Chapter -3

DC machines
DC machine (direct current machines )

• The word dc machine describe both the dc motor and dc generator

• When a rotating machine converts the electric energy into
mechanical energy ,it is called dc motor
• On the other hand ,a machine that converter mechanical energy into
electrical energy ,it is called generator
• Quite often a given generator can be operated either as generator or
motor
• In dc machine the uniform magnetic flux is established by fixed poles
mounted on the side of the stationery component called the stator
• We may either use the permanent magnet as the poles or wind the
field winding around the pole
 DC machine (direct current machines )

• One of the major advantages of a wound machine is that we can

control the flux in the machine
• The dc generator operates based on the principle that when a
magnetic flux is cut by a conductor an emf is induced which will
cause current flow if the conductor circuit is closed
• The winding in which emf is induced is wound on the rotating part
and the rotating part is called armature and the winding is referred to
as the armature winding
• In the dc generator the direction of the induced emf is given by the
Fleming’s right hand rule
 Dc machine
Mechanical construction
• The stator of a dc machine provides the mechanical support
for the machine and consists of the yoke and the poles (or
field poles).
• The rotor in a dc machine is called an armature.
• The armature has cylindrical steel core that is composed of a
stack of slotted laminations.
• Slots in laminations are aligned axially along rotor or shaft.
• Armature windings are placed in slots.
• The stator in a dc machine is the field part of the machine.
• Field poles are located on stator and project inward.
• Each pole has a narrow iron core around which the exciting
winding or field coil is placed.
• Field coil may consist of two or more separate windings.
• A pole shoe distributes pole flux over rotor surface across a
narrow air gap.
• Leads from the armature coils are connected to the
commutator.
• Commutator consists of radial copper segments separated by
an insulating material, usually mica.
• Current is conducted to the armature by carbon brushes that
are held against the surface of the commutator by springs.
• Brushes wear with time, must be inspected regularly, and
occasionally replaced.
• Copper commutator segments wear also and sometimes have
to be resurfaced, or "turned down.” If not, the harder mica
protrudes above the copper, and the brushes bounce, resulting
in arcs that damage the commutator surface
 Dc machine
Mechanical construction
 Dc machine
DC machine construction

Armature
 Dc machine
DC machine construction
 Dc machine
DC machine construction

Armature
 Dc machine
Mechanical construction
• All dc machine have five principal components
• field system
• Armature core
• Armature winding
• Commutator
• Brushes
A SIMPLE ROTATING LOOP BETWEEN CURVED POLE FACES
• Consider a single turn loop ABCD rotating clockwise in a uniform
magnetic field with a constant speed as shown
• As the loop rotates, the flux linking the coil sides AB and CD
changes continuously
• Hence the e.m.f. induced in these coil sides also changes but the
e.m.f. induced in one coil side adds to that induced in the other
A SIMPLE ROTATING LOOP BETWEEN CURVED POLE FACES

A simple rotating loop between curved pole faces. (a) Perspective view; (b) view of field lines;
(c) top view; (d) front view
 The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop

• The loop of wire shown is rectangular, with sides AB and CD

perpendicular to the plane of the page and with sides BC and DA parallel
to the plane of the page.
• The magnetic field is constant and perpendicular to the surface of the
rotor everywhere under the pole faces and rapidly falls to zero beyond the
edges of the poles .
• The voltage on each segment is given by Equation

 Segment AB: In this segment, the velocity of the wire is tangential

to the path of rotation
 The magnetic field B points out perpendicular to the rotor surface
everywhere under the pole face and is zero beyond the edges of
the pole face.
 The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop

Segment BC. In this segment, the quantity is either into or out of the
page, while length I is in the plane of the page, so v x B is perpendicular to l.
Therefore the voltage in segment be will be zero
Segment CD. In this segment, the velocity of the wire is tangential to the
path of rotation.
The magnetic field B points in perpendicular to the rotor surface
everywhere under the pole face and is zero beyond the edges of the pole
face.
Under the pole face, velocity v is perpendicular to B, and the quantity v x B
points out of the page. Therefore, the induced voltage on the segment is

The total induced voltage on the loop is given by

 The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop

Notice that the tangential velocity V of the edge of the loop can be expressed
=
• Where r is the radius from the axis of rotation and the angular
rotational speed
• By substation

• As the rotor surface is cylinder , the area of the rotor surface is given

=
 The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop

Since the flux density B is constant everywhere in the air gap under the pole
faces the total flux under each pole is just the area of the pole time its flux
density
∅ = *B

• Therefore, the final form of the voltage equation is

• In general, the voltage in any real machine will depend on the same three
factors:
• The flux in the machine
• The speed of rotation
• A constant representing the construction of the machine
 The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop

Since the flux density B is constant everywhere in the air gap under the pole
faces the total flux under each pole is just the area of the pole time its flux
density
∅ = *B

• Therefore, the final form of the voltage equation is

In general, the voltage in any real machine will depend on the same three
factors:
• The flux in the machine
• The speed of rotation
• A constant representing the construction of the machine
 The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop

