DAVID LINDSAY'S A VOYAGE TO ARCTURUS

ALLEGORICAL DREAM FANTASY AS A LITERARY MODE

by

JACK S CHOFIELD

B.A., University o f Birmingham, 1969

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS IN
THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the
required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

September, 19 72
tn p r e s e n t i n g this thesis in p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the requirements for

an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of British Columbia, I agree that

the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study.

I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying o f this thesis

f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by the Head o f my Department or

by his representatives. It i s understood that copying or publication

of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my

written permission.

Department of

The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia
Vancouver 8, Canada

Date
 Abstract

David L i n d s a y ' s A Voyage to A r c t u r u s must be read as an a l l e g o r i c a l

dream f a n t a s y f o r i t s m e r i t to be c o r r e c t l y d i s c e r n e d . Lindsay's central

themes are i n t r o d u c e d i n a study o f the man and h i s work. (Ch. 1 ) . These

themes are found to be common i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , the phenomen-

o l o g i c a l background o f w h i c h i s e s t a b l i s h e d (Ch. 2 ) . A d i s t i n c t i o n can

then be drawn between f a n t a s y and romance, so as to d e f i n e allegorical

dream f a n t a s y as a l i t e r a r y mode (Ch. 3 ) . A f t e r the b i o g r a p h i c a l ,

t h e o r e t i c a l and l i t e r a r y backgrounds o f A Voyage have been established

i n the f i r s t t h r e e c h a p t e r s , the second t h r e e c h a p t e r s e x p l i c a t e the

structure of the book as an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y . Finally, the

d i c h o t o m i e s w h i c h have been found i n L i n d s a y (between L l o y d ' s u n d e r w r i t e r

and v i s i o n a r y dreamer), between the dream and the r e a l w o r l d , between

f a n t a s y and romance, are found to be u n i f i e d by Norman N . H o l l a n d ' s theory

o f l i t e r a t u r e as transformation.
 CONTENTS

Preface

Chapter 1. David Lindsay: The Man and H i s Work

Chapter 2. Dream and A l l e g o r y : The P h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l

Background of a L i t e r a r y Mode 30

Chapter 3. F a n t a s y and Romance: The L i t e r a r y Background

of A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s 62

Chapter 4. The Unholy War: A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s as

Battle 97

Chapter 5 . The S t r a i g h t Way: A Voyage to A r c t u r u s as

Progress 12 7

Chapter 6. The Winding Way: M a s k u l l ' s S p i r a l Inwards 160

Chapter 7. A l l e g o r i c a l Dream F a n t a s y : The Problem o f

Style 192

Appendix

Bibliography
 Preface

This thesis i s a s t u d y of a book—A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s — w h i c h

has, u n t i l r e c e n t l y , been n e g l e c t e d , and w h i c h i s now, I would a r g u e ,

misread. I t i s m i s r e a d m a i n l y because the genre t o w h i c h i t belongs—

a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y — h a s n o t been p r e c i s e l y d e f i n e d . My aim i s

to e x p l i c a t e the book by s e t t i n g i t i n i t s true context.

D a v i d L i n d s a y (1878-1945) i s a d i f f i c u l t man to a s s e s s , p a r t l y

because he was ' o u t of key w i t h h i s t i m e . ' 1920, j u s t a f t e r World War

was the wrong y e a r to p u b l i s h A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . Moral earnestness

of L i n d s a y ' s e s s e n t i a l l y V i c t o r i a n s o r t d i d not have the sympathy of

the p u b l i c , and i t must n o t s u r p r i s e us t h a t the book f e l l 'still-born

from the p r e s s . ' Had the book come out i n 1895, s h o r t l y a f t e r She and

i n the same y e a r as Wells's The Time M a c h i n e , MacDonald's L i l i t h and

M o r r i s ' s The Wood Beyond the W o r l d , i t might have been r e c e i v e d more

sympathetically. But i n 1895, L i n d s a y was o n l y seventeen.

I t s h o u l d have been easy to s e e , i n 1920, t h a t A Voyage was 25

years b e h i n d the t i m e s . I t would have been d i f f i c u l t to guess that

i t was a l s o 50 y e a r s ahead of them. N o n e t h e l e s s , when A Voyage was

f i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n paperback, 23 y e a r s a f t e r Lindsay's death, it

came to e n j o y ' a v o g u e . ' T h i s vogue i s , however, l e s s a r e s u l t of the

book's p e c u l i a r q u a l i t i e s than i t s s u p e r f i c i a l resemblance t o t h e work

of enormously p o p u l a r w r i t e r s , ' c u l t ' f i g u r e s , l i k e J . R. R. T o l k i e n

and Herman Hesse.

 vi

Contemporary r e a d i n g s of the book, i n one way or a n o t h e r , wrench

A Voyage from i t s t r u e c o n t e x t , and m i s r e a d i t s g e n r e . However, A Voyage

i s n e i t h e r s u i generis nor o u t l a n d i s h l y i d i o s y n c r a t i c , but occupies a

p r e c i s e l y d e f i n a b l e p l a c e i n the l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n of a l l e g o r i c a l dream

fantasy. Seen thus i t i s a w e l l - d e s i g n e d , c o h e r e n t and a r t i c u l a t e

work. Though A Voyage i s n o t o b v i o u s l y a w e l l c o n s t r u c t e d book, and

o b v i o u s l y n o t a w e l l w r i t t e n one in t h e a c c e p t e d l i t e r a r y sense ( n o r ,

f o r t h a t m a t t e r , a r e most G o t h i c N o v e l s ) , once i t s s t r u c t u r e and m o t i f s

have been u n c o v e r e d , i t w i l l be found t h a t A Voyage has many a s p e c t s

t h a t make i t worthy of s t u d y .

I b e g i n w i t h a b r i e f account of L i n d s a y ' s l i f e and w o r k s , p a r t l y

to d i s p e l the ' m y t h o l o g y ' w h i c h , i n t h e absense of f a c t s and w i t h m i s -

l e a d i n g h e l p , has grown up around L i n d s a y , and p a r t l y t o i n t r o d u c e some

of h i s themes. L i n d s a y ' s c e n t r a l theme i s the o p p o s i t i o n between t h e

r e a l and dream w o r l d s w h i c h , w h i l e i t i s the b a s i s of A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s ,

i s more o b v i o u s l y d i s c e r n i b l e i n ' t h i s w o r l d l y ' n o v e l s such as The Haunted

Woman and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , S p h i n x . I n Chapter Two I examine the phenomenol-

ogical basis (phenomenology i s the p s y c h o l o g i c a l p h i l o s o p h y of systematized

d e l u s i o n ) of L i n d s a y ' s d u a l i s m s . I . e . , I show why the p s y c h i c f a c t s of

s l e e p and dreams l e a d to a dichotomous w o r l d - v i e w , a n d how a l l e g o r i c a l

dream f a n t a s y i s an a p p r o p r i a t e l i t e r a r y e x p r e s s i o n of t h i s v i e w .

I n my t h i r d c h a p t e r I draw a d i s t i n c t i o n between f a n t a s y and romance

so as t o d e f i n e a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y p r e c i s e l y as a l i t e r a r y mode,

and t o s e t A Voyage i n i t s a p p r o p r i a t e l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t . I show how

 vii

L i n d s a y found h i s immediate i n s p i r a t i o n i n George MacDonald, N o v a l i s ,

and I c e l a n d i c literature.

H a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d the b i o g r a p h i c a l , the t h e o r e t i c a l , and the literary

backgrounds, I move i n Chapters Four and F i v e to an e x a m i n a t i o n of the

two dimensions of the a l l e g o r y . First, I e x p l i c a t e A Voyage as an

a l l e g o r i c a l b a t t l e between powers of l i g h t and d a r k n e s s , m a t t e r and s p i r i t ,

r e a l i t y and dream, and so o n . (This can be thought o f as a v e r t i c a l

axis.) Second, I e x p l i c a t e A Voyage as a l i n e a r , a l l e g o r i c a l progress,

o r g a n i s e d around t h e m a t i c images which are e s t a b l i s h e d i n the opening

s e c t i o n of the book (on e a r t h ) and r e c c u r r i n the t r i p a c r o s s Tormance.

(The h o r i z o n t a l a x i s . )

The f i r s t f i v e c h a p t e r s take us p r o g r e s s i v e l y closer to the text.

I n Chapter S i x I t r a c e the o u t l i n e of M a s k u l l ' s a c t u a l p r o g r e s s a c r o s s

Tormance, w h i c h i s found to be a s p i r a l i n w a r d s , through the body o f

C r y s t a l m a n i n t o the i n n e r w o r l d of the s p i r i t , M u s p e l .

In the c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r I t a c k l e the problem of s t y l e : why

a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s , A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i n p a r t i c u l a r , succeed

i n g r i p p i n g the r e a d e r i n s p i t e of b e i n g a p p a r e n t l y badly w r i t t e n . In

this chapter, the s p l i t i n L i n d s a y ( e x - L l o y d ' s u n d e r w r i t e r and v i s i o n a r y ) ,

i n the Manichaean p h i l o s o p h y ( r e a l w o r l d and dream w o r l d ) , i n a l l e g o r i c a l

dream f a n t a s y i t s e l f (between cerebral allegory and s u b c o n s c i o u s fantasy)

and the message of a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s (the s e a r c h f o r 'inner

light'), are found to be u n i f i e d i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l terms by Norman N .

H o l l a n d ' s view o f l i t e r a t u r e as transformation.

 viii

A g r e a t many p e o p l e have h e l p e d w i t h t h i s t h e s i s , though I can

mention o n l y a few. I t would n o t have been p o s s i b l e a t a l l w i t h o u t

the e x t e n s i v e s e r v i c e s of M r . N i c k Omelusik, of A c q u i s i t i o n s , and

Ms. Margaret Friesen, o f I n t e r - L i b r a r y L o a n , and t h e i r s t a f f s a t the

U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia L i b r a r y . I thank them, and I thank my

typists, M r s . Susan W e l l s and M i s s Jeanne C u r r i e .

Lastly, I have been p r i v i l e g e d t o work c l o s e l y w i t h my t h e s i s

committee of P r o f e s s o r s I r a N a d e l , E l l i o t t B. Gose and P a t r i c i a M e r i v a l e .

As a c r i t i c and a man, E l l i o t t Gose has p r o f o u n d l y i n f l u e n c e d my own

a t t i t u d e to l i t e r a t u r e f a r more than my i n c i d e n t a l f o o t n o t e s to him

indicate. But my main debt i s to my s u p e r v i s o r , Pat M e r i v a l e , w i t h o u t

whose i n c i s i v e (and w i t t y ' . ) comments and always generous c h i d i n g this

t h e s i s w o u l d have been much e a s i e r to w r i t e , and a g r e a t d e a l less

worth w h i l e .

U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia Jack Schofield

September, 1972
 ix

A b b r e v i a t i o n s and E d i t i o n s Used

Page r e f e r e n c e s to a l l of L i n d s a y ' s works and to the one

book-length c r i t i c a l study o f L i n d s a y are g i v e n i n the t e x t after

the a p p r o p r i a t e a b b r e v i a t i o n , as listed:

VA : A Voyage to A r c t u r u s (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1968)

THW : The Haunted Woman (London: Victor Gollancz, 1968)

Sph : Sphinx (London: John L o n g , 1923)

AMM : Adventures o f M o n s i e u r de M a i l l y (London: Andrew

M e l r o s e , 1926)

DT r : D e v i l ' s Tor (London: Putnam's, 1932)

L : ' L e t t e r s to E . H . V i s i a k , ' Adam I n t e r n a t i o n a l Review,

~ No. 346-348 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , pp. 39-67.

TSG : The Strange Genius of D a v i d L i n d s a y by C o l i n W i l s o n ,

J . B. P i c k & E . H . V i s i a k (London: John B a k e r , 1 9 7 0 ) .

Any q u o t a t i o n s from L i n d s a y ' s u n p u b l i s h e d TSS 'The V i o l e t A p p l e , ' 'Witch'

and ' S k e t c h Notes towards a New System of P h i l o s o p h y ' h a v e , unless other-

w i s e s t a t e d , been taken from The Strange G e n i u s . Page r e f e r e n c e s cited

are t h e r e f o r e t o t h a t book and n o t to the works themselves.

Note: spaced e l l i p s e s are m i n e , unspaced e l l i p s e s are the authors'.

 X

The d a y - s e l f i s p o l t r o o n o r h e r o :
The n i g h t - s e l f i s p i c a r o , p i e r r o t .

The d a y - s e l f can choose to t e l l l i e s .

The n i g h t - s e l f speaks t r u t h , o r he d i e s .

The v o i c e comes
out o f an e m p t i n e s s . N i g h t - s e l f and d a y - s e l f
f i n d h e r e no h a b i t a b l e p l a n e t .

John W a i n , W i l d t r a c k

What i s d i v i n e i n man i s e l u s i v e and i m p a l p a b l e ,

and he i s e a s i l y tempted t o embody i t i n a c o l l e c t i v e
form—a c h u r c h , a c o u n t r y , a s o c i a l system, a l e a d e r
—so t h a t he may r e a l i s e i t w i t h l e s s e f f o r t and
s e r v e i t w i t h more p r o f i t . Y e t . . . the attempt t o
e x t e r n a l i s e the kingdom o f heaven i n a t e m p o r a l shape
must end i n d i s a s t e r . I t cannot be c r e a t e d by c h a r t e r s
or c o n s t i t u t i o n s , n o r e s t a b l i s h e d by arms. Those who
s e t out f o r i t alone w i l l reach i t t o g e t h e r , and those
who seek i t i n company w i l l p e r i s h by t h e m s e l v e s .

Hugh K i n g s m i l l , The P o i s o n e d Crown

 Chapter One:

DAVID LINDSAY AND HIS WORKS1

For the p u b l i s h e r of D e v i l ' s T o r , D a v i d L i n d s a y p r o v i d e d the

f o l l o w i n g b r i e f summary of h i s life:

I was educated a t B l a c k h e a t h and i n S c o t l a n d . Up

to the war I was i n b u s i n e s s i n the C i t y o f London.
I was i n the Army f o r upwards of two y e a r s , b u t saw
no f o r e i g n s e r v i c e . On d e m o b i l i s a t i o n I took up
l i t e r a t u r e , h a v i n g many y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y determined
t o do so sooner or l a t e r . A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s ap-
peared i n 1920; The Haunted Woman i n 1922; Sphinx
i n 1923; Adventures of M. de M a i l l y i n 1926. I was
m a r r i e d i n 1916, and am a t p r e s e n t l i v i n g h a p p i l y
w i t h my w i f e and two d a u g h t e r s , aged 12 and 9 . From
1919 t o 1928 we l i v e d i n C o r n w a l l ; then moved t o
F e r r i n g i n Sussex.
I have done the u s u a l amount of f o r e i g n t r a v -
e l l i n g , d i s l i k e s p o r t s , and take most of my p r e s e n t
e x e r c i s e i n t r a m p i n g the South Downs. My o l d e r
b r o t h e r , the l a t e ' A l e x a n d e r C r a w f o r d ' , a l s o wrote
some n o v e l s (The A l i a s e t c . ) w h i c h by now are a l -
most f o r g o t t e n . I t r a c e my s t o c k to the main stem
of the L i n d s a y s , whose h i s t o r y i s i n any book of
Scottish families. I v a r , j a r l of the Norse U p l a n d e r s ,
i s s a i d t o have been the o r i g i n a l a n c e s t o r (TSG 6 ) .

T h i s b a r e s t of r e c o r d s suppresses the i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t " i n the City"

he was a L l o y d ' s u n d e r w r i t e r f o r f i f t e e n y e a r s , t h a t h i s army service

was as a c l e r k i n t h e G r e n a d i e r s a n d , most n o t a b l y , t h a t he was b o r n

on March 3, 1878 making him i n 1932 " r a t h e r o l d e r than i s p r o p e r " for

a young w r i t e r t o be (TSG 7 ) . However, the bare r e c o r d d i s a b u s e s us

of any i d e a t h a t , . a s Loren E i s e l e y s t a t e s f l a t l y i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n

t o t h e B a l l a n t i n e e d i t i o n of A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s , " D a v i d L i n d s a y d i e d

young" (VA v i i ) , o r t h a t h i s m a s t e r p i e c e was the unpremeditated out-

p o u r i n g of a f r u s t r a t e d young man.
 2

L i n d s a y seems to have spent most of h i s e a r l y l i f e ' i n t r a i n i n g

for a novelist' a f t e r h i s grandmother p r e v e n t e d h i m from t a k i n g up the

s c h o l a r s h i p he had won t o u n i v e r s i t y . He educated h i m s e l f by reading

w i d e l y i n l i t e r a t u r e s a n d p h i l o s o p h y , l e a r n i n g German and r e a d i n g

Schopenhauer and N i e t z s c h e i n the o r i g i n a l , and r e c o r d i n g h i s comments

i n notebooks f o r f u t u r e use. These comments he c a l l e d apercues (sic).

For the name and the concept L i n d s a y i s i n d e b t e d , as f o r much e l s e , to

the g r e a t German p e s s i m i s t Arthur- Schopenhauer. Lindsay describes the

a p e r c u as a thought which " s p r i n g s from the a i r " (TSG 1 3 ) , recalling

4 ——
Schopenhauer's use of the word f o r "an immediate i n t u i t i o n , , a n d as
2
such the work of an i n s t a n t , an a p p e r c u , a f l a s h of i n s i g h t . " A
s— —

Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s based on a d e c a d e ' s a c c u m u l a t i o n of these i n -

sights .

D u r i n g the w a r , L i n d s a y , then t h i r t y - e i g h t , m a r r i e d a g i r l of

twenty a g a i n s t the wishes of b o t h t h e i r f a m i l i e s . A f t e r the war he

d i d not r e t u r n t o L l o y d ' s , b u t went w i t h h i s w i f e to N o r t h C o r n w a l l ,

where he was to b e g i n h i s c a r e e r as a n o v e l i s t . I n h i s notebook he

records that
when one s t e p s out of the l a n d of dreams and
l o n g i n g s , by r e a s o n of b e i n g s e i z e d by the i d e a
of a c l e a r and d e f i n i t e p l a n f o r the f u t u r e , i t
i s j u s t as i f o n e ' s l i f e had^got i n t o f o c u s ; the
vague and b l u r r e d i s a l l changed i n t o the d e f i n e d
and b e a u t i f u l (TSG 1 0 ) .

Of c o u r s e , from the c o n v e n t i o n a l p o i n t of v i e w , he had s t e p p e d from

w o r l d l y , m a t e r i a l i s t i c L l o y d ' s i n t o a dream w o r l d , i n l i v i n g u n -

r e a l i s t i c a l l y on a lump sum from h i s f i r m and a l e g a c y w h i c h he i n -

 3

vested, i n a l a r g e house w i t h s e r v a n t s and a c a r r i a g e . Had he been

sensible, however, he w o u l d n e v e r have w r i t t e n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s ,

and would now be forgotten.

Jacqueline and C o r n w a l l i n s p i r e d and encouraged L i n d s a y t o produce

s i x novels, t h r e e o f them minor m a s t e r p i e c e s i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e genres,

between A p r i l 1919 and J u l y 1924. A l s o d u r i n g t h i s time L i n d s a y ' s wife

b o r e h i m two d a u g h t e r s , D i a n a and H e l e n , who were l a t e r nicknamed by

E . H . V i s i a k , one b e i n g dark l i k e the mother and the o t h e r f a i r like

the f a t h e r , ' N i g h t ' and ' D a y ' (TSG 9 7 - 9 8 ) . I t was, f o r the L i n d s a y s ,

a happy and p r o d u c t i v e p e r i o d . A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s was completed i n

March 1920 and i m m e d i a t e l y accepted by Methuen, who i n s i s t e d , however,

t h a t the book be reduced i n l e n g t h by some 15,000 words. The book

was p u b l i s h e d l a t e r i n 1920, but i t s o l d b a d l y and many c o p i e s were

remaindered. By then L i n d s a y was w e l l . o n w i t h The Haunted Woman,

which he completed i n A p r i l 1921. Methuen r e f u s e d i t a t f i r s t , but

i t was (as A Voyage to A r c t u r u s had p r e v i o u s l y been) a c c e p t e d for

s e r i a l i s a t i o n by The D a i l y News s u b j e c t t o a r e d u c t i o n o f 20,000 w o r d s .

A g a i n , L i n d s a y cut them. Methuen r e c o n s i d e r e d , and f i n a l l y published

the book i n February 1922.

But L i n d s a y was now ' a w r i t e r ' , w i t h a house t o keep up, a w i f e

and f a m i l y to s u p p o r t . He was b e g i n n i n g to c o n c e r n h i m s e l f more w i t h

w r i t i n g what p u b l i s h e r s might a c c e p t and the p u b l i c might b u y . After

two commercial f a i l u r e s a p u b l i s h e r f o r h i s n e x t book, Sphinx,, w r i t t e n

between August 1921 and March 1922, was h a r d t o f i n d . L i n d s a y spent

 4

two months r e v i s i n g the book and r e d u c i n g i t s length, after which

R o n a l d Massey, a : l i t e r a r y a g e n t , succeeded i n p l a c i n g i t , i n A p r i l

1923, w i t h John Long.

Presumably s h a r i n g the s e n t i m e n t s of L o r e J e n s o n , the composer-

h e r o i n e of S p h i n x ,

Of c o u r s e i t ' s p o t - b o i l i n g ' . But i f I d o n ' t b o i l

my p o t , a r e y o u g o i n g t o b o i l i t f o r me? I suppose
y o u t h i n k i t ' s bad a r t t o have a p o t ! An a r t i s t
ought to be above such t r i f l e s as food (Sph 7 2 ) ,

L i n d s a y s t r u g g l e d w i t h the i n t r a c t a b l e m a t e r i a l o f "The A n c i e n t Tragedy'

w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w o r k i n g on a . c o m p l e t e l y u n v i s i o n a r y romance of one
3

musketeer, A d v e n t u r e s of M o n s i e u r de M a i l l v . T h i s i s unashamedly a

p o t - b o i l e r , but a t l e a s t L i n d s a y seems to have found the w r i t i n g o f it

f a i r l y easy. I t was completed between October 1922 and May 1923, and

a c c e p t e d by the s e v e n t h p u b l i s h e r t o whom i t was s e n t , Andrew M e l r o s e ,

who brought i t out i n E n g l a n d i n 1926, and one y e a r l a t e r , as A B l a d e

f o r S a l e , i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . L i n d s a y had by then w r i t t e n (February

t o J u l y 1924) and r e v i s e d 'The V i o l e t A p p l e , ' w h i c h was n o t t o f i n d a

p u b l i s h e r at a l l . Thus ended a p e r i o d of enormous c r e a t i v i t y , w i t h a

remarkable l a c k o f s u c c e s s . . L i n d s a y might have been f o r g i v e n f o r g i v i n g

in. He d i d n o t . H i s n e x t p u b l i c a t i o n , however, o f t h e ' m o n s t e r ' (L 59)

D e v i l ' s T o r , was t o be h i s last.

In 1928 the L i n d s a y s moved from C o r n w a l l t o F e r r i n g , i n S u s s e x ,

where D a v i d r e w r o t e 'The A n c i e n t Tragedy' as D e v i l ' s Tor and t r i e d ,

unsuccessfully, to w r i t e a n o t h e r e n t i t l e d ' W i t c h . ' Though P u t n a m ' s ,

who p u b l i s h e d D e v i l ' s Tor i n 1932,

seem to have made a r e a l e f f o r t t o
4
s e l l i t , and though the book r e c e i v e d some f a v o r a b l e r e v i e w s , sales
 5

were poor enough t o d i s c o u r a g e anyone from r e p u b l i s h i n g A Voyage o r

r i s k i n g another book by an e v i d e n t l y doomed w r i t e r . The r e a l i z a t i o n

of t h i s was slow to dawn on a L i n d s a y s t i l l i n t e n s e l y committed t o

h i s dream. He wrote t o P u t n a m ' s :

F o r my n e x t p l a n s , I can o n l y say t h a t I am
at p r e s e n t b e g i n n i n g to see where they s h o u l d
lie. Between the p h i l o s o p h i e s o f A r c t u r u s
and D e v i l ' s Tor t h e r e seems t o be a chasm o f
contradiction. As both books were s i n c e r e l y
and i n d e p e n d e n t l y w r i t t e n , and were l o n g
matured, no doubt the c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s more
a p p a r e n t than r e a l ; and i t seems t o me t h a t
a l a r g e r s y n t h e s i s can be f o u n d , t o i n c l u d e
both philosophies. But i n t h a t c a s e , a new
and h i g h e r t r u t h s h o u l d emerge; and t h i s i s
what I am a f t e r (TSG 30) .

Though he worked on a new book, 'Witch'.—Pick c a l l s i t a "strange,

powerful, creaking, beautiful, archaic, u n w o r l d l y , u n e a r t h l y book"

(TSG 3 0 ) — u n t i l about 1939, t h e p u b l i c was n e v e r b l e s s e d by i t s ap-

pearance. T y p i c a l l y , though he had much e a r l i e r r e a l i s e d t h a t A r c t u r u s

"was w r i t t e n i n r a t h e r an u n p o p u l a r s t y l e " (L 4 0 ) , i t was t h e p h i l o -

sophy w h i c h m o t i v a t e d h i m to w r i t e , i n s p i t e o f t h e s t y l e w h i c h p r e -

v e n t e d the books from s e l l i n g .

We must remember t h a t L i n d s a y had s p e n t many o f the f i r s t forty

y e a r s o f h i s l i f e dreaming of and p r e p a r i n g f o r the time when he w o u l d

' t a k e up l i t e r a t u r e ' . He had f i n a l l y done so l e s s because he thought

he c o u l d w r i t e — h e seems t o have attempted no c r e a t i v e work b e f o r e

Arcturus—than because he f e l t he had something t o s a y , had a v i s i o n

t o communicate. That v i s i o n was one w h i c h c o n t i n u a l l y opposed a s u b -

 6

l i m e and i m p o r t a n t ' o t h e r ' w o r l d t o the v u l g a r and t r i v i a l 'real'

w o r l d i n w h i c h he had been a b u s i n e s s s u c c e s s . But the v i s i o n , em-

b o d i e d so f o r c e f u l l y i n t h e t o t a l l y unambiguous^ A r c t u r u s , had a p p a r -

e n t l y not been u n d e r s t o o d , and the commercial f a i l u r e of h i s n o v e l s

must i n i t s e l f have been e x t r e m e l y discouraging.

After Arcturus, therefore, i n o r d e r to communicate, i n o r d e r t o

make p a l a t a b l e h i s message, L i n d s a y began t o compromise, moving f u r t h e r

and f u r t h e r , book by book, from h i s o r i g i n a l , i f u n r e p e a t a b l e , vision.

A f t e r A r c t u r u s human a c t i o n b e g i n s t o count f o r l e s s , w h i l e F a t e o r

Cosmic D e s t i n y p l a y s a b i g g e r p a r t . The heroes become g r a d u a l l y more

emasculated and l e s s i n d e p e n d e n t — o f t h e i r a u t h o r as w e l l as of t h e i r

s u r r o u n d i n g s — a n d the h e r o i n e s become f r i g i d l y wooden. M a s k u l l had

fought h i s b l o o d y way a c r o s s Tormance t o d e f e a t i n t t h e arms of the

q u i v e r i n g mass o f p o w e r f u l f e m i n i n i t y t h a t was S u l l e n b o d e . Judge and

I s b e l i n The Haunted Woman, however, f a t e h a v i n g thrown them t o g e t h e r ,

a r e b o t h d e f e a t e d by the t r i v i a l mechanics of a s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n :

though they are ' s o u l - m a t e s ' i n the s p i r i t w o r l d , i n ' r e a l ' l i f e she

i s a l r e a d y engaged t o someone e l s e . F u r t h e r , i n s t e a d of a whole new

p l a n e t and enough s t r a n g e l i f e forms to s t o c k a u n i v e r s e , the dream

w o r l d they can i n h a b i t i s l i m i t e d to a s m a l l s e c t i o n of g a r d e n , seen

from an enchanted t o w e r , and c r e a t e d n o t by the gods b u t by a man w i t h

a k i n d of b a s s v i o l . T h i s garden they can i n h a b i t o n l y b r i e f l y b e f o r e

it crumbles around them ([.'she h e r s e l f was no more than h i s dream!" [THW

167]). I n S p h i n x , w h i c h , l i k e The Haunted Woman, n e v e r gets o f f the

 7

g r o u n d , the i n v e n t o r , N i c h o l a s , and the composer, L o r e , do n o t even

r e c o g n i s e each o t h e r as s o u l mates on e a r t h ; they are o n l y u n i t e d , at

the end o f the book, i n a dream a f t e r b o t h t h e i r d e a t h s . The dreamer

i n t h i s case, S t u r t (but c f . S u r t u r i n A Voyage and S u r t i n The E l d e r

Edda), L o r e ' s f a t h e r , i s n e i t h e r god n o r a n t i q u e phantom, and h i s

dream i s merely a way o f s e e i n g i n t o the h i g h e r w o r l d , n e i t h e r a p a r t

nor a creator of i t . I f the f a t e d c h a r a c t e r s i n D e v i l ' s Tor, Ingrid

and S a l t f l e e t , seem more i m p r e s s i v e , i t i s m a i n l y because they a r e ,

a f t e r a l l , mere p u p p e t s , e x i s t i n g o n l y t o be brought t o g e t h e r , no

m a t t e r what, by the m a c h i n a t i o n s o f an a l l - p o w e r f u l Cosmic D e s t i n y .

The p o i n t i s not t h a t L i n d s a y ' s l a t e r works* are n e c e s s a r i l y i n -

f e r i o r as l i t e r a t u r e t o A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , but t h a t they are

n a r r o w e r and o f a l e s s i m p r e s s i v e s c a l e as v i s i o n , and i t i s as a

v i s i o n a r y , r a t h e r than as a w r i t e r , t h a t L i n d s a y i s i m p o r t a n t . At

l e a s t 150 pages (pages 233-388, between the d i s c o v e r y of D r a p i e r ' s

body and I n g r i d 1 s " d r e a m l i k e e n t r a n c e " ) c o u l d be e x c i s e d , if replaced

by a c o n c i s e p l o t summary, from the stodgy i n t e r i o r of D e v i l ' s T o r .

But a p a r t from the ' m o n s t e r ' , L i n d s a y ' s o t h e r p u b l i s h e d works have a

charm of t h e i r own. The Haunted Woman, L i n d s a y ' s second book, has

been p r e f e r r e d t o A r c t u r u s by V i s i a k , and, l i k e the t h i r d n o v e l , S p h i n x ,

i t i s at l e a s t economically t o l d . They are b o t h about dream w o r l d s ,

l i k e A Voyage, b u t i n these the dream i s a s m a l l b u t v i t a l p a r t of the

' r e a l ' world, i . e . the o r d i n a r y , everyday w o r l d p u r v e y e d by such n o v e l -

i s t s as C. P . Snow. On the Snavian l e v e l ( t o borrow a term from

 8

Dr. M e r i v a l e ) i n The Haunted Woman and Sphinx we have the suburban,

upper m i d d l e c l a s s E n g l i s h w o r l d of v i l l a s and c o u n t r y h o u s e s , wooded

walks, parties, people ' a l i g h t i n g ' from t a x i - c a b s and t r a i n s . This

w o r l d , h i s a s p i r i n g L l o y d ' s underwriter's world, Lindsay t r i e s to i n -

fuse w i t h a sense of the h i g h e r r e a l i t y of an unseen cosmic w o r l d o f

transcendent importance.

In The Haunted Woman, the most i m p o r t a n t ' c h a r a c t e r ' is Runhill

C o u r t , a manor house w i t h a haunted upper s t o r y (improbably supposed

t o date from Saxon t i m e s ) . But t h i s i s n o t a ghost s t o r y , and U l f ' s

Tower i s n o t haunted b u t enchanted. The s t a i r s l e a d i n g up t o i t can

o n l y be d i s c o v e r e d by the s p i r i t u a l l y s e n s i t i v e who, when t h e y c l i m b

them, f i n d themselves i n a new w o r l d , where t h e i r r e a l , r a t h e r than

t h e i r everyday s o c i a l , c h a r a c t e r comes t o the f o r e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , on

descending the s t a i r s t h e i n s i g h t i s l o s t , and the e x p e r i e n c e forgotten.

Isbel, the t r a g i c h e r o i n e of the s t o r y , i s engaged t o M a r s h a l l , and the

p l o t t u r n s on h e r meeting w i t h the a g i n g w i d o w e r , Judge, i n U l f ' s Tower.

There they are " e n a b l e d t e m p o r a r i l y t o drop the mask of c o n v e n t i o n "

(THW 8 4 ) , to see each o t h e r as they r e a l l y a r e , and they f a l l i n l o v e ;

t h e i r s p i r i t u a l n a t u r e s are i n e s s e n t i a l harmony. But descending

a g a i n t o the everyday w o r l d , to t h e body s o c i a l , they f o r g e t the

" s p i r i t u a l lesson"((THW 84) they have learned.

From the window o f one of the t o w e r ' s rooms, Judge and I s b e l look

out onto an a n c i e n t l a n d s c a p e , from w h i c h t h e f a m i l i a r , modern l a n d -

marks of " f i e l d s , hedgerows, roads, lanes, h o u s e s , had v a n i s h e d

 9

entirely" (THW 1 3 0 ) . A m o t i o n l e s s f i g u r e who " l o o k s l i k e an a n c i e n t

Saxon come t o l i f e " (THW 131) s i t s w i t h " h i s back to the h o u s e " (THW

131) p l a y i n g what sounds l i k e " a bass v i o l " (THW 1 2 7 ) : "Isbel could

almost fancy i t t o be the v o i c e of the l a n d s c a p e . I t was h a u n t i n g l y

beautiful, and f u l l of queer s u r p r i s e s " (THW 1 3 2 ) . I s b e l , by now on

familiar, f i r s t - n a m e terms w i t h Judge i n the enchanted rooms, asks,

" H e n r y , c a n ' t y o u u n d e r s t a n d t h a t a l l t h i s has a meaning? Don't you

see that i t ' s c a r r y i n g us h i g h e r and h i g h e r ? " (THW 1 3 8 ) . But l e a v i n g

the rooms she f o r g e t s the meaning, she r e t u r n s t o everyday r e a l i t y :

" A r e we dreaming now, o r were we dreaming b e f o r e ? " (THW 1 4 1 ) .

I s b e l i s thus t o r n between h e r s p i r i t u a l b e t r o t h e d , Judge, and

h e r s o c i a l one, M a r s h a l l , between the a n t i q u e s p r i n g - t i m e w o r l d around

the m u s i c i a n and the v u l g a r England o f the e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ,

between the dream and the r e a l i t y . When she f i n a l l y gets i n t o the

dream l a n d s c a p e , and meets Judge t h e r e , t h e y r e c o g n i s e t h e i r j o i n t

d e s t i n y , b u t f o r h e r i t q u i c k l y gets d a r k e r and s t a r t s t o get m i s t y .

W. H . Auden n o t e s i n The Enchafed F l o o d t h a t "The degree o f v i s i b i l i t y =

the degree o f c o n s c i o u s knowledge. I.e., f o g and m i s t mean doubt and

self-delusion."^ F o r I s b e l , the v i s i o n b e g i n s to fade:

' H e n r y , I ' m g o i n g ! ' she s a i d , q u i e t l y d e t a c h i n g

h e r s e l f from h i s e m b r a c e . . . . 'Everything's f a l l i n g
back....'
His face f e l l i n alarm. ' W h a t ' s the m a t t e r ?
What's happening to y o u ? . . . '
' W e ' r e r e t u r n i n g t o the o l d s t a t e . The s u n ' s
gone i n , and i t ' s growing m i s t y and c o l d . . . . Oh,
c a n ' t y o u see i t ? '
'No, I c a n ' t . T h e r e ' s no d i f f e r e n c e a t a l l —
the day i s as g l o r i o u s as ever i t w a s . . . . Exert
your w i l l . * . . . ' (THW 164).
 10

I s b e l l o s e s h e r v i s i o n o f the enchanted dream w o r l d , and goes back to

c a l l i n g Henry " M r . Judge" (THW 1 6 5 ) . He goes to wake up the s l e e p i n g

m u s i c i a n , whose

back was t u r n e d towards h e r , so t h a t she c o u l d

n o t see h i s f a c e , b u t H e n r y , who was s t a n d i n g
e r e c t and m o t i o n l e s s beyond, was l o o k i n g r i g h t
i n t o i t , a n d , from h i s e x p r e s s i o n , i t was as
though he were b e h o l d i n g some a p p a l l i n g v i s i o n !
(THW 1 6 7 ) .

J u s t b e f o r e the b a l l o o n comes down i n G. K. C h e s t e r t o n ' s o p t i m i s t i c

nightmare fantasy, The Man Who Was Thursday, G a b r i e l Syme c r i e s "with

extraordinary emphasis":

S h a l l I t e l l y o u the s e c r e t of the whole w o r l d ?

I t i s t h a t we have o n l y known the back o f the
w o r l d . We see e v e r y t h i n g from b e h i n d , and i t
l o o k s b r u t a l . That i s n o t a t r e e but the back
of a t r e e . That i s n o t a c l o u d , b u t the back
of a c l o u d . Can y o u n o t see t h a t e v e r y t h i n g
i s s t o o p i n g and h i d i n g a f a c e ? I f we c o u l d
o n l y get round i n f r o n t — ( 8 ) .

When, i n L i n d s a y ' s p e s s i m i s t i c dream book, Henry does " g e t round i n

f r o n t " he f i n d s t h a t t o be more b r u t a l and " a p p a l l i n g " than the f r o n t .

What he sees must be the e q u i v a l e n t c o l the v u l g a r g r i n of C r y s t a l m a n ,

t h e mask o f d e a t h , f o r he s i n k s t o t h e ground, dead. Isbel faints.

M a r s h a l l comes a l o n g t o f i n d J u d g e ' s body, and the book ends w i t h the

f a i n t promise of I s b e l and M a r s h a l l ' s re-engagementaarid, presumably,

marriage.

S p h i n x appeared i n 1923 i n John L o n g ' s s e r i e s of 'The L a t e s t

L i b r a r y N o v e l s ' , among which were The M i s s i n g M i l l i o n by Edgar

W a l l a c e , The Young P i t c h e r by Zane G r e y , and many now even more com-

p l e t e l y forgotten others. The book opens w i t h the sedate a r r i v a l

 11

of N i c h o l a s Cabot at N e w l e i g h S t a t i o n on h i s way t o Mereway. Nicholas

has j u s t been r e s c u e d from b e i n g a l e d g e r c l e r k by an i n h e r i t a n c e o f

^55,000. When asked why he d i d n o t choose " a more c o n g e n i a l career"

he c u r t l y r e p l i e s , " I wanted to r e t a i n any o r i g i n a l i t y I might p o s s e s s "

(Sph 1 4 ) . Now, f r e e to pursue h i s r e a l i n t e r e s t i n chemistry, Nicholas

i s p e r f e c t i n g a k i n d o f c h e m i c a l - c l o c k w o r k d e v i c e f o r r e c o r d i n g and

p l a y i n g back dreams. H o p e f u l l y t h e s e w i l l be deep dreams: !'we some-

times have v i s i o n s , which are i d e n t i c a l " (Sph 3 3 ) . They are "the

dreams we dream d u r i n g deep s l e e p and remember n o t h i n g of afterwards.

The l i g h t dreams of the f r i n g e of c o n s c i o u s n e s s a r e a d i f f e r e n t thing

altogether" (Sph 3 3 ) . The S p h i n x , N i c h o l a s t e l l s u s , was " t h e goddess

of dreams" (Sph 3 2 ) , and ' S p h i n x ' i s the t i t l e n o t o n l y o f the whole

book but a l s o o f Lore J e n s o n ' s f i n e s t p i e c e of m u s i c .

A youngish ex-ledger c l e r k w i t h £ 5 5 , 0 0 0 must, i t w i l l be u n i -

v e r s a l l y acknowledged, be i n want of a wife. N i c h o l a s has a bevy of

b e a u t i e s to choose f r o m , and the ' r e a l ' or n o v e l i s t i c a c t i o n t u r n s on

his relationships w i t h S t u r t ' s t h r e e daughters—members o f the f a m i l y

w i t h which N i c h o l a s i s a p a y i n g guest—and two l a d i e s who l i v e n e a r b y ,

L o r e Jenson the composer (who, we e v e n t u a l l y d i s c o v e r , is Sturt's

i l l e g i t i m a t e daughter), and M r s . C e l i a H a n t i s h , an a t t r a c t i v e widow

and femme f a t a l e . A t l e a s t , I t h i n k t h i s i s what S t u r t means when

he t e l l s N i c h o l a s , " I do not t h i n k i t js t o m a l i g n h e r t o p l a c e h e r

i n the f a t a l c a t e g o r y " (Sph 6 7 ) . She makes a l l the r u n n i n g , even

t a k i n g N i c h o l a s o f f i n t o the woods (Sph 1 2 0 ) . Later, ' I n the W i l d e r -

 12

ness' (Ch. XV) o f which C e l i a says " I keep i t f o r my men f r i e n d s .

Men always f e e l cramped i n a g a r d e n " (Sph 2 1 7 ) , they become engaged

(Sph 220).

