DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A ELECTRONICS

TRAINER KIT
CERTIFICATION/APPROVAL
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 ABSTRACT

Digital electronics is now used in all fields of electronics from computers to digital
phones and most industrial machines and motor vehicles. When prototyping
digital electronic circuits, specific digital input signals are required to design the
digital circuit. To accomplish this task, a teaching device known as a “Digital
Trainer” is utilized. The purpose of this project work is to provide a method for
students to test digital circuits, with a simple and inexpensive digital trainer. This
project work describes design, development and application of a digital trainer
circuit prototyping system for students in their digital electronics course. The
primary objective is to design an inexpensive, simple to use device that could be
retained by students, so that they can undertake digital experimentation. The
digital trainer board which contains power supply section, logic gate section,
function generator section and encoder/decoder section.It mainly concerns with
logic gate section. Logic gate section is aimed to perform basic Boolean functions,
such as AND, OR, NOT, NOR, NAND and so on. All logic gate circuits are firstly
simulated in MULTISIM simulation environment and then constructed. After
construction several tests have been performed and satisfactory results were
obtained.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

COVER PAGE

TITLE PAGE

APPROVAL PAGE

DEDICATION

ACKNOWELDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT

1.2 PROJECT MOTIVATION

1.3 PROJECT OBJECTIVES

1.4 FEASIBILITY STUDY

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

1.6 APPLICATION OF THE PROJECT

1.7 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

1.8 PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.9 DESIGN SPECIFICATION

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 REVIEW OF AN ELECTRONIC KIT

2.2 OVERVIEW OF DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

2.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

2.4 PROPERTIES OF DIGITAL CIRCUIT

2.5 CONSTRUCTION OF DIDTAL CIRCUIT

2.6 DESIGN OF LOGIC CIRCUIT

2.7 STRUCTURE OF DIGITAL SYSTEMS

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 DESIGN METHODOLOGY
3.1 MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1.1 LEDS
3.1.2 RESISTORS
3.1.4 PRINTED-CIRCUIT- BOARD (PCB)
3.1.5 SEVEN SEGMENT DSPLAY
3.1.6 TOGGLE SWITCHES
3.2 POWER SUPPLY UNIT
3.3.1 TRANSFORMER
3.3.2 CAPACITOR
3.3.3 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
3.3.4 DIODES
3.4 METHOD USED FOR THE PROJECT
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND RESULTS
4.1 HARDWARE DESIGN
4.1.1 AND GATE SECTION
4.1.2 NAND Gate Section
4.1.3 OR Gate Section
4.1.4 NOR Gate Section
4.1.5 NOT Gate Section
4.2 RESULTS OF SIMULATION FOR THE LOGIC GATE ICs
4.3 TEST AND RESULTS OF DEVELOPED TRAINER BOARD
4.3.1 2 INPUT OR GATE
4.3.2 NOT GATE 28
4.3.3 2 INPUT NAND GATE
4.3.4 2 INPUT AND GATE 29
4.3.5 2 INPUT NOR GATE
4.3.6 2 INPUT XOR GATE
4.3.7 3 INPUT NAND GATE
4.3.8 3 INPUT NOR GATE
4.3.9 3 INPUT OR GATE
4.3.10 3 INPUT AND GATE
4.3.11 3 INPUT XOR GATE
4.4 Finished assembly of digital trainer circuit demonstration kit
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION, SUMMARY AND RECOMMANDATION
5.1 SUMMARY
5.2 CONCLUSION
5.3 RECOMMANDATION
REFERENCES
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Digital electronics is now used in all fields of electronics from computers to digital

phones and most industrial machines and motor vehicles. When prototyping digital

electronic circuits, specific digital input signals are required to design the digital

circuit. To accomplish this task, a teaching device known as a “Digital Trainer” is

utilized. The purpose of this research work is to provide a method for students to

test digital circuits, with a simple and inexpensive digital trainer. Digital trainer kit

is a self contained set of electronic circuits that can be interlinked by students to

create working circuits. Component parts cannot be removed or lost in the

classroom and interlinking is performed by short coloured cables fitted with small

insulated alligator clips. Rapid changes in the field of engineering technology have

increased the need for universities to provide engineering and engineering

technological students with meaningful and relevant practical experiences. To

partial fulfill this need, study and implementation of digital logic trainer board has

been done. The digital logic section contains NOT gate, AND gate, OR gate, NAND

gate and NOR gate with control switches and LEDs. The overall block diagram of

the system is shown in figure 1.

