Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
TRAINER KIT
CERTIFICATION/APPROVAL
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
Digital electronics is now used in all fields of electronics from computers to digital
phones and most industrial machines and motor vehicles. When prototyping
digital electronic circuits, specific digital input signals are required to design the
digital circuit. To accomplish this task, a teaching device known as a “Digital
Trainer” is utilized. The purpose of this project work is to provide a method for
students to test digital circuits, with a simple and inexpensive digital trainer. This
project work describes design, development and application of a digital trainer
circuit prototyping system for students in their digital electronics course. The
primary objective is to design an inexpensive, simple to use device that could be
retained by students, so that they can undertake digital experimentation. The
digital trainer board which contains power supply section, logic gate section,
function generator section and encoder/decoder section.It mainly concerns with
logic gate section. Logic gate section is aimed to perform basic Boolean functions,
such as AND, OR, NOT, NOR, NAND and so on. All logic gate circuits are firstly
simulated in MULTISIM simulation environment and then constructed. After
construction several tests have been performed and satisfactory results were
obtained.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE
TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWELDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 DESIGN METHODOLOGY
3.1 MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1.1 LEDS
3.1.2 RESISTORS
3.1.4 PRINTED-CIRCUIT- BOARD (PCB)
3.1.5 SEVEN SEGMENT DSPLAY
3.1.6 TOGGLE SWITCHES
3.2 POWER SUPPLY UNIT
3.3.1 TRANSFORMER
3.3.2 CAPACITOR
3.3.3 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
3.3.4 DIODES
3.4 METHOD USED FOR THE PROJECT
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND RESULTS
4.1 HARDWARE DESIGN
4.1.1 AND GATE SECTION
4.1.2 NAND Gate Section
4.1.3 OR Gate Section
4.1.4 NOR Gate Section
4.1.5 NOT Gate Section
4.2 RESULTS OF SIMULATION FOR THE LOGIC GATE ICs
4.3 TEST AND RESULTS OF DEVELOPED TRAINER BOARD
4.3.1 2 INPUT OR GATE
4.3.2 NOT GATE 28
4.3.3 2 INPUT NAND GATE
4.3.4 2 INPUT AND GATE 29
4.3.5 2 INPUT NOR GATE
4.3.6 2 INPUT XOR GATE
4.3.7 3 INPUT NAND GATE
4.3.8 3 INPUT NOR GATE
4.3.9 3 INPUT OR GATE
4.3.10 3 INPUT AND GATE
4.3.11 3 INPUT XOR GATE
4.4 Finished assembly of digital trainer circuit demonstration kit
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION, SUMMARY AND RECOMMANDATION
5.1 SUMMARY
5.2 CONCLUSION
5.3 RECOMMANDATION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Digital electronics is now used in all fields of electronics from computers to digital
phones and most industrial machines and motor vehicles. When prototyping digital
electronic circuits, specific digital input signals are required to design the digital
utilized. The purpose of this research work is to provide a method for students to
test digital circuits, with a simple and inexpensive digital trainer. Digital trainer kit
classroom and interlinking is performed by short coloured cables fitted with small
insulated alligator clips. Rapid changes in the field of engineering technology have
partial fulfill this need, study and implementation of digital logic trainer board has
been done. The digital logic section contains NOT gate, AND gate, OR gate, NAND
gate and NOR gate with control switches and LEDs. The overall block diagram of
signals, a specific quantity (such as a voltage on a wire) can take on any value at any
time. With digital signals, only 2 values are allowed: logic 0 and logic 1. To
certain threshold and a logic 1 if it is above another threshold. Values in the middle
The logic trainer is a board that allows us to experiment with digital logic by making
physical connections between individual gates and various inputs and outputs.
At the bottom of the logic trainer are a set of switches. These can be used as inputs
to other parts of the logic trainer. When the switch is in the “up” position, a logic
“1” is generated, while when the switch is in the “down” position, a logic “0” is
generated. Similarly, the lights at the bottom can be used to determine the logic
value of the wire connecting to it. When it is a logic “1”, it turns on, and when it is
Digital logic trainer kit has symbols and each of the symbols on the logic trainer
corresponds to a basic digital circuit element, called a logic gate (with the exception
of the rectangular elements, such as the ones in the top row in the picture below
which are more complex). Just as analog circuits are composed of basic elements
such as resistors or capacitors, digital circuits are made up of different types of
gates.