On the s p i r i t u a l l e v e l , however, N i c h o l a s ' s t r u e s o u l mate, though

he n e v e r r e a l i s e s i t , i s Lore J e n s o n . The second dream w h i c h N i c h o l a s

manages to r e c o r d h i n t s a t t h i s . L i k e the f i r s t dream, he p l a y s it

back i n E v e l y n ' s presence so t h a t we e x p e r i e n c e h i s (male) dream t h r o u g h

h e r :(female) s e n s i b i l i t y . The N i c h o l a s o f the dream i s w a l k i n g through

a wood when he meets L o r e , " b u t not the Lore o f everyday life. This

L o r e , who g l i d e d towards h e r [ E v e l y n ] w i t h such a w f u l smoothness and

r e g u l a r i t y , was n o t human. She was a s p i r i t " " (Sph 159). 'Evelyn'

"was moved by such g r i e f and h o r r o r t h a t i t was as i f Lore were some-

one v e r y dear t o h e r . " Lore c r i e s o u t , "Do h e l p me b e f o r e i t ' s too

late! I t w i l l soon be too l a t e ! " (Sph 1 5 9 ) , and the v i s i o n a b r u p t l y

vanishes. Nicholas realises this " i s n ' t a fantasy, l i k e ordinary

dreams. It's an o r a c l e . A message, i f y o u l i k e " (Sph 160). But it

i s not a message he seems to understand.

I n the t h i r d o f h i s dreams t h a t N i c h o l a s shows h e r , E v e l y n f i n d s

herself " a g a i n i n t h a t wood" (Sph 2 0 1 ) . L o r e i s " b e i n g moved u n -

willingly" (Sph 202) by some " t e r r i b l e unseen f o r c e " (Sph 203) "to-

wards [a] p o o l , which was i n h e r d i r e c t p a t h " (Sph2202). The agent

i s e v i d e n t l y M a u r i c e , N i c h o l a s ' s workman and E v e l y n ' s b e a u , who i s

"leaning against a t r e e " : "he was w e a r i n g h i s o r d i n a r y c l o t h e s , but

h i s f a c e was the f a c e o f a d e v i l " (Sph 2 0 3 ) . In the f i n a l s e c t i o n of

 13

t h i s c o n t i n u i n g d r e a m - s a g a — a f t e r N i c h o l a s and M r s . H a n t i s h have

become e n g a g e d — ' E v e l y n ' wakes from a swoon aware t h a t " M a u r i c e had

k i l l e d L o r e " (Sph 233):

I t t o o k shape i n h e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s as an immense
f a c t which f i l l e d the whole u n i v e r s e , and which
w o u l d r e n d e r a l l j o y and i m o c e n c e i m p o s s i b l e
t h e r e a f t e r , f o r everyone. By no p o s s i b i l i t y
c o u l d t h i n g s be the same i n t h e f u t u r e as t h e y
had been i n the p a s t . The i d e a l w o r l d was ended,
and r e a l i t y had b u r s t i n t o t a k e p o s s e s s i o n (Sph
233).

The dream i s p r o p h e t i c . Lore drowns h e r s e l f . Maurice's cigarette

case i s found a t the scene o f the ' c r i m e ' and s u s p i c i o n f a l l s on h i m .

In s p i t e of the dream, when q u e s t i o n e d N i c h o l a s does a l l he can t o

a v o i d i n c r i m i n a t i n g M a u r i c e , to the p o i n t o f l y i n g (Sph 2 6 6 ) , and

t h i s leads to h i s separation from M r s . H a n t i s h , who i s c o n v i n c e d o f

Maurice's g u i l t .

Now E v e l y n t a k e s a hand. She g i v e s N i c h o l a s an (unfortunately

fatal) overdose o f s l e e p i n g c r y s t a l s t o keep h i m q u i e t w h i l e she t a k e s

the dream r e c o r d e r t o h e r f a t h e r ' s bedside. He, S t u r t , i s j u s t re-

c o v e r i n g from the e f f e c t s of the death of h i s i l l e g i t i m a t e daughter.

In h i s dream, E v e l y n f i n d s h e r s e l f l i s t e n i n g t o " g r a v e m u s i c " i n " t h e

o t h e r w o r l d " (Sph 3 0 1 ) : " s h e made no attempt t o a n a l y s e t h i s life

i n t o i t s elements. She had no s t a n d a r d o f c o m p a r i s o n , f o r the common

l i f e had p a s s e d from h e r " (Sph 3 0 3 ) . "Perhaps she had become trans-

p o r t e d to a new p l a n e t which was s t i l l i n i t s p r e h i s t o r i c p e r i o d .

The dusky, w i l d l y - b e a u t i f u l landscape seemed the h a b i t a t of spirits

 14

and gods" (jSgh 304). She l o o k s down i n t o " a s m a l l , c i r c u l a r p o o l i n

the naked s a n d , " "a natural w e l l " (E>p_h 3 0 6 ) . Under the w a t e r i s "a

r o c k y t u n n e l " a l o n g w h i c h " v e r y s m a l l " Lore i s " w a l k i n g and s t u m b l i n g "

(Sph 307):

She was midway through the t u n n e l , and seemed i n

deep d i s t r e s s a t h e r i n a b i l i t y t o f i n d a passage
o u t . . . . The g r e a t e s t a n g u i s h , however, appeared
on h e r f e a t u r e s as o f t e n as she t u r n e d them up-
wards to the s k y , as seen through the w a t e r s u r -
face. The r e a l i s a t i o n o f the l i g h t , f r e s h , f r e e ,
b e a u t i f u l w o r l d , l y i n g i m m e d i a t e l y overhead, w h i c h
she was unable t o r e a c h , seemed to be more than
she c o u l d b e a r (Sph 3 0 7 - 0 8 ) .

This i s the r e a l L o r e , but she cannot s p r i n g up through the s u r f a c e

of the p o o l because of h e r shadow-selves b e l o w . "Underneath the r o c k

t u n n e l " (Sph 308) i s a n o t h e r l e v e l o f r e a l i t y , where L o r e w a l k s the

" f o r e s t avenue" (Sph 308) o f N i c h o l a s ' s dream. Below t h i s shadow

Lore i s " a t h i r d L o r e , the shadow of a shadow" (Sph 3 0 9 ) . - T h i s third

Lore i s the Lore o f 'real' l i f e , w a l k i n g by a r i v e r w i t h M a u r i c e

Ferreira.

Each o f the Lores is

w a l k i n g a l o n g h e r e n c l o s e d p a s s a g e , w h i c h was as
a p r i s o n t o h e r , each v a i n l y s t r u g g l i n g towards
the open w o r l d w h i c h n e v e r came, each d e s p a i r i n g
and a g o n i s e d , but [none] a p p a r e n t l y aware o f the
other's existence. . . . The r e a l Lore o f the
t u n n e l w i s h e d to escape i n t o the f r e e w o r l d w h i c h
she c o u l d see above h e r , whereas the shadow Lore
o f the f o r e s t avenue l o n g e d o n l y to escape from
h e r confinement. She was aware o f no o t h e r p l a c e .
And t h a t , p e r h a p s , was what c o n s t i t u t e d h e r
shadowhood (Sph 3 0 9 ) .

A c t i o n on the t h r e e p l a n e s i s s i m u l t a n e o u s . When the r e a l Lore d e c i d e s

 15

t o " s t e p " through the s u r f a c e of t h e p o o l , i n t o t h e " f r e e , pure atmos-

phere o f the open w o r l d " (Sph 311), t h e shadow L o r e s drown t h e m s e l v e s :

" t h e i r l e a p s i n t o the w a t e r were n o t w i l l e d , but n e c e s s i t a t e d " (Sph

312).

Once f r e e of h e r body, once out o f n a t u r e , L o r e embraces h e r

father. Then she p o i n t s t o " A dark coast . . . , m i l e s d i s t a n t , across

the sea" (Sph 313) where she must go, w i t h o u t h i m . " Y o u are n o t h e r e ,

d e a r ! " she t e l l h i m . " I am h e r e , because I am dead; but y o u are i n

y o u r body, dreaming e v e r y t h i n g . " He w i l l f o l l o w when the time comes.

She i s no l o n g e r t r a p p e d i n the p r i s o n o f the body; most i m p o r t a n t l y ,

she has l e a r n e d t h a t she was n o t r u n n i n g away from M a u r i c e , but "to-

wards something a l l t h e t t i m e " (Sph 3 1 3 ) . Then N i c h o l a s a p p e a r s , riding

one horse and l e a d i n g a n o t h e r . Together they r i d e t o the distant

land, the b e a s t s q u i t t i n g " t h e rude s e a , t o t a k e f l i g h t i n the upper

air" (Sph 3 1 5 ) . Lore and N i c h o l a s have escaped from the sea o f m a t t e r

to be u n i t e d , a t l a s t , after death.

In S p h i n x and The Haunted Woman the fundamental elements ( i f not

t h e i r moral s i g n i f i c a n c e ) o f L i n d s a y ' s cosmology a r e made e x t r a o r d i -

narily clear. Firstly, the r e a l w o r l d i s t h e w o r l d o f the s p i r i t , of

w h i c h the ' r e a l ' ( s o - c a l l e d r e a l ) w o r l d o f m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s i s but a

shadow. The r e a l w o r l d i s c o m p l e t e l y and i n e l u c t a b l y beyond: beyond

our comprehension and beyond our i m a g i n a t i o n . "That i s t o s a y , an

i n c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d " w r i t e s L i n d s a y (TSG 4 2 ) . However, though t h e r e

may be "an unbroken l i n e o f " shadow w o r l d s were our eyes a c u t e enough

 16

t o see them (Sph 3 1 3 ) , t h e r e i s a w o r l d we know w h i c h , by analogy,

w i l l h e l p us to c o n c e i v e o f t h e i n c o n c e i v a b l e ; t h a t i s , the w o r l d o f

the d r e a m - v i s i o n , which stands i n r e l a t i o n s t o our w o r l d as the r e a l

w o r l d stands t o i t . Thus L i n d s a y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y works on t h r e e

levels: r e a l w o r l d , s p i r i t w o r l d of haunted rooms and dream g a r d e n s ,

everyday w o r l d ; r e a l w o r l d , s p i r i t w o r l d of deep dreams, everyday

world: i n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s , the w o r l d s of K r a g , N i g h t s p o r e and

Maskull respectively.

A n o t h e r way of e x p r e s s i n g the i n e x p r e s s i b l e — f o r w h i c h i t is

t h e r e f o r e a s y m b o l — i s through m u s i c . Lindsay w r i t e s , "Music i s a

microcosm o f the f e e l i n g s . I t e x p r e s s e s them a l l , y e t o n l y as A r t ;

i t i s n o t the f e e l i n g s themselves" (TSG 1 3 ) . That i s , i t is free

of t h e ' r e a l ' w o r l d , though i t s t a n d s i n r e l a t i o n t o i t . In fact,

literally, f o r L i n d s a y , "music i s the e x p e r i e n c e of a supernatural

w o r l d " (TSG 1 3 ) . M u s i c i n L i n d s a y ' s books i s a gateway to the h i g h e r

w o r l d , as the p l a y i n g of the man i n the g a r d e n , or L o r e ' s 'Sphinx'.

L i n d s a y h i m s e l f l o v e d the music o f M o z a r t , Brahms, a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y ,

Beethoven (TSG 2 3 ) . It i n s p i r e d him. A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s b e g i n s

w i t h a copy o f the Temple Scene from The Magic F l u t e , w h i c h L i n d s a y

g r e a t l y admired (TSG 1 3 ) , though he a l l o w s F a u l l t o v u l g a r i s e it.

Robert B a r n e s , a m u s i c i a n f r i e n d of L i n d s a y , t e l l s us that

On r e a d i n g the c h a p t e r 'Wombflash F o r e s t ' I was

always shaken w i t h deep e m o t i o n . He t o l d me t h a t
he was i n s p i r e d t o so w r i t e t h a t c h a p t e r by t h e
5 t h Symphony ( B e e t h o v e n ) — e s p e c i a l l y t h e drumming
passage l i n k i n g the s c h e r z o t o t h e f i n a l e (TSG 2 3 ) .
 17

In A Voyage to A r c t u r u s t h e r e i s a m u s i c i a n , E a r t h r i d , who p l a y s

w i t h shapes as o r d i n a r y m u s i c i a n s do w i t h n o t e s . On h i s instrument,

M a s k u l l a l m o s t manages t o c r e a t e M u s p e l .

In h i s t h e o r y of M u s i c , L i n d s a y seems to f o l l o w Schopenhauer

quite closely. In The World as W i l l and Idea Schopenhauer takes the

neo-Platonic l i n e that art " r e p e a t s or reproduces the e t e r n a l Ideas

grasped through pure c o n t e m p l a t i o n " ( T h i r d Book, s e c . 36). Of course,

Schopenhauer r e a l i s e s that "the (Platonic) Ideas a r e the adequate

o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n of w i l l w h i l e music " i s e n t i r e l y independent of the

phenomenal w o r l d " : i . e . music i s independent o f the w o r l d w h i c h

objectifies the I d e a s . Therefore, Schopenhauer d e c i d e s , music must

be "as d i r e c t an o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n and copy o f the whole w i l l as the

world i t s e l f , n a y , even as the I d e a s , whose m u l t i p l i e d m a n i f e s t a t i o n

constitutes the w o r l d of i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g s . M u s i c i s thus by no means

l i k e the o t h e r a r t s , the copy o f the I d e a s , , b u t the Copy of the will

itself, whose o b j e c t i v i t y the Ideas a r e . " Schopenhauer's conclusion

i s that music

does n o t t h e r e f o r e e x p r e s s t h i s o r t h a t p a r t i c -
u l a r and d e f i n i t e j o y , t h i s or t h a t s o r r o w , o r
p a i n , or h o r r o r , o r d e l i g h t , o r m e r r i m e n t , or
peace of m i n d ; but j o y , s o r r o w , p a i n , h o r r o r ,
d e l i g h t , m e r r i m e n t , peace of mind themselves
( T h i r d Book, s e c . 5 2 ) .

Lindsay's v i e w , quoted i n the p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h ^ , i s c l e a r l y a p a r a -

phrase of t h i s . F o r b o t h of them, music " e x h i b i t s i t s e l f as the meta-

p h y s i c a l t o e v e r y t h i n g p h y s i c a l i n the w o r l d " ( T h i r d ^ B o o k , s e c . 52):

music i s i t s own w o r l d , and i t i s a h i g h e r w o r l d than the p h y s i c a l o r

phenomenal one.
 18

T h i r d l y , Lindsay u t i l i s e s the many o p p o s i t i o n s which are common

t o w e s t e r n c u l t u r e , w h i c h i s " n o t o f one European c o u n t r y but o f

9

Europe" as T. S. E l i o t says o f D a n t e ' s . I n d e e d , Dante i s the f o u n t a i n -

head o f European a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , and i t s g r e a t e s t p r a c t i -

tioner:
He l i v e d i n an age i n which men s t i l l saw v i s i o n s .
I t was a p s y c h o l o g i c a l h a b i t , the t r i c k o f which
we have f o r g o t t e n , but as good as any o f our own.
We have n o t h i n g b u t dreams, and we have f o r g o t t e n
t h a t s e e i n g v i s i o n s — a p r a c t i c e now r e l e g a t e d to
the a b e r r a n t and uneducated—was once a more
s i g n i f i c a n t , i n t e r e s t i n g , and d i s c i p l i n e d k i n d
o f dreaming. We take i t f o r g r a n t e d t h a t our
dreams s p r i n g from below: p o s s i b l y the q u a l i t y
of our dreams s u f f e r s i n r c o n s e q u e n c e (10).
11

Dreams are v i s u a l phenomena: "Dante's i s a v i s u a l imagination"

and s o , i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , i s L i n d s a y ' s . In a l l e g o r i c a l dream

f a n t a s y ' y o u are what y o u s e e ' : the image i s the meaning and the

meaning i s m o r a l . The e x p r e s s i o n of t h e m o r a l p o s i t i v e v a l u e o f good,

i n L i n d s a y as much as i n D a n t e , i s l i g h t , w h i c h has two n e g a t i o n s —

dark and heavy. As n a r r a t o r - D a n t e c l i m b s , e v e r y t h i n g gets b r i g h t e r

and he gets l i g h t e r , w h i l e the day darkens f o r I s b e l when she loses

the v i s i o n , and the o l d e s t p a r t o f R u n h i l l must be the h i g h e s t , though

t h i s i s not a p h y s i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y . S i m i l a r l y , Lore c l i m b s out o f the

water i n t o a ' h i g h e r ' world i n both senses. Mountains and towers are

ziggurats, l a d d e r s t o heaven, There i s U l f ' s Tower and t h e observatory

at S t a r k n e s s . Mountains are h i n t e d a t by such names as R u n h i l l , Devil's

T o r , Tormance, A l p p a i n , a n d even K r a g . These o p p o s i t i o n s form p a t t e r n s

 19

o f imagery i n n o v e l s such as Sphinx and The Haunted Woman, but they

are the v e r y s t u f f of a l l e g o r i e s such as A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s .

L i n d s a y ' s acknowledged p i e c e of e n t e r t a i n m e n t , Adventures o f

M. de M a i l l y , a minor c l a s s i c i n i t s genre, i s h i s o n l y book which

does not draw on the c e n t r a l , c o s m o l o g i c a l v i s i o n o r the u n d e r l y i n g

i c o n o g r a p h y o f European c u l t u r e . It is a detective story-cum-historical

romance. I n The Strange Genius o f D a v i d L i n d s a y W i l s o n l e a v e s i t "out

of account because i t i s w r i t t e n p u r e l y as e n t e r t a i n m e n t " (TSG 7 5 ) ,

w h i l e V i s i a k d e s c r i b e s i t as " a s u r p r i s i n g f r e a k , or s p o r t , a complete

d e p a r t u r e from L i n d s a y ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v e i n " which " c a n n o t be c o n -

s i d e r e d i n the body o f [ h i s ] work" (TSG 1 3 5 ) . In f a c t , i t can.

Adventures o f M. de M a i l l y b e g i n s q u i t e w e l l , a t l e a s t f o u r times.

F i r s t the a d v e n t u r e r i s ' e m p l o y e d ' t o p r e v e n t the S i e u r de Jambac from

b e i n g f o r c i b l y wed to a woman he does n o t — s h e b e i n g as o l d and u g l y

as he—want t o m a r r y . MaiMy f a i l s , and a f t e r t w e n t y - f o u r pages the

action peters out. Then he i s h i r e d to b r i n g a younger man t o t h e

a l t a r w i t h a woman b o t h younger and more a t t r a c t i v e than h i m s e l f .

Mailly fails again (though he makes some money by the way) and, after

t h i r t y - t h r e e pages, the p l o t a g a i n r e t u r n s t o r e s t . His next assign-

ment i n v o l v e s u n r a v e l l i n g the c o m p l i c a t i o n s f o l l o w i n g upon a man

m a r r y i n g the wrong h a l f of a p a i r o f t w i n s . Ditto after a.further

s i x t y - t h r e e pages, d i t t o .

The r e a d e r , of c o u r s e , i s n o t tempted t o c o m p l a i n . He i s reading

a book o f ' a d v e n t u r e s ' (originally, 'enterprises'), so t h e i r e p i s o d i c

 20

n a t u r e does n o t b o t h e r h i m , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e the s t o r i e s are exciting

and w e l l t o l d . A c r i t i c obsessed w i t h ' o r g a n i c u n i t y ' would p r o b a b l y

n o t have s t a r t e d the book i n the f i r s t place.

The t h r e e p r o g r e s s i v e l y l o n g e r e p i s o d e s l e a d to the f o u r t h , which

t a k e s up the r e s t o f a l o n g i s h book (319 p a g e s ) . Although i t i s an

adventure which s u p p l i e s Mailly with the promise o f t h a t ( f o r him)

n e e d l e s s a c c e s s o r y , a w i f e , i t i s n o t one d i r e c t l y concerned w i t h

m a r r y i n g , but w i t h p o l i t i c a l i n t r i g u e , b r i b e r y and a s s a s s i n a t i o n .

M a i l l y i s summoned b e f o r e t k h e K M i n i s t e r o f S e c r e t S e r v i c e and M a r i n e ,

P o n t c h a r t r a i n , who t r i e s t o b l a c k m a i l h i m i n t o k i l l i n g a Duke he

charges w i t h p l o t t i n g a g a i n s t h i s , the M i n i s t e r ' s , l i f e . From t h i s

p o i n t on the p l o t seems (and t h i s is the highest accolade for a pot-

boiler) ' t o t a k e on a l i f e o f i t s o w n , ' c o m p l i c a t i n g i t s e l f beyond

belief until, as P i c k p u t s i t , " t h e r e a d e r i s e v e n t u a l l y l o s t i n the

maze" (TSG 1 8 ) , though M a i l l y , of c o u r s e , is not. The p l o t develops

from b l a c k m a i l (by P o n t c h a r t r a i n ) , through robbery (by P a s s y , who i s

P o n t c h a r t r a i n ' s a s s i s t a n t ) and attempted a s s a s s i n a t i o n (by the Duke,

h e l p e d by Passy) t o p o l i t i c a l i n t r i g u e (by A r g e n s o n , c h i e f of police

and P o n t c h a r t r a i n ' s r i v a l , who i s ' p r i m e mover' i n e v e r y t h i n g ) , and

f o r a l l o f t h e s e M a i l l y i s to be the s c a p e g o a t .

M a i l l y i s n o t to be u s e d , even i n such a c o m p l i c a t e d p l o t . He

f o l l o w s the i n t r i c a t e 'Thread of D i v i n e L o g i c ' (the h e a d i n g o f Chapter

XIV) through a l l i t s c o m p l i c a t i o n s and, w i t h b r a v e r y , to f i n a l v i c t o r y .

We may take an example of h i s ratiocination:

 21

We s h a l l proceed w i t h t h e e n q u i r y . M d l l e Passy
has n o t been e x p e l l e d , l e t us suppose, and I am
i n her s o c i e t y . Then what i s t o happen n e x t .
Her husband i s u p s t a i r s , we assume. Thus he
a w a i t s my a r r i v a l b e f o r e s t a r t i n g the wheels of
h i s murder; and t h e r e f o r e he must know of my
arrival. But he i s u p s t a i r s . Perhaps he works
w i t h P o n t c h a r t r a i n i n the o t h e r house. It is
u n l i k e l y t h a t he w i l l be a b l e t o h e a r my e n -
trance. From time t o time he a b s e n t s h i m s e l f
from the M i n i s t e r , t h a t he may l i s t e n over the
stair-rail. But t h e k i t c h e n - d o o r i s s h u t , we
w i l l s a y , o r t h e r e i s s i l e n c e between our v o i c e s ;
and i f he creeps d o w n s t a i r s t o a s c e r t a i n more
c l o s e l y , t h e r e i s the chance of d e t e c t i o n . Or
i s i t has been a r r a n g e d t h a t h i s w i f e s h a l l go
up t o i n f o r m h i m , he may a t t h a t time be w i t h
P o n t c h a r t r a i n , and she w i l l n o t dare t o l i n g e r ,
f o r f e a r I s h a l l eacape from t h e h o u s e . . . .
Therefore, a s i g n a l ! . . . And what k i n d o f s i g n a l ?
S i n c e the house i s d a r k , a l i g h t ! A lighted
c a n d l e . And where must t h i s c a n d l e be s e t , i n
o r d e r to be seen? He i s u p s t a i r s , she down;
t h e r e f o r e i t must be somewhere i n the passage
v i s i b l e from the s t a i r - h e a d . . . . L e t us d i s -
cover i f t h e r e i s an u n l i g h t e d c a n d l e t h e r e ,
ready t o t r a n s m i t such a s i g n a l " (AMM 1 6 1 - 6 2 ) .

He does. There i s .

The d e t e r m i n e d f o l l o w i n g through o f ' t h e d i v i n e t h r e a d ' i s much

l i k e the r a t i o c i n a t i o n o f , f o r example, P o e ' s d e t e c t i v e h e r o , D u p i n .

The d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t i n 'The P u r l o i n e d L e t t e r ' t h e r e i s an ' I ' to

whom Dupin c a n ' t a l k , a D r . Watson to h i s Holmes, whereas poor M a i l l y ,

the man o f a c t i o n i n Che darkened h o u s e , can o n l y t a l k to h i m s e l f .

Nonetheless, after t h r e e f a l s e s t a r t s , we can see t h a t L i n d s a y has

d i s c o v e r e d h i s t a l e n t f o r d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n , w h i c h makes M a i l l y n o t

" a s u r p r i s i n g f r e a k " but the ' o t h e r f a c e , ' as i t w e r e , o f h i s talent

for dream f a n t a s y , as Dupin i s of P o e ' s , F a t h e r Brown's o f G. K. •

 22

C h e s t e r t o n ' s , L o n n r o t ' s of Borges'.

Allegory, l i k e detective f i c t i o n , is essentially ratiocinative.

The main d i f f e r e n c e between them i s t h a t i n the d e t e c t i v e s t o r y we

are given the stream of consciousness presumed i n s i d e the protagonist's

mind (or some o t h e r account of the s u b s t a n c e of t h a t s t r e a m ) , whereas

i n t h e a l l e g o r y we are g i v e n the c o n t e n t s of t h e mind p r o j e c t e d forth:

the p e r c e i v e d w o r l d n o t o n l y corresponds to, i t l i t e r a l l y is the

m e n t a l events of the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s mind. The r e a d e r becomes a k i n d o f

d e t e c t i v e , and the a l l e g o r i c a l w o r l d i s the o b j e c t o f h i s r a t i o c i n a -

t i o n s as he t r i e s to ' t r a n s l a t e ' the a l l e g o r y . But i n b o t h cases the

i n t e l l e c t o f the r e a d e r i s engaged by the s u r f a c e : i n M a i l l y , by what

must happen n e x t , l o g i c a l l y ; i n A r c t u r u s , by what must happen n e x t ,

emotionally. I n the d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n the r a t i o c i n a t i o n s a r e an end

i n themselves, i n t h a t they p r o v i d e the i n t e r e s t o f the s t o r y ; i n t h e

a l l e g o r y I s u s p e c t t h a t the r e a d e r ' s reason (to w h i c h most allegorists

a r e h o s t i l e ) i s engaged t o keep i t b u s y , w h i l e the r e s t o f the mind

i s f r e e d to respond more o r l e s s u n c o n s c i o u s l y t o t h e a r c h e t y p a l

patterns of the s t o r y . T h i s may a l s o be t h e case w i t h the a u t h o r when

he i s composing an a l l e g o r y .

Both The Haunted Woman, w h i c h Robert Nye i n a r e v i e w i n The

Scotsman c a l l e d " a m e t a p h y s i c a l t h r i l l e r " (TSG 4 ) , and S p h i n x c o u l d

have been w r i t t e n as d e t e c t i v e s t o r i e s . Each o f them has a c l o s e d set

of c h a r a c t e r s , the r i g h t k i n d of c o u n t r y house, and a dead body or two.

The problem i s t h a t d e t e c t i v e s t o r i e s n o r m a l l y d e a l w i t h the phenomenal

 23

world. Any i n v e s t i g a t o r c o u l d q u i c k l y work out who k i l l e d N i c h o l a s ,

whether Lore committed s u i c i d e , o r how Judge d i e d , b u t m e t a p h y s i c a l l y

t h e s e a r e b e s i d e the p o i n t . Lindsay's characters may d i e by a p p a r -

e n t l y n a t u r a l c a u s e s , such as a p o p l e x y , b u t t h e i r deaths a r e , as we

know, r e a l l y due t o t h e i r c o n t a c t w i t h the r e a l w o r l d , w h i c h i s

c o m p l e t e l y beyond the phenomenal w o r l d , and-.-'therefore beyond i n v e s -

12

tigation. The almost random and a p p a r e n t l y m e l o d r a m a t i c death of

Nicholas i s p a r t i c u l a r l y successful from t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w : his

death was n e c e s s i t a t e d by the u n i t i n g o f h i s r e a l s e l f and L o r e ' s .

E v e l y n ' s s l e e p i n g p o t i o n c o n v e n i e n t l y d i s p o s e s of the b o d i l y envelope

from w h i c h t h e r e a l s e l f must be l i b e r a t e d .

L i k e the o t h e r b o o k s , M a i l l y f a i l e d t o s e l l . I t i s evident that

J a c q u e l i n e p e r c e i v e d , sooner than h e r husband, t h a t t h e r e would n e v e r

be any money i n h i s w r i t i n g , and she had them move t o a s m a l l e r house

i n F e r r i n g , Sussex. L a t e r , j u s t b e f o r e World W a r - I I , a g a i n s t D a v i d ' s

wishes she borrowed some money i n o r d e r to buy a guest house i n

Brighton. I n s t e a d of young l a d i e s from the c o n t i n e n t , however, the

war r e s u l t e d i n h e r house b e i n g a b i l l e t f o r a s u c c e s s i o n of n a v a l

officers. D a v i d saw the war i t s e l f — n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the Germans' pre-

o c c u p a t i o n w i t h i d e a s o f N o r t h e r n supremacy t o which he had g i v e n

e x p r e s s i o n i n D e v i l ' s Tor—as b e i n g a d i s a s t e r from w h i c h Europe

could never recover. He became more and more w i t h d r a w n and r e c l u s i v e .

J. B. P i c k t e l l s us:
 24

The f i r s t bomb t h a t f e l l on B r i g h t o n d i d n o t
e x p l o d e , b u t i t f e l l on the L i n d s a y s ' h o u s e .
D a v i d was i n the c o l d b a t h he took every
morning. The r o o f of the bathroom c o l l a p s e d
and a l t h o u g h L i n d s a y was n o t p h y s i c a l l y h u r t ,
he n e v e r r e c o v e r e d from the s h o c k . He b e -
came grey and s i l e n t and i n June 1945 d i e d
b e f o r e he was seventy (TSG 3 2 ) .

D u r i n g h i s l i f e - t i m e L i n d s a y d i d r e c e i v e some s u p p o r t and r e c o g -

nition. There were l e t t e r s from p e o p l e such as L . H . M y e r s , who

a p p r e c i a t e d A Voyage; t h e r e was encouragement from E . H . V i s i a k , who

wrote a s h o r t c r i t i q u e o f A Voyage f o r Notes and Queries (March 30,

1940), and from V i c t o r G o l l a n c z , whose f i r m r e i s s u e d A Voyage w i t h

V i s i a k ' s n o t e as f o r e w o r d . T h i s was i n k e e p i n g w i t h a w i s h L i n d s a y

had e x p r e s s e d t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s b e f o r e i n a l e t t e r t o V i s i a k :

In the event of the b o o k ' s ever g o i n g i n t o a n o t h e r

e d i t i o n — w h i c h at the present i s extremely prob-
l e m a t i c a l — I am g o i n g t o ask y o u t o be k i n d enough
t o f u r n i s h a f o r e w o r d , knowing t h a t y o u w i l l n o t
refuse t h i s favour. E v i d e n t l y , i t r e q u i r e s some
e x p l a n a t i o n , and I am..aquainted w i t h no one so
w e l l a b l e to s u p p l y i t as y o u r s e l f (November 9 ,
1921; L 4 3 ) .

V i s i a k , as has a l r e a d y been n o t e d , a c t u a l l y p r e f e r r e d T h e Haunted

Woman, as L i n d s a y r e a l i s e d . He w r o t e t o V i s i a k on June 1 1 , 1936,

about h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n , " I d o n ' t q u i t e connect [A Voyage] w i t h y o u .

You know y o u have always r a t h e r c o n c e n t r a t e d on the ' H . W . ' " (L 6 4 ) .

L i n d s a y seems to have become accustomed t o the apparent opacity

(one o f B l a k e ' s names f o r Satan) o f A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s as r e v i e w e r

a f t e r r e v i e w e r r e f u s e d to see i t as a n y t h i n g but " a r i o t o f m o r b i d

f a n c y " ( i n The Times L i t e r a r y Supplement; TSG 3) o r " a grand p i e c e

 25

of w i l d imagining" (J. B. P r i e s t l e y i n The E v e n i n g S t a n d a r d ; TSG 24) ,

b u t he c r a v e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g . W r i t i n g t o V i s i a k on November 2 5 , 1921,

b e f o r e h i s f i r s t n o v e l had q u i t e sunk i n t o apparent oblivion, he

remarks,

I t i s i n d e e d g r a t i f y i n g t o l e a r n t h a t I have a
s t u d e n t o f my ' V o y a g e ' — I w o n ' t r e p e a t y o u r
e x p r e s s i o n and add 'an a d m i r e r ' , f o r I have
s t r o n g doubts whether i t i s a book w h i c h anyone
would admire w h o l e - h e a r t e d l y . P l e a s e g i v e the
l a d y i n q u e s t i o n my k i n d r e g a r d s , c o u p l e d w i t h
t h e hope t h a t she has s u c c e e d e d — i n p a r t , at
a l l e v e n t s — i n e l u c i d a t i n g the mystery of the
a l l e g o r y ! (L 4 5 ) .

N o t h i n g seems t o have come of i t . A Voyage was n o t r e i s s u e d until

1946, a f t e r Lindsay's death. G o l l a n c z have s i n c e r e i s s u e d i t t w i c e ,

i n 1963 and i n 1968, as p a r t of t h e i r s e r i e s o f ' R a r e Works o f

I m a g i n a t i v e F i c t i o n , ' which i n c l u d e s The Haunted Woman (1968) as well

as works by M. P . S h i e l (The P u r p l e Cloud and The I s l e of L i e s ) and

E. H . V i s i a k ' s Medusa. As T r i n c u l o remarks i n The Tempest, "Misery

aquaints a man w i t h s t r a n g e b e d f e l l o w s . "

Much more t o t h e p o i n t has been C. S. L e w i s ' s g r e a t i n t e r e s t in

L i n d s a y , from whom he o b v i o u s l y l e a r n e d a g r e a t d e a l . Lewis had t h e

r i g h t k i n d o f i n t e r e s t i n a l l e g o r y and a p r o f o u n d r e l i g i o u s commit-

ment, which made h i m u n u s u a l l y s e n s i t i v e t o L i n d s a y ' s t r u e (visionary)

13

achievement. I n an a c u t e p i e c e o f c r i t i c i s m i n Of Other W o r l d s ,

Lewis pays h i s t r i b u t e t o A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , b u t , i m i t a t i o n b e i n g

the s i n c e r f i s t form o f f l a t t e r y , as the o l d saw has i t , t h e t r i l o g y

14
begun by Out Of t h e S i l e n t P l a n e t i s a more f i t t i n g a c c o l a d e .
 26

R. L . Green r e p e a t e d many of C. S. L e w i s ' s p o i n t s (he r e f e r s us

t o L e w i s ' s e s s a y ) i n a c h a p t e r on 'Tormance and M a l a c a n d r a ' i n h i s

s u r v e y of s p a c e - f l i g h t in fiction, I n t o Other W o r l d s . There were

a r t i c l e s by J . B. P i c k i n S t u d i e s i n S c o t t i s h L i t e r a t u r e (1964) and

C o l i n W i l s o n i n h i s book o f essays E a g l e and E a r w i g (1966). However,

i t was n o t u n t i l a f t e r A Voyage was p u b l i s h e d , a t C o l i n W i l s o n ' s

suggestion, i n paperback i n America by B a l l a n t i n e Books i n 1968, that

i t became a t a l l widely known. Joanna Russ took a few p o t - s h o t s at

i t almost i m m e d i a t e l y i n E x t r a p o l a t i o n i n December 1969 (but see my

r e b u t t a l i n the May 1972 i s s u e o f t h a t j o u r n a l ) , a s s o c i a t i n g Lindsay

w i t h another set of " s t r a n g e b e d f e l l o w s " : P o e , van Vogt and Redd.

A t l e a s t M i s s Russ d i d not muddle L i n d s a y i n w i t h some o f the o t h e r

w r i t e r s published i n B a l l a n t i n e ' s 'Adult Fantasy' s e r i e s ; w h i l e one

of them i s h i g h l y r e l e v a n t (George M a c D o n a l d ) , most o f t h e r e s t are

not. I n p a r t i c u l a r we might mention J . R. R. T o l k i e n , whose p o p u l a r i t y

has been the c e n t r a l f a c t o r i n the' enormous i n c r e a s e of i n t e r e s t i n

f a n t a s y and hence i n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s . Ironically, Tolkien's best-

s e l l i n g t r i l o g y The L o r d of the R i n g s , a m o r a l l y s i m p l i s t i c and p r o -

f e s s e d l y n o n - a l l e g o r i c a l a d v e n t u r e s t o r y , i s i n .--many ways t h e a n t i t h -

e s i s Of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . However t h a t may b e , t h e r e s u l t i n g

" u n e x p e c t e d vogue" (TSG v i i ) L i n d s a y e n j o y s i n America has encouraged

John Baker t o p u b l i s h a whole book about h i m , The Strange Genius o f

D a v i d L i n d s a y by W i l s o n , P i c k and V i s i a k , and s c h o l a r l y i n t e r e s t is

on the i n c r e a s e . N o n e t h e l e s s , L i n d s a y ' s o r i g i n a l c o m p l a i n t about even

 27

"some q u i t e t o l e r a n t and good-natured r e v i e w s i n the papers"—that

"now, as e v e r , I d o n ' t f e e l t h a t they touch me o r my w o r k " (L 51)—

stands to t h i s d a t e , t o the e x t e n t t h a t no one has t a k e n t h e t r o u b l e

t o p u t A Voyage i n t o i t s l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t ( i t i s not, of course, Sui

generis1^), o r take t h e a l l e g o r y s e r i o u s l y enough to uncover t h e b o o k ' s

p r e c i s e and b e a u t i f u l s t r u c t u r e . L i n d s a y w r i t e s to V i s i a k :

Many thanks f o r your s y m p a t h e t i c remarks r e -

g a r d i n g my book. I must say t h i s , t h a t y o u r s
i s the only c r i t i c i s m — p u b l i c or p r i v a t e —
w h i c h so f a r has l i f t e d the l i d o f f my l i t t l e
pot t o see what i s i n s i d e , and f o r t h i s I am
appropriately grateful. I am a f r a i d t h a t
nowadays p e o p l e o n l y r e a d f o r the s t o r y , b u t
perhaps a r a c e of ' s u p e r - r e a d e r s ' w i l l l a t e
on a r i s e who w i l l make i t t h e i r f i r s t c o n c e r n
t o grasp what the a u t h o r i s d r i v i n g a t b e f o r e
d e c i d i n g whether o r n o t he has been s u c c e s s -
f u l (January 6, 1924; L 5 1 ) .

T h i s we s h a l l p r o c e e d t o do.
 28

Footnotes t o Chapter One

"Slost of the b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n . t h e c h a p t e r has been

drawn from J . B . P i c k ' s ' A Sketch o f L i n d s a y ' s L i f e as Man and
W r i t e r ' (TSG 3 - 3 2 ) .

A r t h u r Schopenhauer, 'The World as W i l l and I d e a ' i n Schopenhauer:

S e l e c t i o n s . , e d . D e w i t t H . P a r k e r (New Y o r k : C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons,
1956), p . 9 ( F i r s t Book, s e c . 6 ) . Subsequent r e f e r e n c e s t o The World
as W i l l and Idea are t o t h i s s e l e c t i o n ; t h e book and s e c t i o n w i l l be
c i t e d i n the text.

3
L i n d s a y w r i t e s t o V i s i a k , a f t e r s e n d i n g h i m a copy, " I t i s most
k i n d o f y o u t o r e a d 'De M a i l l y ' , b u t r e a l l y i t was m e r e l y i n t e n d e d as
a l i t t l e token o f good w i l l , and at l e a s t y o u w i l l do me the f a v o u r
n o t to comment on i t " (September 20, 1929; L 5 2 - 5 3 ) .
4
Not from J . B. P r i e s t l e y i n the E v e n i n g Standard o r H . E . Bates
i n Everyman, b u t from Rebecca West i n . t h e D a i l y T e l e g r a p h , from
F a u s s e t i n the Manchester G u a r d i a n and from L . P . H a r t l e y i n t h e
Weekend Review.

" * " I t i s b o t h h i s s t r e n g t h and h i s weakness t h a t c e r t a i n o f the

q u e s t i o n s asked on Tormance, as w e l l as the responses t o them, are
l o c k e d i n t h a t D e l p h i c a m b i g u i t y w h i c h torments our d a i l y l i v e s . "
' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' by Loren E i s e l e y (VA x ) .

^In D e v i l ' s T o r , L i n d s a y ' s l a s t p u b l i s h e d w o r k , t h e r e i s a c h a r a c t e r

c l e a r l y m o d e l l e d on Schopenhauer (DT 1 0 8 ) , who i s a good d e a l more
l i k e L i n d s a y than i s t h e young a r t i s t P e t e r C o p p i n g . T h i s c h a r a c t e r ,
Magnus C o l b o r n e , observes b i t t e r l y :

There i s assumed t o be an i n t e l l i g e n t p u b l i c t h a t
i n t e r e s t s i t s e l f i n cosmical problems. I t seems,
however, t h a t i t has f a i l e d h i t h e r t o t o hear o f
my b o o k s ; at l e a s t , i t has n o t bought them. Under-
s t a n d w e l l , I n e v e r was i n need e i t h e r o f money
from my w r i t i n g s or of l i t e r a r y g l o r y ; s t i l l , y o u
may c o n c e i v e the s m a l l i n c l i n a t i o n I f e l t t o go
on spending m y s e l f i n a vacuum (DT 115).

W. H . Auden, The Enchafed F l o o d , o r The Romantic Iconography

7
of
the Sea (New Y o r k : V i n t a g e Books, 1 9 6 7 ) , p . 74.
 29

g
G. K. C h e s t e r t o n , The Man Who Was Thursday; A Nightmare (New
York: Modern L i b r a r y , 1917), p . 257.
9
T. S. E l i o t , Dante (London: Faber and F a b e r , 1965), p. 11.

1 0
T. S. E l i o t , Dante, p . 15.

1 : L
T . S. E l i o t , Dante, p . 15.