There are 2 main categories of electrical signals: digital and analog. With analog

signals, a specific quantity (such as a voltage on a wire) can take on any value at any

time. With digital signals, only 2 values are allowed: logic 0 and logic 1. To

implement digital signals, usually we consider a signal to be a logic 0 if it is below a

certain threshold and a logic 1 if it is above another threshold. Values in the middle

are considered to be indeterminate and not valid digital values.

The logic trainer is a board that allows us to experiment with digital logic by making

physical connections between individual gates and various inputs and outputs.

At the bottom of the logic trainer are a set of switches. These can be used as inputs

to other parts of the logic trainer. When the switch is in the “up” position, a logic

“1” is generated, while when the switch is in the “down” position, a logic “0” is

generated. Similarly, the lights at the bottom can be used to determine the logic

value of the wire connecting to it. When it is a logic “1”, it turns on, and when it is

a logic “0”, it turns off.

Digital logic trainer kit has symbols and each of the symbols on the logic trainer

corresponds to a basic digital circuit element, called a logic gate (with the exception

of the rectangular elements, such as the ones in the top row in the picture below

which are more complex). Just as analog circuits are composed of basic elements
such as resistors or capacitors, digital circuits are made up of different types of

gates.

Logic gates are directional, with an input (usually drawn on the left side) and an

output (on the right side). Each type of logic gate gives an output that depends on

the values on its inputs. Since logic signals can only be either 0 or 1, this gives a

limited number of combinations possible.

1.2 PROJECT MOTIVATION

Great importance in lab in any institution to offer students a highlevel education

regarding digital electronics. Great essence in Technology learning platform.

Circuit board can be touched and the component. It can be easy to operate with

12V AC or DC power source or 240/ 12V AC mains plug pack. Students are exposed

to basic electronic theory of logic IC chips such as AND, OR, NOT, NOR, NAND

1.3 PROJECT OBJECTIVES

Practically realize the digital circuits. A hardware prototype of the digital trainer kit

has been developed and experimental results show that it is cost effective and

efficient method. Provide knowledge about components but also verify the
theoretical knowledge of digital circuits. By the advent this system, the

Understanding level of Digital Electronics will increase rapidly and clearly.

1.4 FEASIBILITY STUDY

The hardware and software used in the proposed system easily fulfills the need of

the proposed system. The devices used in this system are easily available and very

simple to use. Technical : The devices used in this system are easily available and

require interfacing with standard components. Devices are technically feasible

for the proposed system. Economical : Economic in price and are easily available.

Very beneficial as it provides best result at low price. Can be used in collages, in

advance research and even at home. Maintenance of the device is very cheap.

Schedule : The deadline for the completion of this project is very desirable and this

project will be completed within 2 to 3 weeks.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

it enables the study of the basic digital circuits : Counters, comparators, registers,

multiplexers et demultiplexers, Arithmetic and Logic Units. The Trainer front-panel

is following as closely as possible the Manufacturer’s technical Documents, in order

to ensure a quick and efficient training.

1.6 APPLICATION OF THE PROJECT

This device is equipment for education, engineering and vocational training – logic

ic Trainer.