• Note that e.m.f. generated in the loop is

alternating one. It is because any coil side, say
AB has e.m.f. in one direction when under the
influence of N-pole and in the other direction
when under the influence of S-pole.
• If a load is connected across the ends of the loop,
then alternating current will flow through the
load.
• How can the alternating voltage be converted to
dc voltage
• The alternating voltage generated in the loop can
be converted into direct voltage by a device

called commutator.
 The Induced Torque in the Rotating Loop

• As depicted in the previous slides suppose a

battery is connected and current flows in the

machine and hence how much torque will be

produced in the loop ?
• The approach to take in determining the torque
on the loop is to look at one segment of the
loop at a time and then sum the effects of all
the individual segments
• The force on a segment of a loop is given
• F=
• And the torque on the segment is given
• =

• where is the angle between r and

F
 The Induced Torque in the Rotating Loop

Segment ab: In segment ab, the current from the battery is directed
out of the page.
The magnetic field under the pole face is pointing radially out of the
rotor, so the force on the wire is given by

The torque on the rotor caused by the force

Segment bc: since the current I is parallel to be B,the force induced in

the wire is zero and hence the torque
 The Induced Torque in the Rotating Loop

Segment cd. In segment cd, the current from the battery is directed into the
page. The magnetic field under the pole face is pointing radially into the
rotor, so the force on the wire is given by
The torque on the rotor caused by the force

Segment bc: since the current I is parallel to be B,the force induced in

the wire is zero and hence the torque

Similarly in segment da: The current I is parallel with B ,hence the

induced force in the wire is zero
The resulting total induced torque on the loop is given by
 The Induced Torque in the Rotating Loop

• By using the fact that = and ∅ = B ,the torque expression

can be reduced to

• In general the torque in any real machine will depend on the same
factor
• the flux in the machine
• The current in the machine
• A constant representing the construction of the machine
 Getting DC Voltage Out of the Rotating Loop

• As shown in the fig the voltage out of the loop is alternative

,thereby it can be made to produce a dc voltage instead of ac
voltage using the commutator

• Every time the voltage of the loop switches direction ,the contact
also switch connection
• The rotating semicircular segments are called commutator
 D.C. Armature Windings

• A dc machine generally employs winding distributed in slots over

the circumstance of the core
• Each conductor lies at the right angles to magnetic flux and to the
direction of its movement.
• Therefore ,the induced e.m.f in the conductor is given by;

• The armature conductor are connected to form a coils

 D.C. Armature Windings

• As shown in the fig ,(i) shows single turn coil and has two conductors or
coils sides connected at the back of the armature .(ii ) shows a 4-turn coil
which has 8 conductor or coil sides
 D.C. Armature Windings

• The coil sides of a coil are placed a pole span

apart that one coil side of a coil is under the
north pole and the other side is under the
next south pole Consequently the emf of the
coil side add together
• The coil sides are connected through the
commutator segment in such a manner as to
form series –parallel system
• To increases the conductor are connected in
series
• Two or more such series connected paths in
parallel to share currents
• Fig shows how the two coils connected
through commutator have their emf added
together
 D.C. Armature Windings

• Commutator Pitch (YC):the number of commutator segments spanned by each coil of

the winding
• Fig (i) shows one side of the coil is connected to commutator segment 2.
therefore the number of commutator segment spanned by the coil is 1.
• In fig(ii) one side of the coil is connected to commutator segment 1 and other side
to the commutator segment 8. therefore the number of commutator segment
spanned by the coil =8-1=7 segments

Number of coils=number of commutator segmenet

ii
i
 D.C. Armature Windings

• Pole-Pitch: The distance measured in terms of number of armature slot per

pole
• Thus , if 4-pole generator has 16 coils ,the number of slot =16
therefore , pole pitch =16/4=4 slots
• Coil Span or Coil Pitch (YS):the distance measured in terms of the number of
armature slots (or armature conductors) spanned by a coil
• Thus if the coil span is 9 slots, it means one side of the coil is in slot 1
and the other side in slot 10.

ii
i
 D.C. Armature Windings

Armature Winding Terminology

Back Pitch (YB):the distance measured in

terms of armature conductors between the
two
sides of a coil at the back of the armature
Front Pitch (YF):It is the distance
measured in terms of armature conductors
between the coil
sides attached to any one commutator
segment
Resultant Pitch (YR):
It is the distance between the
beginning of one coil and the beginning of
the next coil to which it is connected

ii
i
 D.C. Armature Windings

• There are two types of armature winding:

1. Simplex lap winding
2. Simplex wave winding .

Lap winding Wave winding

 General Rules For D.C. Armature Windings

• In the design of d.c machine armature winding ,the following rules may be
followed :

i. The back pitch (YB) as well as front pitch (YF) should be nearly equal to pole
pitch. This will result in increased e.m.f. in the coils.
ii. Both pitches (YB and YF) should be odd. This will permit all end connections
(back as well as front connection) between a conductor at the top of a slot and
one at the bottom of a slot.
iii. The number of commutator segments is equal to the number of slots or coils
(or half the number of conductors).
iv. The winding must close upon itself i.e. it should be a closed circuit winding.
 General Rules For D.C. Armature Windings