12
In f a c t , the t e c h n i q u e s o f d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n and dream a l l e g o r y ,
c o u s i n s though they b e , are a s t o n i s h i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o combine. Poe
n e v e r t r i e d . G. K. C h e s t e r t o n made a b r i l l i a n t attempt i n The Man Who
Was T h u r s d a y : A N i g h t m a r e , which C o l i n W i l s o n t h i n k s i s " t h e o n l y
s i m i l a r book" i n some r e s p e c t s t o A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s (TSG 46; c f .
TSG 3 6 ) , b u t C h e s t e r t o n c o u l d o n l y save h i s book from b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y
b r o k e n - b a c k e d by making i t f a r c i c a l , thus n u l l i f y i n g the ' r e l i g i o u s '
power o f h i s m e t a p h y s i c a l argument. More r e c e n t l y Borges h a s , i f
o n l y i n v e r y s h o r t w o r k s , s t r i v e n t o u n i t e the two modes w i t h o u t
a d m i x i n g f a r c e , and h i s most s u c c e s s f u l f i c t i o n from t h i s p o i n t o f
v i e w i s 'Death and t h e Compass.'
13
T h i s c o l l e c t i o n o f essays was e d i t e d by W. Hooper and p u b l i s h e d
posthumously by G e o f f r e y B l e s i n 1966.
14
L i n d s a y ' s i n f l u e n c e on Lewis has been examined by P a t r i c i a Ann
P i l l i n g i n h e r d i s s e r t a t i o n 'Form and Content i n S e l e c t e d N o v e l s o f
C. S. L e w i s ' ( U n i v e r s i t y o f London, 1 9 7 1 ) . I am g r a t e f u l t o M i s s
P i l l i n g f o r s e n d i n g me a copy of the appendix t o h e r t h e s i s , ' D a v i d
L i n d s a y and A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . '

1 5
W i l s o n ' s claim.(TSG 36).
 30

Chapter Two:

DREAM AND ALLEGORY: THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL

BACKGROUND OF LITERARY MODE

We have seen t h a t i n h i s ' m e t a p h y s i c a l t h r i l l e r s , ' The Haunted

Woman and S p h i n x , L i n d s a y uses a fundamental o p p o s i t i o n between the

dream w o r l d and the ' r e a l ' w o r l d , d r a w i n g on the t r a d i t i o n a l imagery

w h i c h we have n o t e d i n Dante. We s h a l l f i n d L i n d s a y d o i n g e x a c t l y

the same t h i n g i n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s , though i t i s l e s s obvious

because a l l e g o r i e s are n o t so d i s c u r s i v e as n o v e l s and because the

' r e a l ' w o r l d i s l e f t b e h i n d when the t r a v e l l e r s voyage t o Tormance.

T. S. E l i o t , commenting on t h e r e l a t i o n between the V i t a Nuova

o f Dante and The Shepherd o f Hermas, remarks, " t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s might

prove t h a t a c e r t a i n h a b i t i n dream-imagery can p e r s i s t throughout

many changes o f c i v i l i s a t i o n . " " ' " Of c o u r s e , c i v i l i s a t i o n s are transi-

t o r y t h i n g s , whereas s l e e p and dreams are a fundamental f a c t o r i n the

p h y s i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x i s t e n c e o f man. As men must always have

spent a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e i r time on e a r t h s l e e p i n g , the dualistic

o p p o s i t i o n between t h e dream w o r l d and the w a k i n g r e a l i t y i s probably

o l d e r than l i t e r a t u r e i t s e l f . Dream l i t e r a t u r e n a t u r a l l y uses dream

imagery, and t h i s g i v e s the t r a d i t i o n g r e a t c o n t i n u i t y even where

d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e may n o t e x i s t . The E n g l i s h l i n e o f dream works

i n c l u d e s the s t o r y o f C y n e w u l f , T h e Dream o f the Rood, P e a r l , P i e r s

Plowman, The F a e r i e Queen, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , J u b i l a t e Agno,

A l i c e i n Wonderland, P h a n t a s t e s and Finnegans Wake, t o name o n l y t h e

 31

most obvious examples.

But t h e r e are dreams and dreams. Macrobius (ca 400) and John

of S a l i s b u r y (ca 1120-1180) d i s t i n g u i s h e s s e n t i a l l y five kinds:

1. insomnium, n i g h t m a r e o r t r o u b l e d dream;
2. v i s i u m , a p p a r i t i o n or h a l l u c i n a t i o n ;
3. somnium, o r d i n a r y o r e n i g m a t i c dream;
4. o r a c u l u m , o r a c u l a r or p r o p h e t i c dream;

5. v i s i o , p r o p h e t i c v i s i o n o r v i s i o n a r y dream (2).

A l l f i v e k i n d s c a n , of c o u r s e , be found i n the B i b l e , and i n many works

of l i t e r a t u r e , but i t i s the f i f t h k i n d , the v i s i o , w i t h w h i c h we s h a l l

be m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d . Some dreams, i n J u n g i a n , F r e u d i a n o r any o t h e r

p s y c h o l o g y , are e v i d e n t l y more s i g n i f i c a n t than o t h e r s : the v i s i o is

the most s i g n i f i c a n t , b e i n g the e x p r e s s i o n o f the ' i n n e r s e l f or of

God. i

I t w o u l d be d i f f i c u l t to f o l l o w P l a t o ' s ' S o c r a t e s ' and a c t " i n

3
obedience t o God's commands g i v e n i n o r a c l e s and dreams" since, as
H e n r y ' s f a t h e r says i n Henry o f O f t e r d i r i g e n , "dreams a r e f r o t h " : "the
4

times when Heavenly v i s i o n s were seen i n dreams have l o n g p a s s e d b y . "

Henry r e p l i e s t h a t " e v e r y dream . . . makes an i m p o r t a n t r e n t i n t h e

m y s t e r i o u s c u r t a i n which . . . h i d e s our i n w a r d n a t u r e s from our v i e w . "

Dreams " s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d as Heavenly g i f t s , as f r i e n d l y g u i d e s , in

our p i l g r i m m a g e to the h o l y , t o m b . " But Henry has h i m s e l f j u s t been

" s l u m b e r i n g i n t o a n o t h e r w o r l d " 7 and i s i n no doubt as t o t h e t r u t h o f

what he has s e e n . ' D a n t e ' h i m s e l f had been more s t u b b o r n : he was so

wayward i t d i d n o t h e l p , B e a t r i c e c o m p l a i n s ,
To use v i s i o n s i n h i s dreams and c a l l h i m back
I n o t h e r ways. They meant so l i t t l e t o h i m .
 32

He f e l l so f a r down t h a t every means of

S a v i n g h i m proved i n a d e q u a t e , o u t s i d e
Of showing h i m the people who are l o s t ( 8 ) .

Ironically, the whole of The D i v i n e Comedy i s a dream v i s i o n , a v i s i o ,

the aim of w h i c h i s to g i v e us what P l a t o c a l l s t h a t " i n s p i r e d and

t r u e p r o p h e c y " which n o r m a l l y "we o n l y a c h i e v e . . . when the power

9
o f our u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s i n h i b i t e d i n s l e e p " : i . e . , when we dream.
Schopenhauer says,

D a n t e ' s g r e a t n e s s d e r i v e s from h i s p o s s e s s i o n o f
the t r u t h of the dream, w h i l e o t h e r poets possess
o n l y the t r u t h of the r e a l w o r l d . He shows us
e x t r a o r d i n a r y t h i n g s e x a c t l y as we see those of
our dreams, and they g i v e us t h e same i l l u s i o n .
One would suppose t h a t he had dreamed each canto
d u r i n g the n i g h t ( 1 0 ) .

Many ( i f n o t most) dream w r i t e r s have been f o l l o w e r s of the

g r e a t e s t o f the G n o s t i c p h i l o s o p h e r - a r t i s t s , Plato. In the d u a l i s t i c

P l a t o n i c cosmology—closely f o l l o w e d by D a n t e , B l a k e , Schopenhauer

and L i n d s a y — t h e " s o u l i s a h e l p l e s s p r i s o n e r , c h a i n e d hand and f o o t

i n the b o d y , c o m p e l l e d to view r e a l i t y n o t d i r e c t l y b u t o n l y through

its:, prison bars," as we a r e t o l d i n the Phaedo. The aim o f t h e

soul i s , of c o u r s e , to excape from the l i m i t a t i o n s of the body and

12

" t o go back to the s t a r s " — t o r e t u r n to the unchanging r e a l i t y ,

home. T h i s means the death of the body. But the s o u l can make tem-

p o r a r y escapes b e f o r e this f i n a l dissolution for, i n Schopenhauer's

w o r d s , "deep s l e e p i s , viiile i t l a s t s , i n no way d i f f e r e n t from d e a t h ,

into which, i n fact, i t o f t e n passes c o n t i n u o u s l y " (The World as Will

and I d e a , F o u r t h Book, s e c . 54). Deep s l e e p , as we saw i n S p h i n x ,

 33

p r o v i d e s the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e v i s i o n a r y dream.

A t t e n t i o n has a l r e a d y been p a i d t o the d u a l i s t i c separation

between the ' o t h e r ' s p i r i t u a l w o r l d and the ' r e a l ' w o r l d o f m a t e r i a l

objects. I n many ( i f not most) dreams t h e r e i s a l s o a s t r o n g d u a l i t y :

" a dream i s a h a l l u c i n a t e d b e h a v i o r e p i s o d e . . . i n w h i c h the dreamer

13

i s u s u a l l y b o t h a p a r t i c i p a n t and an o b s e r v e r . " On t h i s common ex-

perience, a dichotomy between the s o u l , the ' I ' who o b s e r v e s , and the

body, the ' I ' who a c t s , can be founded, as i t i s f o r example i n A

Voyage t o A r c t u r u s , where N i g h t s p o r e i s the dreaming ' I ' who observes

and M a s k u l l the ' I ' who a c t s .

I f , when dreaming we become t w o , we i d e n t i f y w i t h the discorporate

observer r a t h e r than the b o d i l y a c t o r , then we a c h i e v e , in effect, the

sought-after escape from the b o d y ' s p r i s o n . But i t i s , as we s a y ,

' o n l y a dream'. However, the d r e a m w o r l d i s , at l e a s t w h i l e we are

in i t , reality itself: i . e r what we p e r c e i v e and t h e r e f o r e what e x i s t s .

Sometimes we f i n d i t h a r d t o d i s t i n g u i s h between a dream and a memory

of the phenomenal w o r l d : a l l our p e r c e p t i o n s are m e n t a l e v e n t s . Thus

there i s , perhaps, p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , room f o r the s p e c u l a t i o n s of a

Chuang Chou: " I dreamt l a s t n i g h t t h a t I was a b u t t e r f l y and now I

d o n ' t know whether I am a man who dreamt he was a b u t t e r f l y , o r perhaps

14

a b u t t e r f l y who now dreams t h a t he i s a m a n . " But i t i s n o t the

p h i l o s o p h i c a l paradox, t h a t i s i m p o r t a n t ; l i t i s t h e image. Dante has

Virgil say,
Do y o u n o t see t h a t we are o n l y worms
Born t o become a n g e l i c b u t t e r f l i e s ?
(The D i v i n e Comedy, I I 1 1 ) .
 34

The b u t t e r f l y i s a symbol o f t h e p o e t ' s e s c a p e : man i s a worm s e v e n t y

i n c h e s l o n g ( h i s h e i g h t and h i s span i n y e a r s ) , b o r n t o metamorphose

i n t o a b u t t e r f l y , and thus to enjoy the b r i l l i a n t , b e a u t i f u l flight

which symbolizes a higher s t a t e of b e i n g .

The f i r s t t e m p t a t i o n i s t o t r y t o l i v e i n the dream w o r l d , or

o t h e r m e n t a l r e a l i t y m a i n t a i n e d e i t h e r by drugs o r by d i s c i p l i n e and
15
fasting. The i d e a l i s r e p o r t e d t o have been a t t a i n e d i n I n d i a by
" t h e r e c l u s e " who

c a r r i e d away by h i s m e d i t a t i o n s , g i v e s a m a t e r i a l
e x i s t e n c e t o t h e images of h i s dreams, i f he can
o n l y succeed i n s u s t a i n i n g them w i t h s u f f i c i e n t
intensity. The dream then becomes l u c i d , d e l i b e r a t e ,
and c r e a t i v e . ( 1 6 ) .

I n l i t e r a t u r e t h i s i s the theme o f H . P . L o v e c r a f t ' s The Dream-Quest

of Unknown K a d a t h , w h i c h i s about R a n d o l f C a r t e r ' s a r t i s t i c a l l y c o n -

t r o l l e d dream. C a r t e r i s " a n o l d dreamer,"''" 7 " a f r e e and p o t e n t master

18 19
among d r e a m e r s , " who has dreamed such a " m a r v e l l o u s s u n s e t city"

t h a t the gods themselves "have f o r g o t t e n the h i g h p l a c e s o f e a r t h , and

20

the mountains t h a t knew t h e i r y o u t h " and have gone t o l i v e i n i t .

The"-idea o f dream c r e a t i o n has been extended by Borges i n h i s story

'The C i r c u l a r R u i n s , ' where each dreamer i s a s u b - c r e a t o r and, s i m u l -

21
t a n e o u s l y , " a » . p r o j e c t i o n o f a n o t h e r man's d r e a m s . " In another
Borges s t o r y , ' E v e r y t h i n g and N o t h i n g , ' one Great A u t h o r t e l l s a n o t h e r :
22

" I dreamed the w o r l d the way y o u dreamed your w o r k , my Shakespeare."

T h i s i d e a o f s u b c r e a t i o n a l s o u n d e r l i e s a l l dream w o r l d s o f t h e T o l k i e n

type.
 35

More t o t h e p o i n t i n a s t u d y o f A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s (where,

a f t e r a l l , c r e a t i o n and s u b c r e a t i o n are e v i l ) i s the i d e a t h a t the

23

r e l a t i o n between t h e "two p o l e s o f human e x i s t e n c e " i s a metaphor-

i c a l one. I n i t i a l l y we must a g a i n be p r e p a r e d to confuse t h e s l e e p i n g

and w a k i n g w o r l d s , so t h a t a t h i r d term may be i n t r o d u c e d . When

Ouspensky a s s e r t s t h a t " a n o t h e r i l l u s i o n i s t h a t we are awake. When

we r e a l i s e t h a t we are a s l e e p we w i l l see t h a t a l l h i s t o r y i s made by

p e o p l e who are a s l e e p , " o r when A r c h b i s h o p Law c l a i m s t h a t "the

g r e a t e s t P a r t o f Mankind . . . may be s a i d t o be a s l e e p ; and t h a t par-

t i c u l a r Way o f L i f e which takes up Man's M i n d , Thoughts, and A c t i o n s

25

may v e r y w e l l be c a l l e d h i s p a r t i c u l a r Dream," t h e i r purpose i s to

t e l l us to 'wake up' t o a h i g h e r t r u t h than t h i s w o r l d a f f o r d s . The

analogy i s i d e n t i c a l i n o p e r a t i o n to the one P l a t o uses f o r the same

purpose i n h i s p a r a b l e o f t h e cave i n The R e p u b l i c : as the r e a l w o r l d

(the phenomenal w o r l d ) s t a n d s i n r e l a t i o n t o the dream o r shadow w o r l d ,

so t h e h i g h e r w o r l d of Forms s t a n d s i n r e l a t i o n t o the phenomenal one.

Of c o u r s e , h e r e the p o s i t i v e v a l u e s o f t h e dream a r e b e i n g d e n i e d , but

we have a l r e a d y seen t h a t s i n c e we dream w h i l e a s l e e p (or ' d e a d ' to

t h e phenomenal w o r l d ) t h a t need n o t be the c a s e . And the s o u l w h i c h

we have seen to be l i b e r a t e d i n the dream e x p e r i e n c e may ( e x i t s from

one s t a g e b e i n g merely e n t r a n c e s somewhere e l s e ) wake up i n what P l a t o

26

c a l l s the " t r u e and u n s l e e p i n g r e a l i t y , " Dante the " w o r l d w i t h o u t /

Human b e i n g s t h a t l i e s beyond the s u n " (The D i v i n e Comedy, I 26),

Lindsay, Muspel: beyond t h e f a l s e w o r l d o f the senses i s a r e a l

w o r l d of I d e a s .
 36

The analogy may be extended y e t f u r t h e r . "The s l e e p i n g and the

2
dead, how a l i k e they a r e " observes U t n a p i s h t i m i n The E p i c o f G i l g a m e s h .

I f s l e e p i s l i k e d e a t h , as Schopenhauer s a i d , death may a l s o be like

sleep: "We are such s t u f f / As dreams are made o n , and our l i t t l e l i f e /

28

Is rounded w i t h a s l e e p . " M e t a p h o r i c a l l y , as i n the t i t l e o f C a l d e r o n '

play, ' l i f e i s a d r e a m ' , dreamt by our s l e e p i n g e t e r n a l s e l v e s w h i l e

we a r e awake i n r e a l i t y . When we d i e ( f i n a l l y go t o s l e e p ) on e a r t h ,

a f t e r many n i g h t s and d a y s , we w i l l wake up a f t e r one n i g h t i n e t e r n i t y .

" I f death i s l i k e t h i s , t h e n , " says P l a t o ' s 'Socrates,' "I c a l l i t gain;

because the whole o f t i m e , i f y o u l o o k a t i t i n t h i s way, can be r e -

29

garded as no more than one s i n g l e n i g h t . " . T h i s i s the s i t u a t i o n i n

A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , butDante used t h e i d e a d i f f e r e n t l y . I n The

D i v i n e Comedy, the Dante who makes t h e j o u r n e y e x p e r i e n c e s s e v e r a l days

and n i g h t s , w h i l e t h e Dante who i s , as we e v e n t u a l l y l e a r n , dreaming

the v i s i o n , takes o n l y one n i g h t , as i s e v i d e n t when B e a t r i c e says

B u t , s i n c e the time i n which y o u are a s l e e p
I s f l y i n g , l e t us end h e r e , l i k e a good
T a i l o r who c u t s t h e gown t o vhat c l o t h he has

(III 32).

In A Voyage, the concept i s c o n c r e t e l y embodied i n Tormance's twin

suns. Maskull, the e n e r g e t i c p r o t a g o n i s t , i s awake f o r a number o f

the o r d i n a r y s u n ' s (Branchspell's) days, b u t , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a s l e e p

f o r a s i n g l e one o f A l p p a i n ' s n i g h t s . A l p p a i n i s the sun o f e t e r n i t y .

Soon a f t e r M a s k u l l wakes up on Tormance he sees " t h e a f t e r g l o w o f a

gorgeous b l u e s u n s e t " (VA 6 6 ) , and from then on he i s a s l e e p t o the

real world. He comes to r e a l i s e t h a t "we are each o f us l i v i n g i n a

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f a l s e , p r i v a t e w o r l d o f our own, a w o r l d o f dreams and a p p e t i t e s and

distorted perceptions" (VA 1 6 6 - 6 7 ) : t h a t i s to s a y , i n a dream w o r l d .

When t h e b l u e sun r i s e s a g a i n , n e c e s s a r i l y he d i e s . But L i n d s a y has

n o t g i v e n us a man who i s a t t h e same time b o t h a s l e e p and awake; he

has embodied the ' s l e e p i n g p a r t n e r ' as N i g h t s p o r e . The d y i n g M a s k u l l

asks "Where's N i g h t s p o r e ? " and i s t o l d , " Y o u are N i g h t s p o r e . " Maskull

dies, goes t o s l e e p ; N i g h t s p o r e i s b o r n , wakes up. Krag says, "The

n i g h t i s r e a l l y p a s t at l a s t , N i g h t s p o r e . . . . The day i s h e r e " (VA 2 7 7 ) .

The two main concepts r e s u l t i n g from t h e o p p o s i t i o n between

dream and r e a l i t y c o e x i s t i n most n e o - P l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h y from P l a t o

t o Schopenhauer and i n most dream l i t e r a t u r e from Dante t o L i n d s a y .

T h i s i s perhaps most c l e a r l y seen i n The Haunted Woman. Life is a

dream, i . e . a f a l s e w o r l d , b u t i n dreaming we c a n , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , re-

new our c o n t a c t w i t h the r e a l w o r l d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , we have drunk o f

the r i v e r of m a t t e r , L e t h e , and we have f o r g o t t e n the e t e r n a l w o r l d

which i s our t u r e home. " Y o u r memory w i l l be y o u r worst f r i e n d " (VA 43)

K r a g t e l l s M a s k u l l when they are about t o l e a v e f o r Tormance from the

tower a t S t a r k n e s s . "Do y o u u n d e r s t a n d i t , o r have y o u r forgotten?"

(VA 278) K r a g asks N i g h t s p o r e b e f o r e he c l i m b s t h e tower o f M u s p e l .

N i g h t s p o r e has n o t been c o m p l e t e l y c o r r u p t e d by h i s imprisonment i n the

body. Through dreaming he has (as h i s name h i n t s ) m a i n t a i n e d some c o n -

t a c t w i t h the s p i r i t u a l r e a l i t y beyond t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d .

In h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n to The Dream A d v e n t u r e , an a n t h o l o g y of dream,

stories, Roger C a i l l o i s c l a i m s t h a t " t h e dream has been used o n l y

 38

r e c e n t l y i n the l i t e r a r y p r o c e s s , " a s k i n g , "Can i t s t i l l be a dream

30

if one has been warned i n advance t h a t i t i s one?" T h i s i s an

a r g u a b l e p o i n t i n many ways. However, what C a l l o i s ' i s t r y i n g t o

get a t i s t h e i d e a t h a t some modern a u t h o r s have w r i t t e n dream n o v e l s

t h a t a r e s e l f - c o n t a i n e d , c r e a t i v e dreams i n w h i c h t h e d r e a m - r e a l i t y

o p p o s i t i o n i s not o v e r t l y proclaimed. We can see what he means i f we

compare the dream n o v e l s o f K a f k a , which respond v e r y w e l l , as Hall
31

and L i n d have f o u n d , t o standard p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l procedures such

as c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s , w i t h the i n s i s t e n t r e p e t i t i o n s , "And I saw i n

my d r e a m . . . , " o f a Bunyan. However, the l i t e r a r y mode o f a l l e g o r y ,

even when i t does n o t p r e t e n d t o be a dream, does have a number o f

t h i n g s i n common w i t h dreams t h e m s e l v e s , as w e l l as t h e tendency t o

use the i d e a o f the dream m e t a p h o r i c a l l y . Certainly, allegories are

much more l i k e dreams t h a n are o r d i n a r y ' r e a l i s t i c ' n o v e l s .

The p r e c i s e genre t o w h i c h t h e i m p o r t a n t works we have m e n t i o n e d ,

The D i v i n e Comedy, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , and

32

A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s , b e l o n g i s a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y . Allegor-

i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s and dreams s h a r e t h r e e s a l i e n t characteristics:

s e q u e n t i a l form w i t h m a n i f e s t and l a t e n t meaning ( a l l e g o r y ) with

i d e a t i o n through v i s u a l i s a t i o n (dream) and s e p a r a t i o n from the phenom-

enal world (fantasy o r romance).

As i s r e v e a l e d by such e x p r e s s i o n s as ' I must have been d r e a m i n g , '

the c e n t r a l f a c t about dreaming i s t h a t i t reduces our c o n t a c t w i t h

the phenomenal w o r l d : we ' l o s e t o u c h ' w i t h r e a l i t y . T h i s reduced

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c o n t a c t has i t s analogue i n romance and f a n t a s y w h i c h a r e " l e s s com-

33

m i t t e d to t h e immediate r e n d i t i o n o f r e a l i t y than t h e n o v e l . " In

a f a n t a s y P e t e r S c h l e m i e l can s e l l h i s shadow t o t h e d e v i l , who can

r o l l i t up and put i t i n h i s p o c k e t . T h i s freedom can be used e i t h e r

34
t o escape from r e a l i t y , as i t i s i n ^ p o p u l a r romance or pornography,
35

or t o explore i n n e r p s y c h i c r e a l i t y : t h e t a n g i b l e shadow may be a

symbol o f something i n t a n g i b l e (say, the s o u l ) . The a c t i o n i n f a n t a s y

always takes p l a c e i n a m e n t a l r a t h e r than a p h y s i c a l w o r l d , where

a p p a r e n t l y p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s are a c t u a l l y m e n t a l r e a l i t i e s , which is

why they are no l o n g e r bound by the laws of the m a t e r i a l universe.

The kingdom o f God i s , as we know, w i t h i n u s , which i s why He

speaks t o us i n dreams. Most r e l i g i o n s r e c o g n i s e , according to Jung,

"that the v o i c e w h i c h speaks i n our dreams i s n o t our own but comes

36

from a s o u r c e t r a n s c e n d i n g u s " —that i s , i t acomes from the r e a l and

' o t h e r ' w o r l d beyond. The i n n e r w o r l d and the t r a n s c e n d e n t are i n

fact identical: the f a n t a s y t a k e s . u s i n t o the s p i r i t . This i s the

b a s i s o f C. S. L e w i s ' s a p p r e c i a t i o n of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s :
The p h y s i c a l dangers, w h i c h are p l e n t i f u l , here
count f o r n o t h i n g : i t i s we o u r s e l v e s and the
a u t h o r who w a l k t h r o u g h a w o r l d o f s p i r i t u a l
dangers which makes them seem t r i v i a l . There i s
no r e c i p e f o r w r i t i n g o f t h i s k i n d . But p a r t o f
the s e c r e t i s t h a t the a u t h o r ( l i k e Kafka) i s
recording a l i v e d d i a l e c t . H i s Tormance i s a
r e g i o n o f t h e s p i r i t . He i s t h e f i r s t w r i t e r t o
d i s c o v e r what ' o t h e r p l a n e t s ' are r e a l l y good f o r
in fiction. No merely p h y s i c a l s t r a n g e n e s s o r
merely s p a t i a l d i s t a n c e w i l l r e a l i s e t h a t i d e a
o f o t h e r n e s s which i s what we are always t r y i n g
t o grasp i n a s t o r y about v o y a g i n g through s p a c e :
you must go i n t o a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n . To conduct
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p l a u s i b l e and moving ' o t h e r w o r l d s ' y o u must

draw on the o n l y r e a l ' o t h e r w o r l d ' we know,
t h a t o f the s p i r i t ( 3 7 ) .

I t i s obvious t h a t f a n t a s y l i t e r a t u r e w i l l be p a r a b o l i c , allegor-

i c a l o r s y m b o l i c , as are at l e a s t the ' s p e c i a l ' dreams a l l o w e d f o r by

dream p s y c h o l o g i e s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y , the J u n g i a n ) . That i s , dream w o r k s ,

l i k e a c t u a l ' s i g n i f i c a n t ' dreams, must be i n t e r p r e t e d . They have b o t h

a m a n i f e s t c o n t e n t — t h e a c t u a l events—and a l a t e n t content—what the

38

p a t t e r n of events signifies. In parables (e.g. of the k i n d w r i t t e n

by K a f k a ) , t h e a e s t h e t i c d i s t a n c e between t h e two c o n t e n t s enciphered

may be q u i t e l a r g e , so t h a t t h e dream o r dream work w i l l have a number

of significances or ' m e a n i n g s ' . I n n a i v e a l l e g o r y , where, f o r example,

39

Christian falls i n t o a s l o u g h and t h e s l o u g h i s c a l l e d Despond, the

l e v e l s a r e c l o s e t o g e t h e r and the dream i s t r a n s p a r e n t r a t h e r than

opaque. A g a i n , i t i s a d i f f e r e n c e of degree r a t h e r than of k i n d , . a n d

most a c t u a l dream works are somewhere between pure f a n t a s y and n a i v e

a l l e g o r y , and t h e i r o p a c i t y c o n t i n u a l l y v a r i e s : i.e., they are what

we g e n e r a l l y c a l l 'symbolic'.

We have a l r e a d y quoted T. S. E l i o t to the e f f e c t that "Dante's

40

is a visual imagination." References to S p e n s e r ' s ' r i c h tapestry'

have a s i m i l a r i m p o r t . In f a c t , 'vision' i s n o t o n l y s e e i n g i n t o the

transcendent w o r l d , i t i s seeing i t s e l f . A l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s

and dreams d e a l i n concepts ( l a t e n t meaning), b u t one cannot visualise

41

a disembodied c o n c e p t : .i,. t h e l a t e n t must be made m a n i f e s t , the ab-

s t r a c t made c o n c r e t e . A l l e g o r i s t s express themselves, for this reason,

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in pictures. Dreams a l s o a r e — s i n c e when dreaming we have 'lost

touch' with r e a l i t y — m a i n l y i n p i c t u r e s , and t h i n k i n g i n p i c t u r e s

r e p r e s e n t s a p r i m i t i v e form of i d e a t i o n . U n c i v i l i s e d men and c h i l -

dren a l s o t e n d t o t h i n k i n p i c t u r e s , and f o r most s l e e p e r s dreaming

42

seems to i n v o l v e a r e g r e s s i o n to a more p r i m i t i v e l e v e l of thought.

This regression i n l i t e r a t u r e can l e a d the i n s e n s i t i v e c r i t i c to say

t h a t an a u t h o r "does g i v e t h a t i m p r e s s i o n of b e i n g much more than r i p e

43
f o r p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w h i c h pervades much f a n t a s y " o r e v e n , though l e s s
s n i d e l y , t h a t " a l l t h e g r e a t f a n t a s i e s , I suppose, have been w r i t t e n
44

by e m o t i o n a l l y c r i p p l e d m e n . " However, the r e g r e s s i o n is a v i t a l

p a r t o f the f a n t a s i s t ' s attempt t o get beyond the l i m i t s o f b o t h

language and everyday r e a l i t y i n o r d e r t o e x p l o r e the i n n e r r e a l i t y .

I d e a t i o n through v i s u a l i s a t i o n l e a d s i n dreams t o condensation.

Condensing two p r o v e r b s , we might c l a i m t h a t every p i c t u r e t e l l s a

s t o r y w o r t h a thousand w o r d s . In b o t h dreams and f a n t a s i e s the v i s u a l -

i z a t i o n i s symbolic; i t a l l o w s an enormous amount of a c t u a l ex-

p e r i e n c e o t o be e n c a p s u l a t e d i n iconographic form. Where these r e p -

resentations are common t o a c u l t u r e ( v i z . found i n the 'collective

unconscious') they are c a l l e d a r c h e t y p e s . I t i s t h e use o f these

45

w h i c h , as Maud B o d k i n must be c r e d i t e d w i t h showing, enable dream

f a n t a s i e s such as The D i v i n e Comedy and The Rime of the A n c i e n t M a r i n e r ,

as w e l l as works b e l o n g i n g to l e s s e r l i t e r a r y genres such as the f a i r y

t a l e and G o t h i c romance, to generate such e m o t i o n a l power.

Condensation i s a l s o at work i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s when
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we f i n d the sudden d i s p l a c e m e n t o f s y m b o l i c meaning from the l a n d -

scape t o the f i g u r e . A l l e g o r i c a l f a n t a s i e s and dreams b o t h work

through p i c t u r e s , n o t i n t e r i o r i s a t i o n and c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n . In

allegories t h e r e are no c h a r a c t e r s i n the sense we use the word when

t a l k i n g of p s y c h o l o g i c a l n o v e l s , t h e r e a r e o n l y embodied c o n c e p t s .

The a l l e g o r i s t i s most i m p o r t a n t d e v i c e f o r making s i g n i f i c a n t h i s

embodiments i s through t h i s d i s p l a c e m e n t . As A . D. N u t t a l has ob-

s e r v e d , exampling us w i t h a s o p h i s t i c a t e d and a n a i v e w r i t e r , "with

D a n t e , as w i t h Bunyan, i t i s the l a n d s c a p e t h a t keeps the a l l e g o r y

46

vigorous." This i s the case i n a l l a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y .

A c c o r d i n g t o Angus F l e t c h e r , who s l i p s i n an e x t r a name, " t h e heroes

4

i n Dante and Spenser and Bunyan seem t o c r e a t e the w o r l d s about t h e m . "

Indeed they do. But i t i s from the d i s p l a c e m e n t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e from

the l a n d s c a p e t h a t the e m o t i o n a l , r a t h e r than the i n t e l l e c t u a l , s i g n i f -

i c a n c e of the embodiment comes. T h i s i s an e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t p o i n t .

Landscape i n a l l e g o r y i s , as we s a y , 'by the w a y , ' l o g i c a l l y , but i t

i s one source o f a l l e g o r y ' s e m o t i o n a l power.

L a s t l y , dreams and a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s have i n common

s e q u e n t i a l form. Joanna Russ t a l k s of " t h e t r u d g i n g r e g u l a r i t y of the

events i n A r c t u r u s " and says dream s t o r i e s "are e n t i r e l y e p i s o d i c , with

c o n s i s t e n t and a p p a r e n t l y d e l i b e r a t e a v o i d a n c e of emphasis, c o m p l e x i t y
48

o r change" so t h a t " t h e r e s u l t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a s e r i e s of tableaus."

Such t h i n g s may w i t h e q u a l j u s t i c e be s a i d of The D i v i n e Comedy o r w i t h

g r e a t e r j u s t i c e o f The F a e r i e Queen. In f a c t , such remarks about

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'tableaus' a r e t h e c l i c h e s o f Spenser c r i t i c i s m , and a r i s e from the

same p a t h e t i c i n a b i l i t y t o take a l l e g o r y s e r i o u s l y . Of c o u r s e , A

Voyage to A r c t u r u s and The D i v i n e Comedy a r e b o t h b e a u t i f u l l y c o n -

s t r u c t e d b o o k s , b u t t h e r e a r e many f i n e dream works w h i c h a r e closer

to ' p u r e ' fantasy. I n books which are n o t t i g h t l y o r g a n i s e d around

a p r e c i s e m o r a l f o r m u l a , such as Amos T u t u o l a ' s The Palm-Wine D r i n k a r d

o r George MacDonald's Phantastes, the o r d e r o f the i n c i d e n t s may o f t e n

be s i m p l y random. F l e t c h e r a d m i t s , " t h e p r o g r e s s need n o t be p l a u s i b l e ,

49

as l o n g as the momentum o f s y m b o l i c i n v e n t i o n i s g r e a t . " Most c r i t i c s

of A Voyage have p r a i s e d i t p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r i t s w e a l t h o f invention,

and t h i s may be why t h e e c o n o m i c a l o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e has so l o n g r e -

mained h i d d e n . When S i g n i f i c a n t I n c i d e n t s f o l l o w one a n o t h e r w i t h

g r e a t r a p i d i t y , as they tend to i n dreams and dream a l l e g o r i e s , the

reader i s u n l i k e l y to consider t h e i r order deeply. Besides, even i n

dream a l l e g o r i e s , t h e r e may not be any reason why one event s h o u l d

f o l l o w r a t h e r than precede a n o t h e r . Should C h r i s t i a n meet Faithful

before Hopeful, or pass through V a n i t y F a i r b e f o r e , r a t h e r than after,

the V a l l e y o f the Shadow o f death?

I n a c t u a l dreams we a c c e p t the a s t o n i s h i n g w i t h e q u a n i m i t y , and

questions t h a t would be asked by t h e w a k i n g consciousness—-were it

o n l y awake—are s i m p l y not a s k e d . However, here dream and a l l e g o r i c a l

dream f a n t a s y p a r t company. When we r e a d a l i t e r a r y work (as opposed

t o a p i e c e o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t ) o f whatever g e n r e , we s h o u l d n o t p u t our

reasons to s l e e p . Even though they b o t h have s e q u e n t i a l f o r m , and a l l

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t h e o t h e r s i m i l a r i t i e s we have n o t e d , a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s are

51

designed; they are works of a r t , and dreams are n o t .

A l l e g o r i e s are two d i m e n s i o n a l , and t h e two s t r u c t u r a l forms

w h i c h they take have been d i s t i n g u i s h e d as the b a t t l e and the p r o g r e s s .

Of the form of t h e b a t t l e are The Holy War and The B a t t l e o f the Books.

Of the form of the p r o g r e s s a r e The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s and G u l l i v e r 1 ' s

Travels. Of c o u r s e , a l l a l l e g o r i e s are t o some e x t e n t b o t h , though a

few ( e . g . the works o f Bunyan and S w i f t c i t e d above) are almost w h o l l y

one o r the o t h e r . I n g e n e r a l , as C. S. Lewis a r g u e s , t h e form o f the

p r o g r e s s i s t o be p r e f e r r e d :
Seneca, w i t h h i s imagery of l i f e as a j o u r n e y ,
was n e a r e r t o the mark than P r u d e n t i u s ; f o r
Seneca o u t l i n e d the theme o f the P i l g r i m ' s
P r o g r e s s , and the P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s i s a b e t t e r
book than the Holy War. I t i s n o t h a r d t o see
why t h i s s h o u l d be s o . The j o u r n e y has i t s ups
and downs, i t s p l e a s a n t r e s t i n g - p l a c e s e n j o y e d
f o r a n i g h t and then abandoned, i t s unexpected
m e e t i n g s , i t s ^ r u m o u r s o f dangers ahead, and,
above a l l , t h e sense o f a g o a l , a t f i r s t f a r
d i s t a n t and d i m l y h e a r d o f , b u t growing n e a r e r
a t e v e r y t u r n of t h e r o a d . Now t h i s r e p r e s e n t s
f a r more t r u l y than any combat i n a champ c l o s
the p e r e n n i a l s t r a n g e n e s s , and the sensuous
f o r w a r d movement o f fche-inner l i f e . I t needs the
l o n g r o a d and mountain p r o s p e c t s of the f a b l e t o
match the <x1T£ipov w i t h i n ( 5 2 ) .

Even ' p u r e ' dream f a n t a s i e s l i k e A l i c e i n Wonderland and The Palm-Wine

D r i n k a r d have some k i n d of f i n a l g o a l , even i f i t i s o n l y a way o f e n d i n g

the s t o r y . But i n a l l e g o r i e s which c a r r y a s p i r i t u a l message, there

i s a c o n t i n u a l s t r i v i n g towards a f i n a l v i s i o n o r v i s i o n a r y experience,

as C. S. Lewis has n o t e d .
 45

The a l l e g o r y w h i c h i s s t r u c t u r a l l y a b a t t l e i s one organised

around the c o n f l i c t between good and e v i l i n some f o r m , whether the

o p p o s i n g camps be c a l l e d Heaven and H e l l o r S u r t u r and C r y s t a l m a n o r

whatever. So much i s e a s y . The a l l e g o r y w h i c h i s s t r u c t u r a l l y a

p r o g r e s s i s one o r g a n i s e d around a j o u r n e y . Such a l l e g o r i e s t e n d to

have a f o u r - p a r t structure, made up o f two major elements (the p r o g r e s s

p r o p e r and the f i n a l v i s i o n ) a a n d two minor elements which a c t as a

frame (the t r a n s i t i o n from the phenomenal t o the s p i r i t u a l w o r l d and

the promise of r e t u r n ) . We n o r m a l l y b e g i n i n the ' r e a l ' c o r everyday

world: i n a dark wood i n The D i v i n e Comedy/, . i n A n o d o s ' s room at home

i n P h a n t a s t e s , i n F a u l l ' s House i n A Voyage. The a l l e g o r i s t ' s first

t a s k i s to get us from t h e r e to the w o r l d o f the s p i r i t . The t r a n s i -

t i o n may be b a r e l y n o t i c e a b l e : N . K. S a n d a r s , i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o

The E p i c of G i l g a m e s h , a c u t e l y observes t h a t G i l g a m e s h ' s second journey

can be based on no h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t ; the t o p o g -

raphy i s o t h e r - w o r l d l y i n a manner w h i c h b e f o r e
i t was n o t . The p l a n e s o f r o m a n t i c and o f
s p i r i t u a l adventure have c o a l e s c e d . A l t h o u g h
c l o t h e d i n the appearances o f p r i m i t i v e geog-
raphy i t i s a s p i r i t u a l l a n d s c a p e as much as
D a n t e ' s Dark Wood, M o u n t a i n , and P i t (53).

The t r a n s i t i o n i n P h a n t a s t e s i s b e a u t i f u l l y managed: Anodos's bedroom

m a g i c a l l y metamorphoses i n t o f a i r y l a n d : the c a r p e t becomes a s w a r d ,

54

c a r v e d becomes r e a l i v y , the f a u c e t o v e r f l o w s and becomes a stream.

Mr. Vane i n L i l i t h has i n h i s house an u p s t a i r s which i s unknown to

h i m , a g a r r e t w i t h "an uncanny look""'"' which may be the immediate

source o f U l f ' s Tower i n The Haunted Woman. In t h i s g a r r e t i s a m i r r o r

 46

through w h i c h , r a t h e r i n the manner o f A l i c e , M r . Vane stumbles into

56
another w o r l d , e v i d e n t l y on a n o t h e r p l a n e t w h i c h o c c u p i e s the same
57

space as t h e e a r t h . L i n d s a y and C. S. Lewis take us i n t o the spirit

w o r l d by h a v i n g t h e i r heroes l i t e r a l l y t r a n s p o r t e d to other planets.

Of t h i s C. S. Lewis says
I am i n c l i n e d to t h i n k t h a t f r a n k l y s u p e r n a t u r a l
methods are b e s t . I took a h e r o once t o Mars i n
a s p a c e - s h i p , b u t when I knew b e t t e r I had a n g e l s
convey h i m to Venus ( 5 8 ) .
Lewis has j u s t been complementing H . G. W e l l s on " h i s c h o i c e o f a q u i t e
59
impossible composition c a l l e d c a v o r i t e " t o power h i s s p a c e - s h i p i n
F i r s t Men i n the Moon:

This i m p o s s i b i l i t y i s of course a m e r i t , not a

defect. A man o f h i s i n g e n u i t y c o u l d e a s i l y
have thought up something more p l a u s i b l e . But
t h e more p l a u s i b l e , the w o r s e . That would
merely i n v i t e i n t e r e s t i n a c t u a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s
of r e a c h i n g the moon, a m i n t e r e s t f o r e i g n t o
h i s s t o r y (60).