2. Verification of AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR Gates & their truth table.

1.7 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

Digital trainer kit is a self contained set of electronic circuits that can be interlinked

by students to create working circuits. Component parts cannot be removed or lost

in the classroom and interlinking is performed by short coloured cables fitted with

small insulated alligator clips. Digital logic is the processing of only two states or

conditions of ON and OFF. There are certain electronic chips (called gates) that

convert simple on and off conditions to create a third on or off condition. The basic

gates are AND, OR, NAND, NOR and NOT. These digital gates are explained and

combinations of these simple gates in various configurations permits more complex

logic or counting and maths to be computed. The students find digital gates and

digital counting interesting, challenging and exciting. In very short time they are

making up their own working ‘LOGIC CIRCUITS’.

1.8 PROBLEM STATEMENT

We may encounter several problems while performing this project. The main

problem may be heating of electronic components used. Trainer kit may be

compact due to which the replacement of any damaged component may be

difficult.

1.9 DESIGN SPECIFICATION

 OUTPUT D.C. VOLTAGE : Fixed 5V ±1%.

 OUTPUT CURRENT : 1 Amp.

 LOAD REGULATION : ±1% of the highest specified output voltage. (NO LOAD TO

FULL LOAD)

 LINE REGULATION (For ±10% change : less than 50 mV. in mains Voltage i.e.

230V)

 RIPPLE AND NOISE : less than 5 mV.

 CLOCK INPUT DEVICE : Clock pulse of 1 second.

 DEBOUNCED LOGIC SWITCH (HI/LO) : Four nos. Input voltage of HI level ³ 2.25V.

Input voltage of LO leve £ l 0.8V.

 4 BITS LED OUTPUT INDICATOR : Maximum input voltage less than or equal to

5V D.C.
 SOLDER LESS BREAD BOARD : Bread Board having one main strip, total

interconnected 640 tie points for ICs and half main strip, total interconnected

320 tie points for power supply, Clock, Input and output state. Each strip having

length 173mm and accepting dia 0.56mm/24SWG recommended, use only 22-

26 SWG wire for interconnections.

 BASIC LOGIC GATES & : Four AND gates, Four OR gates, Four NAND gates, Four

NOR gates, Six NOT

 FLIP FLOP UNITS gates, Dual J-K flip-flop, J.K. master/slave flip-flop & Dual

 D-type flip flop.

 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 REVIEW OF AN ELECTRONIC KIT

An electronic kit is a package of electrical components used to build an electronic

device. Generally, kits are composed of electronic components, a circuit diagram

(schematic), assembly instructions and often a printed circuit board (PCB) or

another type of prototyping board.

There are two types of kit. Some build a single device or system. Other types used

for education demonstrate a range of circuits. Theses will include a solderless

construction board of some type, such as:

 Components mounted in plastic blocks with side contacts, that are held

together in a base, e.g. Denshi blocks

 Springs on a card board, the springs trap wire leads or component leads, such

as Philips EE electronic experiment kits.[1] These are a cheap and flexible option

 Professional type prototyping boards, (breadboards) into which component

leads are inserted, following documentation of the "kit".

The first type of kits, those for the construction of a single device, normally use a

PCB on which components are soldered. They normally come with extended

documentation describing which component goes where into the PCB.

For advanced hobby projects, sometimes the kit may only consist of a printed

circuit board and assembly instructions, and the purchaser may have to source all

the parts independently; or, the vendor may provide hard-to-get or pre-

programmed parts while expecting the purchaser to obtain the rest of the

components.

People primarily purchase electronic kits to have fun and learn how things work.

They were once popular as a means to reduce the cost of buying goods, but there

is usually no cost saving in buying a kit today.

Some electronic kits were assembled to make complete complex devices such as

color television sets, oscilloscopes, high-end audio amplifiers, amateur radio

equipment, electric organs,[2] and even computers such as the Heathkit H-8, and

the LNW-80. Many of the early microprocessor computers were sold as either

electronic kits or assembled and tested. Heathkit sold millions of electronic kits

during its 45-year history.

Home assembly of common consumer electronics items no longer provides a cost

advantage over commercially manufactured and distributed devices. People still

build kits for custom devices and special-purpose electronics for professional and

educational use, and as a hobby.