Logic gates are directional, with an input (usually drawn on the left side) and an
output (on the right side). Each type of logic gate gives an output that depends on
the values on its inputs. Since logic signals can only be either 0 or 1, this gives a
Circuit board can be touched and the component. It can be easy to operate with
12V AC or DC power source or 240/ 12V AC mains plug pack. Students are exposed
to basic electronic theory of logic IC chips such as AND, OR, NOT, NOR, NAND
Practically realize the digital circuits. A hardware prototype of the digital trainer kit
has been developed and experimental results show that it is cost effective and
efficient method. Provide knowledge about components but also verify the
theoretical knowledge of digital circuits. By the advent this system, the
The hardware and software used in the proposed system easily fulfills the need of
the proposed system. The devices used in this system are easily available and very
simple to use. Technical : The devices used in this system are easily available and
for the proposed system. Economical : Economic in price and are easily available.
Very beneficial as it provides best result at low price. Can be used in collages, in
advance research and even at home. Maintenance of the device is very cheap.
Schedule : The deadline for the completion of this project is very desirable and this
it enables the study of the basic digital circuits : Counters, comparators, registers,
This device is equipment for education, engineering and vocational training – logic
ic Trainer.
2. Verification of AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR Gates & their truth table.
Digital trainer kit is a self contained set of electronic circuits that can be interlinked
in the classroom and interlinking is performed by short coloured cables fitted with
small insulated alligator clips. Digital logic is the processing of only two states or
conditions of ON and OFF. There are certain electronic chips (called gates) that
convert simple on and off conditions to create a third on or off condition. The basic
gates are AND, OR, NAND, NOR and NOT. These digital gates are explained and
logic or counting and maths to be computed. The students find digital gates and
digital counting interesting, challenging and exciting. In very short time they are
difficult.
LOAD REGULATION : ±1% of the highest specified output voltage. (NO LOAD TO
FULL LOAD)
LINE REGULATION (For ±10% change : less than 50 mV. in mains Voltage i.e.
230V)
DEBOUNCED LOGIC SWITCH (HI/LO) : Four nos. Input voltage of HI level ³ 2.25V.
4 BITS LED OUTPUT INDICATOR : Maximum input voltage less than or equal to
5V D.C.
SOLDER LESS BREAD BOARD : Bread Board having one main strip, total
interconnected 640 tie points for ICs and half main strip, total interconnected
320 tie points for power supply, Clock, Input and output state. Each strip having
length 173mm and accepting dia 0.56mm/24SWG recommended, use only 22-
BASIC LOGIC GATES & : Four AND gates, Four OR gates, Four NAND gates, Four
FLIP FLOP UNITS gates, Dual J-K flip-flop, J.K. master/slave flip-flop & Dual
There are two types of kit. Some build a single device or system. Other types used
Components mounted in plastic blocks with side contacts, that are held
Springs on a card board, the springs trap wire leads or component leads, such
as Philips EE electronic experiment kits.[1] These are a cheap and flexible option
PCB on which components are soldered. They normally come with extended
For advanced hobby projects, sometimes the kit may only consist of a printed
circuit board and assembly instructions, and the purchaser may have to source all
the parts independently; or, the vendor may provide hard-to-get or pre-
programmed parts while expecting the purchaser to obtain the rest of the
components.
People primarily purchase electronic kits to have fun and learn how things work.
They were once popular as a means to reduce the cost of buying goods, but there
Some electronic kits were assembled to make complete complex devices such as
equipment, electric organs,[2] and even computers such as the Heathkit H-8, and
the LNW-80. Many of the early microprocessor computers were sold as either
electronic kits or assembled and tested. Heathkit sold millions of electronic kits
build kits for custom devices and special-purpose electronics for professional and
or modular kits and this is provided by many suppliers online often. The fun and
thrill of making your own electronics has shifted in many cases from easy to
devices.