The t r a d i t i o n a l method o f g e t t i n g i n t o the s p i r i t w o r l d , f a l l i n g a s l e e p

and h a v i n g one o r more dreams as i n P i e r s Plowman and The P i l g r i m ' s

Progress, seems t o have gone out o f f a s h i o n . The s p i r i t w o r l d i n

modern f a n t a s y tends t o be n o t i n i n n e r b u t i n o u t e r s p a c e , though the

two may b e , i n the end, the same.

Once i n t h e s p i r i t w o r l d , the p r o g r e s s p r o p e r o f the a l l e g o r y

takes p l a c e . Angus F l e t c h e r d e s c r i b e s t h i s by s a y i n g t h a t " a system-

a t i c a l l y c o m p l i c a t e d c h a r a c t e r w i l l generate a l a r g e number o f o t h e r
61

protagonists who r e a c t a g a i n s t or w i t h h i m i n a s y l l o g i s t i c manner"

allegories abandon m i m e s i s , f o r the c h a r a c t e r s do n o t have t o "interact

 47

p l a u s i b l y , o r a c c o r d i n g t o p r o b a b i l i t y , as l o n g as they i n t e r a c t w i t h
62
a certain logical necessity." Then, "by a n a l y z i n g the p r o j e c t i o n s ,
we determine what i s g o i n g on i n i t h e mind of the h i g h l y imaginative
63

projector." Unlike characters i n novels, characters in allegories

do n o t have i n t e r i o r w o r l d s . A n o v e l i s t may t e l l us t h a t h i s hero is

unhappy and d e p r e s s e d , o r ;(for example) g i v e us samples o f h i s stream

of c o n s c i o u s n e s s so o r d e r e d t h a t we i n f e r the f a c t . I n a l l e g o r y , where

m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s are e x t e r i o r i s e d , the h e r o w i l l f a l l i n t o a Slough

o f Despond o f some k i n d . Thus the p r o t a g o n i s t generates l a n d s c a p e s

and c h a r a c t e r s (though t h a t word i s more a p p r o p r i a t e t o the 'real'

p e o p l e o f a n o v e l ) who are the t r a n s i t o r y embodiments of the problems

he i s f a c i n g . Each p r o b l e m f a c e d and d i s p o s e d o f i s a s t e p f o r w a r d

i n the p r o g r e s s of the a l l e g o r y .

The p r o g r e s s o f t h e a l l e g o r y c l e a r l y takes p l a c e on two l e v e l s

simultaneously: on one l e v e l ( m a n i f e s t ) we have the s t o r y o f a t r a v e l l e r

and h i s e p i s o d i c a d v e n t u r e s , on a n o t h e r ( l a t e n t ) we have a metaphysical

s t o r y of t h e p r o g r e s s o f the s o u l . Thus the a l l e g o r y " a s p i r e s t o

64
e n c i p h e r two c o n t e n t s i n one f o r m , " and i t has been much c r i t i c i s e d
f o r t h i s , even by s o p h i s t i c a t e d a l l e g o r i s t s such as B l a k e and Poe.
Both T o l k i e n and^C. S. Lewis r e p e a t e d l y a f f i r m t h a t t h e i r own f a n t a s i e s
65

are n o t a l l e g o r i c a l . Aware t h a t a l l e g o r y i s frowned upon ( i f i t still

is) i n ' t h e age o f the n o v e l , ' b o t h J . B. P i c k and C o l i n W i l s o n are

eager t o deny t h a t L i n d s a y i s an a l l e g o r i s t , even though i n A Voyage

t o A r c t u r u s he o b v i o u s l y i s . W i l s o n says A Voyage i s " a s o r t of

 48

P i l g r i m ' s Progress—except, I must emphasise, t h a t i t i s n o t an a l -

l e g o r y b u t a s t o r y w i t h deeper meanings" (TSG 4 9 ) . S a i d o f A Voyage,

it i s d o u b t f u l whether t h i s means a n y t h i n g even t o W i l s o n . A t any

rate, i t does n o t hamper h i s c r i t i c i s m g r e a t l y , f o r he procedes to

work through the p r o g r e s s s u g g e s t i n g (often acutely) possible allegor-

i c a l meanings. P i c k , however, i s a much more d e t e r m i n e d a n t i - a l l e g o r i s t .

P i c k c h i d e s "The Times L i t e r a r y Supplement r e v i e w e r " f o r l e a p i n g

a t the most obvious w o r d — ' a l l e g o r y ' . L i n d s a y

was n o t an a l l e g o r i s t . I n D e v i l ' s T o r one ,of
h i s characters says: ' A symbol i s a m y s t i c
s i g n o f the C r e a t o r . An a l l e g o r y i s a w a l l
d e c o r a t i o n w i t h a l a b e l attached* 5 (TSG 5 ) .

The c h a r a c t e r P i c k quotes i s the p a i n t e r P e t e r C o p p i n g . We have a l -

ready seen t h a t L i n d s a y ' s views i n D e v i l ' s Tor (1932) were v a s t l y

d i f f e r e n t from those i n A Voyage ( 1 9 2 0 ) : L i n d s a y h i m s e l f comments

on the "chasm o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n " (TSG 3 0 ) . We have a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t

the c h a r a c t e r i n D e v i l ' s Tor most l i k e l y t o be a mouthpiece f o r L i n d s a y

h i m s e l f i s n o t Copping b u t the a g i n g w r i t e r of books on c o s m i c a l p r o b -

66

lems, Magnus C o l b o r n e . A g a i n , C o l b o r n e " r e m i n d e d one o f Schopenhauer"

(DT 1 0 8 ) . This a l l f i t s together. Had P i c k r e a d h i s Schopenhauer as

w e l l as L i n d s a y he would have found i n The World as W i l l and Idea a

passage s t r o n g l y c r i t i c a l o f a l l e g o r y i n the p l a s t i c a r t s , which

Schopenhauer i s a g a i n s t f o r t h e same reason as C o p p i n g : the l a b e l on

the s t a t u e , p a i n t i n g o r w a l l d e c o r a t i o n w h i c h s a y s , f o r example, 'Faith,'

t a k e s us from t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f the c o n c r e t e t h i n g - i n - i t s e l f t o a

limiting abstraction. But Schopenhauer p o i n t s out t h a t the m a t e r i a l

 49

of l i t e r a t u r e i s i n i t s e l f a b s t r a c t , concepts e x p r e s s e d i n w o r d s , and

therefore i n t h i s case a l l e g o r y t a k e s us from the a b s t r a c t _to the

c o n c r e t e ; - , when the word i s made f l e s h . Therefore, says Schopenhauer,

a l l e g o r y has an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n t o
p o e t r y from t h a t which i t has t o p l a s t i c and
p i c t o r i a l a r t ; and a l t h o u g h i t i s o b j e c t i o n a b l e
i n t h e l a t t e r , i t i s q u i t e a d m i s s a b l e and v e r y
e f f e c t i v e i n the former ( F i r s t Book, s e c . 50) ( 6 7 ) .

Borges g i v e s us a c o n c r e t e i l l u s t r a t i o n of Schopenhauer's p o i n t when

he says

B e a t r i c e i s n o t a s i g n o f . t h e word f a i t h ; she i s
a s i g n o f a c t i v e v i r t u e and the s e c r e t i l l u m i n a t i o n
t h a t t h i s word i n d i c a t e s — a more p r e c i s e s i g n , a
r i c h e r and h a p p i e r s i g n than the m o n o s y l l a b l e
f a i t h (68).

Borges f u r t h e r p o i n t s out t h a t a l l e g o r i s t s are P l a t o n i s t s f o r whom

" i d e a s are r e a l i t i e s " whereas f o r A r i s t o t e l i a n s " t h e y are generali-

z a t i o n s " from p a r t i c u l a r s * . - .^Novelists a r e A r i s t o t e l i a n n o m i n a l i s t s

because they d e a l w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s , w h i l e a l l e g o r i s t s are P l a t o n i c

69

realists because they d e a l w i t h I d e a s . We have seen t h a t L i n d s a y

was, f o l l o w i n g Schopenhauer, a P l a t o n i s t who b e l i e v e d i n a r e a l w o r l d .

No doubt he c o u l d have j u s t i f i e d h i s use of a l l e g o r y p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y ,

had he f e l t the need t o a p o l o g i s e f o r i t . He d i d n o t . I n the letters

t o V i s i a k he hopes t h a t h i s young s t u d e n t w i l l s u c c e e d " i n e l u c i d a t i n g

the mystery of the a l l e g o r y " (L 45) and i s g r a t e f u l t o V i s i a k f o r

t a k i n g the a l l e g o r y s e r i o u s l y , even i f i t i s from a s p e c i f i c a l l y

C h r i s t i a n (and t h e r e f o r e l i m i t e d ) point of view.

What P i c k and W i l s o n agree on i s that w h i l e L i n d s a y i s not an

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a l l e g o r i s t , he i s a v i s i o n a r y and m y s t i c l i k e "Boehme, Swedenborg and

W i l l i a m B l a k e " (TSG 5 ) . ^ L i n d s a y i s a v i s i o n a r y , of c o u r s e , when we

reach the t h i r d s t a g e o f the a l l e g o r y . T a k i n g us from the phenomenal

w o r l d t o the s p i r i t w o r l d , and a c r o s s the s p i r i t w o r l d i n t h e p r o g r e s s ,

i s the n e c e s s a r y p r e p a r a t i o n f o r the f i n a l v i s i o n i t s e l f . Angus F l e t c h e r

has n o t i c e d t h a t "though a l l e g o r y may be i n t e n d e d to r e v e a l , i t does so

o n l y a f t e r v e i l i n g a d e l a y e d message w h i c h i t would r a t h e r keep from

any v e r y ready o r f a c i l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . " ^ " ' " ' V e i l i n g ' i s an appropriate

metaphor h e r e , f o r the f i n a l aim o f the a l l e g o r y i s t o t a k e us through

the v e i l of Maya and g i v e us a v i s i o n of the t r a n s c e n d e n t w o r l d . But

i t must be worked f o r :

The p r o c e s s o f e x p l i c a t i o n , a g r a d u a l u n f o l d i n g ,
i s s e q u e n t i a l i n form. There i s n o r m a l l y a
g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e of comprehension, as t h e r e a d e r
pursues the f a b l e , and y e t most a l l e g o r i e s o f
major importance have u l t i m a t e l y v e r y obscure
images, and t h e s e are a source o f t h e i r g r e a t -
ness. (72).
73
A f t e r the " p a s s i o n a t e s p i r i t u a l j o u r n e y " we move t o the v i s i o n , and
When an a l l e g o r y becomes p u r e l y v i s i o n a r y , when
f o r example The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s shows us the
Heavenly C i t y , i t does so o n l y a f t e r a s t r u g g l e
to r e a c h t h a t g o a l . The s t a g e p r i o r t o f i n a l
v i s i o n seems t o b e . q u a l i t a t i v e l y u n l i k e t h a t
f i n a l v i s i o n ; the l a t t e r i s a moment o f l i b e r a -
tion. The former i s a sequence o f d i f f i c u l t
l a b o r s , o f t e n t a k i n g the form of the h e r o ' s e n -
slavement t o a f a t a l d e s t i n y . The psychomachia
and the p r o g r e s s are n a r r a t i v e images o f t h i s
struggle. They a r e b a t t l e s f o r , and j o u r n e y s
t o w a r d , t h e f i n a l l i b e r a t i o n o f the h e r o ( 7 4 ) .

The hero i s l i b e r a t e d by m y s t i c a l i n s i g h t , which i s why S t . Bernard

r a t h e r than B e a t r i c e l e a d s ' D a n t e ' t o the f i n a l v i s i o n . The m y s t i c a l

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i n s i g h t i s knowledge o f the w o r l d beyond the v e i l o f Maya, i . e . gnosis.

The ' f i n a l l i b e r a t i o n ' l e a d s , of course, t o r e b i r t h , and most

a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s a r e , on a l a r g e s c a l e , examples o f what

Maud Bodkin d i s t i n g u i s h e s as t h e " R e b i r t h A r c h e t y p e " o r ( c o n f i r m i n g

our i n s i s t e n c e on the dream a s p e c t o f a l l e g o r i e s ) the " N i g h t J o u r n e y , "

whose c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e s t r u g g l e , r e l a x a t i o n and then i l l u m i n a t i o n .

Maud Bodkin w r i t e s that

I n i t s s i m p l e s t form t h i s i n t e r p l a y may be
r e c o g n i z e d as a rhythm c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a l l
c o n s c i o u s and o r g a n i c l i f e . I n the more com-
p l e x form t h a t g e n e r a t e s the need f o r expres-t
s i o n , t h e r e i s t e n s i o n and c o n f l i c t . A sense
o f p a i n and g u i l t a t t e n d s p e r s i s t e n c e i n t h a t
p a r t i c u l a r mode o f a d a p t a t i o n , o r s e l f -
a s s e r t i o n , whose abandonment i n the c o n d i t i o n
o f s u r r e n d e r and q u i e s c e n c e g i v e s o p p o r t u n i t y
f o r the a r i s i n g i m p u l s e o f some new form o f
l i f e (75).

M a s k u l l ' s b l o o d y t r i p a c r o s s Tormance i s the s t r u g g l e , a t t e n d e d by

" p a i n and g u i l t " . On the f l o a t i n g i s l a n d M a s k u l l reaches complete

q u i e s c e n c e when he t e l l s Gangnet " I have l o s t my w i l l " (VA 2 7 5 ) .

Soon a f t e r , he d i e s , and the " a r i s i n g i m p u l s e " o f the 'new form of

life' ( t h a t i s , N i g h t s p o r e ) takes o v e r . In a l l e g o r i e s , the r e b i r t h

i s g e n e r a l l y back i n t o the phenomenal w o r l d . Thus Dante i s r e b o r n when

he reawakes to w r i t e h i s dream v i s i o n as The D i v i n e Comedy, Bunyan t o

w r i t e The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s . Anodos d i e s and i s b u r i e d , 7 ^ but he must

s i n k from t h i s " s t a t e o f i d e a l b l i s s i n t o the w o r l d o f s h a d o w s " 7 7 and

f i n d h i m s e l f once more a t 'home' on e a r t h . N i g h t s p o r e has t o f a c e the

most t e r r i b l e t h i n g o f a l l : r e b i r t h i n t o C r y s t a l m a n ' s w o r l d (VA 2 7 9 ) .

The r e b i r t h through reawakening o r the promise o f r e t u r n t o the phenom-

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e n a l w o r l d — t h o u g h a w o r l d changed by the dream e x p e r i e n c e — i s the

second h a l f o f the frame which surrounds the p r o g r e s s p r o p e r , the last

of the a l l e g o r y ' s four sections and, g e n e r a l l y , the briefest.

A l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s as a whole are a k i n d o f dream ex-

p e r i e n c e f o r the r e a d e r . I n the a p o l o g e t i c d o g g e r e l w h i c h p r e f a c e s

The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , Bunyan asks " W o u l d s ' t t h o u be i n a Dream, and

78
yet not sleep?" Dream b o o k s , as has been e x p l a i n e d , a r e l i k e actual
79

dreams, but the r e a d e r cannot r e a d f o r ever.-' any more than the a u t h o r

can dream f o r e v e r : b o t h must r e t u r n to t h e phenomenal w o r l d . But the

dream i s o n l y the m a n i f e s t c o n t e n t o f t h e dream b o o k : the L a t e n t c o n -

t e n t i s l e f t f o r the r e a d e r t o work o u t . Thus Bunyan c l o s e s The

P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s w i t h more d o g g e r e l :
Now, Reader, I have t o l d my Dream t o t h e e ;
See i f t h o u c a n s ' t i n t e r p r e t i t t o me,
Or to t h y s e l f ( 8 0 ) .
Anodos a t t h e end of P h a n t a s t e s r e t u r n s "somewhat i n s t r u c t e d , I hoped,

by t h e adventures t h a t had b e f a l l e n me i n F a i r y - l a n d . Could I translate

81
t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f my t r a v e l s ' t h e r e , i n t o common l i f e ? " Dante appeals
t o us r e p e a t e d l y t o work f o r the l a t e n t content:

0 y o u who have good i n t e l l e c t s , l o o k c l o s e l y

At the l e s s o n t h a t l i e s h i d d e n beneath
The v e i l o f m y s t e r i o u s v e r s e s ( I 9 ) .

The m o r a l messages o f d i f f e r e n t a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s will,

82

of c o u r s e , be d i f f e r e n t i n each a l l e g o r y . MacDonald's i n Phantastes

is, f o r example, t h e o p p o s i t e o f L i n d s a y ' s i n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s .

However, we have seen the genre of a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y t o be a

 53

remarkably homogenous one, and the f a c t s o f b e l i e f i n a t r a n s c e n d e n t

w o r l d and the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c embodiment o f the ' r e b i r t h archetype'

l e a d tormost a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s (at l e a s t , I can t h i n k o f no

e x c e p t i o n s ) h a v i n g a common message b e s i d e s t h e s p e c i f i c m o r a l one.

T h i s message i s t h a t we are a l i e n s , but t h a t we h a v e , i n the r e a l

w o r l d , a t r u e home. Thus the p r o t a g o n i s t l e a v e s h i s e a r t h l y home f o r

a s p i r i t u a l one. C h r i s t i a n p u t s " h i s f i n g e r s i n h i s e a r s " so as n o t

t o h e a r h i s w i f e and c h i l d r e n c a l l i n g a f t e r h i m , and runs on " c r y i n g

Life! Life'. Eternal Life.'" " E v e n t u a l l y he reaches h i s t r u e home,

which i s the C e l e s t i a l C i t y . I n MacDonald's L i l i t h the raven l u r e s

Mr. Vane from h i s e a r t h l y home, s a y i n g "Everybody who i s n o t . a t home,

has to go home. You thought t h a t y o u were a t home where I found y o u :

84
if t h a t had been y o u r home you c o u l d not have l e f t i t . " ' Most c l e a r l y
t h i s m o t i f i s e x p r e s s e d by N o v a l i s i n h i s romance Henry o f O f t e r d i i i g e n .

Henry l e a v e s h i s p a r e n t s , b u t f e e l s "as i f i n r e a l i t y he was j o u r n e y i n g

85 ^
homewards." " I n 'The F u l f i l l m e n t ' when he asks " W i t h e r are we g o i n g ? "
86
he i s t o l d , " E v e r homewards." We found t h i s theme i n S p h i n x , where
87

N i c h o l a s and Lore are f r e e d by death t o r i d e t o t h e i r r e a l home, and

we s h a l l f i n d i t a g a i n i n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s .
 54

F o o t n o t e s t o Chapter Two

T. S. E l i o t , Dante (London: Faber and F a b e r , 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 5 6 .

T h i s passage i s a l s o quoted by Maud B o d k i n i n h e r p i o n e e r i n g s t u d y
A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s i n P o e t r y (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 ) ,
p . 177. Her comments on Dante a r e most i n s t r u c t i v e .

2
This t a b l e has been t a k e n f r o m Constance B . H l e a t t ' s The R e a l i s m
o f Dream V i s i o n s : The P o e t i c E x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e Dream-Experience i n
Chaucer and h i s Contemporaries (The Hague: Mouton, 1967), p . 2 7 .
3
P l a t o , ' A p o l o g y ' i n The L a s t Days o f S o c r a t e s , t r a n s . Hugh
T r e d e n n i c k (Harmondsworth: P e n g u i n Books, 1954), p . 40. I n 'Phaedo'
i n t h i s volume, ' S o c r a t e s ' t e l l s us he has been composing p o e t r y
o n l y " i n the attempt t o d i s c o v e r t h e meaning o f c e r t a i n dreams" (p. 7 7 ) .
4
N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n : A Romance (New Y o r k : H . H . Moore,
1 8 5 3 ) , p . 27.

^ N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 2 8 .

N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 29.

^ N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 2 3 .

g
Dante, The D i v i n e Comedy, t r a n s , L o u i s B i a n c o l l i (New Y o r k :
Washington Square P r e s s , 1968), p . 294. The q u o t a t i o n i s from Book I I ,
Canto.,,30. Subsequent r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s e d i t i o n w i l l be t o book and
c a n t o and i n c l u d e d i n t h e t e x t , v i z . ( I I 3 0 ) .

P l a t o , Timaeus, t r a n s , H . D. P . Lee (Harmondsworth: P e n g u i n

Books, 1965), p . 97. The passage c o n t i n u e s a l i t t l e l a t e r : "and i t
i s t h e f u n c t i o n o f someone i n h i s r i g h t mind t o c o n s t u r e what i s r e -
membered . . . and t o g i v e a r a t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e i r v i s i o n s . "

"^Schopenhauer, S a m t l i c h e Werke (Reclam, 1 9 2 1 ) , I V , p . 391.

Quoted from J e a n - P a u l Weber's T h e P s y c h o l o g y of A r t , t r a n s , J . A . E l i a s
(New Y o r k : D e l a c o r t e P r e s s , 1969), p . ^4-,

Tlato, 'Phaedo' i n The L a s t Days, p . 109.

 55

12
"To go back t o the s t a r s / A c c o r d i n g to the thought e x p r e s s e d
by P l a t o , " says B e a t r i c e , much t o D a n t e ' s s u r p r i s e . But she a d d s ,
"What Timaeus, who e v i d e n t l y spoke as / He f e l t , had to say about the
human s o u l / I s n o t the same as what i s seen up h e r e " ( I I I 4 ) .

13
H a l l and L i n d , Dreams, L i f e , and L i t e r a t u r e : A Study o f F r a n z
K a f k a (Chapel H i l l : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a P r e s s , 1 9 7 0 ) , p . 7.
C f . "we go through the e x p e r i e n c e of becoming two every n i g h t i n our
dreams" and " t h e s o u l o r the double i s a t w i n " i n Geza Roheim's The
Gates o f the Dream (New Y o r k : I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t i e s P r e s s , 1952),
p . 433.
14
Quoted from E r i c h Fromm, The F o r g o t t e n Language (New Y o r k :
R i n e h a r t , 1951), p. 5. Fromm n e i t h e r i d e n t i f i e s the poet n o r c i t e s
h i s source.

" ^ A l d o u s H u x l e y , Heaven and H e l l (London: C h a t t o and Windus,

1956). See A p p e n d i x I I f o r d i e t a r y reasons why " i n the Western w o r l d
v i s i o n a r i e s and m y s t i c s are a good d e a l l e s s common than they used to
b e " (p. 5 9 ) .

X6
Roger C a i l l o i s , The Dream Adventure (New Y o r k : O r i o n Books,
1963).

1 7
H . P . L o v e c r a f t , The Dream-Quest
B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1 9 7 0 ) , p . 122...

1 8
H. P. Lovecraft, The Dream-Quest

1 9
H. P. Lovecraft, The Dream-Quest

2
°H. P. L o v e c r a f t , The Dream-Quest

21
J o r g e L u i s B o r g e s , F i c t i o n s , e d . Anthony K e r r i g a n (London: John
C a l d e r , 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 57.
22
J o r g e L u i s B o r g e s , A P e r s o n a l A n t h o l o g y , e d . Anthony K e r r i g a n
(New Y o r k : Grove P r e s s , 1 9 6 7 ) , p . 117.
23
E r i c h Fromm, The F o r g o t t e n Language, p . 28.
 56

24
P . D. Ouspensky, The F o u r t h Way (London: Routledge and Kegan
P a u l , 1957), p . 29.

2 5
W i l l i a m Law, 'The S p i r i t o f P r a y e r , ' Works ( 1 7 6 2 ) , V I I 3.

26
P l a t o , Timaeus, p . 71.
27
The E p i c of G i l g a m e s h , E d . and t r a n s . N . K. Sandars (Harmondsworth:
Penguin Books, 1971), p . 104.

^ ^ W i l l i a m Shakespeare, The Tempest ( I V . i . 1 5 6 - 5 8 ) . These l i n e s

were f a v o r i t e s o f Jean P a u l R i c h t e r , as J . W. Smeed t e l l s us i n Jean
P a u l ' s 'Dreams' (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 9.

29
Plato, ' A p o l o g y ' i n The L a s t Days, p . 49.
30
Roger C a - l l o i s , The Dream A d v e n t u r e , p . xxxii.

3 1
H a l l and L i n d , Dreams, L i f e , and L i t e r a t u r e : A Study o f Franz
Kafka.

32
An I t a l i a n v i s i o ( C 1 3 t h ) , an E n g l i s h a l l e g o r y ( C 1 7 t h ) , a German
Romance (C18th) and a S c o t t i s h space f a n t a s y ( C 2 0 t h ) .
33
R i c h a r d Chase, The American N o v e l and I t s T r a d i t i o n (Garden C i t y :
Doubleday, 1957), p . 13. Chase i s d e v e l o p i n g Hawthorne's o p p o s i t i o n
between t h e n o v e l and t h e romance, w h i c h " w i l l v e e r toward m y t h i c ,
a l l e g o r i c a l , and s y m b o l i s t i c f o r m s . " F o r f u r t h e r development see
E l l i o t t B. Gose J r , I m a g i n a t i o n I n d u l g e d : The I r r a t i o n a l i n the N i n e -
t e e n t h Century N o v e l ( M o n t r e a l and London: M c G i l l - Q u e e n ' s U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1 9 7 2 ) , pp. 15-28.
34
I n h e r p i e c e o f p o l e m i c a g a i n s t dream w r i t e r s i n g e n e r a l and
D a v i d L i n d s a y i n p a r t i c u l a r , Joanna Russ c a l l s dream s t o r i e s " t h e
pornography o f p o e t r y " ; E x t r a p o l a t i o n (Dec. 1969), p . 13.
35
See B. D. L e w i n , Dreams and the Uses o f R e g r e s s i o n (New Y o r k :
I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t i e s P r e s s , 1958).
36
C. G. J u n g , P s y c h o l o g y and R e l i g i o n (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 45.
 57

37
C. S. L e w i s , Of Other Worlds (London: Geoffrey B l e s , 1966),
pp. 11-12;

38
Running u p s t a i r s may, t o t a k e a F r e u d i a n example, s i g n i f y s e x u a l
i n t e r c o u r s e , a c c o r d i n g t o the p a r t i t p l a y s i n the r e s t o f the dream,
but i t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean o r s i g n i f y t h a t .
39
s John Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s (London: J . M. Dent, 1927),
Bunyan not o n l y uses n a i v e a l l e g o r y , he g i v e s a r u n n i n g commentary
( h i s w a k i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s r e c o u n t i n g the dream): "as the s i n n e r i s
awakened about h i s l o s t c o n d i t i o n , t h e r e a r i s e t h i n h i s s o u l many f e a r s
and d o u b t s " w h i c h are e v i d e n t l y w a t e r y f o r they " s e t t l e i n t h i s p l a c e :
And t h i s i s the reason o f t h e badness o f t h i s g r o u n d " (p. 1 8 ) . Cf. the
swamp M a s k u l l gets i n t o w i t h S u l l e n b o d e (VA 2 5 4 ) .
40
T. S. E l i o t , Dante, p . 15.
41
That i s , an I d e a o r Form. They can be s e e n , and t h i s i s the
aim o f P l a t o n i c and n e o - P l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h y , b u t t h e y s t i l l cannot be
v i s u a l i s e d , and t h e r e f o r e they cannot be d e s c r i b e d . Hence ' D a n t e ' i n
an i m p o r t a n t s e c t i o n o f The D i v i n e Comedy goes b l i n d ( I I I 2 5 - 2 6 ) .
L e s s e r v i s i o n a r i e s l i k e M a s k u l l and Ransom ( i n P e r e l a r t d r a ) have s i m i l a r
problems w i t h new c o l o u r s and s e n s a t i o n s .
42
See Sigmund F r e u d , A M e t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l Supplement t o the Theory
of Dreams (1917 [ 1 9 1 5 ] ) , S. E . X I V , p . 222; I n t r o d u c t o r y L e c t u r e s on
Psycho-Analysis: Part I I : Dreams (1916), S. E. X V , p . 171; The I n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n of Dreams (1900-1901), S. E . V , p . 608. See a l s o B. D. L e w i n ,
Dreams and the Uses o f R e g r e s s i o n .

^ \ i n g s l e y Amis on H. P . L L o v e c r a f t i n New Maps o f H e l l (London:

New E n g l i s h L i b r a r y , 1969), p . 36.

44
Damon K n i g h t , In Search of Wonder ( C h i c a g o : A d v e n t , 1969),
p. 38.
45
Maud B o d k i n , A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s i n P o e t r y : P s y c h o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s
o f I m a g i n a t i o n (London: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 ) .
46
A. D. N u t t a l l , Two Concepts of A l l e g o r y (London: R o u t l e d g e and
Kegan P a u l , 1967), p . 3 1 .
 58

47
Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y : The Theory o f a S y m b o l i c Mode
( I t h a c a , New Y o r k : C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 35.

48
Joanna R u s s , 'Dream L i t e r a t u r e and S c i e n c e F i c t i o n ' in
E x t r a p o l a t i o n (Dec. 1 9 6 9 ) , p. 9.
49
Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p . 153.

" ^ C . S. Lewis says L i n d s a y " l e a d s us up a s t a i r o f u n p r e d i c t a b l e s .

I n each c h a p t e r we t h i n k we have found h i s f i n a l p o s i t i o n ; each time we
are u t t e r l y m i s t a k e n . He b u i l d s whole w o r l d s of imagery and p a s s i o n ,
any one o f w h i c h w o u l d have s e r v e d another w r i t e r f o r a whole book,
o n l y t o p u l l each o f them t o p i e c e s and pour s c o r n on i t " (Of Other
Worlds, p. 11). C o l i n W i l s o n says " L i n d s a y ' s c a p a c i t y f o r pure i n -
v e n t i o n — c r e a t i n g a s t r a n g e landscape—must be unsurpassed i n s c i e n c e
f i c t i o n ; here h i s genius i s so p l a i n t h a t no one c o u l d deny i t " (TSG
50).

"'"'"See Maud B o d k i n , A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s i n P o e t r y , pp, 61-68, and

C. B. H i e a t t , The R e a l i s m o f Dream V i s i o n s , M a r j o r i e N . How's e a r l y
s t u d y o f Dreams and V i s i o n s i n E n g l i s h P o e t r y (London: U n i v e r s i t y o f
London P r e s s , 1916) i g n o r e s a c t u a l dream e x p e r i e n c e and i s t h e r e f o r e ,
from our p o i n t o f v i e w , u s e l e s s . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , How does n o t seem t o
be aware t h a t h e r own p r e - J u n g i a n a t t i t u d e to dreams—they a r e w i s h -
f u l f i l l m e n t i n a masturbatory way—colours her c r i t i c i s m : Chaucer
w r o t e h i s House of Fame " t o 'work o f f f a n c i e s and i d e a s " and the
Tennyson o f 'Day-Dream' had a "tendency t o use t h i s form as a means of
g e t t i n g r e l i e f " (p. 8 ) .

52
C. S. L e w i s , The A l l e g o r y of Love: A Study i n M e d i e v a l T r a d i t i o n
(New Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958), p . 69.
53
The E p i c o f G i l g a m e s h , p . 35.
54
George MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 19 7 0 ) ,
pp. 6-7.

"^George MacDonald, L i l i t h (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1969),

pp. 6-7, 13-15. Between P h a n t a s t e s and L i l i t h MacDonald got to know
Lewis C a r r o l l , whose i n f l u e n c e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c l e a r i n L i l i t h i n the
w i t t y and p a r a d o x i c a l d i a l o g u e between M r . Vane and the r a v e n .

"^George MacDonald, L i l i t h , p. 8.
 59

George MacDonald, L i l i t h , p . 49, p . 83 e t c .

58
C. S. L e w i s , Of Other W o r l d s , p p . 68-69.

59
C. S. L e w i s , Of Other W o r l d s , p . 64. Lewis borrows W e l l s ' s
s p h e r i c a l s p a c e - s h i p , but n o t i t s motive power, f o r Out o f the S i l e n t
Planet. Weston, however, the 'mad' s c i e n t i s t o f the book, seems to
be a c r u e l parody o f the Utopian W e l l s .
60
C. S. L e w i s , Of Other W o r l d s , , p . : 6 4 . A f o r e i g n e r who was i n -
t e r e s t e d i n g e t t i n g to-."the moon, J u l e s V e r n e , shot h i s t r a v e l l e r s from
a gun i n h i s r e a l i s t i c n o v e l i s t ' s way, and r i d i c u l e d W e l l s f o r h i s l a c k
o f mimesis.
61
Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p . 35.
62

Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p . 182.

63
Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p . 35.
64
J o r g e L u i s B o r g e s , 'From A l l e g o r i e s t o N o v e l s ' i n Other I n q u i s i -
t i o n s ( A u s t i n : U n i v e r s i t y o f Texas P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 155.
T o l k i e n w i t h good r e a s o n , f o r The L o r d o f the R i n g s i s an
adventure s t o r y t o o m o r a l l y s i m p l i s t i c f o r a l l e g o r y ; Lewis w i t h good
reason i f he can j u s t i f y h i s t r i l o g y as m y t h o p e i a , though i t comes q u i t e
c l o s e to a l l e g o r y i n the 'Garden o f Eden' s t o r y o f . V o y a g e to Venus
(Perelandra).

66
See Chapter One, note 6.
67
T h i s passage i s quoted from The World as W i l l and R e p r e s e n t a t i o n ,
t r a n s , E . F . J . Payne ( C o l o r a d o : F a l c o n ' s Wing, 1958). Schopenhauer
c l a i m s t o know t h r e e a l l e g o r i e s , two of which (Don Quixote and G u l l i v e r ' s
T r a v e l s ) are " c o n c e a l e d . " The t h i r d i s presumably The D i v i n e Comedy,
which i s n o t " c o n c e a l e d " because Dante many t i m e s i n v i t e s us t o l i f t
the v e i l o f the a l l e g o r y .
68
J o r g e L u i s B o r g e s , Other I n q u i s i t i o n s , p . 155. C f . "Not Honesty
i n the a b s t r a c t , but Honest i s my name: i n John Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s
P r o g r e s s , p . 247.
 60

69
J o r g e L u i s B o r g e s , Other I n q u i s i t i o n s , pp. 156-57.

^ P i c k ' s words. W i l s o n e n t i t l e s h i s essay i n TSG, ' L i n d s a y as

N o v e l i s t and M y s t i c ' ' L i n d s a y a s ' A l l e g o r i s t ' would have been s i m p l e r
and more to the p o i n t . In A Voyage, m y s t i c i s m , i n the f i g u r e s . o f Corpang
and perhaps Panawe, i s found t o be a f a l s e way (see b e l o w , Chapter 6)

^Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p. 330.

72
Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p . 73.
7 3
C. S. L e w i s , Of Other W o r l d s , p . 19.

74
Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p . 22i..
7
~*Maud B o d k i n , A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s i n Poetry, p. 74.

76
George MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s , p . 206.

^^George MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s , p . 209.

78
John Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , p . 7.
79
Unless he i s r e a d i n g t h a t m a s t e r p i e c e o f a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y
Finnegans-Wake, and he i s the ' i d e a l r e a d e r w i t h the i d e a l i n s o m n i a . '
80
John Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , p . 162.
81
George MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s , p. 210.
82
"What we c a l l e v i l i s t h e o n l y and b e s t shape, w h i c h , f o r the
person and h i s c o n d i t i o n a t the t i m e , c o u l d be assumed by the b e s t g o o d . "
George MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s , p . 212. T h i s i s a v i e w now out o f f a s h i o n .
83
John Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , p . 13.
84
George MacDonald, L i l i t h , p. 46.
85
N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 38.
 61

N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 203.

87
F o r some i n e x p l i c a b l e r e a s o n C o l i n W i l s o n misses t h i s p o i n t
completely. He s a y s , " I t i s c u r i o u s t h a t L i n d s a y a l l o w s N i c h o l a s t o
d i e at the end o f the book, a l t h o u g h f o r no v e r y c l e a r r e a s o n . I
would have been f a r more e f f e c t i v e t o have h i m v a n i s h i n g , w i t h h i s
dream machine, towards new h o r i z o n s and p r o s p e c t s " (!) (TSG 4 4 ) . In
f a c t the c o m b i n a t i o n of the N i c h o l a s - E v e l y n - M a u r i c e and N i c h o l a s - L o r e -
M a u r i c e p l o t s h e r e i s p r o b a b l y the h a p p i e s t n o v e l i s t i c t w i s t t h a t
L i n d s a y managed i n any of h i s b o o k s . Given the f a c t o f t h e n e c e s s i t y
f o r N i c h o l a s ' s d e a t h — i . e . h i s b i r t h i n t o the r e a l w o r l d — t h e n t h e u n -
i m p o r t a n t d i s p o s a l o f t h e body i n t h e phenomenal w o r l d had b e t t e r be
u n c o n v i n c i n g , o r the r e a d e r w i l l t h i n k i t has s i g n i f i c a n c e .
 62

Chapter T h r e e :

FANTASY AND ROMANCE: THE LITERARY

BACKGROUND OF A VOYAGE TO ARCTURUS

A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s i s an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , and that

genre we have examined. I t i s a l s o t o some e x t e n t a romance, and an

e a r l y work of s c i e n c e f i c t i o n . L i n d s a y was i n f l u e n c e d by non-mimetic

modes o t h e r than a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , and these w i l l be examined

i n t h i s chapter. I n p a r t i c u l a r we s h a l l t r a c e the i n f l u e n c e o f Icelandic

literature, and o f German Romance w h i c h — i n f l u e n c i n g E n g l i s h literature

through C a r l y l e and MacDonald—had a profound e f f e c t on L i n d s a y . One

reason f o r t h i s e f f e c t may be t h a t romance o f t h i s k i n d has the same

i n t e r e s t s as a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y but i t i s w r i t t e n i n p r o s e ,

whereas the ' g r e a t t r a d i t i o n ' o f f a n t a s y we have been examining is

( e x c e p t f o r Bunyan) i n v e r s e . Prose as a medium l e n d s i t s e l f more

r e a d i l y to m i m e t i c ends than does v e r s e , and p r o s e f a n t a s y thus tends

towards 'subcreation', which i s the essence o f romance. C. S. Lewis

sees t h i s happening as e a r l y as the m i d d l e ages when "under the pretext

o f a l l e g o r y something e l s e has slipped i n " : " I mean the ' o t h e r w o r l d '

n o t of r e l i g i o n , b u t of i m a g i n a t i o n ; the l a n d o f l o n g i n g , the E a r t h l y

Paradise.""'"

To someone c o m f o r t a b l y p l a c e d i n the mainstream o f l a t e V i c t o r i a n

and modern f i c t i o n , f a n t a s y and romance may seem o n l y too s i m i l a r .

From our p o i n t o f v i e w , however, who have plunged i n t o t h i s tributary,

they are o p p o s i t e and o p p o s i n g s i d e s o f the s t r e a m . F a n t a s y and romance

 63

as we f i n d them i n dream w r i t e r s are f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t i n

o r i g i n and i n t e n t i o n , as w i l l be demonstrated.

The c e n t r a l s i m i l a r i t y between f a n t a s y and romance i s t h a t n e i t h e r

operates i n , or attempts to r e c r e a t e , the e v e r y d a y , experiential world

we presume we s h a r e . B o t h a l l o w an escape from the known and thus the

o p p o r t u n i t y f o r e x c i t e m e n t and e x o t i c a d v e n t u r e . Both g e n r e s , there-

fore, tend t o u t i l i s e the q u e s t , and the mythology of the q u e s t , be-

cause t h i s p r o v i d e s t h e g r e a t e s t freedom f o r t h e p e r i p a t e t i c protagonist,

who may t r a v e l p l a u s i b l y from adventure to adventure. Because o f t h e i r

separation from t h e phenomenal w o r l d , and because of t h e i r i n t e r e s t in

a c t i o n r a t h e r than in-complex c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n , b o t h f a n t a s y and romance

t e n d t o be m o r a l l y s i m p l i s t i c : good i s good because i t i s Good and

furthers the q u e s t , e v i l i s E v i l and h i n d e r s it.

But f a n t a s y and romance are set i n d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of n o n -

phenomenal w o r l d . The romance p r o v i d e s an escape from t h i s w o r l d , and

i t s s e t t i n g s are t h e r e f o r e nowhere, even i f s u p p o r t e d by maps, geo-

graphical descriptions, accounts o f t h e voyage t h i t h e r o r w h a t e v e r ,

as S w i f t ' s parody of these d e v i c e s i n G u l l i v e r ' s Travels should lead

us t o s u s p e c t . Whether t h e romance i s s e t i n d a r k e s t Africa, such

as H . R i d e r H a r r a r d ' s She, o r i n the pseudo-medieval p a s t , such as

W i l l i a m M o r r i s ' s The W e l l a t the W o r l d ' s E n d , o r nowhere i n p a r t i c u l a r ,

such as m i d d l e - e a r t h i n T o l k i e n ' s The L o r d o f t h e R i n g s , none o f these

p l a c e s can p o s s i b l y be v i s i t e d ; t h e y are o u t o p i a s . But the w o r l d ' s

c r e a t e d i n f a n t a s i e s are n o - p l a c e s i n a d i f f e r e n t sense: they are n o t

 64

p l a c e s w h i c h are no-where, they are o f t e n n o t even p l a c e s a t a l l . In

fact, they are s t a t e s of m i n d . Thus t h e i r geography i s generally

s k e t c h y i n the extreme. No one w o u l d want a map of the l a n d travelled

2

by C h r i s t i a n i n The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , o r o f the mountain c l i m b e d

by ' D a n t e ' i n The D i v i n e Comedy. A diagram p e r h a p s , b u t certainly

n o t a map. And the o n l y r e a s o n a b l e name f o r the more substantial

f a n t a s y w o r l d s c r e a t e d by George MacDonald i n P h a n t a s t e s or H . P .

Lovecraft i n The Dream-Quest o f Unknown Kadath i s fairyland.