Also emerging is a trend to simplify the complexity by providing preprogrammed

or modular kits and this is provided by many suppliers online often. The fun and

thrill of making your own electronics has shifted in many cases from easy to

comprehend application and analog devices to more sophisticated and digital

devices.

2.2 OVERVIEW OF DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Digital electronics circuits are electronics that operate on digital signals. In contrast,

analog circuits manipulate analog signals whose performance is more subject to

manufacturing tolerance, signal attenuation and noise. Digital techniques are

helpful because it is a lot easier to get an electronic device to switch into one of a

number of known states than to accurately reproduce a continuous range of values.

Digital electronic circuits are usually made from large assemblies of logic gates

(often printed on integrated circuits), simple electronic representations of Boolean

logic functions.[1]

2.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

The binary number system was refined by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (published in

1705) and he also established that by using the binary system, the principles of

arithmetic and logic could be joined. Digital logic as we know it was the brain-child

of George Boole in the mid 19th century. In an 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce

described how logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching

circuits.[2] Eventually, vacuum tubes replaced relays for logic operations. Lee De

Forest's modification, in 1907, of the Fleming valve can be used as an AND gate.

Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a version of the 16-row truth table as proposition

5.101 of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921). Walther Bothe, inventor of the

coincidence circuit, shared the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics, for the first modern

electronic AND gate in 1924.

Mechanical analog computers started appearing in the first century and were later

used in the medieval era for astronomical calculations. In World War II, mechanical

analog computers were used for specialized military applications such as

calculating torpedo aiming. During this time the first electronic digital computers

were developed. Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as much

power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).[3]

The Z3 was an electromechanical computer designed by Konrad Zuse. Finished in

1941, it was the world's first working programmable, fully automatic digital

computer.[4] Its operation was facilitated by the invention of the vacuum tube in

1904 by John Ambrose Fleming.

At the same time that digital calculation replaced analog, purely electronic circuit

elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents. The

bipolar junction transistor was invented in 1947. From 1955 onwards, transistors

replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation"

of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they

are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Silicon

junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer,

indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of

binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space.

At the University of Manchester, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn

designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of
vacuum tubes.[5] Their first transistorised computer and the first in the world, was

operational by 1953, and a second version was completed there in April 1955.

While working at Texas Instruments in July 1958, Jack Kilby recorded his initial ideas

concerning the integrated circuit then successfully demonstrated the first working

integrated on 12 September 1958.[6] This new technique allowed for quick, low-cost

fabrication of complex circuits by having a set of electronic circuits on one small

plate ("chip") of semiconductor material, normally silicon.

In the early days of integrated circuits, each chip was limited to only a few

transistors, and the low degree of integration meant the design process was

relatively simple. Manufacturing yields were also quite low by today's standards.

As the technology progressed, millions, then billions[7] of transistors could be

placed on one chip, and good designs required thorough planning, giving rise to

new design methods.

2.4 PROPERTIES OF DIGITAL CIRCUIT

An advantage of digital circuits when compared to analog circuits is that signals

represented digitally can be transmitted without degradation caused by noise.[8]

For example, a continuous audio signal transmitted as a sequence of 1s and 0s, can
be reconstructed without error, provided the noise picked up in transmission is not

enough to prevent identification of the 1s and 0s.

In a digital system, a more precise representation of a signal can be obtained by

using more binary digits to represent it. While this requires more digital circuits to

process the signals, each digit is handled by the same kind of hardware, resulting

in an easily scalable system. In an analog system, additional resolution requires

fundamental improvements in the linearity and noise characteristics of each step

of the signal chain.

With computer-controlled digital systems, new functions to be added through

software revision and no hardware changes. Often this can be done outside of the

factory by updating the product's software. So, the product's design errors can be

corrected after the product is in a customer's hands.