Digital electronics circuits are electronics that operate on digital signals. In contrast,
helpful because it is a lot easier to get an electronic device to switch into one of a
logic functions.[1]
The binary number system was refined by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (published in
1705) and he also established that by using the binary system, the principles of
arithmetic and logic could be joined. Digital logic as we know it was the brain-child
of George Boole in the mid 19th century. In an 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce
circuits.[2] Eventually, vacuum tubes replaced relays for logic operations. Lee De
Forest's modification, in 1907, of the Fleming valve can be used as an AND gate.
coincidence circuit, shared the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics, for the first modern
Mechanical analog computers started appearing in the first century and were later
used in the medieval era for astronomical calculations. In World War II, mechanical
were developed. Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as much
1941, it was the world's first working programmable, fully automatic digital
computer.[4] Its operation was facilitated by the invention of the vacuum tube in
At the same time that digital calculation replaced analog, purely electronic circuit
bipolar junction transistor was invented in 1947. From 1955 onwards, transistors
replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation"
are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Silicon
junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer,
designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of
vacuum tubes.[5] Their first transistorised computer and the first in the world, was
operational by 1953, and a second version was completed there in April 1955.
While working at Texas Instruments in July 1958, Jack Kilby recorded his initial ideas
concerning the integrated circuit then successfully demonstrated the first working
integrated on 12 September 1958.[6] This new technique allowed for quick, low-cost
In the early days of integrated circuits, each chip was limited to only a few
transistors, and the low degree of integration meant the design process was
relatively simple. Manufacturing yields were also quite low by today's standards.
placed on one chip, and good designs required thorough planning, giving rise to
For example, a continuous audio signal transmitted as a sequence of 1s and 0s, can
be reconstructed without error, provided the noise picked up in transmission is not
using more binary digits to represent it. While this requires more digital circuits to
process the signals, each digit is handled by the same kind of hardware, resulting
software revision and no hardware changes. Often this can be done outside of the
factory by updating the product's software. So, the product's design errors can be
Information storage can be easier in digital systems than in analog ones. The noise
degradation. In an analog system, noise from aging and wear degrade the
information stored. In a digital system, as long as the total noise is below a certain
level, the information can be recovered perfectly. Even when more significant noise
is present, the use of redundancy permits the recovery of the original data provided
In some cases, digital circuits use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish
the same tasks, thus producing more heat which increases the complexity of the
this can limit use of digital systems. For example, battery-powered cellular
telephones often use a low-power analog front-end to amplify and tune in the radio
signals from the base station. However, a base station has grid power and can use
power-hungry, but very flexible software radios. Such base stations can be easily
Many useful digital systems must translate from continuous analog signals to
discrete digital signals. This causes quantization errors. Quantization error can be
reduced if the system stores enough digital data to represent the signal to the
meaning of large blocks of related data can completely change. For example, a
single-bit error in audio data stored directly as linear pulse code modulation causes,
at worst, a single click. Instead, many people use audio compression to save storage
space and download time, even though a single bit error may cause a larger
disruption.
Because of the cliff effect, it can be difficult for users to tell if a particular system is
right on the edge of failure, or if it can tolerate much more noise before failing.
Digital fragility can be reduced by designing a digital system for robustness. For
example, a parity bit or other error management method can be inserted into the
signal path. These schemes help the system detect errors, and then either correct
A digital circuit is typically constructed from small electronic circuits called logic
gates that can be used to create combinational logic. Each logic gate is designed to
perform a function of boolean logic when acting on logic signals. A logic gate is
transistors but thermionic valves have seen historic use. The output of a logic gate
automation software (see below for more information) to perform some type of
function.
board which holds electrical components, and connects them together with copper
traces.
Each logic symbol is represented by a different shape. The actual set of shapes was
introduced in 1984 under IEEE/ANSI standard 91-1984. "The logic symbol given
under this standard are being increasingly used now and have even started
circuits."[9]
Another form of digital circuit is constructed from lookup tables, (many sold as
"programmable logic devices", though other kinds of PLDs exist). Lookup tables can
perform the same functions as machines based on logic gates, but can be easily
reprogrammed without changing the wiring. This means that a designer can often
repair design errors without changing the arrangement of wires. Therefore, in small
volume products, programmable logic devices are often the preferred solution.
software.