' F a i r y - l a n d ' i s a term t h a t c o v e r s a m u l t i t u d e of v i r t u e s , but

C o l e r i d g e d e f i n e d i t s u c c i n c t l y enough when he w r o t e o f S p e n s e r ' s

The F a e r i e Queene t h a t " i t i s t r u l y i n the l a n d of F a e r y , that i s , of

3

mental space. The poet has p l a c e d you i n a dream, a charmed s l e e p . "

Fantasy i s dream l i t e r a t u r e and, l i k e dreams, as we have s e e n , i s set

i n "mental space." Romance i s dream l i t e r a t u r e i n a n o t h e r s e n s e : it

4

is day-dream r a t h e r than n i g h t dream l i t e r a t u r e , w h i c h i s why we o f t e n

tend t o a s s o c i a t e i t w i t h e s c a p i s m . Where f a n t a s y f r e e s the mind and

takes us beyond the p h y s i c a l i n t o a s p i r i t u a l r e a l m , romance f r e e s the

body from the e n n u i o f p h y s i c a l l i f e and t r a n s p o r t s us to what Lewis

calls " t h e l a n d o f l o n g i n g , the E a r t h l y P a r a d i s e . " The main aim o f

romance i s the s u b c r e a t i o n o f some k i n d of e a r t h l y p a r a d i s e w h i c h , as

Lewis p o i n t e d o u t , is not based on r e l i g i o n — o n the t r u e and unchanging

r e a l i t y o f Heaven o r of the w o r l d o f I d e a s — b u t which i s a subcreation

o f the a r t i s t : " n o t of r e l i g i o n , but of i m a g i n a t i o n . " W h i l e we voyage

to a f a n t a s y w o r l d by d y i n g o r f a l l i n g a s l e e p to t h i s w o r l d , we get to
 65

a romance w o r l d w h i c h p r e t e n d s to be on the same l e v e l of r e a l i t y as

we a r e (no m a t t e r how d i f f e r e n t ) e i t h e r by boat o r , i n modern t i m e s ,

spaceship, o r s i m p l y by opening abbook and f i n d i n g o u r s e l v e s there.

C. S. Lewis has s a i d , " I know the geography o f Tormance b e t t e r

than t h a t of T e l l u s . " ^ To t h e e x t e n t t h a t Tormance has a geography—

and we may n o t e t h a t i t has a g r e a t d e a l more of a geography t h a n

MacDonald's P h a n t a s t e s , f o r example—then A Voyage i s a romance.

A l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s g e n e r a l l y have something l e s s s c i e n t i f i c ,

l e s s n o v e l i s t i c , than 'geography' and t h a t i s l a n d s c a p e s . These are

what "keeps the a l l e g o r y v i g o u r o u s , " i n N u t t a l l ' s words. Landscape

i s the ' o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e ' o f c h a r a c t e r i n a l l e g o r y — t h e Ifdawn

Marest i s t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f Oceaxe's ' w i l l t o p o w e r ' , f o r example—

and i t seems ' r e a l ' enough when our a t t e n t i o n i s f o c u s s e d on i t . When

the p r o j e c t o r l o o k s away, however, i t d i s a p p e a r s . T h i s i s n o t the case

i n t r u e romance, o f w h i c h one can draw maps and f o r which one can g i v e

calendars. The m i d d l e - e a r t h o f T o l k i e n i s n o t s o l i p s i s t i c : i n the

w o r l d o f the book i t r e a l l y e x i s t s , no m a t t e r who l o o k s at i t , o r even

i f anyone i s n ' t looking.

The handsome and k n i g h t l y R a l p h i s a c h a r a c t e r i n romance, and he

i n h a b i t s the romance w o r l d w h i c h W i l l i a m M o r r i s s u b c r e a t e d . Maskull

i s an a l l e g o r i c a l p r o t a g o n i s t i n a f a n t a s y . I t w o u l d be i m p o s s i b l e

f o r M a s k u l l , i f he s u r v i v e d , to r e t r a c e h i s s t e p s a c r o s s Tormance, as

Ralph r e t r a c e s h i s i n The W e l l a t the W o r l d ' s E n d , and f i n d t h e same

f a i r damsels l i v i n g i n the same f a i r p l a c e s and a l l eager to ask how

 66

he succeeded i n h i s q u e s t . F o r one t h i n g , the damsels were n e v e r

r e a l l y t h e r e , as c h a r a c t e r s : they were the t r a n s i t o r y embodiments of

t e m p t a t i o n s the p r o t a g o n i s t was f a c i n g , and therefore his p r o j e c t i o n s .

F o r a n o t h e r , they cannot s t i l l be t h e r e because i n most cases the

concept they r e p r e s e n t e d , the i l l u s o r y i d e a they embodied, has been

f a c e d by the p r o t a g o n i s t , and t h e d e f e a t of t h e i d e a has been c o n f i r m e d

by the p h y s i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n of the i d e a ' s v e h i c l e . This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y

c l e a r i n the case o f S u l l e n b o d e , who t e l l s M a s k u l l " I have no o t h e r

l i f e b u t what y o u g i v e me" and t h a t " t h e term o f y o u r l o v e i s the term

of my l i f e . When y o u l o v e me no l o n g e r , I must d i e " (VA 2 5 4 ) .

E l l i o t t B. Gose w r i t e s a c u t e l y i n I m a g i n a t i o n I n d u l g e d t h a t

a c c o r d i n g t o the f i n d i n g s of t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y
p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , f a n t a s y and dream, romance and
f a i r y t a l e g i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n to o t h e r w i s e
h i d d e n dynamics of m e n t a l l i f e . They e x p r e s s
an i n n e r r e a l i t y t h a t i s n o t s i m p l y s u b l i m a t e d ,
u n r e a l i s t i c e s c a p e . I n t e r i o r c o n f l i c t s and
b a t t l e s are as r e a l and i m p o r t a n t as any i n the
outer world (7).

But t h i s lumping t o g e t h e r o f genres we have been e n d e a v o r i n g t o keep

d i s t i n c t reminds us t h a t f a n t a s y and romance a r e , i n our metaphor,

o n l y o p p o s i t e s i d e s o f the same s t r e a m . Few a c t u a l works are e i t h e r

one o f the o t h e r , and most are a m i x t u r e of f a n t a s y and romance. That

the l o n g , meandering, p s e u d o - m e d i e v a l adventures of R a l p h c o n t i n u e

to h o l d the r e a d e r ' s a t t e n t i o n argues t h a t The W e l l a t the W o r l d ' s E n d ,

d i s t a n t from s p i r i t u a l and phenomenal r e a l i t i e s as i t must seem, is

g i v i n g form t o some o f t h e h i d d e n f o r c e s of the p s y c h o l o g i c a l under-

world. C o n v e r s e l y , i t must be a d m i t t e d t h a t i n s p i t e of allegory's

 67

" l a c k of m i m e t i c n a t u r a l n e s s " i t has been the f i e l d f u l l of folk

and V a n i t y and i t s F a i r w h i c h have k e p t g r e a t dream a l l e g o r i e s like

P i e r s Plowman and The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s a l i v e d u r i n g a p e r i o d when

allegory, p a r t i c u l a r l y because of what C o l e r i d g e c a l l e d i t s 'mechanic'

(as opposed t o ' o r g a n i c ' ) f o r m , has n o t been taken s e r i o u s l y . I n the

end i t has been the s u b c r e a t i v e a s p e c t of Tormance, the t e r r i f i c

mountains of t h e Ifdawn Marest and the B l a k e a n exuberance of the r i v e r

of M a t t e r p l a y , t h a t have k e p t A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s more o r l e s s alive

for the l a s t f i f t y y e a r s .

However, we h o l d to our d i s t i n c t i o n . The W e l l a t the W o r l d ' s End

is a romance. A r c t u r u s i s an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y . Sheer l e n g t h

here i s a c l u e . Subcreating takes time. Tormance i s impermanent

compared t o the w o r l d which M o r r i s s u p p l i e s R a l p h f o r h i s f o u r books

of a d v e n t u r e s . Were Tormance a s u b c r e a t e d w o r l d i n the romance sense

i t w o u l d be good f o r at l e a s t a t r i l o g y o f b o o k s , l i k e Tolkien's or

P e a k e ' s , and p o s s i b l y , l i k e James Branch C a b e l l ' s P o i c t e s m e , for a

good many more. S u b c r e a t i o n has become, i n c i d e n t a l l y , one o f the major

genres o f contemporary l i t e r a t u r e , c e r t a i n l y i f measured by the number

9

of books w r i t t e n and s o l d . Many o f these works are a l s o science-fiction.

There have been l o n g arguments i n s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n c i r c l e s about

when the genre a c t u a l l y began. Those whose s t r e s s i s on s c i e n c e tend to

choose the p u b l i c a t i o n of R a l p h 124C41+ by Hugo Gernsback ( a f t e r whom

Hugo awards are named) i n Modern E l e c t r i c s i n 1 9 1 1 . " ^ Those whose

s t r e s s i s on f i c t i o n tend t o choose t h e p u b l i c a t i o n by H . G. W e l l s o f
 68

The Time Machine i n 1895, a s t o r y which W e l l s had s t a r t e d as 'The

C h r o n i c A r g o n a u t s ' as e a r l y as 1 8 8 8 . 1 1 The Time Machine was q u i c k l y

f o l l o w e d by The I s l a n d of D r . Moreau (1896) and The War o f the Worlds

(1897). The V i c t o r i a n age,..had, p r o b a b l y because o f i t s insistent

r a t i o n a l i s m , produced a l o t o f g r e a t f a n t a s t i c a l nonsense, though a l l

too o f t e n (as we t o o o f t e n s t i l l do) the V i c t o r i a n s r e l e g a t e d i t to

the n u r s e r y : Lewis C a r r o l l ' s A l i c e i n Wonderland and Through t h e

L o o k i n g G l a s s , K i n g s l e y ' s The W a t e r - B a b i e s , L e a r ' s A Book of Nonsense

and, r a t h e r l a t e r , Grahame's The Wind i n the W i l l o w s , Gernsback's

i s a new k i n d o f nonsense: he took ' I s n ' t s c i e n c e w o n d e r f u l ? ' seriously

12

and gave h i s R a l p h , "one o f the g r e a t e s t l i v i n g s c i e n t i s t s , " lots of

gadgets l i k e the T e l e p h o t (what we now c a l l a vidphone) t o p l a y w i t h .

What W e l l s d i d was t a k e V i c t o r i a n s c i e n c e , w h i c h had e f f e c t i v e l y closed

o f f almost a l l the areas o f the e a r t h where h e r o i c f a n t a s y was still

possible, and t u r n i t a g a i n s t i t s e l f . By u s i n g s c i e n c e and pseudo-

s c i e n c e , W e l l s was a b l e t o f i n d room (or time) t o put the b i t e back

i n t o romance. C r i t i c s d e s c r i b e d i t as " a m o r b i d a b e r r a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c
13
curiosity." I n The D a i l y News of January 2 1 , 1898, a r e v i e w e r says
of The War of the W o r l d s :
There are e p i s o d e s t h a t are so b r u t a l , d e t a i l s
so r e p u l s i v e , t h a t they cause i n s u f f e r a b l e
d i s t r e s s t o the f e e l i n g s . The r e s t r a i n t of
a r t i s m i s s i n g . We w o u l d e n t r e a t M r . W e l l s t o
r e t u r n t o h i s e a r l i e r methods—to the s a n e r ,
s e r e n e r beauty o f those f i r s t romances t h a t
c a s t t h e i r s p e l l upon our i m a g i n a t i o n , and
a p p e a l e d t o our f i n e r s e n s i b i l i t i e s ( 1 4 ) .
 69

The Time Machine and The War of the Worlds were n o t w r i t t e n f o r the

late-Victorian nursery.

I n the same y e a r t h a t The Time Machine appeared, 1895, when L i n d s a y

was seventeen, George MacDonald p u b l i s h e d L i l i t h and W i l l i a m M o r r i s The

Wood Beyond the W o r l d , h i s f i r s t f i c t i o n a l pseudo-medieval narrative,^

w h i c h he f o l l o w e d w i t h The W e l l at the W o r l d ' s End ( 1 8 9 6 ) . MacDonald's

p r o b l e m was t h a t h i s i n t e n t was s e r i o u s , but h i s mode—fairy-tale for

g r o w n - u p s — d i d n o t seem to b e . I t was dream a l l e g o r y , and o b v i o u s l y

was n o t d e a l i n g w i t h the m a t e r i a l i s t i c problems of the modern w o r l d .

W i l l i a m M o r r i s c l e a r l y d i d t r y t o d e a l w i t h those p r o b l e m s , i n his

l i f e and i n h i s Utopia News From Nowhere ( 1 8 9 1 ) , b u t h i s l a t e r w o r k s ,

daydream romances s e t i n s u b c r e a t e d w o r l d s , a g a i n must seem ' m e r e l y '

escapist. The s o l u t i o n was, of c o u r s e , t o t a k e b o t h the dream f a n t a s y

and the romance and f o l l o w W e l l s , i n t o s p a c e . T h i s i s p r e c i s e l y what

Lindsay d i d .

L i n d s a y h i m s e l f was a c t u a l l y , i n 1920, a late Victorian writer,

and d i d w e l l to t r y t o h i d e h i s age. The b i g g e s t s i n g l e literary

16
i n f l u e n c e on him was George MacDonald, and we f i n d b i t s and p i e c e s
o f the l a t t e r popping up a l l over A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . The g r e a t e s t

i n f l u e n c e on b o t h MacDonald and C a r l y l e , the o t h e r Scot whom L i n d s a y

17

admired, were the German R o m a n t i c i s t s , particularly Novalis. Lindsay

may have d i s c o v e r e d them e i t h e r through MacDonald, who took e p i g r a p h s

from them f o r . s o m e c h a p t e r s i n P h a n t a s t e s and was n o t a man to cover h i s

tracks, o r through C a r l y l e ' s e s s a y s and t r a n s l a t i o n s . A t any r a t e , he

 70

e v i d e n t l y thought h i g h l y o f them. I n a l e t t e r dated May 18, 1922,

Lindsay wrote to V i s i a k :

Your l e c t u r e on T i e c k would have i n t e r e s t e d me

much, as I had a t one time—and s t i l l have—a
queer, vague s o r t of a d m i r a t i o n f o r h i s s t o r i e s ,
which perhaps resemble music more than l i t e r a t u r e
and produce the same s o r t of u n s e i z a b l e e f f e c t
on one as music (L 4 8 ) .

L i t e r a t u r e , we remember, a s p i r e s t o be l i k e music " t h e e x p e r i e n c e of

a s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d " (TSG 1 3 ) . G r e a t works are l i k e g r e a t symphonies;

l e s s e r works have the same genius on a s m a l l e r scale:

I n g e n e r a l , the works of t h e e a r l y German

R o m a n t i c i s t s a r e l i k e s p r i n g songs—how
d i f f e r e n t from the p r o s a i c drawing-room
s t u f f t u r n e d out by the thousand t o d a y !
(L 48-49).

Many of these s t o r i e s are, t o borrow L i n d s a y ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of S p h i n x ,

" a b l e n d o f common and s u p e r n a t u r a l l i f e " (L 4 7 ) . We may t a k e as an

example—because i t i s i n i t s e l f a good s t o r y , because i t i s fairly

typical in its themes, and because i t became e x t r e m e l y w e l l known i n

England i n a t r a n s l a t i o n by C a r l y l e — E . T. A . Hoffmann's s t o r y The

Golden P o t .

One of Hoffmann's c e n t r a l themes, and a common one i n German

18 41

Romance, was the double o r doppeltgariger as the term was c o i n e d by

Jean P a u l R i c h t e r . . The i d e a i t s e l f i s as o l d as C a s t o r and P o l l u x ,

the h e a v e n l y t w i n s . Shakespeare used the i d e a i n T w e l f t h N i g h t and

(doubly) i n T h e Comedy of E r r o r s , which d e a l s w i t h the s i m p l e s t form

of d o u b l e , i d e n t i c a l t w i n s . But. something more i n t e r e s t i n g l u r k s b e -

n e a t h the s u r f a c e : "One of these men i s genius t o the o t h e r ; / And

 71

so of t h e s e . Which i s the n a t u r a l man, / And w h i c h the s p i r i t ? " (The

Comedy of E r r o r s , V . i . 3 3 1 - 3 3 ) . The i d e a stems from the common ex-

p e r i e n c e of becoming two i n dreams, and the consequent f r e e i n g o f

the s o u l or " g e n i u s , " which i s w^y the m o t i f o f the double i s a

common one i n dream l i t e r a t u r e .

The p r i m i t i v e b e l i e f we f i n d embodied i n dream f a n t a s i e s , that

the s o u l may w a l k f o r t h i n dreams, t h r e a t e n s a r a t i o n a l i s t and e m p i r i c i s t

l i k e Locke so much t h a t he i s at g r e a t p a i n s to t r y to d i s p o s e o f i t ,

i n v o k i n g our o l d f r i e n d ' S o c r a t e s ' t o t r y and r e f u t e the i d e a "that

S o c r a t e s a s l e e p and S o c r a t e s awake i s n o t the same p e r s o n ; b u t h i s

s o u l , when he s l e e p s , and S o c r a t e s the man c o n s i s t i n g o f body and s o u l ,

19

when he i s w a k i n g , are two p e r s o n s . " Locke cannot e n t e r t a i n the idea

because he i s c o m p l e t e l y h o s t i l e t o the a p p a r e n t l y i r r a t i o n a l nature

of dreams. He " w o n d e r [ s ] t h a t our dreams s h o u l d b e , f o r the most p a r t ,

20
so f r i v o l o u s and i r r a t i o n a l , " f o r "where a l l i s but dream, r e a s o n i n g
21
and arguments are of no use, t r u t h a n ' d i k n o w l e d g e a n o t h i n g . " Locke
wishes to speak " o f t h i n g s as they r e a l l y a r e and n o t o f dreams and
, . „22
fancies.

The s t u d e n t Anselmus i n 'The Golden P o t ' i s t o r n between the two

main a t t i t u d e s to dreams and dream w o r l d s . On the one hand t h e r e is

the common-sense r a t i o n a l i s t i c a t t i t u d e e x p r e s s e d by Locke and by

23

Henry's father i n N o v a l i s ' s romance, t h a t "dreams are f r o t h , " and

w h i c h i s h e l d i n 'The Golden P o t ' by C o n r e c t o r Paulmann. He t e l l s

Anselmus,
 72

I have always taken y o u f o r a s o l i d young man:

b u t to dream, t o dream w i t h y o u r eyes w i d e open,
and t h e n , a l l a t once, to s t a r t up and t r y t o
jump i n t o the w a t e r ! T h i s , begging your pardon,
i s what o n l y f o o l s o r madmen w o u l d do ( 2 4 ) .

On the o t h e r hand t h e r e i s t h e . m e o - P l a t o n i c i d e a o f dreams as the

gateway to a h i g h e r r e a l i t y than t h e common w o r l d , w h i c h we have

e x p l i c a t e d i n our d i s c u s s i o n of a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , and w h i c h

i s h e l d i n 'The Golden P o t ' by A r c h i v a r i - u s L i n d h o r s t , by the n a r r a t o r ,

and e v e n t u a l l y by Anselmus h i m s e l f .

When Anselmus i s 'awake' he l i v e s i n the w o r l d o f the C o n r e c t o r ,

b l u e - e y e d V i r g i n i a and R e g i s t r a t o r H e e r b r a n d , when he i s 'asleep' i n

a dream-fantasy w o r l d o f L i n d h o r s t the Salamander and h i s blue-eyed

snake-daughter Serpentina. These two p a r a l l e l w o r l d s o v e r l a p , and

Anselmus i s t o r n , f o r a t i m e , between them, c o n s t a n t l y w a k i n g up or

25 26
" r e t u r n i n g to h i m s e l f " "as from a deep d r e a m . " There i s a b a t t l e

between the phenomenal w o r l d and " t h e f a e r y r e g i o n of g l o r i o u s wonders"

which i s i n the " r e g i o n w h i c h t h e s p i r i t l a y s open t o us i n d r e a m s , "

and w h i c h i s the " g l o r i o u s kingdom" w h i c h the n a r r a t o r i s " s t r i v i n g

27
t o show [us] i n the s i n g u l a r s t o r y of the Student A n s e l m u s . " This
2g

i s "another higher world" — i t t u r n s out t o be A t l a n t i s — a n d , as i n

A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , we are c a l l e d t o i t by p a i n (though i t is

"rapturous pain"):
So, as was h i n t e d , the Student Anselmus, ever
s i n c e t h a t e v e n i n g when he met w i t h A r c h i v a r i u s
L i n d h o r s t , had been sunk i n a dreamy m u s i n g , which
r e n d e r e d h i m i n s e n s i b l e t o e v e r y outward touch
of common l i f e . He f e l t t h a t an unknown Something
 73

was awakening h i s inmost s o u l , and c a l l i n g f o r t h

t h a t r a p t u r o u s p a i n , w h i c h i s even the mood of
l o n g i n g t h a t announces a l o f t i e r e x i s t e n c e t o
man(29).

I n >:The Golden P o t ' we f i n d the t r a d i t i o n a l imagery f o r the i m -

prisonment o f the s o u l i n t h e body, o f t h e s p i r i t i n t h e r i v e r o f matter,

but t h e most i m p o r t a n t image i s Hoffmann's own and, s i n c e i t may have

suggested L i n d s a y ' s C r y s t a l m a n , we must l o o k a t i t more c l o s e l y . The

N i n t h V i g i l ends w i t h Anselmus, whose f a i t h has w a v e r e d , s t u c k inside

30
"a well-corked c r y s t a l b o t t l e . " Of c o u r s e , he c o m p l a i n s . But h i s

s i m i l a r l y b o t t l e d companions t e l l h i m to shut up, f o r "we have n e v e r

been b e t t e r o f f than a t p r e s e n t . " They d e c i d e t h a t " t h e s t u d e n t is

mad; he f a n c i e s h i m s e l f t o be s i t t i n g i n a g l a s s b o t t l e , and i s standing

31

on the E l b e B r i d g e and l o o k i n g r i g h t down i n t o the w a t e r . " They have

forgotten t h e i r i m m o r t a l p a r t s , and do n o t r e a l i s e t h a t they are o n l y

reflections of the s p i r i t i n the r i v e r of m a t t e r : t h a t by drowning

themselves, as L o r e does i n S p h i n x , they might s e t themselves free.

They do n o t r e a l i s e they a r e i m p r i s o n e d because t h e b o t t l e s ! a r e of

crystal: i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s we are a l l b o t t l e d thus by C r y s t a l m a n ,

whose rainbow o f c r e a t i o n h i d e s t h e one t r u e l i g h t . If this insight

has n o t been g i v e n us i n our "most v i v i d d r e a m s , " the n a r r a t o r asks

our " f l y i n g i m a g i n a t i o n " — t h e s p i r i t u a l p a r t of us, f r e e from g r a v i t y —

t o be o b l i g i n g enought to e n c l o s e i t s e l f f o r a few
moments i n t h e c r y s t a l . You a r e drowned i n d a z z l i n g
s p l e n d o u r ; e v e r y t h i n g around y o u appears i l l u m i n a t e d
and b e g i r t w i t h beaming rainbow h u e s : i n the sheen
e v e r y t h i n g seems t o q u i v e r and waver and c l a n g and
d r o n e . You are swimming,'jbut y o u a r e powerless and
cannot move, as i f y o u were imbedded i n a f i r m l y
 74

congealed e t h e r w h i c h squeezes y o u so t i g h t l y
t h a t i t i s i n v a i n t h a t y o u r s p i r i t commands
y o u r dead and s t i f f e n e d b o d y . H e a v i e r and
h e a v i e r the mountainous burden l i e s on y o u ;
more and more every b r e a t h exhausts t h e t i n y
b i t o f a i r t h a t s t i l l p l a y s up and down the
t i g h t space around y o u ; y o u r p u l s e throbs
madly; and c u t t h r o u g h w i t h h o r r i d a n g u i s h , ,
e v e r y n e r v e i s q u i v e r i n g and b l e e d i n g i n y o u r
dead agony ( 3 2 ) .

Worst of a l l , A n s e l m u s ' s reason has t a k e n c o n t r o l : h a v i n g become a

r a t i o n a l i s t , " i n s t e a d of the words w h i c h t h e s p i r i t used to speak

33

from w i t h i n h i m he now h e a r d o n l y t h e s t i f l e d din. 3 .of madness."

A n s e l m u s ' s p u l s e t h r o b s madly (as though K r a g i s b e a t i n g on h i s

heart) and he i s ready t o throw o f f the p r i s o n o f the body and i t s

deadweight. He s t i l l b e l i e v e s i n Serpentina, i.e. spiritual reality,

and t h i s saves h i m : i t i s g n o s i s t h a t the s e r p e n t b r i n g s : f r u i t of

the Tree of Knowledge. I n the end he wins t h e golden pot and goes to
l i v e with Serpentina i n A t l a n t i s : he "has c a s t away the burden o f
34

everyday l i f e " and gone to l i v e i n the h i g h e r w o r l d of the s p i r i t .

But he has l e f t b e h i n d a p a l t r y , everyday s e l f i n the person o f

R e g i s t r a t o r — n o w H o f r a t h — H e e r b r a n d , who m a r r i e s V e r o n i c a , Serpentina's

c o u n t e r p a r t i n the phenomenal w o r l d . Thus the s p l i t t i n g o f Anselmus

l e a d s t o e v e n t u a l harmony i n 'The Golden P o t ' where the two embodied

p a r t s o f Anselmus are n o t i n c o n f l i c t . Of c o u r s e , the c o n f l i c t i s

p o t e n t i a l l y t h e r e , s i n c e Heerbrand f u l f i l l s Anselmus's e a r t h l y g o a l s ,

becoming H o f r a t h and m a r r y i n g V e r o n i c a , b u t i t i s n o t developed i n t h e

s t o r y , where Heerbrand i s a minor c h a r a c t e r and Anselmus has other
35
interests. What we do have i s s i m p l y t h e s p i r i t ' s s t r u g g l e t o escape
 75

i n t o the dream w o r l d and, u i l i k e t h e p u r e l y a l l e g o r i c a l A Voyage

where the aim i s the same, the body does n o t have to be d i s p o s e d of

to make t h i s p o s s i b l e . . I n 'The Golden P o t , ' b o t h Anselmus and Heerbrand

exist, i n the b e g i n n i n g , on the same l e v e l of f i c t i o n a l r e a l i t y , but

we have something more complex than the d o u b l e - b y - d u p l i c a t i o n of The

Comedy of E r r o r s : that i s , double-by-division. This allows f o r the

expression of powerful psychic f o r c e s , e s p e c i a l l y those of the r e p r e s s e d

unconscious, such as we f i n d i n the works of Hoffman's progeny, Stevenson,

Poe and D o s t o e v s k i .

I n t a k i n g a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y i n t o p r o s e and making i t more

m i m e t i c , Hoffmann i n 'The Golden P o t ' used the psychomachia f o r m : the

s t r u g g l e for Anselmus's s o u l . F r i e d r i c h von H a r d e n b e r g , generally

known by h i s pseudonym of N o v a l i s , d i d the same t h i n g but u s i n g the

p r o g r e s s form of a l l e g o r y . I n f a c t , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n i s neither

a coherent n a r r a t i v e , i n the n o v e l i s t i c s e n s e , n o r i s i t an a l l e g o r i c a l

dream f a n t a s y i n a s t r i c t s e n s e : i t i s a s e r i e s of dreams and f a b l e s

which a r i s e out of H e n r y ' s p r o s a i c j o u r n e y w i t h a group of merchants,

though i t must be s t r e s s e d t h a t the dreams and f a b l e s o f the h i g h e r

w o r l d , and the events of the j o u r n e y i n the phenomenal w o r l d a r e care-

fully interwoven.

In the i n t r o d u c t i o n to h i s E n g l i s h v e r s i o n of Henry of Ofterdingen:

A Romance, the anonymous translator says t h a t N o v a l i s "resembles among

37

l a t e w r i t e r s the s u b l i m e Dante a l o n e . " Novalis's B e a t r i c e was the

young Sophie von Kuhn, who d i e d at the age of f i f t e e n , and h i s Vita

 76

Nuova the Hymnen an d i e N a c h t . B u t h i s main work i s n o t , as D a n t e ' s

c l e a r l y i s , a dream, though i t b e g i n s w i t h one. Henry dreams he i s

39 40
" i n einem dunkeln Walde a l l e i n , " D a n t e ' s "una s e l v a o b s c u r a . " He
41

c l i m b s a mountain and sees " a mighty beam of l i g h t . " A little later,

he dreams he sees the e v e n t u a l g o a l of h i s q u e s t : n o t the w h i t e r o s e

but ' d i e blaue Blume.' The b l u e f l o w e r has a woman's f a c e . Then he

wakes u p . Where D a n t e ' s dream i s , as we have e x p l a i n e d , a visio, where

meaning i s found u l t i m a t e l y beyond n a t u r e , t h e dream N o v a l i s g i v e s t o

Henry i s an oraculum. Specifically, meaning i s t o be found i n n a t u r e ,

and the f a c e i n the f l o w e r p r e f i g u r e s the a c t u a l g i r l i n m a r r i a g e t o

whom the q u e s t (Henry o f O f t e r d i r i g e n r e m a i n i n g u n f i n i s h e d when N o v a l i s

died) should end.

I n Henry o f O f t e r d i r i g e n the a i m o f the q u e s t . ' . i s , l i k e those o f

'Dante' and o f M a s k u l l i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , l i k e t h a t o f C h r i s t i a n

i n The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , M r . Vane i n L i l i t h and Anodos i n P h a n t a s t e s ,

t o r e t u r n home. A f t e r h i s f i r s t dream, Henry l e a v e s h i s home on a

j o u r n e y t o Augsburg, b u t " h i s mother was w i t h h i m . The w o r l d he was

42

l e a v i n g d i d not y e t appear, e n t i r e l y l o s t . " A n d , s i n c e "he was r e -

turning to h i s fatherland" i t was "as i f i n r e a l i t y he was j o u r n e y i n g

43

homewards." The j o u r n e y p r o v i d e s a realistic framework f o r a s e r i e s

of dreams and adventures o r marchen, w h i c h r e t e l l i n a f r a n k l y m y t h i c a l

and a l l e g o r i c a l form the p o i n t o f f e r e d more o r l e s s r e a l i s t i c a l l y i n

the whole s t o r y . B u t dream and r e a l i t y a r e i n t e r w o v e n : "The dream i s

44

World. The w o r l d i s Dream." I n the f i r s t p a r t o f t h e book, The

E x p e c t a t i o n , Henry completes h i s j o u r n e y , h a v i n g found M a t i l d a , whose

 77

face i s t h a t of the f l o w e r , and who i s h i s i n s p i r a t i o n o r ' b r e a t h o f

life'. He s a y s , "She w i l l d i s s o l v e me i n t o m u s i c . She w i l l become

45

my inmost s o u l , the g u a r d i a n s p i r i t of my h o l y f i r e . " He c a l l s

t o the s t a r s , " F o r M a t i l d a w i l l I l i v e " and " t h e morning of eternal

day i s a l s o opening f o r me. The n i g h t i s p a s t . I k i n d l e myself to

46

the r i s i n g s u n , f o r an i n e x t i n g u i s h a b l e o f f e r i n g . " In the second

p a r t , The F u l f i l l m e n t , we f i n d " i n deep thought a p i l g r i m . . . w a l k i n g

a l o n g a narrow f o o t - p a t h w h i c h r a n up a mountain s i d e . " ^ 7 T h i s i s the

s p i r i t - H e n r y , now l i b e r a t e d . He meets t h e g i r l who i s h i s t r u e l o v e ,
presumably s p i r i t - M a t i l d a , who t e l l s h i m they are g o i n g 'Immer nach
48

Hause': "Ever homewards." The r e s t i s philosophy.

Of p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e to A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s t h e marchen

t o l d by K l i n g s o h r (who i s m o d e l l e d on Goethe): i n Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n ,

but s i n c e t h i s i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y the same c o s m o l o g i c a l myth t h a t is

sung by the S y b i l i n ' V o l u s p a , ' we may pass on to examine the i n f l u e n c e

of I c e l a n d i c l i t e r a t u r e on W i l l i a m M o r r i s and D a v i d L i n d s a y . Lindsay

was, as he p o i n t e d out t o P u t n a m ' s , o r i g i n a l l y descended from " I v a r ,

J a r l of the Norse U p l a n d e r s " (TSG 6 ) , and t h e r e a r e many s i m i l a r i t i e s

between C e l t i c and S c a n d i n a v i a n m y t h o l o g y . L i n d s a y ' s kinsman, C a r l y l e ,

sings a panegyric to the ISbrse gods i n h i s f i r s t l e c t u r e , 'The Hero

as D i v i n i t y , ' i n On H e r o e s , Hero-W o r s h i p and t h e H e r o i c i n H i s t o r y :

To me t h e r e i s i n the Norse System something v e r y
g e n u i n e , v e r y g r e a t and m a n l i k e . A b r o a d s i m p l i c i t y ,
r u s t i c i t y , so v e r y d i f f e r e n t from the l i g h t g r a c e -
f u l n e s s of the o l d Greek Paganism, d i s t i n g u i s h e s
t h i s S c a n d i n a v i a n System. I t i s Thought; the genuine
Thought o f deep, r u d e , e a r n e s t m i n d s , f a i r l y opened
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to the t h i n g s about them; a f a c e - t o - f a c e and

h e a r t - t o - h e a r t i n s p e c t i o n of the t h i n g s , — t h e
f i r s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a l l good Thought i n a l l
t i m e s . . . . a c e r t a i n homely t r u t h f u l n e s s and
r u s t i c s t r e n g t h , a g r e a t rude s i n c e r i t y , d i s -
c l o s e s i t s e l f here ( 4 9 ) .

But w h i l e C a r l y l e was ' t h e V o i c e of Germany i n E n g l a n d , ' t h e v o i c e

of I c e l a n d was W i l l i a m M o r r i s . C a r l y l e and L i n d s a y were attracted

to Norse myth by i t s w i l d and rugged d i r e c t n e s s , and t h i s was how

C a r l y l e saw I c e l a n d :

b u r s t - u p , the g e o l o g i s t s s a y , by f i r e from the

bottom of the s e a ; a w i l d l a n d o f b a r r e n n e s s and
l a v a ; s w a l l o w e d many months o f every y e a r i n
b l a c k t e m p e s t s , y e t w i t h a w i l d gleaming beauty
i n summer-time; t o w e r i n g up t h e r e , s t e r n and
g r i m , i n the N o r t h Ocean; w i t h i t s snow j o k u l s ,
r o a r i n g g e y s e r s , s u l p h u r - p o o l s and; h o r r i d
v o l c a n i c chasms, l i k e the waste c h a o t i c b a t t l e -
f i e l d o f F r o s t and F i r e ( 5 0 ) .

I t was e l e m e n t a l ; j u s t the.place f o r the " I m p e r s o n a t i o n of t h e v i s i b l e

w o r k i n g s o f N a t u r e , " " ' 1 and f o r a l l e g o r y on a grand s c a l e . Morris's

a p p r e c i a t i o n of I c e l a n d was more subdued. He found the h i l l s "mourn-

f u l l y empty and b a r r e n " w i t h " g r e y c l o u d s , d r a g g i n g over die h i l l t o p s

o r l y i n g i n the h o l l o w s " — y e t a l l these " h a d s o m e t h i n g , I d o n ' t know

52
what, o f p o e t i c and a t t r a c t i v e about them" —
I was most deeply i m p r e s s e d w i t h i t a l l , y e t
can s c a r c e l y t e l l y o u why; i t was l i k e n o t h i n g
I had e v e r s e e n , b u t s t r a n g e l y l i k e my o l d
i m a g i n a t i o n s o f p l a c e s f o r sea-wanderers to
come t o ( 5 3 ) .

I t was not the v i v i d and c l e a r l y d e f i n e d ruggedness o f I c e l a n d that

a t t r a c t e d M o r r i s , b u t an e l u s i v e sense of m y s t e r y , w h i c h i s why he made

l o n g r a m b l i n g romances out o f i t , i n s t e a d o f allegories.

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When, w i t h the h e l p of Magnusson, M o r r i s t r a n s l a t e d the sagas—

and t h i s i s t r u e o f the f o r n a l d a r s o g u r ( m y t h i c a l - h e r o i c sagas) as of

the Germanic r i d d a r a s o g u r ('Sagas of K n i g h t s ' or romances of chivalry)—

he seems t o have been i n t e r e s t e d i n them because they r e p r e s e n t e d "an

earthly paradise, removing h i m as f a r as p o s s i b l e from t h e ( t o him)

distasteful l i f e o f contemporary E n g l a n d . " " ^ A t any r a t e , M o r r i s ' s

t r a n s l a t i o n s are f u l l of ' a n t i q u e ' l o c u t i o n s , such as 'should chide

him t h e r e f o r e , ' 'that b e f e l l n o t , ' ' l a y n o t q u i e t , ' and pseudo-medieval

periphrasts: 'Then they t i l t e d over a w a i n i n most seemly w i s e ' for

"They put a canopy over a s p l e n d i d c a r r i a g e ' in Hreimskringla. These

usages c l u t t e r the d i r e c t i n t e r c h a n g e s , d i s t u r b the f l o w of the n a r r a t i v e

55

and sometimes even obscure the s e n s e .

I t i s c l e a r t h a t when M o r r i s says "My work i s the embodiment of

dreams""^ he i s t a l k i n g o f day-dreams. He was a w r i t e r of dream-romance,

sub c r e a t i n g w o r l d s where dream and r e a l i t y merge i n t o an enchanted r e a l m ,

m e l t i n g and l a n g o r o u s , of r e v e r y and t r a n c e . Icelandic l i t e r a t u r e pro-

v i d e d an i n s p i r a t i o n , a m y t h o l o g y , and a s o u r c e of m a t e r i a l . The tone

and s t y l e of the t r a n s l a t i o n s , though i n i m i c a l to the o r i g i n a l s , gave

M o r r i s a modus o p e r a n d i f o r h i s l a s t romances, such as The W e l l a t the

W o r l d ' s E n d , where he h a s , i n a way t o t a l l y unsaga l i k e , "Made l i f e a

wondrous dream / And death the murmur of a r e s t f u l stream.""'7 But t h i s

g e n e r a l i s e d and r o m a n t i c i s e d ' N o r t h e r n n e s s ' has p r o f o u n d l y i n f l u e n c e d

dream-romance r i g h t to the p r e s e n t . Reading M o r r i s , and H . R i d e r Haggard's

E r i c B r i g h t e y e s , moved E . R. E d d i s o n to teach h i m s e l f O l d Norse and go

to I c e l a n d , a t r i p M o r r i s h i m s e l f had made t w i c e . C. S. Lewis was i n -

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f l u e n c e d by M o r r i s ' s S i g u r d the V o l s u n g and E d d i s o n ' s The Worm Ouroboros.

J. R. R. T o l k i e n , L e w i s ' s f r i e n d , and E m i l P e t a j a have c o n t i n u e d the

t r a d i t i o n t o the p r e s e n t . B u t these are s u b c r e a t o r s and romance w r i t e r s ,

and we have d i s t i n g u i s h e d romance from a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy.

However, i t i s p r e c i s e l y h e r e t h a t , by c o n t r a s t , Lindsay's achieve-

ment i n A Voyage becomes c l e a r . An i m p o r t a n t t r a n s l a t o r of The Saga

of G r e t t i r the S t r o n g , G. A . H i g h t , n o t i c e s the same " n a t u r a l romance"

o f w h i c h M o r r i s made so much. But he draws our a t t e n t i o n t o the l a c k

of i t i n the s a g a s :

I n lands as teeming w i t h n a t u r a l romance as

I c e l a n d and Norway, i t may seem s t r a n g e t h a t
so l i t t l e n o t i c e i s taken o f the wonders of
landscape and s c e n e r y . Here and t h e r e the
s a g a - t e l l e r shows us what he c o u l d do i f he
w i s h e d , as when t e l l i n g of G r e t t i r ' s r e t r e a t
i n the g l a c i e r s of G e i t l a n d i n Chapter L X I ,
where w i t h a few magic touches he g i v e s an
e n t r a n c i n g g l i m p s e i n t o an e a r t h l y p a r a d i s e
of h a p p i n e s s and r e s t . But he cares n o t h i n g
f o r t h i s , and d r i l y c o n t i n u e s t h a t G r e t t i r
found i t d u l l t h e r e and would n o t s t a y ( 5 8 ) .

Hight continues h i s s l y l i t t l e joke l a t e r , r e m a r k i n g t h a t he has

" o c c a s i o n a l l y c o n s u l t e d , i n cases of d i f f i c u l t y , the t r a n s l a t i o n o f

M s s r s . Magnusson and M o r r i s , and have borrowed a few nicknames there-

59

from." H i g h t ' s own t r a n s l a t i o n i s b l u n t and t o the p o i n t . He admits

t h a t " a r e a d e r who approaches the sagas f o r the f i r s t time i s apt to

f e e l a l i t t l e bewildered. They seem crowded w i t h p e o p l e w i t h uncouth

names and r i d i c u l o u s n i c k - n a m e s , whose o c c u p a t i o n i s m o s t l y d i v i d e d

60

between m u r d e r i n g each o t h e r and r i d i n g t o the T h i n g . " Had " t h e

t h i n g " been M u s p e l , t h i s might almost have been s a i d of A Voyage t o

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Arcturus.

Of a l l b o o k s , A Voyage i s most l i k e H i g h t ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f G r e t t i r

i n terms o f tone and s t y l e . Each i s b l u n t l y t o l d , w i t h a minimum o f

a u t h o r i a l comment. Each d e a l s i n death and v i o l e n c e on a grand s c a l e .