Information storage can be easier in digital systems than in analog ones. The noise

immunity of digital systems permits data to be stored and retrieved without

degradation. In an analog system, noise from aging and wear degrade the

information stored. In a digital system, as long as the total noise is below a certain

level, the information can be recovered perfectly. Even when more significant noise
is present, the use of redundancy permits the recovery of the original data provided

too many errors do not occur.

In some cases, digital circuits use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish

the same tasks, thus producing more heat which increases the complexity of the

circuits such as the inclusion of heat sinks. In portable or battery-powered systems

this can limit use of digital systems. For example, battery-powered cellular

telephones often use a low-power analog front-end to amplify and tune in the radio

signals from the base station. However, a base station has grid power and can use

power-hungry, but very flexible software radios. Such base stations can be easily

reprogrammed to process the signals used in new cellular standards.

Many useful digital systems must translate from continuous analog signals to

discrete digital signals. This causes quantization errors. Quantization error can be

reduced if the system stores enough digital data to represent the signal to the

desired degree of fidelity. The Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem provides an

important guideline as to how much digital data is needed to accurately portray a

given analog signal.

In some systems, if a single piece of digital data is lost or misinterpreted, the

meaning of large blocks of related data can completely change. For example, a
single-bit error in audio data stored directly as linear pulse code modulation causes,

at worst, a single click. Instead, many people use audio compression to save storage

space and download time, even though a single bit error may cause a larger

disruption.

Because of the cliff effect, it can be difficult for users to tell if a particular system is

right on the edge of failure, or if it can tolerate much more noise before failing.

Digital fragility can be reduced by designing a digital system for robustness. For

example, a parity bit or other error management method can be inserted into the

signal path. These schemes help the system detect errors, and then either correct

the errors, or request retransmission of the data.

2.5 CONSTRUCTION OF DIDTAL CIRCUIT

A digital circuit is typically constructed from small electronic circuits called logic

gates that can be used to create combinational logic. Each logic gate is designed to

perform a function of boolean logic when acting on logic signals. A logic gate is

generally created from one or more electrically controlled switches, usually

transistors but thermionic valves have seen historic use. The output of a logic gate

can, in turn, control or feed into more logic gates.

Integrated circuits consist of multiple transistors on one silicon chip, and are the

least expensive way to make large number of interconnected logic gates.

Integrated circuits are usually designed by engineers using electronic design

automation software (see below for more information) to perform some type of

function.

Integrated circuits are usually interconnected on a printed circuit board which is a

board which holds electrical components, and connects them together with copper

traces.

2.6 DESIGN OF LOGIC CIRCUIT

Each logic symbol is represented by a different shape. The actual set of shapes was

introduced in 1984 under IEEE/ANSI standard 91-1984. "The logic symbol given

under this standard are being increasingly used now and have even started

appearing in the literature published by manufacturers of digital integrated

circuits."[9]

Another form of digital circuit is constructed from lookup tables, (many sold as

"programmable logic devices", though other kinds of PLDs exist). Lookup tables can

perform the same functions as machines based on logic gates, but can be easily
reprogrammed without changing the wiring. This means that a designer can often

repair design errors without changing the arrangement of wires. Therefore, in small

volume products, programmable logic devices are often the preferred solution.

They are usually designed by engineers using electronic design automation

software.

When the volumes are medium to large, and the logic can be slow, or involves

complex algorithms or sequences, often a small microcontroller is programmed to

make an embedded system. These are usually programmed by software engineers.

When only one digital circuit is needed, and its design is totally customized, as for

a factory production line controller, the conventional solution is a programmable

logic controller, or PLC. These are usually programmed by electricians, using ladder

logic.

2.7 STRUCTURE OF DIGITAL SYSTEMS

Engineers use many methods to minimize logic functions, in order to reduce the

circuit's complexity. When the complexity is less, the circuit also has fewer errors

and less electronics, and is therefore less expensive.

The most widely used simplification is a minimization algorithm like the Espresso

heuristic logic minimizer within a CAD system, although historically, binary decision

diagrams, an automated Quine–McCluskey algorithm, truth tables, Karnaugh

maps, and Boolean algebra have been used.