When the volumes are medium to large, and the logic can be slow, or involves
When only one digital circuit is needed, and its design is totally customized, as for
logic controller, or PLC. These are usually programmed by electricians, using ladder
logic.
Engineers use many methods to minimize logic functions, in order to reduce the
circuit's complexity. When the complexity is less, the circuit also has fewer errors
heuristic logic minimizer within a CAD system, although historically, binary decision
Digital Logic Trainer (TTL) / Logic Trainer Board based on 74 series has been
designed specifically to make the students familiar with the study of TTL ICs and
verification of the truth table of logic gates, flip-flops, Gated & Master Slave JK flip-
Multiplexer (Encoder), Demultiplexer (Decoder), 8 Bit D/A Converter and 8 Bit A/D
Converter etc. Large area of Bread Board is provided on the front panel for ICs.
Students can make the circuit easily on the Bread Board with the help of other
accessories which are provided on the front panel of Digital Logic Trainer.
3.1.1 LEDS
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light when
current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron
electroluminescence. [5] The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the
photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band gap
to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active
resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used
generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with
an electronic circuit consisting of thin strips of a conducting material such as copper, which have
been etched from a layer fixed to a flat insulating sheet called a printed circuit board, and to which
display device for displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the more
complex dot matrix displays . Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital
clocks, electronic meters, basic calculators, and other electronic devices that
Toggle switches are available in many different styles and sizes, and are used in
arms, which are almost in line with each other, connected with an elbow-like
pivot. However, the phrase "toggle switch" is applied to a switch with a short
"positive on-off switch". [14] A very common use of this type of switch is to switch
TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between
two or more circuits . A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a
electromotive force across a second coil wound around the same core. Electrical
energy can be transferred between the two coils, without a metallic connection
between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831 described
the induced voltage effect in any coil due to changing magnetic flux encircled by
the coil.
electric power applications, and for coupling the stages of signal processing
circuits.
3.2.2 CAPACITORS
3.2.3VOLTAGE REGULATOR
constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may use a simple feed-forward design
electromechanical mechanism , or
or more AC or DC voltages.
3.2.4 DIODES
resistance in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A
conduction across the contact between a crystalline mineral and a metal was
made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. Today, most diodes are
AND GATE
An AND gate requires two or more inputs and produce only one output. The AND
gate produces an output of logic 1 state when each of the inputs are at logic 1
state and also produces an output of logic 0 state even if any of its inputs are at
logic 0 state. The symbol for AND operation is ‘.’, or we use no symbol for
representing. If the inputs are of X and Y, then the output can be expressed as
Z=XY. The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called “false” and 1 is called
“true,” the gate performs in the same way as the logical “and” operator. The
AND gate is also named as all or nothing gate. The logic symbols and truth tables
OR GATE
Similar to AND gate, an OR gate may also have two or more inputs but produce
only one output. The OR gate produces an output of logic 1 state even if any of
its inputs is in logic 1 state and also produces an output of logic 0 state if any of
its inputs is in logic 0 state. The symbol for OR operation is ‘+’. If the inputs are
of X and Y, then the output can be represented as Z=X+Y. An OR gate may also be
defined as a device whose output is 1, even if one of its input is 1. OR gate is also
consists of the condition of ‘both the inputs can be present’. The logic symbols
and truth table for two-input and three-input OR gates are given below.