The c h a r a c t e r s have uncouth names. I n O l d Norse l i t e r a t u r e , "family

61
names were n o n - e x i s t e n t , and each person had by r i g h t o n l y one name."
Thus, G r e t t i r has h i s one name, and a nick-name which d e s c r i b e s h i m
62

as 'the s t r o n g . ' The " o d d l y S c a n d i n a v i a n p e r s o n a e " i n A Voyage,

b e i n g a l l e g o r i c a l ( M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e c l e a r l y b e l o n g to a different

w o r l d from Montague F a u l l ) , have o n l y one name, but t h i s name i s also

a description: K r a g ' s name t e l l s us he i s rough and u n p o l i s h e d . Most

importantly, though he a l s o resembles B l a k e ' s L o s , K r a g i n A Voyage

has q u i t e c l e a r l y been m o d e l l e d on G r e t t i r h i m s e l f : K r a g i s a thumb-

n a i l s k e t c h o f one whom H i g h t t e l l s us i s "one o f the most complex

63

[characters] ever c o n c e i v e d . " Both K r a g and G r e t t i r a r e red-haired,

s t o c k y and enormously s t r o n g ; both a r e rough mannered, seemingly

quarrelsome, and c a r e n o t h i n g f o r r t h e f i n e r p o i n t s of s o c i a l etiquette;

64
b o t h are w e l l - p r a c t i c e d i n the a r t of i n f l i c t i n g p a i n . A. Margaret
A r e n t says o f G r e t t i r ' s name t h a t " e t y m o l o g i c a l l y , i t goes back to
g r a n t j a n and t o d e r i v a t i v e words meaning ' t o s n e e r , s n a r l , make a wry
65
face'" —and these a c t i o n s are as characteristic o f K r a g as of G r e t t i r .
66
F u r t h e r , A r e n t t e l l s us of an " a s s o c i a t i o n o f the name w i t h the snake"
and K r a g ' s r o l e i n A Voyage i s t h a t o f the w i s e s e r p e n t , b r i n g e r of
i j .67
knowledge o r g n o s i s .
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But A Voyage to A r c t u r u s and The Saga o f G r e t t i r the S t r o n g ,

though they have many s i m i l a r i t i e s , b e l o n g i n the end to different

l i t e r a r y genres. When " i n a l l t h e c l a s s i c a l s a g a s , n o t h i n g i s con-

doned or v i l i f i e d ( e x c e p t by i m p l i c a t i o n ) ; the a u t h o r does n o t t a k e

68
s i d e s or m o r a l i s e " t h i s i s because " t h e i n t e r e s t of our saga i s
69

wholly psychological" : r e a l l y complex c h a r a c t e r s can o n l y be

presented through a c t i o n : Grettir is too complex f o r reason to

rationalise. I n A Voyage the p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t is minimal:

the p a u c i t y of a u t h o r i a l comment i s n o t good p s y c h o l o g y , i t is good

allegory: i f t h e image is_ the meaning i t w i l l r e q u i r e no a u t h o r i a l

comment. G r e t t i r i s so o r g a n i s e d that "the character of the hero

develops i t s e l f " " 7 ^ through a c t i o n . A Voyage i s o r g a n i s e d so as to

make a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o i n t , andthe a c t u a l c h a r a c t e r of M a s k u l l is—

p r o v i d e d t h a t he i s o r d i n a r y enough for 1 , us to i d e n t i f y w i t h h i m —

more o r l e s s i r r e l e v a n t . F i n a l l y , w h i l e A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s i s an

a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , The Saga o f G r e t t i r the S t r o n g i s n o t i n

any sense a dream book.

Of c o u r s e , "from i t s earliest beginnings u n t i l the p r e s e n t day

I c e l a n d i c l i t e r a t u r e has been remarkably r i c h i n s y m b o l i c dreams and

visions. G e o r g i a Dunham K e l c h n e r has n o t e d 530 dream r e f e r e n c e s i n

O l d I c e l a n d i c p r o s e and p o e t r y , and h e r s u r v e y i s f a r from exhaustive."

P r o p h e t i c dreams, o r a c u l u m , are p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n the s a g a s .

The E l d e r Edda, the p o e t i c canon, i s a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r : i t is not

p s y c h o l o g i c a l but m y t h i c a l . Carlyle distinguishes between myth and

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a l l e g o r y as follows:

Pagan R e l i g i o n i s i n d e e d an A l l e g o r y , a symbol
o f what men f e l t and knew about the U n i v e r s e . . . .
But i t seems t o me a r a d i c a l p e r v e r s i o n , and
even i n v e r s i o n , of the b u s i n e s s , to put t h a t
f o r w a r d as the o r i g i n and moving c a u s e , when i t
was r a t h e r the r e s u l t and t e r m i n a t i o n . To get
b e a u t i f u l a l l e g o r i e s , a perfect p o e t i c symbol,
was n o t the want of men; but t o know what they
were t o b e l i e v e about t h i s U n i v e r s e , what course
they were to s t e e r i n i t . . . . The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s
i s an A l l e g o r y , and a b e a u t i f u l , j u s t and s e r i o u s
one: b u t c o n s i d e r whether Bunyan's A l l e g o r y c o u l d
have preceded the F a i t h i t s y m b o l i s e s ! The F a i t h
had t o be a l r e a d y t h e r e , s t a n d i n g b e l i e v e d by
e v e r y b o d y ; — o f w h i c h the A l l e g o r y c o u l d then b e c -
come a shadow (73) .

Myth i s p r i m a r y and a l l e g o r y i s s e c o n d a r y , b u t the two a r e close.

I n The E l d e r Edda, one o f the m y t h i c poems, ' V o l u s p a , o r 'The Song

of the S y b i l , ' i s a l s o a dream w o r k , and the dream i s of c a t e g o r y v,

visio, t o whicfawehave a l r e a d y a s s i g n e d The D i v i n e Comedy and o t h e r

a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s . ' V o l u s p a ' i s a l a y i n The E l d e r Edda

which c o n t a i n s the c o s m o l o g i c a l mythology o f the o l d Norsemen, and i t s

i n f l u e n c e on L i n d s a y ' s cosmology i n A Voyage i s r e a d i l y discernible.

The c e n t r a l i d e a s i n A Voyage are i n d e e d g n o s t i c , P l a t o n i c and

Schopenhauerian (Plato being a gnostic, Schopenhauer a n e o - P l a t o n i s t ) ,

b u t L i n d s a y perhaps found these i d e a s most c o n c r e t e l y embodied i n

74

'Voluspa.' From t h i s , a t any r a t e , he took h i s most i m p o r t a n t names:

the S u r t u r o f A r c t u r u s i s the S u r t of ' V o l u s p a ' (and o f 'Valfruthnir'

and ' L o k a s e n n a ' ; he i s S u r t a r and S u r t r i n some i n f l e c t i o n a l c a s e s , the

75

'r' being nominatival ). I n the a p o c a l y p s e f o r e t o l d i n ' V o l u s p a ' Surt

comes from the s o u t h , from Muspelheim ( L i n d s a y ' s Muspel) w i t h the singer-

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of-twigs, which i s the f i r e t h a t Promethean M a s k u l l must t r a v e l t o

Muspel t o s t e a l i n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s .

' V o l u s p a ' i s unique i n The E l d e r Edda i n b e i n g a v i s i o and i n

b e i n g c o s m o l o g i c a l , b u t i t has many analogues i n the m y t h o l o g i e s of

other races. I f V e l i k o v s k y i s c o r r e c t i n Worlds i n C o l l i s i o n , these

e n d - o f - t h e - w o r l d myths a r e a l l v e r y s i m i l a r because they a r e based on

e v e n t s w h i c h happened i n the (by c o s m o l o g i c a l s t a n d a r d s ) r e c e n t past:

viz. the c a p t u r e o f the comet Venus by t h e s o l a r s y s t e m , and the

c o l l i s i o n s o f Mars ( a n g r y , r e d god o f war) and Venus (hew-born goddess

of beauty, t r a i l i n g h e r b e a u t i f u l v e i l s ) w h i l e t h i s was t a k i n g place.77

C u r i o u s l y enough, t h i s m y t h - c u m - s c i e n t i f i c f a c t i s a l s o , as was earlier

remarked, the s u b s t a n c e of K l i n g s o h r ' s t a l e a t the end o f Novalis's

romance, Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n .

Not o n l y i s ' V o l u s p a ' d i f f e r e n t :from the r e s t o f The E l d e r Edda,

but the saga we have d i s c u s s e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h A Voyage, The Saga

of G r e t t i r the S t r o n g , i s d i f f e r e n t from the o t h e r s a g a s , and i n a

comparable way. Not o n l y i s , as was n o t e d by H i g h t , n a t u r e imagery

r a r e l y used, b u t " l i g h t o r r a d i a n c e symbolism [ o c c u r s ] o n l y i n f r e q u e n t l y

78

i n the S a g a s . " We f i n d i t i n G r e t t i r . When, f o r example, Grettir

meets Glam's g h o s t , "The moon was s h i n i n g v e r y b r i g h t l y o u t s i d e , with

l i g h t c l o u d s p a s s i n g over i t and h i d i n g i t now and a g a i n . A t the

79

moment Glam f e l l , the moon shone f o r t h . " L i g h t or radiance symbolism

i s c e n t r a l t o A Voyage, where M a s k u l l f o l l o w s the muspel radiance

a c r o s s Tormance, and i t i s c e n t r a l t o ' V o l u s p a ' and to K l i n g s o h r ' s tale,

i n b o t h o f w h i c h t h e sun t u r n s b l a c k .
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By the time N o v a l i s w r o t e Henry o f Of t e r d i n g e n , he had a fully

developed ' r a d i a n c e s y m b o l i s m , ' which, he had worked out i n Hymnen an

die Nacht. The f i r s t hymn appears t o be a c e l e b r a t i o n o f l i g h t as

80
" K o n i g der i r d i s c h e n N a t u r " ( l o r d o f e a r t h l y n a t u r e ) w h i c h makes
v i s i b l e the s p l e n d o u r of the w o r l d . But the w o r l d i s n o t s p l e n d i d ,
81

and " t h e second hymn laments the i n t r u s i o n of d a y l i g h t " into night's

dominion^ which N o v a l i s d e s c r i b e s as t i m e l e s s and s p a c e l e s s . A series

of oppositions are then e s t a b l i s h e d between day and n i g h t , the outer

and i n n e r w o r l d s , s u r f a c e and d e p t h , sense and Gemut: that i s , between

the n i g h t - d r e a m w o r l d and the common, everyday r e a l i t y . In:_the fifth

hymn, N o v a l i s " i n t r o d u c e s ( f o r the f i r s t time) God's countenance as a
82

'nocturnal s u n ' . " T h i s i s the e q u i v a l e n t of D a n t e ' s ' o t h e r ' sun and

of L i n d s a y ' s A l p p a i n .

In the a p o c a l y p s e , the sun o f t h i s w o r l d w i l l be d e s t r o y e d and

that ' o t h e r ' , now ' n o c t u r n a l ' s u n , w i l l s h i n e f o r t h . I n both 'Voluspa'

and K l i n g s o h r ' s t a l e , the sun o f t h i s w o r l d i s destroyed. 'Voluspa'

d e s c r i b e s the c o s m o l o g i c a l upheaval q u i t e b r i e f l y :

Sun t u r n e d from the s o u t h , S i s t e r of Moon,

Her r i g h t arm r e s t e d on t h e r i m of Heaven;
She had no i n k l i n g where h e r h a l l was,
Nor Moon a n o t i o n o f what might be h a d ,
The p l a n e t s knew not where t h e i r p l a c e s were (83).
Then,
Surt with the b a n e - o f - b r a n c h e s comes
From the s o u t h , on h i s sword the sun o f the V a l g o d s ,
Crags t o p p l e , the crone f a l l s h e a d l o n g ,
Men t r e a d H e l ' s Road, the Heaven s s p l i t open ( 8 4 ) .
 86

I t i s the end o f t h e w o r l d :

E a r t h s i n k s i n the s e a , the sun t u r n s b l a c k ,

C a s t down from Heaven a r e the h o t s t a r s ,
Fumes r e e k , i n t o flames b u r s t ,
The sky i t s e l f i s s c o r c h e d w i t h f i r e ( 8 5 ) .

I n K l i n g s o h r ' s t a l e i n Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n we h a v e , as Velikovsky

86

might have a r g u e d , the same t?.? c o s m o l o g i c a l events d e s c r i b e d . The

h e r o (Mars?) i s c a l l e d i n t o a house by F r e y a , " t h e b e a u t i f u l daughter

of A r c t u r u s " ('.) who s i t s on " a t h r o n e a r t f u l l y f a s h i o n e d from a huge

87
p y r i t e - c r y s t a l " and streams w i t h l i g h t . She i s e v i d e n t l y the comet
Venus. When the e a r t h passes through the comet's t a i l we are t o l d t h a t
88

"Sophia's blue v e i l . . . was w a v i n g over the e a r t h . " According to

V e l i k o v s k y t h e r e must have been an exchange-6f p o t e n t i a l , i . e . a s p a r k

o r e l e c t r i c a l d i s c h a r g e , between the two p l a n e t s . We f i n d t h i s i n

N o v a l i s when, a p p r o a c h i n g F r e y a , t h e hero p u t s h i s sword h a n d l e a g a i n s t

his chest, p o i n t s the b l a d e o f i t a t h e r , and " a b r i g h t s p a r k " leaps
89

between them. We have seen t h i s i n ' V o l u s p a ' when S u r t comes, " o n

h i s sword the sun o f t h e V a l g o d s . " Dark S u r t u r has been i d e n t i f i e d w i t h

b l a c k smoke, " o u t o f w h i c h f l a s h e d a tongue of f l a m e , l i k e a s h i n i n g

90 91
sword," B i g John Buscema's p i c t u r e o o f him as an enormous r e d monster

seems more l i k e l y , i f we c o n s i d e r t h a t S u r t must have been the p l a n e t

Mars.

S u r t comes to d e s t r o y the e a r t h and the e a r t h ' s gods, whose twilight

this i s . H i s coming i s d e s c r i b e d thus i n Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n :

The sun s t o o d i n heaven, f i e r y - r e d w i t h r a g e .
The p o w e r f u l flame i m b i b e d i t s s t o l e n l i g h t ;
 87

and the more f i e r c e l y the sun s t r o v e t o p r e s e r v e

i t s e l f , ever more p a l e and s p o t t e d i t became. The
flame grew w h i t e r and more i n t e n s e , , as the sun faded.'
I t a t t r a c t e d the l i g h t more and more s t r o n g l y ; the
g l o r y around the s t a r of day was soon consumed, and
i t s t o o d t h e r e a p a l e , g l i m m e r i n g d i s k , every new
a g i t a t i o n o f s p i t e and rage a i d i n g the escape of
the f l y i n g l i g h t - w a v e s . F i n a l l y , nought o f the sun
remained but a b l a c k , e x h a u s t e d d r o s s , w h i c h f e l l
i n t o the s e a . The s p l e n d o u r of t h e flame was beyond
description. I t s l o w l y ascended, and b o r e t t o w a r d s
the n o r t h ( 9 2 ) .
93

And the k i n g , A r c t u r u s , says-: "night is passed." K r a g echoes this:

"The n i g h t i s r e a l l y p a s t a t l a s t , N i g h t s p o r e . . . . The day i s here"

(VA 277).
A t the end o f ' V o l u s p a , ' when the n i g h t has p a s s e d , the S y b i l s a y s ,
I see E a r t h r i s i n g a second time
Out o f the foam, f a i r and g r e e n ;
Down from the f e l l s , f i s h to c a p t u r e ,
Wings the e a g l e ; waters f l o w ( 9 4 ) .
95

Thus, " o u t o f p a i n i s the new w o r l d b o r n . " It is the r e t u r n of the

Golden Age:
Boards s h a l l be found of a b e a u t y t o wonder a t ,
Boards o f g o l d i n the g r a s s l o n g a f t e r ,
The chess boards they owned i n the o l d e n days ( 9 6 ) .
97

Henceforward, " a l l war i s c o n f i n e d to t h i s s l a b and to these figures."

Around t h i s myth, the a l l e g o r y of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s built.

K r a g ' s name on E a r t h i s p a i n (VA 2 8 7 ) : he i s the b r i n g e r of g n o s i s

and o f the new w o r l d : he i s a l s o S u r t u r , whose Muspel f i r e i s to burn

up the o l d w o r l d . But i n L i n d s a y ' s v e r s i o n o f the myth, the a p o c a l y p s e

is to be a long-drawn out a f f a i r , as N i g h t s p o r e d i s c o v e r s :
Muspel was no a l l - p o w e r f u l U n i v e r s e , t o l e r a t i n g
from pure i n d i f f e r e n c e the e x i s t e n c e s i d e by s i d e
w i t h i t o f another f a l s e w o r l d , w h i c h had no r i g h t
 88

t o b e . Muspel was f i g h t i n g f o r i t s l i f e — a g a i n s t
a l l t h a t i s most shameful and f r i g h t f u l — a g a i n s t
s i n masquerading as e t e r n a l b e a u t y , a g a i n s t baseness
masquerading as N a t u r e , a g a i n s t the D e v i l masquerading
as God (VA 2 8 6 ) .

The o l d w o r l d and the new ( ' o t h e r ' ) w o r l d a l r e a d y e x i s t s i d e by s i d e .

The o l d w o r l d i s to be n o t so much d e s t r o y e d as p a t i e n t l y u n c r e a t e d ,

not because i t i s e v i l — t h o u g h i t i s e v i l — b u t because c r e a t i o n i s evil.

C r e a t i o n i s the o r i g i n a l s i n . Therefore t h e r e can be no Golden Age

to l o o k f o r w a r d t o at the end of A Voyage. A l l creation i s , i n Lindsay's

view, " r o t t e n w i t h i l l u s i o n " (TSG 4 2 ) , b u t , b e h i n d c r e a t i o n " l i e s the

real, tremendous and a w f u l M u s p e l - w o r l d , w h i c h knows n e i t h e r W i l l , n o r

U n i t y , nor I n d i v i d u a l s ; that i s to say, an i n c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d " (TSG 4 2 ) .

' V o l u s p a ' i s s i m p l y the s t o r y o f " t h e e t e r n a l w a r f a r e waged by the

98
kingdom of l i g h t a g a i n s t t h e kingdom o f d a r k n e s s . " Klingsohr's tale
i s more c o m p l i c a t e d , f o r i n some p l a c e s " l i g h t and shade seem [ . . . ]
99

t o have changed t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e o f f i c e s , " and we must s u p p o r t the

v a l u e s of the seeming dark w h i c h i s the one t r u e l i g h t . L i n d s a y takes

l i t e r a l l y and develops N o v a l i s ' s i d e a i n Hymnen an d i e Nacht o f the

' n o c t u r n a l s u n , ' so t h a t A Voyage to A r c t u r u s becomes n o t so much a

b a t t l e between l i g h t and darkness (though i t i s t h i s a l s o ) , b u t between

the l i g h t of the w o r l d and the l i g h t from beyond the w o r l d . To t h i s

b a t t l e we must now t u r n .
 89

Footnotes To Chapter Three

C. S. L e w i s , The A l l e g o r y of L o v e : A Study i n M e d i e v a l T r a d i t i o n
(New Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958), p . 75.

2
L o u i s M a c N e i c e , i n V a r i e t i e s of P a r a b l e (Cambridge: Cambridge
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1965), says t h a t "mapping P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s w o u l d
be l i k e mapping the N i l e V a l l e y , o n l y w o r s e . A l l l o n g i t u d e and
p r a c t i c a l l y no l a t i t u d e : t h a t i s the t r o u b l e w i t h a s t r a i g h t and
narrow path and i t i s o n l y the ups and downs which keep i t d r a m a t i c a l l y
i n t e r e s t i n g , the H i l l D i f f i c u l t y , t h e V a l l e y of H u m i l i a t i o n " (p. 4 3 ) .
3
Samuel T a y l o r C o l e r i d g e , M i s c e l l a n e o u s C r i t i c i s m , e d . T. M.
Raysor (London: C o n s t a b l e & C o . , 1936), p . 36.
4
Joanna Russ i n 'Dream L i t e r a t u r e and S c i e n c e F i c t i o n ' i n E x t r a p o l a -
t i o n (Dec. 1969) d i s t i n g u i s h e s between day-dream and n i g h t - d r e a m l i t e r a t u r e ,
and f i n d s the l a t t e r v a s t l y p r e f e r a b l y . U n f o r t u n a t e l y she i n c o r r e c t l y
c l a s s e s L i n d s a y as a day-dream w r i t e r and a t t a c k s h i m on t h i s g r o u n d ,
w i t h o u t n o t i c i n g t h a t A Voyage i s b u i l t around t h e same d i s t i n c t i o n .
See my r e b u t t a l i n E x t r a p o l a t i o n (May 1 9 7 2 ) .

^ C . S. L e w i s , 0f_ Other W o r l d s , e d . W. Hooper (London: Geoffrey

Bles, 1966), p . 6.

A. D. N u t t a l l , Two Concepts o f A l l e g o r y (London: Routledge and

Kegan P a u l , 1 9 6 7 ) , p . 31.

^ E l l i o t t B. Gose J r . , I m a g i n a t i o n I n d u l g e d : The I r r a t i o n a l i n the

N i n e t e e n t h Century N o v e l ( M o n t r e a l and London: M c G i l l - Q u e e n ' s U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1972), p . 42.

g
Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y : . The Theory of a_ Symbolic Mode (Ithaca,
New Y o r k : C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 107.

9
W i l l i a m M o r r i s ' s o u t p u t i s enormous, and i n c l u d e s The Water o f
the Wondrous I s l e s and The Wood Beyond the W o r l d , as w e l l as The W e l l
a t the W o r l d ' s End. E . R. E d d i s o n wrote a t r i l o g y about Z i m i a m v i a ,
The Worm Ouroboros, M i s t r e s s of M i s t r e s s e s and A F i s h D i n n e r i n Memison,
w h i l e a f o u r t h book, The M e z e n t i a n G a t e , remains u n f i n i s h e d . C l a r k
Ashton Smith and H. P . L o v e c r a f t have g i v e n u s , at g r e a t l e n g t h , the
m y t h o l o g i e s o f Z o t h i q u e and C t h u l h u r e s p e c t i v e l y . James Churchward and
John Norman have w r i t t e n a t l e a s t h a l f - a - d o z e n books each about t h e
s u b c r e a t e d w o r l d s of Mu and Gor r e s p e c t i v e l y . Recent 'Hugo' w i n n e r s
 90

i n the f i e l d i n c l u d e Frank H e r b e r t ' s Dune and U r s u l a K . L e G u i n n ' s

The L e f t Hand of D a r k n e s s . B e s t - s e l l e r i n the f i e l d i s s t i l l The
L o r d o f the Rings and i t s companion The Hobbit,-: 3 w h i l e the most l o n g
winded must be James Branch C a b e l l ' s i n t e r m i n a b l e s e r i e s The B i o g r a p h y
of M a n u e l . And these a r e o n l y the o b v i o u s examples.

"^Sam J . L u n d w a l l , S c i e n c e F i c t i o n : What i t ' s a l l about (New

York: Ace Books, 19 71), p p . 17-19.

11
Sam J . Lundwall, Science F i c t i o n , pp. 36-37.
12
Quoted by L u n d w a l l from Ralph 124C41+ i n S c i e n c e F i c t i o n , p . 19.
13
Quoted by L u n d w a l l i n S c i e n c e F i c t i o n , p . 37.
14
Quoted by L u n d w a l l i n S c i e n c e F i c t i o n , p . 37. From L u n d w a l l ' s
survey I take t h i s a t t i t u d e to be t y p i c a l .

^ M o r r i s ' s romances a r e the development o f S i g u r d the V o l s u n g ,

s e t i n the a n c i e n t R h i n e l a n d , . a n d The L i f e and Death of J a s o n , borrowed
from Greek m y t h o l o g y .

"^Visiak: "The a u t h o r who had most i n f l u e n c e d h i m , he t o l d me,

was George MacDonald" (TSG 9 8 ) .

"^Visiak: " H i s k i n s m a n , C a r l y l e — w h o m he f a c i a l l y resembled, and

a d m i r e d — a c h i e v e d the f a c u l t y of w r i t i n g as he s p o k e , and L i n d s a y t r i e d
e v e n t u a l l y t o i m i t a t e h i s s t y l e " i n W i t c h (TSG 9 7 ) .

18
A thorough study o f the double i n German l i t e r a t u r e has been
done by R a l p h Tymms c a l l e d Doubles i n L i t e r a r y P s y c h o l o g y (Cambridge:
Bowes and Bowes, 1 9 4 9 ) . More r e c e n t , more t e c h n i c a l , more comprehensive
and r a t h e r p o o r e r i s R. R o g e r s ' A P s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l Study o f The Double
i n L i t e r a t u r e ( D e t r o i t : ' Wayne S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 0 ) . Both
Tymms and Rogers d e a l w i t h the double by d i v i s i o n and the double by
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . N e i t h e r seems t o have thought of a t h i r d k i n d , the
double by i m i t a t i o n , w h i c h u n d e r l i e s such d i v e r s e works as P i e r s P l o w -
man (the i m i t a t i o n of C h r i s t ) and The R e a l L i f e o f S e b a s t i a n K n i g h t
(where V becomes S e b a s t i a n ) .
19
John L o c k e , An Essay Concerning Human U n d e r s t a n d i n g , e d . J . W.
Y o l t o n (London: J . M. Dent, 1961), v o l . I , p . 82. H e r e a f t e r t h i s
e d i t i o n w i l l be c i t e d as EHU. Locke a l s o asks us t o "suppose the s o u l
 91

o f C a s t o r s e p a r a t e d d u r i n g h i s s l e e p from h i s body, to t h i n k a p a r t .
L e t us suppose, t o o , t h a t i t chooses f o r i t s scene of t h i n k i n g the
body of a n o t h e r man, e . g . P o l l u x , who i s sleeping without a s o u l . . . "
(EHTJ I , p . 83) .

20
John L o c k e , EHU I , p . 85,

21
John L o c k e , EHU I I , p. 144.

22 John L o c k e , EHU I I , p . 16 7.

23
N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n : A Romance (New Y o r k : H. H.
Moore, 1853), p . 27.
9 /

E . T . A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden P o t ' i n The B e s t T a l e s of Hoffmann,

e d . E . F. B l e i l e r (New Y o r k : Dover P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1967), p . 8. 'The
Golden P o t ' i s r e p r i n t e d i n a c l e a n e d up v e r s i o n ( w i t h o u t " t h e S c o t t i s h -
ness and e c c e n t r i c i t y " [p. x x x i i i ] ) o f C a r l y l e ' s t r a n s l a t i o n .

25 E . T . A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden P o t p. 55.

26
E . T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot p. 48.

27.E . T . A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot p. 18.

28.E . T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot p. 19.

29
E . T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden P o t p. 18.

30 E . T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden. Pot p. 56.

31 E . T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden P o t p. 57.

32 E. T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot p. 56.

33.E . T . A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden P o t p. 56.

34 E . T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot p. 69.

35
E . F. B l e i l e r n o t e s i n h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n t o The B e s t T a l e s o f
Hoffmann t h a t " a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , Anselmus i s s i m p l y a
 92

p r o j e c t i o n o f the R e g i s t r a t o r which d i s a p p e a r s i n t h e w o r l d o f f a n t a s y ,
w h i l e the R e g i s t r a t o r , g i v i n g up h i s dreams, m a r r i e s V e r o n i c a . She,
i n t u r n , r e c o g n i z e s t h a t she cannot possess the Anselmus complex b u t
must be c o n t e n t w i t h the C o n r e c t o r - t u r n e d - G e h e i m r a t " (p. x i x ) .

36 t
Both Hoffmann and N o v a l i s used marchen, w h i c h N o v a l i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
as b e i n g " l i k e a dream v i s i o n . . . beyond l o g i c . . . an assembly o f wonder-
f u l t h i n g s and h a p p e n i n g s " (quoted by B l e i l e r i n The Best T a l e s , p . xx) .
These marchen, B l e i l e r t e l l s u s , " o f t e n appeared as s y m b o l i c k e r n e l s
o r germs w i t h i n the l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f a s t o r y , o f f e r i n g i n f r a n k l y
p o e t i c and m y t h i c a l form the p o i n t o f f e r e d more o r l e s s r e a l i s t i c a l l y
i n the f u l l s t o r y " ( p . x x ) . MacDonald used t h i s form f r e q u e n t l y , as
f o r example i n the s t o r y o f Cosmo i n P h a n t a s t e s , b u t L i n d s a y , w r i t i n g some4-'
t h i n g much more l i k e pure a l l e g o r y , much l e s s l i k e romance, used the form
rarely: Panawe's s t o r y and the s t o r y o f H a t o r are b r i e f examples. A
Voyage i s s e t t h o r o u g h l y i n the s p i r i t o r n i g h t - d r e a m w o r l d , and t h e r e -
f o r e i s at war w i t h the w o r l d of the body.
37
p. xvx.
38
T h i s obvious comparison has a l s o been made by W. A . S t r a u s s i n
Descent and R e t u r n : The O r p h i c Theme i n Modern L i t e r a t u r e (Cambridge,
Mass.: H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 1 ) , p . 26. Our anonymous t r a n s l a t o r
t e l l s us N o v a l i s was h a p p i l y " u n c o r r u p t e d by p r e c e d e n t s " (p. x v i ) .
39
A l l c i t a t i o n s i n German are t o ' H e i n r i c h von O f t e r d i n g e n ' in
N o v a l i s D i c h t u n g e n (Hamburg':' R o w o h l t , 1 9 6 3 ) .

^Inferno, 1, l i n e 2.

iSIovalis, Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 25.

42
of Ofterdingen, p. 37.
N o v a l i s , Henry
of Ofterdingen, p. 37.
43
N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 195.
44
N o v a l i s , Henry
45 of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 132.
N o v a l i s , Henry
^ N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 134.

47
N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 193.
 93

48
Novalis, Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , p. 203.

49
Thomas C a r l y l e , On H e r o e s , Herd-Worship and the H e r o i c i n H i s t o r y ,
ed. C a r l Niemeyer ( L i n c o l n : U n i v e r s i t y of Nebraska P r e s s , 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 19.

"^Thomas C a r l y l e , O n H e r o e s , p . 16.

"'"'"Thomas C a r l y l e , On H e r o e s , p . 17.

52
W i l l i a m M o r r i s quoted by J . W. M a c k a i l i n The L i f e of William
Morris (London: Longmans, 1901), I , p . 244.

^ ^ W i l l i a m M o r r i s quoted by M a c k a i l , L i f e , I, p. 247.

" ^ E i n e r Haugen, 'On T r a n s l a t i n g from the S c a n d i n a v i a n ' i n O l d

Norse L i t e r a t u r e and M y t h o l o g y : A Symposium, e d . E . C. Polome ( A u s t i n :
U n i v e r s i t y of Texas P r e s s , 1 9 6 9 ) , p . 13.

"'"'See Dorothy M. H o a r e , The Works of W i l l i a m M o r r i s and Y e a t s i n

R e l a t i o n to E a r l y Saga L i t e r a t u r e (1937; r p t . New Y o r k : R u s s e l l and
R u s s e l l , 19 7 1 ) , pp. 5 0 - 5 5 .

56
W i l l i a m M o r r i s quoted by M a c k a i l , L i f e , I, p. 107.
57
W i l l i a m M o r r i s , 'To The Muse of the N o r t h ' i n Poems by the Way
& Love i s Enough (London: Longmans, G r e e n , 1 9 1 2 ) , p . 32.
58
G. A . H i g h t i n h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n to The Saga o f G r e t t i r the
S t r o n g (London: J . M. D e n t , 1 9 1 3 ) , p . x i i .
59

G. A . H i g h t i n G r e t t i r , p. xiv.

^G. A. Hight i n G r e t t i r , p. v i i .

^"4ciner Haugen i n Polome's O l d Norse L i t e r a t u r e , p. 17.

62
Anonymous r e v i e w of The S t r a n g e Genius i n The Times Literary
63
Supplement (November 20, 19 70), p . 1346.
G. A . H i g h t i n G r e t t i r , pp. x - x i .
 94

K r a g , however, does n o t i n f l i c t p a i n n e e d l e s s l y , as G r e t t i r
seems to when, f o r example, he s t r i p s the h i d e o f f h i s f a t h e r ' s l i v e
h o r s e because he does n o t want to l o o k a f t e r i t .

A . M a r g a r e t A r e n t , 'The H e r o i c P a t t e r n : O l d Germanic H e l m e t s ,
B e o w u l f , and G r e t t i s s a g a ' i n O l d NOfse L i t e r a t u r e and M y t h o l o g y :
A Symposium, e d . E . C. Polome^ ( A u s t i n : U n i v e r s i t y of Texas P r e s s ,
1969), p p . 184-^85. A r e n t ' s s u b j e c t i s the s i m i l a r i t y of m o t i f s i n
Beowulf and G r e t t i r . She n o t i c e s t h a t "one o f the most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
elements of the f a i r y t a l e , - however, the f r e e i n g o f a p r i n c e s s , e n t e r s
i n t o n e i t h e r " ( p . 185). I t does, of c o u r s e , e n t e r i n t o A Voyage to
A r c t u r u s , when M a s k u l l wakes S u l l e n b o d e w i t h a k i s s .

66 /
A . M a r g a r e t A r e n t i n Polome's O l d Norse L i t e r a t u r e , p . 185.
67
J . B. P i c k a s s u r e s me i n a p r i v a t e l e t t e r dated January 4, 1971,
t h a t G r e t t i r was a d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on L i n d s a y . P i c k has a c c e s s s to
L i n d s a y ' s n o t e b o o k s , w h i c h , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , I have n o t .
68
J . W. S w a n n e l l , W i l l i a m M o r r i s and O l d Norse L i t e r a t u r e (London:
W i l l i a m M o r r i s S o c i e t y , 1961), p . 13.
69 G. A . H i g h t i n G r e t t i r , p . x.

70 G. A . H i g h t , G r e t t i r , p . x .

P a u l S c h a c h , , ' S y m b o l i c Dreams of F u t u r e Renown i n O l d I c e l a n d i c

L i t e r a t u r e 1 i n M o s a i c , I V , 4 (Summer 1971), p . 5 1 . See a l s o E . 0 . G.
T u r v i l l e - P e t r e . , 'Dreams i n I c e l a n d i c T r a d i t i o n ' i n F o l k l o r e , 69 (1958),
pp. 93-111.

72
See P e t e r H a l l b e r g , 'Dreams and D e s t i n y ' i n The I c e l a n d i c Saga,
t r a n s . P a u l Schach ( L i n c o l n : U n i v e r s i t y of Nebraska P r e s s , 1962),
p p . 81-96.
73
Thomas C a r l y l e , On H e r o e s , p . 6.
74
I n c i d e n t a l l y , i n one of the l e s s i n t e r e s t i n g p a r t s of ' V o l u s p a '
T o l k i e n found a l i s t of dwarves' names to b o r r o w .
75
See the I c e l a n d i c t e x t e d i t e d by P . H . S a l u s and P . B . T a y l o r ,
V o l u s p a : The Song of the S y b i l , t r a n s . P . B. T a y l o r and W. H . Auden
(Iowa C i t y : Windhover P r e s s , 1968), s t . 4 1 , 45. The t r a n s l a t i o n i n
 95

t h i s e d i t i o n , r e p r i n t e d i n t h e same a u t h o r s ' The E l d e r Edda, i s

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h a t i t ' t r a n s l a t e s ' some of the ' a l l e g o r y '
"From the e a s t through Venom V a l l e y runs / Over j a g g e d rocks the R i v e r
Gruesome" ( s t . 31).

76
See Lee M. H o l l a n d e r , The P o e t i c Edda (1928; r e v . e d . , A u s t i n :
U n i v e r s i t y of Texas P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 ) , p p . 3, 4 5 , 5 1 , 59, 99. S u r t u r comes
to burn up B r a n c h s p e l l .

77
I m m a n u e l V e l i k o v s k y , Worlds i n C o l l i s i o n (New Y o r k : Dell,
1967).

78
P a u l Schach i n ' S y m b o l i c Dreams, ' p. 71.
7 9
G r e t t i r , p. 98.

80
Novalis, 'Hymnen an d i e N a c h t ' i n Novalis Dichtungen, p. 55.
^"Hf. A . S t r a u s s , Descent and R e t u r n : The O r p h i c Theme i n Modern
L i t e r a t u r e (Cambridge, M a s s . : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 1 ) , p . 29.
See S t r a u s s f o r a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n of the Hymn e n . A l s o see Bruce
Haywood, N o v a l i s : The V e i l o f Imagery (Cambridge, M a s s . : Harvard
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1959), p p . 5 2 - 7 7 .

82

W. A . S t r a u s s , Descent and R e t u r n , p . 34.

83
The E l d e r Edda: A Selection, t r a n s . P . B. T a y l o r and W. H . Auden
(New Y o r k : V i n t a g e Books, 19 70), p . 145.
84
T h e E l d e r Edda, p . 151.

85
The E l d e r Edda, p . 152.
86
He d o e s n ' t . I don't t h i n k he r e a d N o v a l i s .
87
N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p. 156.
88
N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p. 179.
89
N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p. 186.
 96

W. Wagner, A s g a r d and the Gods: The T a l e s and T r a d i t i o n s o f our

N o r t h e r n A n c e s t o r s , adapted M. W. M a c D o w a l l , e d . W. S. W. Anson (London:
W. Swan Sonnenschein, 1884), p p . 56-57.

91
The M i g h t y T h o r , M a r v e l Comics, 200 (June 1972), p p . 17-18.
T h i s s p e c i a l 200th i s s u e r e t e l l s the l a y o f ' V o l u s p a . '

N o v a l i s , Henry ojf Of t e r d i n g e n , p . 177.

^ N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 179.

4
T h e E l d e r Edda, p . 152.

" ' N o v a l i s , Henry o f Of t e r d i n g e n , p . 184.

6
T h e E l d e r Edda, p . 152.

^ N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 185.

8 i i

W. Wagner, A s g a r d and the Gods, p . 55.

N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i r i g e n , p . 169. I n N o v a l i s , "each f i g u r e

e x h i b i t e d a p e c u l i a r shade of b l a c k , and c a s t b e h i n d a p a l e g l i m m e r . "
I n L i n d s a y , " t h e shadows of the t h r e e men c a s t by A l p p a i n were n o t b l a c k ,
b u t were composed of w h i t e d a y l i g h t " (VA 2 7 5 ) .
 97

Chapter F o u r :

THE UNHOLY WAR: A VOYAGE TO ARCTURUS AS BATTLE

A l l e g o r i e s are of two k i n d s , b a t t l e and p r o g r e s s , the latter

b e i n g b e t t e r s u i t e d to the e p i s o d i c n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f the

dream f a n t a s y . But a l l p r o g r e s s e s are a l s o b a t t l e s , since they

are o r g a n i s e d around d i c h o t o m i e s : God and d e v i l , C h r i s t and S a t a n ,

Good and E v i l , l i g h t and d a r k n e s s , lightness and w e i g h t . Blake's

proverb i s most apt i n t h i s c o n t e x t : " W i t h o u t C o n t r a r i e s i s no

progression.""'" Were we to judge by the n e o - A r i s t o t a l i a n canons

of p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y a p p r o p r i a t e to, say, some k i n d s o f n o v e l ,

such d u a l i t i e s must seem to be on a p r i m i t i v e l e v e l of thought.

Indeed they a r e . Dreams themselves are a p r i m i t i v e form of ideation,

and they are i n h e r e n t l y d u a l i s t i c . The s c h e m a t i c d u a l i s m o f A Voyage

to A r c t u r u s i s e n t i r e l y a p p r o p r i a t e to i t s s t r u c t u r e as an a l l e g o r i c a l

battle, as i s the s i m i l a r l y s c h e m a t i c — i f n o t diagrammatic—structure

o f thought i n the works o f o t h e r n e o - P l a t o n i s t s such as Spenser,

M i l t o n , B l a k e (who was, though, the f a c t i s r a r e l y mentioned, like

many of h i s f r i e n d s — F l a x m a n , F u s e l i , Cumberland—a p a r t i c i p a n t i n

t h e 'Greek r e v i v a l ' ) , S h e l l e y and Y e a t s . This schematic dualism i s

appropriate i n another sense a l s o , i n that i t belongs to the w o r l d

of G e n e r a t i o n , as B l a k e c a l l s i t , which, most of us i n h a b i t , and

w h i c h i n the f i n a l v i s i o n we and t h e g e n e r a t i n g p r o t a g o n i s t : must

p r o g r e s s beyond: the apparent l i m i t a t i o n of d u a l i s m i s p a r t o f its

strength.
 98

A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s o r g a n i s e d around a number o f dualities,

some of w h i c h are u b i q u i t o u s i n European c u l t u r e , and some of w h i c h

L i n d s a y has d e v e l o p e d . These d u a l i t i e s are l i g h t and d a r k n e s s , light-

ness and w e i g h t , B r a n c h s p e l l ' s l i g h t and A l p p a i n ' s l i g h t , h e i g h t and

d e p t h , M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e , th_e r e a l w o r l d and t h e dream w o r l d ,

appearance and r e a l i t y , the rhythm of the w a l t z and the rhythm o f

the march, the male and the f e m a l e , m a t t e r and s p i r i t , a n d , finally,

n o t h i n g and n o t h i n g . P r o b a b l y the most i n n o v a t i v e of t h e s e i s the use,

as p r o c l a i m e d by t h e t i t l e , of the d i s t a n t s t a r , A r c t u r u s , w h i c h L i n d s a y

makes i n t o a double s t a r t o s u i t h i s a l l e g o r i c a l p u r p o s e s .