 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 DESIGN METHODOLOGY

Digital Logic Trainer (TTL) / Logic Trainer Board based on 74 series has been

designed specifically to make the students familiar with the study of TTL ICs and

verification of the truth table of logic gates, flip-flops, Gated & Master Slave JK flip-

flops, Schmitt Trigger, Expanders , Binary address, Counters, Shift registers,

Multiplexer (Encoder), Demultiplexer (Decoder), 8 Bit D/A Converter and 8 Bit A/D

Converter etc. Large area of Bread Board is provided on the front panel for ICs.

Students can make the circuit easily on the Bread Board with the help of other

accessories which are provided on the front panel of Digital Logic Trainer.

3.1 MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1.1 LEDS

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light when

current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron

holes , releasing energy in the form of photons . This effect is called

electroluminescence. [5] The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the

photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band gap

of the semiconductor. [6] White light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors

or a layer of light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.

3.1.2 RESISTOR

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements

electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used

to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active

elements, and terminate transmission lines , among other uses. High-power

resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used

as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for

generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with

temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust

circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing

devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

3.1.3 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

an electronic circuit consisting of thin strips of a conducting material such as copper, which have

been etched from a layer fixed to a flat insulating sheet called a printed circuit board, and to which

integrated circuits and other components are attached.

3.1.4 SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY

A seven-segment display (SSD), or seven-segment indicator, is a form of electronic

display device for displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the more

complex dot matrix displays . Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital
clocks, electronic meters, basic calculators, and other electronic devices that

display numerical information.

3.1.5 TOGGLE SWITCH

A toggle switch is a class of electrical switches that are manually actuated by a

mechanical lever , handle, or rocking mechanism.

Toggle switches are available in many different styles and sizes, and are used in

numerous applications. Many are designed to provide the simultaneous actuation

of multiple sets of electrical contacts , or the control of large amounts of electric

current or mains voltages.

The word "toggle" is a reference to a kind of mechanism or joint consisting of two

arms, which are almost in line with each other, connected with an elbow-like

pivot. However, the phrase "toggle switch" is applied to a switch with a short

handle and a positive snap-action, whether it actually contains a toggle

mechanism or not. Similarly, a switch where a definitive click is heard, is called a

"positive on-off switch". [14] A very common use of this type of switch is to switch

lights or other electrical equipment on or off. Multiple toggle switches may be

mechanically interlocked to prevent forbidden combinations.

POWER RECTIFICATION COMPONENT

TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between

two or more circuits . A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a

varying magnetic flux , which, in turn, induces a varying

electromotive force across a second coil wound around the same core. Electrical

energy can be transferred between the two coils, without a metallic connection

between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831 described

the induced voltage effect in any coil due to changing magnetic flux encircled by

the coil.

Transformers are used for increasing or decreasing the alternating voltages in

electric power applications, and for coupling the stages of signal processing

circuits.

3.2.2 CAPACITORS

A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electronic component that stores

electrical energy in an electric field . The effect of a capacitor is known as

capacitance. While some capacitance exists between any two electrical

conductors in proximity in a circuit , a capacitor is a component designed to add

capacitance to a circuit. The capacitor was originally known as a

condenser or condensator.[1] The original name is still widely used in many

languages , but not commonly in English.

3.2.3VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A voltage regulator is a system designed to automatically maintain a

constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may use a simple feed-forward design

or may include negative feedback. It may use an

electromechanical mechanism , or

electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one

or more AC or DC voltages.

3.2.4 DIODES

A diode is a two- terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily

in one direction (asymmetric

conductance ); it has low (ideally zero)

resistance in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A

diode vacuum tube or thermionic diode is a vacuum tube with two

electrodes , a heated cathode and a

plate , in which electrons can flow in only one direction, from cathode to plate. A

semiconductor diode , the most common type today, is a

crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two

electrical terminals. [5] Semiconductor diodes were the first

semiconductor electronic devices . The discovery of asymmetric electrical

conduction across the contact between a crystalline mineral and a metal was

made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. Today, most diodes are

made of silicon, but other materials such as gallium arsenide and

germanium are used.