• Relations between Pitches for Simplex Lap Winding

In a simplex lap winding, the various pitches should have the following
relation:
i. The back and front pitches are odd and are of opposite signs.
They differ numerically by 2, YB = YF ± 2 YB =YF + 2
ii. Both YB and YF should be nearly equal to pole pitch.
iii. Average pitch =(YB + YF)/2. It equals pole pitch (= Z/P).
iv. Commutator pitch, YC = ± 1
YC = + 1 for progressive winding
 D.C. Armature Windings

Example: Draw the winding diagram of a D C Machine with 4 poles, 14 slots,

progressive, double layer lap winding.
Show the position of brushes and direction of induced emf.
Solution
Number of poles = 4 ; Number of slots = 14, Number of conductors = 14 x 2 = 28
Pole pitch = Number of conductors/pole = 28/4 = 7
We have pole pitch = (Yb + Yf ) / 2 = Yp
Hence
(Yb + Yf) = 14
(Yb - Yf ) = 2
Solving above equations Yb = 8 and Yf = 6
back pitch yb = 2c/p ± k
For lap winding both Yb and Yf must be odd and differ by 2
Satisfying the above condition Yb = 7 and Yf = 5 (Winding diagram
and ring diagrams are shown below)
D.C. Armature Windings
D.C. Armature Windings
D.C. Armature Windings
 D.C. Armature Windings
Position and number of brushes

• The brush remains fixed in space as the commutator and the winding revolves
• In simplex lap winding the number of brush equals to number of poles
• The armature winding is divided into as many parallel paths as thenumber of
poles. If the total number of armature conductors is Z and P isthe number of
poles, then,
Number of conductors/path = Z/P
• E.M.F. generated = E.M.F. per parallel path
= average e.m.f. per conductor Z/P
• Total armature current, Ia = P x current per parallel path
 E.M.F. Equation of a D.C. Generator

The emf generated in dc generator :

 E.M.F. Equation of a D.C. Generator

Armature Resistance (Ra)

The resistance offered by the armature circuit is known as armature resistance (Ra)
and includes
 Types of D.C. Generators

• The magnetic field in d.c generator is normally produced

by electromagnets rather than permanent magnet
• Generators are generally classified according to their
method of excitation
• On this basis d. c generators are divided into the
following two classes
i. Separately excited d.c generators
ii. Self-excited d.c generators

Separately Excited D.C. Generators

• A dc generator whose field magnets windings is supplied
from an independent external d.c sources is called
separately excited generator
• Fig shows the connection separately excited generator
• The voltage output depends up on the speed of
armature and field current
• Eg= Pf ZN/60 A
 Types of dc generator
Separately Excited D.C. Generators
 Types of dc generator
Self-Excited D.C. Generators

• A dc generator whose field magnet winding is supplied current from the

output generator itself is called a self excited generator
• There are three types self-excited generator depending upon the manner in
which the field winding is connected to the armature :
i. Series generator;
ii. Shunt generator;
iii. Compound generator
 Types of dc generator
(i)Series generator
• In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in series with
armature winding so that whole armature current flows through the field
winding as well as the load
• Fig shows the connection of series wound generator
• As the field winding carries the whole of load current , it has a few turns of
thick wire having low resistance
• Series generators are rarely used except for special purposes e.g., as boosters
 Types of dc generator
(iii)Compound generator
In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of field windings
on each pole—one is in series and the other in parallel with the
armature
A compound wound generator may be:
(a)Short Shunt in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with
the armature winding as shown in fig(i)
(b) Long Shunt in which shunt field winding is in parallel with both
series field and armature winding as shown in fig (ii)
 Types of dc generator
Brush Contact Drop

• It is the voltage drop over the brush contact resistance when current
flows.
• Obviously, its value will depend upon the amount of current flowing
and the value of contact resistance.
• This drop is generally small.

• Losses in a D.C. Machine

• The losses in a d.c. machine (generator or motor) may be divided into
three
• classes viz (i) copper losses (ii) iron or core losses and (iii) mechanical
losses.
• All these losses appear as heat and thus raise the temperature of the
machine.
• They also lower the efficiency of the machine
Types of dc generator

Losses in a D.C. Machine

 Types of dc generator

Copper losses

• These losses occur due to currents in the various windings of the machine.

Iron or Core losses

These losses occur in the armature of a d.c. machine and are due to the rotation
of armature in the magnetic field of the poles
They are of two types viz.,
(i)hysteresis loss
(ii) eddy current loss
 Types of dc generator

Mechanical losses

These losses are due to friction and windage.

(i) friction loss e.g., bearing friction, brush friction etc.
(ii) windage loss i.e., air friction of rotating armature.
 Types of dc generator

Power Stages
The various power stages in a d.c. generator are represented
diagrammatically in
 Types of dc generator

Power Stages
 D.C. Generator Characteristics

Power Stages