NOT GATE
The NOT gate is also called as an inverter, simply because it changes the
input to its opposite. The NOT gate is having only one input and one
of the given input. That means, the NOT gate produces an output of logic 1
state when the input is of logic 0 state and also produce the output of logic
0 state when the input is of logic 1 state. The NOT operation is denoted by
’-‘(bar). When the input variable to the NOT gate is represented by ‘X’ and
equal to X bar’. The logic symbol and truth table are given below:
NAND GATE
The NAND and NOR gates are the universal gates. Each of this gates can
realize the logic circuits single handedly. The NAND and NOR are also called
as universal building blocks. Both NAND and NOR has the ability to perform
three basic logic functions such as AND,OR and NOT. NAND gate is a
combination of an AND gate and a NOT gate. The expression for the NAND
gate is ‘—‘whole bar. The output of the NAND gate is at logic 0 level only
when each of the inputs assumes a logic 1 level. The truth table of two-
NOR GATE
NOR means NOT OR. That means, NOR gate is a combination of an OR gate and a
NOT gate. The output is logic 1 level, only when each of its inputs assumes a logic
0 level. For any other combination of inputs, the output is a logic 0 level. The truth
An X-OR gate is a two input, one output logic circuit. X-OR gate assumes logic 1
state when any of its two inputs assumes a logic 1 state. When both the inputs
assume the logic 0 state or when both the inputs assume the logic 1 state, the
output assumes a logic 0 state. The output of the X-OR gate will be the sum of the
modulo sum of its inputs. X-OR gate is also termed as anti-coincidence gate or
inequality detector. An X-OR gate can also be used as inverter by connecting one
of the two input terminals to logic1 and also by inputting the sequence to be
An X-NOR gate is a combination of an X-OR gate and a NOT gate. The X-NOR gate
is also a two input, one output concept. The output of the X-NOR gate will be logic
1 state when both the inputs assume a 0 state or when both the inputs assume a
1 state. The output of the X-NOR gate will be logic 0 state when one of the inputs
assume a 0 state and the other a 1 state. It is also named as coincidence gate,
because its output will be 1 only when the inputs coincide. X-NOR gate can also
be used as inverter by connecting one of the two input terminals to logic 0 and
5.1 SUMMARY
The hardware design and software implementation of the digital logic trainer is
described. The simulation results of logic gate section have been done in Multisim.
Thirty-two switches labeled SW1 to SW32 are applied as an input in this system.
5.2 CONCLUSION
described. The components required in trainer board are chosen. The overall
circuit for logic trainer is designed the complete system can be implemented to
perform higher standard than any other commercial products. An inexpensive and
used for simulation. The results are convenient and simple for students to test.
5.3 REFERENCE
Technology, Myanmar.
[2] www.ALLDATASHEET.com.
[3] 1972 EXAR Corporation, Datasheet June 1997
[4] Null, Linda; Lobur, Julia (2006). The essentials of computer organization and
build logic diagrams (which in turn lead to digital circuits) for any Boolean
expression...
[5] Peirce, C. S., "Letter, Peirce to A. Marquand", dated 1886, Writings of Charles
S. Peirce, v. 5, 1993, pp. 541–3. Google Preview. See Burks, Arthur W., "Review:
Mathematical Society v. 84, n. 5 (1978), pp. 913–18, see 917. PDF Eprint.
[6] In 1946, ENIAC required an estimated 174 kW. By comparison, a modern laptop
computer may use around 30 W; nearly six thousand times less. "Approximate
June 2009.
[7] "A Computer Pioneer Rediscovered, 50 Years On". The New York Times. April
20, 1994.
[9] "The Chip that Jack Built". Texas Instruments. 2008. Retrieved 29 May 2008.
[10] Peter Clarke (14 October 2005). "Intel enters billion-transistor processor
era". EE Times.
[11] Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill, The Art of Electronics 2nd Ed. Cambridge
[12] Maini. A.K. (2007). Digital Electronics Principles, Devices and Applications.
2014.
[14] Clarke, Peter. "ARM Offers First Clockless Processor Core". eetimes.com.
[15] Brown S & Vranesic Z. (2009). Fundamentals of Digital Logic with VHDL
and Application. 4th ed. Upper Saddler Reviver, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall
[17] Eero Lehtonen, Mika Laihom, "Stateful implication logic with memristors",
2011-12-11
[18] Douglas Lewin, Logical Design of Switching Circuits, Nelson,1974.
Company, 1994.
[20] P. K. Lala, Practical Digital Logic Design and Testing, Prentice Hall, 1996.
Engineering & Technology, Multimedia University, Jalan Ayer Keroh Lama, Bukit