 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND RESULTS

4.1 HARDWARE DESIGN
The logic gate section contains AND gate subsection, NAND gate subsection, OR

gate subsection, NOR gate subsection and NOT gate subsection.

AND GATE

An AND gate requires two or more inputs and produce only one output. The AND

gate produces an output of logic 1 state when each of the inputs are at logic 1

state and also produces an output of logic 0 state even if any of its inputs are at

logic 0 state. The symbol for AND operation is ‘.’, or we use no symbol for

representing. If the inputs are of X and Y, then the output can be expressed as

Z=XY. The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called “false” and 1 is called

“true,” the gate performs in the same way as the logical “and” operator. The

AND gate is also named as all or nothing gate. The logic symbols and truth tables

of two-input and three-input AND gates are given below.

OR GATE

Similar to AND gate, an OR gate may also have two or more inputs but produce

only one output. The OR gate produces an output of logic 1 state even if any of
its inputs is in logic 1 state and also produces an output of logic 0 state if any of

its inputs is in logic 0 state. The symbol for OR operation is ‘+’. If the inputs are

of X and Y, then the output can be represented as Z=X+Y. An OR gate may also be

defined as a device whose output is 1, even if one of its input is 1. OR gate is also

called as any or all gate. It is also called as an inclusive OR gate because it

consists of the condition of ‘both the inputs can be present’. The logic symbols

and truth table for two-input and three-input OR gates are given below.

NOT GATE

The NOT gate is also called as an inverter, simply because it changes the

input to its opposite. The NOT gate is having only one input and one

corresponding output. It is a device whose output is always the compliment

of the given input. That means, the NOT gate produces an output of logic 1

state when the input is of logic 0 state and also produce the output of logic

0 state when the input is of logic 1 state. The NOT operation is denoted by

’-‘(bar). When the input variable to the NOT gate is represented by ‘X’ and

the output is represented by ‘Z’. In the NOT operation it can be read as ‘Z is

equal to X bar’. The logic symbol and truth table are given below:

NAND GATE
 The NAND and NOR gates are the universal gates. Each of this gates can

realize the logic circuits single handedly. The NAND and NOR are also called

as universal building blocks. Both NAND and NOR has the ability to perform

three basic logic functions such as AND,OR and NOT. NAND gate is a

combination of an AND gate and a NOT gate. The expression for the NAND

gate is ‘—‘whole bar. The output of the NAND gate is at logic 0 level only

when each of the inputs assumes a logic 1 level. The truth table of two-

input NAND gate is given below:

NOR GATE

NOR means NOT OR. That means, NOR gate is a combination of an OR gate and a

NOT gate. The output is logic 1 level, only when each of its inputs assumes a logic

0 level. For any other combination of inputs, the output is a logic 0 level. The truth

table of two-input NOR gate is given below:

EXCLUSIVE-OR GATE (X-OR) GATE

An X-OR gate is a two input, one output logic circuit. X-OR gate assumes logic 1

state when any of its two inputs assumes a logic 1 state. When both the inputs

assume the logic 0 state or when both the inputs assume the logic 1 state, the
output assumes a logic 0 state. The output of the X-OR gate will be the sum of the

modulo sum of its inputs. X-OR gate is also termed as anti-coincidence gate or

inequality detector. An X-OR gate can also be used as inverter by connecting one

of the two input terminals to logic1 and also by inputting the sequence to be

inverted to the other terminal.

