernández Gordillo
• File:Densidad_pop_col_only_Colombia.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Densidad_pop_col_only_
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• File:Desierto_Frio_en_Boyacá.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Desierto_Frio_en_Boyac%C3%
A1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: https://farm4.staticflickr.com/3661/3903636567_ba51dec042_b.jpg Original artist: gran-
itefilmspix
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tors: DarkEvil. Original artist: DarkEvil
• File:Ejes_musicales_de_Colombia1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Ejes_musicales_de_
Colombia1.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aquos
• File:Emblem_of_the_Union_of_South_American_Nations.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/
Emblem_of_the_Union_of_South_American_Nations.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, based on official emblem
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• File:FVL_Clinica_Cali.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/FVL_Clinica_Cali.JPG License: CC BY-
SA 4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: CONOCER
• File:Festival01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Festival01.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors:
Camera hp photosmart 435 Original artist: User:Chien
• File:Fi_322_Isaacs,_Jorge.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Fi_322_Isaacs%2C_Jorge.jpg License:
CC BY 2.0 Contributors: fi 322 Isaacs, Jorge Original artist: Cultura Banco de la República
• File:Flag_of_Amazonas_(Colombia).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Flag_of_Amazonas_
%28Colombia%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shadowxfox
• File:Flag_of_Antioquia_Department.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Flag_of_Antioquia_
Department.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work
Gobernación de Antioquia Original artist: Madden
38 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Flag_of_Arauca.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Flag_of_Arauca.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: Drawn by User:Fibonacci
Gobernación de Arauca Original artist: Fibonacci
• File:Flag_of_Atlántico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Flag_of_Atl%C3%A1ntico.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:Fibonacci
Gobernación del Atlántico Original artist: Fibonacci
• File:Flag_of_Bogotá.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Flag_of_Bogot%C3%A1.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Bolívar_(Colombia).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Flag_of_Bol%C3%ADvar_
%28Colombia%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work
Gobernación de Bolívar Original artist: Madden
• File:Flag_of_Boyacá_Department.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Flag_of_Boyac%C3%A1_
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• File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Caldas.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Flag_of_Caldas.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: created by Fibonacci, based on Carlos E. Thompson's PD image. Original artist: User:Fibonacci
• File:Flag_of_Caquetá.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Flag_of_Caquet%C3%A1.svg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Drawn by User:Fibonacci
Gobernación del Caquetá Original artist: Fibonacci
• File:Flag_of_Casanare.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Flag_of_Casanare.svg License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: Drawn by User:Fibonacci
Gobernación del Casanare Original artist: Fibonacci
• File:Flag_of_Cauca.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Flag_of_Cauca.svg License: Public domain
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• File:Flag_of_Cesar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Flag_of_Cesar.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Drawn by User:Fibonacci
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• File:Flag_of_Chocó.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Flag_of_Choc%C3%B3.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Drawn by User:Fibonacci
Gobernación del Chocó Original artist: Fibonacci
• File:Flag_of_Colombia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: SKopp
• File:Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
• File:Flag_of_Cundinamarca.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Flag_of_Cundinamarca.svg License:
CC BY-SA 4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Own work
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lic domain Contributors: Drawn by User:Fibonacci
Gobernación de Córdoba Original artist: Fibonacci
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lic domain Contributors: Drawn by User:Fibonacci
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4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Own work
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• File:Flag_of_Haiti.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Haiti.svg License: Public domain
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main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FFlag_of_
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14.2 Images 39

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