A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s a m i s l e a d i n g t i t l e f o r a book i n w h i c h '

there i s l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n space t r a v e l — M a s k u l l s l e e p s a l l the way

t h e r e (VA 4 4 ) , and the s p a c e - s h i p i s s c i e n t i f i c a l l y l u d i c r o u s — b u t

L i n d s a y wanted to s t r e s s h i s r e a l s t a r , n o t h i s s u b c r e a t e d planet. Our

e v e r y n i g h t e x p e r i e n c e of s t a r s i s o f t h i n g s pure and b e a u t i f u l , constant,

c o l d ( e m o t i o n a l l y , not l i t e r a l l y ) , and i m p o s s i b l y d i s t a n t . Stars are

n o t g e n e r a l l y t o be v i s i t e d i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s , w h i c h t a k e

place not i n p h y s i c a l b u t , i n Coleridge's phrase, i n "mental space."

I n e a r l i e r times an untouched c o r n e r of the e a r t h had s u f f i c e d . By the

l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , even voyages to the moon, p o p u l a r since

2

astronomer K e p l e r ' s Somnium ( 1 6 3 4 ) , were b e i n g d i s c r e d i t e d by the

increase i n s c i e n t i f i c knowledge, though W e l l s managed t o s e t a romance

there (1901) by f i n d i n g l i f e underground, w h i l e V e r n e ' s travellers

(1865) g l i m p s e d l i f e on the moon's h i d d e n s i d e . Some w r i t e r s , s u c h as

George MacDonald (1858, 1 8 9 5 ) , used a d i f f e r e n t space f o r t h e i r m e n t a l

 99

space w h i l e o t h e r s , such as W i l l i a m M o r r i s ( 1 8 9 5 ) , took up sub-

c r e a t i n g and made t h e i r own secondary w o r l d s . Most w r i t e r s simply

moved w i t h the expanding f r o n t i e r , f u r t h e r out i n t o s p a c e . After

the o b s e r v a t i o n o f channels o r c a h a l i on M a r s , " b e g i n n i n g i n the

1880's Mars becomes the f o c a l p o i n t of s p e c u l a t i o n u n t i l n o t o n l y

does i t commandthe p o p u l a r p r e s s b u t a l s o , by World War I , becomes

3

the u s u a l d e s t i n a t i o n o f any i n t e r - p l a n e t a r y v o y a g e . " Edgar R i c e

Burroughs c a l l e d i t Barsoom, C. S. Lewis M a l a c a n d r a . But L i n d s a y

wanted n o t a w a n d e r i n g b u t a f i x e d s t a r f o r h i s t i t l e , and a new

planet f o r h i s s p i r i t w o r l d , so he takes us a c r o s s the g a l a x y to

Arcturus.

L i n d s a y presumably chose A r c t u r u s as h i s s t a r f o r the name's

attachments. A r c t u r u s i s a v e r y b r i g h t s t a r ; hence i t was named a

l o n g time ago—the Bootes o f Greek astronomy—and has accumulated a

penumbra of e x t r a - a s t r o n o m i c a l significance. Catherine Vale Whitwell

t e l l s her daughter: . " C a l l i s t h o , perhaps N i m r o d , was s a i d to be the

son ( s i c ) of t h a t c o n s t e l l a t i o n , and a f t e r h i s decease h i s s o u l was

thought t o t a k e i t s abode i n A r c t u r u s . iri.",Bootes, t h a t i t might w i t h

4

uninterrupted a t t e n t i o n perpetuate i t s observations." Close observa-

t i o n i s the keynote of the use o f A r c t u r u s by Herman M e l v i l l e i n M a r d i :

the s h i p the n a r r a t o r d e s e r t s i s c a l l e d the A r c t u r i o n , and l a t e r something

i s s a i d " I n good t r u t h , and as i f an i m p a r t i a l i s t from A r c t u r u s spoke

it."~* Gordon M i l l s has g l o s s e d t h i s w i t h the i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i n 1840-42

the Duyckink b r o t h e r s , f r i e n d s o f M e l v i l l e , p u b l i s h e d a magazine c a l l e d

Arcturus. I n the ' P r o l o g u e ' to the f i r s t number, they say they do n o t

 100

"vouch f o r the l i t e r a r y c h a r a c t e r o f the i n h a b i t a n t s o f A r c t u r u s as

p a t r o n s of the p r e s e n t u n d e r t a k i n g ; i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t h a t A r c t u r u s

i s a s t a r t h a t s h i n e s h i g h and b r i g h t l y , and l o o k s down w i t h a keen

g l a n c e on the e r r o r s , f o l l i e s and m a l - p r a c t i c e s o f m e n . "

That L i n d s a y was i n t e r e s t e d i n t a k i n g such ' a keen g l a n c e ' at

foolishness i n t h i s w o r l d i s e v i d e n t from the opening c h a p t e r o f A

Voyage, w h i c h concerns i t s e l f w i t h the suburban theosophy of B l a c k h o u s e

the medium, who i s , as L i n d s a y d r o l l y o b s e r v e s , "a f a s t - r i s i n g star

i n the p s y c h i c w o r l d " (VA 1 1 ) . I t i s much to the p o i n t t h a t many

theosophists (Edgar Cayce i s an example) have m a i n t a i n e d the i d e a

expressed by P l a t o and echoed by Dante t h a t the s o u l s of the departed

r e t u r n to the s t a r s . Those who d i e on e a r t h may be r e b o r n on A r c t u r u s ,

o r one of i t s p l a n e t s . The i d e a i s used a m u s i n g l y by H . G. W e l l s at

t h e end o f h i s s h o r t s t o r y ' A V i s i o n o f Judgment,' where God t a k e s a l l

the l i t t l e p e o p l e from h i s c o a t - s l e e v e s onto " t h e p l a n e t t h a t w h i r l e d

about green S i r i u s f o r a s u n " 7 t o s t a r t a l l over again. This i s , i n

effect, what happens t o M a s k u l l , as we s h a l l see.

Our own s t a r , S o l , was u n a v a i l a b l e because L i n d s a y needed a

double s t a r for a l l e g o r i c a l reasons: doubles, dualism, dichotomies

are fundamental to the n a t u r e o f a l l e g o r y as b o t h b a t t l e and dream.

Arcturus i s not, i n fact, a double s t a r ; b u t L i n d s a y made i t one.

One of W i l s o n ' s l e s s happy o b s e r v a t i o n s i n T h e Strange Genius i s that

" I t may have been u n c o n s c i o u s symbolism t h a t made L i n d s a y choose the

double s t a r , A r c t u r u s , as the scene o f h i s major n o v e l " (TSG 4 1 ) .

The r e a s o n s , v e r y d e l i b e r a t e l y worked t h r o u g h i n t h e a l l e g o r y , are

 101

many and good. Most i m p o r t a n t l y , L i n d s a y i s r e w o r k i n g the symbolism

o f l i g h t and darkness w h i c h i s c e n t r a l t o Western c i v i l i s a t i o n : we

t a l k o f b e i n g ' i n the d a r k ' a n d , when ' e n l i g h t e n e d , ' of b e i n g a b l e

' t o see i t a l l now.' The sun appears to have been our f i r s t god,
g

and whole p h i l o s o p h i e s have been b u i l t around H i s l i g h t . In

C h r i s t i a n i t y we f i n d t h e a b s o l u t e s e p a r a t i o n of l i g h t from h e a t

(Heaven) and h e a t from l i g h t ( H e l l ) , most n o t a b l y used by Dante i n

h i s great r e l i g i o u s a l l e g o r y . C l o s e l y connected w i t h t h i s i s the

r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e of m o u n t a i n s , e s p e c i a l l y D a n t e ' s , w h i c h l e a d s

to Heaven. Mountains are c l o s e r to the l i g h t , b e i n g h i g h e r , and g i v e ,

l i t e r a l l y and m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , a ' w i d e r p e r s p e c t i v e , ' a 'higher view'

of things.

Most m y t h o l o g i e s are concerned w i t h the e t e r n a l b a t t l e between

l i g h t and d a r k n e s s , between s p i r i t and m a t t e r : the s p i r i t i s light

and l i g h t , m a t t e r i s d a r k and h e a v y . From t h i s c o n f l i c t , according

to G n o s t i c i s m , the u n i v e r s e was b o r n . The w o r l d we know i s on the

i n t e r f a c e between the two E t e r n a l P r i n c i p l e s , and i s made up of a

m i x t u r e of l i g h t and d a r k n e s s , s p i r i t and m a t t e r , good and e v i l .

Because o f the mixed n a t u r e of t h e w o r l d , t h e r e must be some d i f f i c u l t y

i n m a i n t a i n i n g the v i e w t h a t God i s w h o l l y good, because of ( i n C. S.

9

Lewis's t i t l e ) ' t h e problem of p a i n . ' Or e l s e ( s i n c e n o t t o do good,

if one i s a b l e , i s e v i l ) i t cannot be m a i n t a i n e d t h a t God i s o m n i -

potent. Those who have r e f u s e d to cede an i n c h o f H i s goodness have

e i t h e r i n v o k e d a d u a l i s t i c c r e a t i o n , s u c h as the l i g h t - d a r k o f

G n o s t i c i s m , o r the i n t r a c t a b i l i t y of t h e m a t e r i a l at God's disposal,

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as does P l a t o i n the Timaeus, o r argued t h a t the w o r l d was made by

a l e s s e r God, Demiurge o r d e v i l , o f which Prometheus i s a t y p e . All

these amount to much the same t h i n g : they e x p l a i n the ' f a l l i n g off

between the I d e a and the e x e c u t i o n , w h i c h i s to s a y , the o r i g i n a l s i n

inherent i n creation.

The phenomenal w o r l d we i n h a b i t , b e i n g on the i n t e r f a c e , must be

c o n c e i v e d o f as a b a t t l e f i e l d w h e r e , l i k e C h r i s t i a n , we need to g i r d

our l o i n s and put our s p i r i t u a l armour o n . E v e r y t h i n g has a d u a l

nature: ploughshares may be t u r n e d i n t o swords, t h e r e i s no l i g h t

11

w i t h o u t shadow, no mercy w i t h o u t o p p r e s s i o n . As D i s c o r d asks i n

C a l d e r o n ' s La E s t a t u a De Prometeo, "Do y o u n o t know t h a t t h e r e i s no

f i r e w i t h o u t smoke?" Whether the c r e a t i o n , as Prometheus's gift of

fire, i s seen as a Good E v i l o r an E v i l Good seems m a i n l y a m a t t e r

of taste. Realists, who b e l i e v e i n the r e a l w o r l d , l i k e P l a t o ,

Schopenhauer, Jean P a u l and L i n d s a y , are p e s s i m i s t s and take the

l a t t e r view ( E v i l Good), w h i l e A r i s t o t e l i a n n o m i n a l i s t s , who b e l i e v e

i n the m a t e r i a l and phenomenal w o r l d , are o p t i m i s t s and take the

former one. The f o r c e s of good, however, are the ' l i g h t ' elements of

air and f i r e (spirit, ' b r e a t h of l i f e , ' pneuma, v i t a l s p a r k , phos-

phorous) and the f o r c e s o f e v i l are the ' d a r k ' and heavy elements of

12

w a t e r and e a r t h .

Man h i m s e l f has a d u a l n a t u r e : the b r e a t h o r s p i r i t has been

i m p r i s o n e d i n the r i v e r o f m a t t e r ; the d i v i n e s p a r k of s t o l e n (e.g.

muspel-) f i r e has been trapped i n a crude compound o f the base

elements w a t e r and e a r t h , o r c o l d c l a y . " B r i e f l y , whatsoever h a t h a

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body i s n o t h i n g b u t c u r d l e d smoke, w h e r e i n a p a r t i c u l a r p r e d e s t i n a t i o n

l i e t h h i d . . . . Man i s a c o a g u l a t e d f u m e , " i n the i m m o r t a l words of

13
Paracelsus. "His soul is c o n s u b s t a n t i a l w i t h the d i v i n e L i g h t ; his
14

b o d y , w i t h the e v i l d a r k n e s s . " T h e r e f o r e "Man i s b o r n t o t r o u b l e

i n the b o d y " Smart o b s e r v e s , "as the s p a r k s f l y upwards i n the s p i r i t . "

"'So l o n g as a man has any r e g a r d f o r t h i s c o r p s e - l i k e b o d y , ' w r i t e s

t h e H i n d u monk Shankavacharya, 'he i s i m p u r e , and s u f f e r s from h i s

enemies as w e l l as from b i r t h , d i s e a s e and d e a t h . . . . Throw f a r away

16

t h i s l i m i t a t i o n of a body which, i s i n e r t and f i l t h y by n a t u r e . ' "

Death i s one e s c a p e : as the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y P e r s i a n m y s t i c A z i z

Nasafi says,
On the death o f any l i v i n g c r e a t u r e the s p i r i t r e t u r n s
t o the s p i r i t u a l w o r l d , the body to the b o d i l y w o r l d .
I n t h i s however o n l y the b o d i e s are s u b j e c t t o change.
The s p i r i t u a l w o r l d i s one s i n g l e s p i r i t who s t a n d s
l i k e unto a l i g h t b e h i n d the b o d i l y w o r l d ( 1 7 ) .
As we have a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , s l e e p i s a n o t h e r .
I n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , the d u a l i t y o f man may be taken as the
18

foundation of e v e r y t h i n g . The embodied r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the

eternal representatives, and the double sun i t s e l f , reinforce this

dichotomy: M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e , C r y s t a l m a n and S u r t u r , Gangnet and

K r a g , B r a n c h s p e l l and A l p p a i n . The p r o t a g o n i s t o f A Voyage i s not the

dreaming ' I ' who observes but M a s k u l l , who i s , as h i s name t e l l s us,

mask and s k u l l : t h e r a t i o n a l everyday s e l f of each o f u s . Physically

he i s " a k i n d of g i a n t , but of b r o a d e r and more r o b u s t p h y s i q u e than

most g i a n t s . He wore a f u l l b e a r d . H i s f e a t u r e s were t h i c k and h e a v y ,

c o a r s e l y modeled" (VA 1 8 ) . H i s complementary double ( M a s k u l l and

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N i g h t s p o r e are doubles by d i v i s i o n ) i s N i g h t s p o r e , who seems to

be "consumed by an i n t e n s e s p i r i t u a l h u n g e r " (VA 1 8 ) : he i s what

remains of s p i r i t , the a s e x u a l s p o r e of the n i g h t l i b e r a t e d i n

dreams from the coarse m a t e r i a l i t y of the body. But h e r e we have

an i n v e r s i o n . M a s k u l l i s the d a y - s e l f , and t h e r e f o r e l i g h t i s his;

N i g h t s p o r e i s a c r e a t u r e of d a r k n e s s . L i g h t i s good, darkness is

evil. A t t h e suprahuman l e v e l , the embodied god o f l i g h t M a s k u l l

seeks i s , i n the e n d , the b e a u t i f u l Gangnet, w h i l e Nightspore's

c o u n t e r p a r t i s the i n s o l e n t and r e p u l s i v e , a p p a r e n t l y e v i l , K r a g :

" t h e a u t h o r of e v i l and m i s e r y , " says J o i w i n d , "whom you c a l l Devil"

(VA 5 6 ) . On t h e a s t r o n o m i c a l l e v e l , however, the a l l e g o r y i s made

clear. B r a n c h s p e l l — t h e y e l l o w , everday s u n — i s the sun w h i c h l i g h t s

M a s k u l l ' s way a c r o s s Tormance, w h i l e N i g h t s p o r e i s i n darkness only

because he i s a s l e e p d u r i n g A l p p a i n ' s n i g h t . B e i n g a s l e e p t o the

' r e a l ' w o r l d e n a b l e s N i g h t s p o r e t o be awake to the r e a l , o t h e r w o r l d

o f the s p i r i t : M a s k u l l ' s l i g h t i s darkness, and h i s good evil;

Nightspore's darkness i s l i g h t , and h i s e v i l good.

The m o t i f of the double sun i s an uncommon one. L i n d s a y may

have had i t suggested t o him by an a s i d e i n The D i v i n e Comedy, where

Dante says Rome once had "two s u n s , w h i c h made p e o p l e see one road and

the / O t h e r — t h e w o r l d ' s road and the road of God" ( I I 1 6 ) . The i d e a

i s a l s o b r i e f l y mentioned by Jean P a u l i n the dream a t the end of

19

F l e g e l j a h r e , where b i r t h i n t o the w o r l d i s p o r t r a y e d as d e a t h . In

h i s many dream works Jean P a u l has the same message as L i n d s a y , "that

l i f e on e a r t h i n i t s e l f — r e g a r d l e s s o f whether i t i n v o l v e s intense
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suffering—is h o r r i b l e to the man of 'higher' sensibilities."

Twin suns are a l s o used a t the end o f W i l l i a m Hope Hodgson's other-

w i s e almost c o m p l e t e l y mediocre f a n t a s y The House on the B o r d e r l a n d

21

(1908). But the most l i k e l y s o u r c e o f i n s p i r a t i o n would seem t o

be N o v a l i s ' s Hymnen an d i e N a c h t , where, as has been m e n t i o n e d , God

appears as a n o c t u r n a l s u n .

L i n d s a y uses h i s double suns as a c e n t r a l m o t i f from the b e g i n n i n g

of h i s a l l e g o r y . I n the second c h a p t e r , M a s k u l l l o o k s a t A r c t u r u s

through K r a g ' s l e n s and sees t h a t " t h e s t a r , w h i c h t o the naked eye

appeared :.as a s i n g l e y e l l o w p o i n t of l i g h t , now became c l e a r l y split

i n t o two b r i g h t b u t minute s u n s , the l a r g e r o f w h i c h was s t i l l y e l l o w ,

w h i l e i t s s m a l l e r companion was a b e a u t i f u l b l u e " (VA 2 7 ) . Maskull

sees A r c t u r u s a g a i n from S t a r k n e s s : "One of the suns shone w i t h a

g l a r i n g w h i t e l i g h t ; the o t h e r was a w e i r d and a w f u l b l u e . " "He had

seen the s i g h t b e f o r e , through K r a g ' s g l a s s , b u t then the s c a l e had

been s m a l l e r , the c o l o u r s of the t w i n suns had n o t appeared i n t h e i r

naked r e a l i t y . . . . These c o l o u r s seemed t o h i m most m a r v e l o u s , as if,

i n seeing them t h r o u g h e a r t h e y e s , he was n o t s e e i n g them c o r r e c t l y "

Maskull stares "the longest and the most e a r n e s t l y " (VA 37) at

Tormance, w h i c h i s , as K r a g e a r l i e r remarked, " t h e r e s i d e n t i a l suburb

of A r c t u r u s " (VA 2 4 ) . I t r e v o l v e s around the y e l l o w s u n . The b l u e s u n ,

therefore, cannot always be v i s i b l e from Tormance. E i t h e r the y e l l o w

one must p e r i o d i c a l l y e c l i p s e i t , o r e l s e i t can n e v e r be seen from

the s o u t h e r n p a r t s o f Tormance (see Appendix). When M a s k u l l does a r r i v e

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on Tormance, the b l u e s u n , A l p p a i n , has j u s t s e t : "The sky i m m e d i a t e l y

above the mountains was of a v i v i d , intense b l u e . " I t i s "the afterglow

o f a gorgeous b l u e s u n s e t " (VA 6 6 ) . M a s k u l l f e e l s " t o r m e n t e d by t h a t

light" (VA 6 6 ) . "How can i t be o t h e r w i s e " asks Panawe, "when two s u n s ,

of d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e s , are drawing you at the same t i m e ? " (VA 6 7 ) . And

because t h e r e are two s u n s , t h e r e are two s e t s o f p r i m a r y c o l o u r s . That

is, s i n c e b l u e i s common to b o t h s e t s , M a s k u l l must l e a r n two new c o l o u r s :

j a l e and u l f i r e . "He f e l t u l f i r e t o be w i l d and p a i n f u l , and j a l e dream-

like, f e v e r i s h and v o l u p t u o u s (VA 5 3 ) . The c o l o u r s have a l l e g o r i c a l

significance (VA 2 3 8 ) , and, s i n c e A l p p a i n i s N i g h t s p o r e ' s s u n , t h e s e are

Nightspore's colours. But w h i l e M a s k u l l i s f i g h t i n g h i s way a c r o s s

Tormance, N i g h t s p o r e i s a s l e e p , a c t i v e elsewhere.

A f t e r M a s k u l l has woken up on Tormance, he sometimes wonders i f he

i s n o t dreaming, b u t B r a n c h s p e l l ' s l i g h t d i s p e l s h i s d o u b t s : "Maskull

would have f e l t i n c l i n e d t o b e l i e v e he was t r a v e l l i n g i n dreamland, but

f o r the i n t e n s i t y of the l i g h t , w h i c h made e v e r y t h i n g v i v i d l y real"

(VA 5 2 ) . I n d e e d , he i s t r a v e l l i n g i n the dreamland o f an a l l e g o r i c a l

dream f a n t a s y , b u t f o r h i m Tormance i s the ' r e a l ' o r phenomenal w o r l d .

However, as S l o f o r k t e l l s Panawe, " t h e r e ' s another world—not Shaping's—

and t h e r e a l l t h i s i s unknown, and a n o t h e r o r d e r of t h i n g s r e i g n s . That

would we c a l l N o t h i n g — b u t i t i s n o t N o t h i n g , b u t Something" (VA 7 2 ) .

The N o t h i n g t h a t i s Something i s n o t h i n g . L i n d s a y has a n o t h e r name f o r

t h i s key c o n c e p t , taken from The E l d e r Edda, and t h a t i s M u s p e l . In

' S k e t c h N o t e s ' L i n d s a y s a y s , "Schopenhauer's ' N o t h i n g ' , which i s the

l e a s t understood p a r t o f h i s s y s t e m , i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h my M u s p e l ; t h a t
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is, the r e a l w o r l d " (TSG 9 ) . M a s k u l l ' s quest i s f o r the r e a l w o r l d .

He t r i e s to e x p l a i n i t t o P o l e c r a b i

T h i s w o r l d o f y o u r — a n d perhaps of mine t o o , f o r t h a t
m a t t e r — d o e s n ' t g i v e me the s l i g h t e s t i m p r e s s i o n o f a
dream, o r an i l l u s i o n , o r a n y t h i n g o f t h a t s o r t . I know
i t ' s r e a l l y h e r e at t h i s moment, and i t ' s e x a c t l y as
w e ' r e s e e i n g i t , you and I . Yet i t ' s f a l s e . It's false
i n t h i s s e n s e , P o l e c r a b . S i d e by s i d e w i t h i t a n o t h e r
w o r l d e x i s t s , and t h a t o t h e r w o r l d i s the t r u e one, and
t h i s one i s f a l s e and d e c e i t f u l t o the v e r y c o r e . And
so i t o c c u r s to me t h a t r e a l i t y and f a l s e n e s s are two
words f o r the same t h i n g (VA 164-65).

P o l e c r a b i s a s i m p l e f i s h e r m a n , and l i t t l e i n t e r e s t e d i n meta-

p h y s i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n , b u t he r e a l i z e s , . " I l i v e by k i l l i n g , and so does

everybody. T h i s l i f e seems to me a l l wrong. So maybe l i f e o f any

k i n d i s w r o n g , and S u r t u r ' s w o r l d i s n o t l i f e a t a l l , b u t something

else" (VA 1 6 5 ) . " S t r i f e may be f o l l o w e d through the whole o f n a t u r e ;

indeed n a t u r e e x i s t s o n l y through i t " says Schopenhauer, " f o r each

a n i m a l can o n l y m a i n t a i n i t s e x i s t e n c e by the c o n s t a n t d e s t r u c t i o n o f

some o t h e r . Thus the w i l l to l i v e everywhere p r e y s upon i t s e l f , and

i n d i f f e r e n t forms i s i t s own n o u r i s h m e n t " (The W o r l d as W i l l and I d e a ,

Second Book, s e c . 27). Living is willing; willing is k i l l i n g . All

l i v i n g t h i n g s are l i k e the " f a n t a s t i c l i t t l e c r e a t u r e " w i t h three legs,

which M a s k u l l sees when w i t h J o i w i n d : "It's always w a l t z i n g , and always

i n a h u r r y , b u t i t never seem to get anywhere" (VA 5 8 ) . I t waltzes to

Shaping's, to C r y s t a l m a n ' s t u n e . I t does not march f o r w a r d to Surtur's

drumtaps, towards the s u b l i m e Muspel r a d i a n c e . The r e a l w o r l d of S u r t u r

"has no c o n n e c t i o n w i t h r e a l i t y " (VA 1 6 5 ) . I t s Muspel r a d i a n c e causes

M a s k u l l to "tumble over i n a f a i n t t h a t r e s e m b l e [ s ] d e a t h " (VA 1 5 4 ) : "He

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c o u l d n o t g i v e [the l i g h t ] a c o l o r , o r a name" (VA 1 8 5 ) ; "it cast

no shadows" (VA 2 2 1 ) . It i s the l i g h t from beyond the w o r l d .

The Muspel w o r l d i s beyond M a s k u l l ' s apprehension—and ours

t o o , except i m a g i n a t i v e l y - — b u t the Muspel f i r e may be a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h (though i t i s not the same as) one o f the c o l o u r s o f A l p p a i n .

' A l p p a i n ' i s a l p , a mountain and a h i g h e r p o i n t o f v i e w , and p a i n ,

K r a g ' s name on e a r t h . Branchspell is connected w i t h c r e a t i o n by

' b r a n c h ' , s i n c e i n the Norse mythology the f i r s t men were made from

t r e e s , and the w o r l d i t s e l f is the W o r l d - A s h , Y g g d r a s i l . In the

apocalypse which Surt b r i n g s , c r e a t i o n w i l l be b u r n t up by the "bane-

of-branches," fire. Further, Branspell is the sun w h i c h ( ' s p e l l ' )

has us i n t h r a l l : prisoners i n the w o r l d . It is the o r d i n a r y sun

which makes t h i s w o r l d seem r e a l , as we have s e e n ; i t s b l u e "is

existence." "As r e g a r d s the A l p p a i n c o l o r s , b l u e stands i n the m i d d l e

and i s therefore not e x i s t e n c e , but r e l a t i o n . Ulfire is existence;

so i t must be a d i f f e r e n t s o r t o f e x i s t e n c e , " Corpang argues (VA 2 3 8 ) .

When M a s k u l l f i n a l l y reaches Barey he sees p l a n t s a s l e e p : Krag tells

h i m , " B r a n c h s p e l l i s a second n i g h t t o them. T h e i r day i s A l p p a i n "

(VA 2 6 3 ) . So i s N i g h t s p o r e ' s . " D a y l i g h t i s n i g h t to t h i s other

daylight" (VA 2 7 4 ) , and when A l p p a i n r i s e s the shadows i t c a s t "were

not b l a c k , b u t were composed . wh.:.t«-.: o f w h i t e d a y l i g h t " (VA 2 7 5 ) .

When A l p p a i n r i s e s , M a s k u l l d i e s and N i g h t s p o r e wakes up to be t o l d

" t h e n i g h t i s r e a l l y p a s t at l a s t , N i g h t s p o r e . . . . The day i s here"

(ellipsis Lindsay's; VA 2 7 7 ) . The Corpus Hermeticum a d v i s e s us to

" t u r n ye away from the dark l i g h t " ( I , 28). The b r i g h t l i g h t , the

l i g h t from beyond the w o r l d , f i n a l l y l i b e r a t e s the s p i r i t from the

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p r i s o n of the body.

Thus we have a double p r o t a g o n i s t , M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e , and

a double s t a r , B r a n c h s p e l l and A l p p a i n , by w h i c h L i n d s a y complicates

the more u s u a l o p p o s i t i o n o f day and n i g h t , l i g h t and d a r k , i n t o day

and more-than-day. S i m i l a r c o m p l i c a t i o n s are found i n the oppositions

between God and D e v i l , C h r i s t and S a t a n . The God o f A Voyage to

Arcturus i s the c r e a t o r of the w o r l d i n a l l i t s b e a u t y , and he is

Shaping ( i n German the c r e a t i o n i s d i e Schopfung). L i k e the god o f

E a r t h , however, he t a k e s many forms and has many names, such as

C r y s t a l m a n and Faceny. Sometimes he i s confused (by J o i w i n d , f o r

example) with Surtur. One of the r e a d e r ' s problems i n A Voyage, and

one of M a s k u l l ' s p r o b l e m s , i s i d e n t i f y i n g the god o f t h e r e a l w o r l d

being sought, and t h a t i s S u r t u r . S u r t u r i s the God of M u s p e l , w h i c h

i s " t h e p r i m e v a l w o r l d o f f i r e ; e x i s t i n g b e f o r e heaven and e a r t h , and

22
which w i l l e v e n t u a l l y destroy them." S u r t u r i s drawn from the Surt
o f The E l d e r Edda who i n ' V o l u s p a ' " w i t h the b a n e - o f - b r a n c h e s comes /
23
From the s o u t h " to b u r n up the w o r l d , and to d e s t r o y Frey and a l l t h e
gods of t h i s w o r l d . S u r t , The S w a r t , i s r u l e r o v e r Muspelheim, the
24

home of M u s p e l ; i n A r c t u r u s , over n o t h i n g . Shaping o r C r y s t a l m a n is

the god o f t h i s w o r l d ( s p e c i f i c a l l y , Tormance) which i s d e s t i n e d to be

destroyed or uncreated.

Surtur's embodied form i s K r a g and, s i n c e he i s the enemy of the

w o r l d where p l e a s u r e i s ' w o r s h i p p e d , ' he i s the d e v i l . His resemblance

to G r e t t i r the S t r o n g , an o u t l a w who had every hand a g a i n s t h i m , has

a l r e a d y been remarked. G r e t t i r makes a bad i m p r e s s i o n o n us b y , for

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example, w r i n g i n g the necks of the geese he i s s e t to l o o k after,

25

and o t h e r b o y i s h e x c e s s e s . Krag i n t r o d u c e s h i m s e l f by dashing,

u n i n v i t e d , i n t o F a u l l ' s house and " w i t h h i s h a i r y h a n d s " w r i n g i n g

the neck o f the m a t e r i a l i s e d shape, the "specimen g o b l i n " from

Tormance (VA 2 2 - 2 3 ) . When M a s k u l l wakes up on Tormance, after

b e i n g d e s e r t e d ( l i t e r a l l y , too) by h i s t r a v e l l i n g companions, he

is t o l d by the b e a u t i f u l J o i w i n d t h a t "we must f i g h t K r a g , " " K r a g —

the a u t h o r of e v i l and misery—whom y o u c a l l D e v i l " (VA 5 6 ) . Krag

reappears at odd moments to w r i n g M a s k u l l ' s neck as the s p i r i t and

to s t a b him i n the back i n a v i s i o n , b e f o r e c o l l e c t i n g M a s k u l l a f t e r

he has " r u n through the gamut" (VA 2 6 2 ) . From then o n , K r a g gets

more and more r e p u l s i v e and ill-mannered u n t i l Maskull, f a l l i n g

under the i n f l u e n c e of the b e a u t i f u l Gangnet, f i n a l l y rejects him.

K r a g i s i n s o l e n t , b r e a k s M a s k u l l ' s eggs (VA 2 7 0 ) , crushes Gangnet's

hat (VA 272) and i s g e n e r a l l y as d i s a g r e e a b l e as p o s s i b l e . He has a

"yellow, repulsive f a c e " (VA 2 73) and " d i s c o l o r e d teeth" (VA 2 6 9 ) ;

when he s l e e p s he i s "an u g l y , w r i n k l e d m o n s t r o s i t y " (VA 2 7 5 ) . Krag

s a y s , "as l o n g as p l e a s u r e i s w o r s h i p e d [sic], K r a g w i l l always be

the d e v i l " b u t , from h i s p o i n t o f v i e w , as embodied r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of

the r e a l w o r l d , " t h e r e a l d e v i l i s C r y s t a l m a n " (VA 2 6 4 ) .

Krag i s , i t must be a d m i t t e d , " t h e a u t h o r of e v i l and m i s e r y "

(VA 5 6 ) . Gagnet i s , f i t must be a d m i t t e d , the a u t h o r of the w o r l d ,

which i s b e a u t i f u l and d e d i c a t e d to p l e a s u r e . But the r e a l n a t u r e of

l i f e i s w i l l i n g and t h e r e f o r e killing: Gangnet's w o r l d i s an e v i l

good. And K r a g does n o t i n f l i c t p a i n f o r i t s own s a k e , b u t to wake us

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up to the r e a l w o r l d : K r a g ' s p a i n i s a good e v i l . N i e t z s c h e says

i n The J o y f u l Wisdom, " I doubt whether such p a i n ' i m p r o v e s ' u s , but

26
I know t h a t i t deepens u s . " Thus C a t i c e sends M a s k u l l down " t o
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Wombflash, where [he] w i l l meet the deepest m i n d s " (VA 1 4 8 ) . Catice

i s the f i r s t p e r s o n to mention M u s p e l to M a s k u l l , and he does so i n

c o n n e c t i o n w i t h two key c o n c e p t s , the o p p o s i t i o n between p l e a s u r e and

p a i n , and home. M a s k u l l a s k s ,
"Why does p l e a s u r e appear so shameful t o u s ? "
"Because i n f e e l i n g p l e a s u r e , we f o r g e t our home."
"And t h a t i s - - "
" M u s p e l " (VA 148).
We are at home i n t h e r e a l w o r l d . I n the phenomenal w o r l d we are
28
"strangers i n a strange l a n d . " Man i s , as N o v a l i s t e l l s us i n h i s
d r e a m - v i s i o n , Hymnen an d i e N a c h t , " d e r h e r r l i c h e F r e m d l i n g , " the
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noble stranger. The way o f s a l v a t i o n i s g n o s i s , knowledge. The
Gnostic Valentinus expresses i t b e a u t i f u l l y :

the knowledge of who we w e r e , what we became; where we

w e r e , w h e r e i n t o we have been thrown; whereto we s p e e d ,
wherefrom we are redeemed; what b i r t h i s , and what
r e b i r t h (30).

We are a l l , l i k e M a s k u l l on Tormance, a l i e n s , w a n d e r i n g through an

unknown w o r l d . Our duty i s _to know, and by knowing t o f r e e the eternal

l i g h t i m p r i s o n e d i n our m o r t a l b o d i e s from the g r i p o f the creator

( C r y s t a l m a n , the d e v i l ) .
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Gnosticism i s a " d u a l i s t i c transcendent r e l i g i o n of salvation"
which t e l l s us of " a drama of p r e - c o s m i c persons i n the supernatural

w o r l d , o f w h i c h the drama o f man i n the n a t u r a l w o r l d i s b u t a distant

32

echo." G n o s t i c i s m i s thus v e r y c l o s e t o a l l e g o r y , w h i c h i s a drama

of the s p i r i t i n the dream w o r l d , w h i c h i s a shadow o f the cosmic drama

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i n the s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d . I n G n o s t i c i s m , the c r e a t i o n i s the result

o f the c a p t u r e o f some of the D i v i n e L i g h t by D a r k n e s s . A g a i n , so it

i s w i t h a l l e g o r y , where " d a r k and c l o u d y words . . . do b u t h o l d / The

33
t r u t h , as C a b i n e t s i n c l o s e the G o l d . " I n G n o s t i c i s m , God's nature
is t h e r e f o r e " a l i e n t o t h a t o f the u n i v e r s e , which i t n e i t h e r created
34

n o r governs and to which i t i s the complete a n t i t h e s i s . " Man i s the

c r e a t i o n o f the d e v i l , who c r e a t e d man i n g o d ' s image because t h a t re-

c e p t a c l e was f i t t e s t f o r i m p r i s o n i n g as much as p o s s i b l e o f the s t o l e n

35

light. Woman was c r e a t e d , as Mani t e l l s u s , " i n o r d e r t o seduce Adam"

and by b r e e d i n g d i s p e r s e the fragments of l i g h t , making them h a r d e r to

recover: " t h e main weapon o f the w o r l d i n i t s g r e a t s e d u c t i o n i s 'love.'"

We have a l r e a d y d i s c o v e r e d two of t h e t h r e e main t e n e t s of G n o s t i c i s m i n

A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s , t h a t c r e a t i o n i s e v i l and t h a t man i s an a l i e n ,

and we do n o t have t o l o o k v e r y f a r to f i n d the t h i r d , the common b e l i e f

t h a t women are the c h i e f i n s t r u m e n t s of the devil.

Gangnet, the embodied C r y s t a l m a n , i s h i m s e l f remarkably f e m i n i n e .

" H i s v o i c e " i s " s t r a n g e l y womanish i n i t s m o d u l a t i o n and v a r i e t y of

t o n e " (VA 2 6 6 ) . K r a g c a l l s Gangnet a "man-woman" (VA 2 6 6 ) , and s n a t c h e s

o f f h i s h a t , a s k i n g h i m , "Why do y o u d i s g u i s e y o u r s e l f l i k e a woman?"

(VA 2 7 2 ) . A l l the women M a s k u l l has met on h i s t r a v e l s have b e e n , to

a greater or l e s s e r e x t e n t , agents o f C r y s t a l m a n , t e m p t r e s s e s . Oceaxe

l e d M a s k u l l to h i s f i r s t murder; Tydomin almost took over h i s b o d y ;

S u l l e n b o d e succeeds i n d i s t r a c t i n g h i m from h i s quest f o r M u s p e l . Only

J o i w i n d , o f the women i n the book, does n o t d i e , and does n o t w e a r ,

therefore, C r y s t a l m a n ' s death mask. She had h e r husband i d e n t i f y S u r t u r

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w i t h C r y s t a l m a n , b u t they p r a c t i c e a k i n d o f non-attachment to N a t u r e ,

l i v i n g o n l y on w a t e r w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to the ' N e p t u n i s t ' theory of

the u n i v e r s e p o p u l a r i z e d i n Germany by N o v a l i s ' s teacher of m i n e r o l -

ogy, Abraham G o t t l o b Werner, was the p r i m a l substance from w h i c h a l l

the o t h e r s were d e r i v e d . I n Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , N o v a l i s c a l l s water

" t h e w h i t e b l o o d of the m o t h e r . " J o i w i n d h e r s e l f has w h i t e b l o o d , a

transfusion o f w h i c h she g i v e s M a s k u l l . Panawe and J o i w i n d have no

c h i l d r e n , and they l i v e i n A r c a d i a n i n n o c e n c e . I t i s d i f f i c u l t to

believe t h a t they are damned. Indeed, J o i w i n d c l a i m s t h a t "what you

and I are now d o i n g i n s i m p l i c i t y , w i s e men w i l l do h e r e a f t e r in full

knowledge" (VA 5 6 ) . However, i n G n o s t i c i s m , knowledge i s salvation,

and we have gone too f a r to t r y and r e c a p t u r e our l o s t i n n o c e n c e , even

were innocence n o t a l i m i t e d s t a t e of b e i n g .

The s o c i e t y w h i c h i s recommended as the b e s t p o s s i b l e one f o r the

organisation of human l i f e i s the c o u n t r y o f Sant ( H e a l t h ) . Of course,

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i t i s " a s o c i e t y of s i n g l e m e n . " The s o c i e t y was founded by H a t o r

(Hater w i t h a h i n t o f m o u n t a i n ) , " t h e famous f r o s t man" who c o u l d

" w i t h s t a n d the b r e a t h , smiles, and perfume of a g i r l , " who has trapped

and i s t r y i n g to seduce h i m , u n t i l she drops dead (VA 136). I n Sant

they have s o l v e d the problem o f women by never l e t t i n g them i n . The

f o l l o w e r s of H a t o r r e j e c t women "inasmuch as a woman has i d e a l l o v e , and

cannot l i v e f o r h e r s e l f . Love f o r another i s p l e a s u r e f o r the l o v e d one,

38

and t h e r e f o r e i n j u r i o u s to h i m " (VA 1 3 8 ) .

Examining t h i s k i n d of p o s i t i o n , Maud B o d k i n quotes from " a m e d i c a l

p s y c h o l o g i s t " who, t a k i n g a M i l t o n i c line,

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has suggested t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n between man and woman,

as determined by r a c i a l h i s t o r y , might be d i a g r a m m a t i -
c a l l y rendered by two c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s , man h a v i n g
h i s p l a c e on the o u t e r , woman on the i n n e r c i r c l e . 'When
man l o o k s outward he sees the w o r l d , when he l o o k s i n -
ward he sees the woman and h e r c h i l d . H i s escape from
h e r i s i n t o the w o r l d . The woman, however, l o o k i n g o u t -
ward sees the man, through whom o n l y she touches the
o u t e r w o r l d of r e a l i t y and whose f a v o r she must seek t o
gain her wishes'" (39).

Women l i v e v i c a r i o u s l y through men, and w i t h t h e i r " s o f t l o v e and

l o y a l t y " they ' d r a g down t h e i r i d e a s ' (VA 1 4 8 ) . More than this,

"women are s n a r e s " ^ who d i s t r a c t men from f o l l o w i n g t h e i r true

course towards M u s p e l . They e n t r a p i n w o r l d l y homes men who s h o u l d

be s e e k i n g t h e i r t r u e home. In t h i s , t h e i r c h i e f weapon i s 'love.'

More than t h i s , women are sub c r e a t o r s : they b e a r c h i l d r e n . Creation

i s wrong; l i f e i t s e l f i s w r o n g ; and y e t women b r i n g new l i f e into

b e i n g , p r e v e n t i n g the r e - c o l l e c t i o n o f the s c a t t e r e d d i v i n e s p a r k s .

I t i s a h o r r i b l e moment f o r N i g h t s p o r e when, a t t h e e n d , he sees

" s u b d i v i d e d s p a r k s o f l i v i n g f i e r y s p i r i t " b e i n g " i m p r i s o n e d " and

thereby " e f f e m i n a t e d and c o r r u p t e d " i n envelopes o f mushy p l e a s u r e

(my i t a l i c s ; VA 2 8 3 ) .