EXCLUSIVE-NOR (X-NOR) GATE

An X-NOR gate is a combination of an X-OR gate and a NOT gate. The X-NOR gate

is also a two input, one output concept. The output of the X-NOR gate will be logic

1 state when both the inputs assume a 0 state or when both the inputs assume a

1 state. The output of the X-NOR gate will be logic 0 state when one of the inputs

assume a 0 state and the other a 1 state. It is also named as coincidence gate,

because its output will be 1 only when the inputs coincide. X-NOR gate can also

be used as inverter by connecting one of the two input terminals to logic 0 and

also by inputting the sequence to be inverted to the other terminal.

 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION, SUMMARY AND RECOMMANDATION

5.1 SUMMARY

The hardware design and software implementation of the digital logic trainer is

described. The simulation results of logic gate section have been done in Multisim.

Thirty-two switches labeled SW1 to SW32 are applied as an input in this system.

5.2 CONCLUSION

The development of digital logic trainer for students’ experimentation is

described. The components required in trainer board are chosen. The overall

circuit for logic trainer is designed the complete system can be implemented to

perform higher standard than any other commercial products. An inexpensive and

excellent digital trainer board is designed and implemented. Multisim software is

used for simulation. The results are convenient and simple for students to test.

5.3 REFERENCE

[1] EcE-2022 Digital Electronics, Department of Electronic Engineering

Department of Technological and Vocational Education, Ministry of Science and

Technology, Myanmar.

[2] www.ALLDATASHEET.com.
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[4] Null, Linda; Lobur, Julia (2006). The essentials of computer organization and

architecture. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 121. ISBN 0-7637-3769-0. We can

build logic diagrams (which in turn lead to digital circuits) for any Boolean

expression...

[5] Peirce, C. S., "Letter, Peirce to A. Marquand", dated 1886, Writings of Charles

S. Peirce, v. 5, 1993, pp. 541–3. Google Preview. See Burks, Arthur W., "Review:

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Mathematical Society v. 84, n. 5 (1978), pp. 913–18, see 917. PDF Eprint.

[6] In 1946, ENIAC required an estimated 174 kW. By comparison, a modern laptop

computer may use around 30 W; nearly six thousand times less. "Approximate

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June 2009.

[7] "A Computer Pioneer Rediscovered, 50 Years On". The New York Times. April

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[8] Lavington, Simon (1998), A History of Manchester Computers (2 ed.), Swindon:

The British Computer Society, pp. 34–35

[9] "The Chip that Jack Built". Texas Instruments. 2008. Retrieved 29 May 2008.
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era". EE Times.

[11] Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill, The Art of Electronics 2nd Ed. Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge, 1989 ISBN 0-521-37095-7 page 471

[12] Maini. A.K. (2007). Digital Electronics Principles, Devices and Applications.

Chichester, England.: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

[13] "ASODA sync/async DLX Core". OpenCores.org. Retrieved September 5,

2014.

[14] Clarke, Peter. "ARM Offers First Clockless Processor Core". eetimes.com.

UBM Tech (Universal Business Media). Retrieved 5 September 2014.

[15] Brown S & Vranesic Z. (2009). Fundamentals of Digital Logic with VHDL

Design. 3rd ed. New York, N.Y.: Mc Graw Hill.

[16] Kleitz , William. (2002). Digital and Microprocessor Fundamentals: Theory

and Application. 4th ed. Upper Saddler Reviver, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall

[17] Eero Lehtonen, Mika Laihom, "Stateful implication logic with memristors",

Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE/ACM International Symposium on Nanoscale

Architectures IEEE Computer Society Washington, DC, USA ©2009 Accessed

2011-12-11
[18] Douglas Lewin, Logical Design of Switching Circuits, Nelson,1974.

[19] R. H. Katz, Contemporary Logic Design, The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing

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[20] P. K. Lala, Practical Digital Logic Design and Testing, Prentice Hall, 1996.

[21] Y. K. Chan and S. Y. Lim, Progress In Electromagnetics Research B, Vol. 1, 269–

290, 2008, "Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Signal Generation, Faculty of

Engineering & Technology, Multimedia University, Jalan Ayer Keroh Lama, Bukit

Beruang, Melaka 75450, Malaysia.