I t must be w i t h something l i k e h o r r o r t h a t we now t u r n t o the

s t o r y o f Prometheus, the demiurge who d e l i b e r a t e l y s t o l e some o f the

f i r e o f the A l l f a t h e r t o animate h i s w o r l d o f c o l d c l a y . Thus the

flawed n a t u r e o f the phenomenal w o r l d , a n d , i n the m y t h , thus the

b i n d i n g of Prometheus (symbolically, to h i s c r e a t i o n ) : "Creation i s

41
p e r se a s i n . I t i s the S i n o f S i n s . It is Original S i n . " The
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b i n d i n g of Prometheus p r e s e n t s a problem to which t h e r e are three

possible solutions. As A e s c h y l u s p r o b a b l y showed, a f t e r due r e p e n t -

ence on the p a r t o f Prometheus t h e r e i s due mercy from Zeus; the god-

head i s made whole (the b i n d i n g of Prometheus b e i n g a l s o ' t h e f a l l of

Zeus') and—as at the end of ' V o l u s p a ' and Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n — t h e

Golden Age r e s t o r e d . As i n S h e l l e y ' s Prometheus Unbound, the r e b e l

Prometheus overthrows the t y r a n t Zeus (becoming h i m s e l f a n o t h e r Zeus

42

i n the p r o c e s s , c f . Blake's Orc-Urizen cycle ), and r e s t o r e s the

Golden Age. As i n L i n d s a y , the A l l f a t h e r i s (at least morally) vic-

t o r i o u s , and a c t u a l l y v i c t o r i o u s i n s o f a r as he can a n n i h i l a t e Prometheus

by u n c r e a t i n g the w o r l d . That i s , as i n the G n o s t i c M a n i ' s d o c t r i n e

a t t a c k e d by S t . A u g u s t i n e i n De N a t u r ' a - B o n i , by r e c l a i m i n g the scattered

s p a r k s of pneuma. I n f a c t , b o t h the l a s t two s o l u t i o n s are Manichaean

i n t h e i r i r r e c o n c i l a b l e s e p a r a t i o n o f Good and E v i l , Darkness and L i g h t ,

b u t what they l o s e i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l s u b t l e t y they can make up i n meta-

p h y s i c a l paradox and d r a m a t i c power.

M a s k u l l , though unknowingly at f i r s t , i s a type of Prometheus.

Panawe says M a s k u l l ' s name "must have a m e a n i n g , " b u t a l l he can t h i n k

of i s " a man i n . y o u r w o r l d who s t o l e something from the maker of the

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u n i v e r s e i n o r d e r t o ennoble h i s f e l l o w c r e a t u r e s " (VA 6 1 ) . By the

end of h i s t h i r d day on Tormance, M a s k u l l has l e a r n e d the name of M u s p e l ,

and begun t o see h i s j o u r n e y as a q u e s t . The v i s i o n a r y D r e a m s i n t e r (his

name vouches f o r h i s i n s i g h t ) i s a b l e to make the i d e n t i t y e x p l i c i t :

"You came to s t e a l M u s p e l - f i r e , to g i v e a deeper l i f e t o man" (VA 1 5 2 ) .

M a s k u l l ' s Prometheanism, i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o emphasize, connects h i m

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w i t h C r y s t a l m a n who—as i s r e v e a l e d i n the f i n a l v i s i o n — i s p e r p e t u a l l y

s t e a l i n g the f i r e o f M u s p e l :

The M u s p e l - s t r e a m was C r y s t a l m a n ' s f o o d . The stream

from the o t h e r s i d e . . . i n a double c o n d i t i o n . P a r t
of i t reappeared i n t r i n s i c a l l y u n a l t e r e d , b u t s h i v e r e d
into a m i l l i o n fragments.... The o t h e r p a r t of the
stream had n o t e s c a p e d . I t s f i r e had been a b s t r a c t e d ,
i t s cement was w i t h d r a w n , a n d , a f t e r b e i n g f o u l e d and
s o f t e n e d by the h o r r i b l e sweetness o f the h o s t , i t
b r o k e i n t o i n d i v i d u a l s , w h i c h were the w h i r l s o f l i v i n g
w i l l (VA 2 8 5 ) .

M a s k u l l i s h i m s e l f such a w i l l . He i s mask and s k u l l : the a w f u l

C r y s t a l m a n g r i n w h i c h p r o v i d e s the Q . E . D . f o r a l l the s y l l o g i s m s of

the a l l e g o r i c a l p r o g r e s s i s , i t seems r e a s o n a b l e to suppose, the

g r i n n i n g mask o f the s k u l l . "Not one now to mock y o u r own g r i n n i n g —

quite chap-fall'n? Now get y o u to my l a d y ' s chamber, and t e l l h e r ,

let h e r p a i n t an i n c h t h i c k , to t h i s f a v o u r she must come; make h e r

laugh at t h a t , " says Hamlet. M a s k u l l , s t i l l a l i v e , does, i n fact,

a l r e a d y possess one of the fragments o f the D i v i n e L i g h t t h a t has

passed through C r y s t a l m a n ' s body: that i s , h i s other p a r t , the dormant

Nightspore. Krag b a t t l e s Gangnet o v e r M a s k u l l o n l y f o r N i g h t s p o r e ,

who i s M a s k u l l ' s e s s e n t i a l self.

M a s k u l l t e l l s D r e a m s i n t e r t h a t S u r t u r " b r o u g h t me h e r e from E a r t h . "

D r e a m s i n t e r peers i n t o h i s f a c e and s a y s , "Not y o u , but N i g h t s p o r e "

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(VA 1 5 2 ) , and g i v e s h i m a b i t t e r f r u i t to chew, w h i c h W i l s o n s u g g e s t s

i s self-knowledge (TSG 5 5 ) . M a s k u l l t h e n has a v i s i o n i n w h i c h he sees

h i m s e l f , K r a g and N i g h t s p o r e w a l k i n g through the f o r e s t . Krag r a i s e s

" a l o n g , m u r d e r o u s - l o o k i n g k n i f e " and s t a b s " t h e phantom M a s k u l l " who

falls dead: " N i g h t s p o r e marched on a l o n e , s t e r n and unmoved" while

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" M a s k u l l f e l t h i s s o u l l o o s e n i n g from i t s b o d i l y e n v e l o p e . " Muspel

radiance begins to g l o w : " N i g h t s p o r e moved s t r a i g h t towards i t " and

" a l l of a sudden [ M a s k u l l ] tumbled o v e r i n a f a i n t t h a t resembled

d e a t h " (VA 1 5 3 - 4 ) . "What d i d D r e a m s i n t e r mean by h i s 'Not y o u , b u t

Nightspore'? Am I a secondary character?" M a s k u l l asks h i m s e l f .

L i n d s a y i s n o t h i n g i f n o t c l e a r and unambiguous. The " b o d i l y e n v e l o p e "

is dispensible: the e s s e n t i a l s e l f marches a l o n g w i t h o u t i t . The

body b e l o n g s , i n fact, to C r y s t a l m a n , to whom K r a g r e s i g n s it: "As

l o n g as I have the s u b s t a n c e , you may have the shadow" (VA 2 6 6 ) . "One

may s t e a l — a n d n o t even know one i s s t e a l i n g . One may take the p u r s e

and l e a v e the money" (VA 2 7 3 ) . Finally, " M a s k u l l was h i s , b u t N i g h t s p o r e

i s m i n e " (VA 2 7 7 ) .

There i s a paradox at the h e a r t of M a s k u l l ' s damnation, which is

a good e v i l . A l p p a i n , w h i c h we have a s s o c i a t e d w i t h N i g h t s p o r e , is

a c t u a l l y , as K r a g s a y s , " C r y s t a l m a n ' s trump c a r d " (VA 2 6 9 ) . As the

A r c h o n s , powers o f D a r k n e s s , i m i t a t e d God when making man, so C r y s t a l -

man has i m i t a t e d the sun of the h i g h e r w o r l d i n making A l p p a i n . The

w i s e f i s h e r m a n , who l i v e s by k i l l i n g , P o l e c r a b , passes on t o M a s k u l l

some of B r o o d v i o l ' s wisdom:

S u r t u r ' s w o r l d does n o t l i e on t h i s s i d e o f the one,

w h i c h was the b e g i n n i n g o f l i f e , b u t on the o t h e r
s i d e ; and t o get t o i t we must r e p a s s through the one.
But t h i s can o n l y be by r e n o u n c i n g our s e l f - l i f e , and
r e u n i t i n g o u r s e l v e s to the whole of C r y s t a l m a n ' s w o r l d .
And when t h i s has been done, i t i s o n l y the f i r s t s t a g e
o f the j o u r n e y ; though many good men imagine i t t o be
the whole j o u r n e y (VA 1 6 6 ) .

The rainbow of c r e a t i o n obscures the one t r u e l i g h t . But i t i s no use

 118

r u n n i n g away from C r y s t a l m a n : t h a t o n l y takes you f u r t h e r from

Muspel. The s p a r k s t r y to r e t u r n t o M u s p e l , b u t the w i l l s "never

saw beyond t h e Shadow, they thought t h a t they were t r a v e l l i n g toward

it" (VA 284) .

L i n d s a y w r i t e s of the w i l l i n 'Sketch Notes,'

To understand the t r u e n a t u r e o f the w o r l d , i t i s

necessary to r e a l i s e that i t i s a d i r e c t c r e a t i o n
of the W i l l , and t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i n i t ( i n c l u d i n g
l o v e , s e l f - s a c r i f i c e e t c . ) i s e i t h e r the a s s e r t i o n
or t h e d e n i a l o f the W i l l (Schopenhauer); b u t t h a t
the M u s p e l - W o r l d does not p o s s e s s t h i s i n n e r core
of W i l l , b u t something e l s e , o f which the W i l l i s a
c o r r u p t e d v e r s i o n (TSG 9 ) .

We have n o t e d t h a t M a s k u l l i s a modern Prometheus. L o u i s Awad draws

our a t t e n t i o n to " t h e p r o f o u n d i r o n y " of the Promethean p r o b l e m :

That Prometheus was the i n c a r n a t i o n of W i l l was a l r e a d y

d i s c o v e r e d i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y by the German t r a n s -
c e n d e n t a l i s t s and was g i v e n ample t r e a t m e n t i n the works
of Schopenhauer and N i e t z s c h e . The i r o n y c o n s i s t s i n
t h e f a c t t h a t W i l l , u s u a l l y equated w i t h f r e e v o l i t i o n
and opposed t o N e c e s s i t y , i s n o t h i n g b u t N e c e s s i t y grown
out o f p r o p o r t i o n and l a y i n g c l a i m to autonomy. Will
i s the d r i v i n g f o r c e b e h i n d a l l a c t i v i t y and t h e r e f o r e
behind a l l c r e a t i o n (45).

M a s k u l l f a i l s as Prometheus when, under the i n f l u e n c e o f A l p p a i n ' s

l i g h t , he says " I have l o s t my w i l l ; I f e e l as i f some f o u l tumor had

been s c r a p e d away, l e a v i n g me c l e a n and f r e e " (VA 2 7 5 ) . Will is evil,

of c o u r s e ; b u t the absence o f W i l l — t h e w i l l t o r e t u r n t o our M u s p e l

home—is a b s o l u t e d e f e a t . M a s k u l l has been t o t a l l y absorbed i n t o

Crystalman's w o r l d : he has become one w i t h i t as P o l e c r a b s a i d B r o o d v i o l

recommended. But N i g h t s p o r e has n o t l o s t the something e l s e which com-

p e l l s h i m toward M u s p e l , and M a s k u l l ' s d e f e a t p a r a d o x i c a l l y e n a b l e s

N i g h t s p o r e t o succeed i n p e n e t r a t i n g through the shadow, the v e i l of

 119

C r y s t a l m a n w h i c h obscures the r e a l w o r l d . What N i g h t s p o r e a c t u a l l y

sees i n the real w o r l d i s : nothing.

Panawe, t r a v e r s i n g a p r e c a r i o u s p a t h , as he t e l l s M a s k u l l , met

S l o f o r k the s o r c e r e r . They s a t down to d e c i d e w h i c h o f them would

w a l k o v e r the o t h e r (VA 7 2 ) . "What i s g r e a t e r than P l e a s u r e ? " Slofork

asked suddenly (VA 7 3 ) :

' P a i n , ' I r e p l i e d , ' f o r p a i n d r i v e s out p l e a s u r e . '

'What i s g r e a t e r than P a i n ? '
I reflected. ' L o v e . Because we w i l l a c c e p t our
l o v e d o n e ' s share o f p a i n . '
'But what i s g r e a t e r than L o v e ? ' he p e r s i s t e d .
'Nothing, S l o f o r k . '
'And what i s N o t h i n g ? '
' T h a t y o u must t e l l m e . '
' T e l l you I w i l l . T h i s i s S h a p i n g ' s w o r l d . He t h a t
i s a good c h i l d h e r e , knows p l e a s u r e , p a i n , and l o v e ,
and gets h i s rewards. B u t t h e r e ' s another w o r l d — n o t
S h a p i n g ' s — a n d t h e r e a l l t h i s i s unknown, and another
o r d e r of t h i n g s r e i g n s . That w o r l d we c a l l N o t h i n g —
but i t i s n o t N o t h i n g , b u t Something (VA 72).

L i n d s a y wrote t h a t "Schopenhauer's 'Nothing' . . . is identical with

my M u s p e l ; t h a t i s , the r e a l w o r l d " (TSG 9 ) . I n Schopenhauer we f i n d

a p a r a d o x i c a l o p p o s i t i o n between two k i n d s o f n o t h i n g , and t h i s d u a l i t y

i s an i m p o r t a n t m o t i f i n A Voyage. Schopenhauer says t h a t the s u r r e n d e r

of w i l l , " t h e d e n i a l and s u r r e n d e r o f a l l v o l i t i o n , and thus deliverance

from a w o r l d whose whole e x i s t e n c e we have found to be s u f f e r i n g . . .

appears t o us as a p a s s i n g away i n t o empty n o t h i n g n e s s " (The World as

W i l l and I d e a , F o u r t h Book, s e c . 71). L a t e r , Schopenhauer continues:

we must b a n i s h the dark i m p r e s s i o n o f t h a t n o t h i n g n e s s

w h i c h we d i s c e r n b e h i n d a l l v i r t u e and h o l i n e s s as t h e i r
f i n a l g o a l , and which we f e a r as c h i l d r e n f e a r the d a r k ;
we must n o t even evade i t l i k e the I n d i a n s , through myths
and meaningless w o r d s , such as r e a b s o r b t i o n i n Brahma o r
the N i r v a n a o f the B u d d h i s t s . R a t h e r do we f r e e l y acknow-
ledge t h a t what remains a f t e r the e n t i r e a b o l i t i o n o f w i l l
 120

i s f o r a l l those who are s t i l l f u l l o f w i l l c e r t a i n l y

n o t h i n g ; b u t , c o n v e r s e l y , t o those i n whom the w i l l has
t u r n e d and has d e n i e d i t s e l f , t h i s our w o r l d , which i s
so r e a l , w i t h a l l i t s suns and m i l k y w a y s — i s n o t h i n g .

Whichever s i d e of the v e i l of Maya you are o n , the o t h e r s i d e is

nothing.

L i n d s a y makes t h i s concept a l i t t l e e a s i e r to grasp by t y p o g r a p h -

i c a l l y distinguishing his nothings. The c r u x comes when M a s k u l l has

been c l e a n s e d o f h i s w i l l by A l p p a i n , and says "Why, Gangnet—I am

nothing!" Gangnet q u i e t l y c o r r e c t s h i m : " N o , you are n o t h i n g " (VA 2 7 5 ) .

On the phenomenal s i d e of t h e v e i l , the shadow of C r y s t a l m a n , l i f e is

nothing. M a s k u l l sees t h i s when he i s i n M a t t e r p l a y , where 'life

delights i n l i f e . ' A monster M a s k u l l i s l o o k i n g a t suddenly d i s a p p e a r s :

Where the c r u s t a c e a n had s t o o d , t h e r e was n o t h i n g . Y e t

through t h i s ' n o t h i n g ' he c o u l d n o t see the l a n d s c a p e .
Something was s t a n d i n g t h e r e t h a t i n t e r c e p t e d the l i g h t ,
though i t p o s s e s s e d n e i t h e r shape, c o l o r , n o r s u b s t a n c e .
And now the o b j e c t , which c o u l d no l o n g e r be p e r c e i v e d by
v i s i o n , began t o be f e l t by e m o t i o n . A d e l i g h t f u l , s p r i n g -
l i k e sense of r i s i n g s a p , o f q u i c k e n i n g p u l s e s — o f l o v e ,
adventure, mystery, beauty, f e m i n i n i t y — t o o k possession
of h i s b e i n g . . . . I t was as i f f l e s h , bones, and b l o o d had
been d i s c a r d e d , and he were f a c e t o f a c e w i t h naked L i f e
i t s e l f (VA 1 9 1 ) .

This i s the n o t h i n g of C r y s t a l m a n ' s w o r l d , b e a u t i f u l and f e m i n i n e and

mysterious: i t is "naked L i f e i t s e l f . " But t h e r e i s a n o t h e r w o r l d

w h i c h "we c a l l N o t h i n g " b u t w h i c h i s " S o m e t h i n g " , and t h a t i s the r e a l

w o r l d , beyond the phenomenal w o r l d and d i s c o n n e c t e d from i t . This i s

t h e w o r l d of w h i c h M a s k u l l can n e v e r be an i n h a b i t a n t , b u t i t i s what

N i g h t s p o r e f i n d s - w h e n he c l i m b s onto the r o o f o f the tower and " i s look-

ing round f o r h i s f i r s t glimpse of M u s p e l . There was n o t h i n g " (VA 2 8 6 ) .

N o t h i n g i s the w o r l d of the body and o f phenomena: i t i s the w o r l d o f

 121

man. T h e r e f o r e , as S p a d e v i l s a y s , "he t h a t i s n o t more than a man

i s n o t h i n g " (VA 1 3 5 ) . The more-than-man i n M a s k u l l i s N i g h t s p o r e ,

a l l e g o r i c a l embodiment o f the d i v i n e s p a r k , and he can penetrate

through t o what i s , from our human p o i n t o f v i e w , n o t h i n g .

L i n d s a y ' s problem i s t h a t he i s a t t e m p t i n g the i m p o s s i b l e . He

i s t r y i n g t o g i v e us an e x p e r i e n c e of " a n i n c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d " (TSG

46

42) of n o t h i n g , the m y s t i c a l s u b l i m e o f the u n c r e a t e d w o r l d . To

t h i s end are the d i c h o t o m i e s a r r a n g e d : M a s k u l l takes us t o the l i m i t

o f human e x p e r i e n c e , and N i g h t s p o r e takes us beyond i t . Alppain is

n o t M u s p e l , b u t Muspel i s beyond comprehension. However, as Alppain

i s to B r a n c h s p e l l , so M u s p e l i s to A l p p a i n . S i m i l a r l y , as the dream

world is to the r e a l w o r l d , so the M u s p e l w o r l d i s t o the dream w o r l d ;

as N i g h t s p o r e i s to M a s k u l l , so K r a g i s to N i g h t s p o r e . It is Plato's

analogy of the cave r e t o l d on a l a r g e s c a l e . The d i c h o t o m i e s o f the

a l l e g o r y as b a t t l e form themselves i n t o a n a l o g i c a l t r i n i t a r i a n arrange-

ments w h i c h p a r a l l e l the s t r u c t u r e of the a l l e g o r y as progress—we move

from the r e a l t o the dream w o r l d , from the dream w o r l d to the r e a l

w o r l d — a n d t h i s we s h a l l d i s c u s s i n the n e x t chapter.
 122

F o o t n o t e s to Chapter Four

William B l a k e , 'The M a r r i a g e of Heaven and H e l l ' i n The Complete

W r i t i n g s of W i l l i a m B l a k e , e d . G e o f f r e y Keynes (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 149.

2
K e p l e r was an astronomer at Tycho B r a h e ' s o b s e r v a t o r y a t Hven,
c a l l e d U r a n i b o r g ( ' t h e c a s t l e of the h e a v e n s ' ) . Somnium has n o t been
t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h , b u t the p l o t i s summarised by P a t r i c k Moore i n
S c i e n c e and F i c t i o n (London: George C. H a r r a p , 1957). The m o t i v a t i n g
f a c t o r was the s c i e n t i f i c c o n f i r m a t i o n by G a l i l e o of m o u n t a i n s , v a l l e y s ,
and ' s e a s ' on the moon. Other moon-voyages have been l i s t e d by M a r j o r i e
N i c o l s o n i n Voyages to the Moon (New Y o r k : M a c M i l l a n , 1 9 4 8 ) .
3
Johnson and C l a r e s o n , 'The I n t e r p l a y of S c i e n c e and F i c t i o n : The
Canals o f M a r s ' i n E x t r a p o l a t i o n (May 1964), p . 37.
4
C a t h e r i n e V a l e W h i t w e l l , An A s t r o n o m i c a l C a t e c h i s m : o r , Dialogues
between a Mother and h e r Daughter (London: P r i n t e d f o r the A u t h o r , 1 8 1 8 ) ,
p . 2 72.

5
T h e Works o f Herman M e l v i l l e (London: Constable, 1922), I I , p. 175.

^Quoted by Gordon M i l l s i n 'The S i g n i f i c a n c e of 'Arcturus' i n Mardi'

i n American L i t e r a t u r e , XIV ( 1 9 4 2 ) , p . 160.

7
H . G. W e l l s , The Works of H . G. W e l l s , A t l a n t i c E d i t i o n (London:
T. F i s h e r Unwin, 1 9 2 5 ) , X , p . 552.

g
For example, F. I . L o r b e a r ' s P h i l o s o p h y o f L i g h t (Los Angeles:
W e t z e l , 19 32).

9
A c c o r d i n g to L i n d s a y , p a i n i s n o t a p r o b l e m , i t i s the solution.

^ P l a t o , Timaeus, t r a n s . H . D. P . Lee (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books,

1965): "God t h e r e f o r e , w i s h i n g t h a t a l l t h i n g s s h o u l d be good, and so
f a r as p o s s i b l e n o t h i n g be i m p e r f e c t " ( p . 42) i m i t a t e d a p e r f e c t and e t e r n a l
Form "as f a r as was p o s s i b l e " (p. 5 0 ) .

11
" P i t y would be no more / I f we d i d n o t make somebody P o o r , " Blake
a s t u t e l y observes. The Complete W r i t i n g s , p . 217.
 123

12
T h i s may be s p e c i f i c a l l y W e s t e r n . I n I n d i a , by c o n t r a s t , where
the sun i s too h o t , what i s sought i s the r e l e a s e o f l i f e - g i v i n g w a t e r s ,
as when I n d r a uses a t h u n d e r b o l t to s t r i k e down V i t r a , the s e r p e n t who
has swallowed those w a t e r s . I n Myths and Symbols i n I n d i a n A r t and
C i v i l i s a t i o n (New Y o r k : Pantheon Books, 1 9 4 6 ) , H e i n r i c h Zimmer says
" t h e monster had a p p r o p r i a t e d the common b e n e f i t , massing h i s a m b i t i o u s ,
s e l f i s h h u l k between heaven and e a r t h " (p. 3 ) , r a t h e r i n the manner o f
C r y s t a l m a n . However, n o t a c t u a l l y i n the manner o f C r y s t a l m a n . Dorothy
Norman, i n The H e r o : Myth/Image/Symbo1 (New Y o r k : W o r l d P u b l i s h i n g C o . ,
1 9 6 9 ) , p o i n t s out t h a t "Due . . . to V i t r a ' s h a v i n g e x i s t e d b e f o r e what
was c o n s i d e r e d t o be the i m p e r f e c t i o n of c r e a t i o n , and h a v i n g attempted
o r i g i n a l l y t o p r e v e n t i t , t h e r e were a l s o those who viewed the s e r p e n t
i n . . . even f a v o r a b l e f a s h i o n " (p. 2 7 ) . Ophitism i s Gnostic.

13
P a r a c e l s u s , M y s t e r i e s of C r e a t i o n (Works, 1616) III, 3-4, p. 58.

" ^ A . A . Moon i n h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n to The 'De N a t u r a B o n i ' of S a i n t

A u g u s t i n e (Washington: C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y of America P r e s s , 1 9 5 5 ) , p . 16.
George MacDonald i n P h a n t a s t e s (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e B o o k s , 19 70) w r i t e s ,
" T r u l y , man i s b u t a p a s s i n g f l a m e , moving u n q u i e t l y amid the surrounding
n e s t of n i g h t , w i t h o u t which he y e t c o u l d not b e , arid whereof he i s i n
p a r t compounded" ( p . 6 1 ) .

"'"^Christopher Smart, J u b i l a t e Agno, e d . W. H . Bond (London: Rupert

H a r t - D a v i e s , 1 9 5 4 ) , v e r s e 238. See a l s o , more i m p o r t a n t l y , Job V . 7 .

"^Joseph C a m p b e l l , The Hero w i t h a. Thousand Faces (New Y o r k : Meridian

B o o k s , 1 9 5 6 ) , p . 123.

"^Quoted by E r w i n S c h r o d i n g e r i n Mind and M a t t e r (Cambridge: Cambridge

U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958).

18
A . A . Moon: " t h e h e r o e s of l i g h t l o o k and s u f f e r l i k e human b e i n g s ,
d e s p i t e the h y l i c o r i g i n o f the l a t t e r " (p. 1 8 ) .
19
Jean P a u l F r i e d r i c h R i c h t e r , ' F l e g e l j a h r ' i n Jean P a u l : Werke,
6 v o l s . (Munich: C a r l H a n s e r , 1 9 5 9 ) , I I , see pp. 1061-65.
20
J . W. Smeed o f A l b a n o ' s Dream i n Jean P a u l ' s 'Dreams' (London:
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 33. Smeed says " t h e r e i s v i r t u a l l y
no l i n k w i t h the h e l l o f the m e d i e v a l i m a g i n a t i o n and i t s b o d i l y t o r m e n t s .
Jean P a u l ' s h e l l i s b o r n o f r e v u l s i o n a g a i n s t e a r t h l y l i f e " (p. 32). Also
see Smeed's Appendix I I on F l e g e l j a h r e t r a u m .
 124

21
Green suns are r a r e , W i l l i a m Hope ModgSon i n The House on the
B o r d e r l a n d (London: Holden and Hardingham, 1908) may have taken h i s
cue from an a s i d e of MacDonald's i n P h a n t a s t e s : "No s h i n i n g b e l t o r
gleaming moon, no red and green g l o r y i n a s e l f - e n c i r c l i n g t w i n - s t a r ,
b u t has a r e l a t i o n w i t h the h i d d e n t h i n g s o f a man's s o u l , and, i t
may b e , w i t h the s e c r e t h i s t o r y of the body as w e l l " (p. 89).

22
L i n d s a y ' s ' S k e t c h N o t e s ' quoted from J . B. P i c k ' s 'The Work o f
David L i n d s a y ' i n S t u d i e s i n S c o t t i s h L i t e r a t u r e ( J a n . 1964), p . 175.
23
The E l d e r Edda, t r a n s . Auden and T a y l o r (New Y o r k : Vintage Books,
19 70) , p . 151.
24
The E l d e r Edda: ' L o k i ' s F l y t i n g 1 (p. 1 3 9 ) , 'The Lay of V a f t h r u d n i r '
(p. 7 7 ) , "The Lady of G r i m n i r ' (p. 6 6 ) , e t c .
25
The Saga of G r e t t i r the S t r o n g , t r a n s . G. A . H i g h t (London: J . M.
Dent, 1911) , pp. 27-28.
26
Quoted by C o l i n W i l s o n i n E a g l e and E a r w i g (London: John Baker,
1966) , p .

27
I n Wombflash M a s k u l l e a t s a b i t t e r f r u i t , sees h i m s e l f s t a b b e d ,
endures t e r r i b l e shocks and f a l l s i n a f a i n t r e s e m b l i n g d e a t h .
28
George MacDonald, L i l i t h (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1 9 6 9 ) : "I
would n o t l e a v e the h o u s e , and a l r e a d y I was a s t r a n g e r i n the s t r a n g e
l a n d ! " (p. 1 9 ) . Robert H e i n l e i n , a s c i e n c e f i c t i o n w r i t e r of m i d d l e - b r o w
s e n s i b i l i t y and t a b l o i d s t y l e , has made the phrase famous w i t h h i s l o n g
and b o r i n g n o v e l , S t r a n g e r i n a Strange Land (New Y o r k : B e r k l e y P u b l i s h -
i n g C o r p o r a t i o n , 1968).
29
See Bruce Haywood, N o v a l i s : The V e i l o f Imagery (Cambridge, Mass.:
H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1959), p . 54.
30
Quoted by Hans Jonas i n The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n : The Message o f the
A l i e n God and the B e g i n n i n g s of C h r i s t i a n i t y , 2nd e d . ( B o s t o n : Beacon
P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 45.
31
Hans J o n a s , The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 32.
32
Hans J o n a s , The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . xiii.
 125

33
John Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s (London: J . M. Dent, 1 9 2 7 ) ,
p . 4. C f . B l a k e ' s c r y s t a l c a b i n e t and Hoffmann's c r y s t a l j a r s . And
L i n d s a y ' s Crystalman?

34
Hans J o n a s , The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 42.
35
Quoted by Jonas i n The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 228.
36
Hans J o n a s , The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 72.
37
" I t i s o f i n t e r e s t t h a t K a f k a ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f U t o p i a was a
s o c i e t y of s i n g l e men, from w h i c h m a r r i e d men and a l l women were e x c l u d e d . "
H a l l and L i n d , Dreams, L i f e , and L i t e r a t u r e : A Study o f F r a n z K a f k a
(Chapel H i l l : U n i v e r s i t y of North C a r o l i n a P r e s s , 1970), p. 51.
38
T h i s i s a c t u a l l y a h i g h v i e w of women, e s p e c i a l l y compared t o
Schopenhauer's ( a c c o r d i n g to whom they are e s s e n t i a l l y c h i l d i s h ) . The
h e r o i n e s are the most i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r s i n L i n d s a y ' s m e t a p h y s i c a l
t h r i l l e r s , and though t h e r e are o n l y f i v e female embodiments i n A Voyage,
a g a i n s t t h r e e times as many m a l e , the women dominate the book. Joiwind,
Oceaxe, Tydomin, G l e a m e i l and S u l l e n b o d e are a l l complex and p o w e r f u l
figures. They a l l know e x a c t l y what they w a n t , and a c t i v e l y and i n d e p e n -
d e n t l y s e t about the b u s i n e s s of g e t t i n g i t .
39
Maud B o d k i n , A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s i n P o e t r y (London: Oxford
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 306. B o d k i n i s q u o t i n g from B e a t r i c e M.
H i n k l e ' s The R e c r e a t i n g o f the I n d i v i d u a l ( A l l e n and Unwin, 1923),
p . 306.
40
"Women are s n a r e s , w h i c h l i e i n w a i t f o r men on a l l s i d e s i n o r d e r
to drag them i n t o the merely f i n i t e . " Quoted from G. Janouch, Conversa-
t i o n s w i t h K a f k a , t r a n s . G. Rees (London: V e r s c h o y l e , 1 9 5 3 ) , p . 101.
I n ' K a f k a ' s Modern M y t h o l o g y ' i n the B u l l e t i n of the John R y l a n d s
L i b r a r y (Autumn 19 7 0 ) , I d r i s P a r r y a s k s , "How i s man r e l a t e d t o the gods?
The w r i t e r ' s s e a r c h f o r form i s the p u r s u i t o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p ; K a f k a
has no d i f f i c u l t y at a l l i n s e e i n g h i m s e l f as a Modern Prometheus" (p. 210).
Prometheus was tempted w i t h a woman of c l a y . "The g r e a t d i s t r a c t i o n i s ,
o f c o u r s e , m a r r i a g e ; and here K a f k a a n t i c i p a t e s h i s own l a t e r r e l u c t a n c e
when he i s c r u s h e d between h i s n a t u r a l d e s i r e f o r m a r r i a g e and the f e a r
t h a t m a r r i a g e w i l l rob him of h i s s p i r i t u a l i s o l a t i o n , the s o u r c e of
v i s i o n " (p. 2 1 7 ) . The Prometheus who a c c e p t s Pandora i s n o t Prometheus,
b u t h i s b r o t h e r - d o u b l e Epimetheus. M a s k u l l has S u l l e n b o d e . The L i n d s a y
who w r i t e s A Voyage i s m a r r i e d .
41
L o u i s Awad, The Theme o f Prometheus i n E n g l i s h and French L i t e r a t u r e
(Cairo: M i n i s t r y of C u l t u r e , 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 13.
 126

42
Prometheus has robbed Zeus o f h i s c r e a t i v e a t t r i b u t e s and left
him what he always wanted to b e , a p e r f e c t b u t u n c r e a t i v e mind.

43
Panawe, remember, l i k e h i s w i f e J o i w i n d , l i v e s i n a s t a t e o f
innocence and c a n ' t t e l l S u r t u r from S h a p i n g .
44
In Gnostic a l l e g o r y , which c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y turns things
u p s i d e down, Prometheus may be s u p p o r t e d a g a i n s t Zeus—as the Romantics
s u p p o r t e d h i m . Then Prometheus becomes " t h e type o f the ' s p i r i t u a l '
man whose l o y a l t y i s not to the God of t h i s w o r l d b u t to the t r a n s -
cendent one b e y o n d , " as Jonas says i n The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 9 7.
I t i s t h i s k i n d o f Prometheus t h a t we f i n d , i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s ,
not i n M a s k u l l but i n K r a g .
45
L o u i s Awad, The Theme of Prometheus, pp. 20-21.
46
The aim of A Voyage i s not s u b c r e a t i o n , w h i c h i s why L i n d s a y i s
w r i t i n g a l l e g o r y n o t romance of the M o r r i s t o T o l k i e n t y p e . Tormance
i s , i f s l i g h t l y s o l i p s i s t i c a l l y , s u b - c r e a t e d , i n c i d e n t a l l y , b u t to the
e x t e n t t h a t i t i s s u b c r e a t e d , L i n d s a y i s damned by h i s own m e t a p h y s i c .
A r t i s t - P l a t o had a s i m i l a r problem when he was e x c l u d e d from t h e R e p u b l i c
by P h i l o s o p h e r - P l a t o .
 12 7

Chapter F i v e :

THE STRAIGHT WAY: A VOYAGE TO ARCTURUS AS PROGRESS

A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s i s too r i c h to be m i s t a k e n f o r ' n a i v e ' allegory,

too m e a n i n g f u l to be taken as pure f a n t a s y , and the w o r l d i t s u b c r e a t e s

i s too t r a n s i t o r y f o r i t to be regarded as a romance. Though i t takes us

i n t o s p a c e , i t i s too u n s c i e n t i f i c to be s c i e n c e f i c t i o n . A Voyage to

A r c t u r u s i s an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y — a genre w h i c h has c l o s e ties

w i t h the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d , as d i s c u s s e d i n the second and t h i r d c h a p t e r s of

this thesis. But because the a l l e g o r y i s 'sophisticated,' t h a t i s no

reason f o r denying t h a t i t i s an a l l e g o r y a t a l l , as we have seen p r e v i o u s

c r i t i c s of L i n d s a y do. J . B . P i c k , f o r example, i n s p i t e o f h a v i n g access

to L i n d s a y ' s ' S k e t c h N o t e s ' and o t h e r u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r s , s t a t e s flatly

t h a t " L i n d s a y was n o t an a l l e g o r i s t " (TSG 5 ) , w h i c h e x p l a i n s h i s d e c i s i o n :

i f one t r i e s to v i e w A Voyage as a f i e l d f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l
a n a l y s i s , as a p u z z l e r e q u i r i n g a b s t r a c t c l a r i f i c a t i o n , i t
appears t h a t the l e v e l s on which any e x p l a n a t i o n must be
made are h o p e l e s s l y m i x e d , so t h a t the i n c i d e n t s cannot
be i n t e r p r e t e d c o n s i s t e n t l y i n a n e c e s s a r y and coherent
o r d e r (TSG 4 ) .

Of c o u r s e , n o t h i n g c o u l d be f u r t h e r from the t r u t h . Wilson i s absolutely

c o r r e c t when he says " A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s constructed l i k e a series

of Chinese b o x e s , one i n s i d e the o t h e r " (TSG 4 6 ) , and t h a t " i t s strength,

and g e n i u s , l i e s i n the almost m a t h e m a t i c a l p r e c i s i o n of i t s design"

(TSG 4 5 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e s e are m e r e l y o b s e r v a t i o n s , and W i l s o n does

n o t h i n g to demonstrate t h e v a l i d i t y of h i s i n s i g h t s . We s h a l l have to do

it for him.

S i n c e A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s i s almost The World as W i l l and Idea

 128

d i s s o l v e d and r e c r y s t a l l i s e d as f i c t i o n , i t should not surprise us

t h a t Schopenhauer has something i n t e r e s t i n g to say about design:

Few w r i t e i n the way i n w h i c h an a r c h i t e c t b u i l d s ; who,

b e f o r e he s e t s t o w o r k , sketches out h i s p l a n , and t h i n k s
i t over down to i t s s m a l l e s t d e t a i l s . Nay, most p e o p l e
w r i t e o n l y as though they were p l a y i n g dominoes; and as
i n t h i s game the p i e c e s are a r r a n g e d h a l f by d e s i g n , h a l f
by chance, so i t i s w i t h the sequence and c o n n e c t i o n o f
t h e i r sentences. They o n l y j u s t have an i d e a of what
the g e n e r a l shape o f t h e i r work w i l l b e , and of the aim
they s e t b e f o r e t h e m s e l v e s . Many are i g n o r a n t even o f
t h i s , and w r i t e as the c o r a l - i n s e c t s b u i l d ; p e r i o d j o i n s
to p e r i o d , and L o r d knows what the a u t h o r means ( 2 ) .

I t i s the whole t h a t i s i m p o r t a n t , and the whole i s the I d e a : the form

i m i t a t e s the Form. Few genres a l l o w as much d i r e c t i o n l e s s n e s s as fantasy,

though i n some cases t h i s can be t u r n e d to good a c c o u n t , as i t i s by

MacDonald when h i s hero i s c a l l e d Anodos o r ' p a t h l e s s ' . On the o t h e r

h a n d , few genres have as much f o r m , as r i g i d d i r e c t i o n , as allegories:

the s t r a i g h t and.narrow p a t h o f C h r i s t i a n , the s t r a i g h t and w i n d i n g one

3 4
of Dante. In a l l e g o r i e s , t h e thought tends to be p o s i t i v e l y d i a g r a m m a t i c .

A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s i s b o t h an a l l e g o r y and a f a n t a s y . I t i s as apparently

a i m l e s s as P h a n t a s t e s and The Palm-Wine D r i n k a r d , f o l l o w i n g the c o n t o u r s

of a p o w e r f u l p s y c h i c u n d e r w o r l d . I t i s a r i g i d l y s y l l o g i s t i c and c e r e b r a l

as The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s and The D i v i n e Comedy as i t e s t a b l i s h e s its

d u a l i s t i c metaphysic.

A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s an a l l e g o r y w h i c h ends w i t h a v i s i o n ; these

are two of i t s p a r t s . I t b e g i n s , however, w i t h an i n t r o d u c t o r y s e c t i o n

o f f o u r chapters,"* d u r i n g w h i c h a l l the n e c e s s a r y m o t i f s f o r the u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g o f the a l l e g o r y are e s t a b l i s h e d , and the v u l g a r ' r e a l ' w o r l d is

s a t i r i z e d to make the n e c e s s i t y f o r the a l l e g o r i c a l escape c l e a r . The

 129

fifth c h a p t e r completes the i n t r o d u c t i o n and h e l p s to form a frame

f o r the f a n t a s y i n b e i n g a p r e c o g n i t i o n of the f i n a l v i s i o n : here

Maskull f a i l s to c l i m b a t o w e r , w h i l e i n the f i n a l c h a p t e r N i g h t s p o r e

succeeds i n c l i m b i n g one. By a neat i n v o l u t i o n w h i c h i m p l i e s the u n -

r e a l i t y o f t i m e , the opening o f the book i s hooked to the m i d d l e when

M a s k u l l submits t o Tydomin (Chapter xo) a n d wakes up on the couch i n

the seance room to be s t r a n g l e d by K r a g . T h i s m o t i f reappears j u s t

b e f o r e the f i n a l v i s i o n when, on a r a f t - i s l a n d on S u r t u r ' s Ocean, K r a g

a c t u a l l y does s t r a n g l e M a s k u l l (Chapter 20) to free N i g h t s p o r e . Maskull's

f a i l u r e t o c l i m b the tower f o l l o w s , the f i r s t s t r a n g l i n g ; Nightspore's

s u c c e s s i n c l i m b i n g the tower f o l l o w s t h e s e c o n d . The i n t r o d u c t i o n and

the promise of r e b i r t h on e a r t h f o r N i g h t s p o r e form the o t h e r two p a r t s

of the a l l e g o r y , the frame. I n many a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s , the

dreamer reawakes to the phenomenal w o r l d a f t e r a c h i e v i n g the final

v i s i o n , b u t , M a s k u l l b e i n g dead, N i g h t s p o r e has no body to reawake i n .

However, r e b i r t h i n t o the w o r l d comes t o e x a c t l y the same t h i n g . Thus

A Voyage has the f o u r - p a r t s t r u c t u r e w h i c h , as we saw i n Chapter Two

above, i s s t a n d a r d i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy.

The main p a r t of the book b e g i n s when K r a g and N i g h t s p o r e disappear,

and M a s k u l l wakes up on Tormance, and i t ends when K r a g and N i g h t s p o r e

reappear and M a s k u l l d i e s (goes t o s l e e p ) on Tormance. The j o u r n e y o f

M a s k u l l a c r o s s Tormance i s l i t e r a l l y the p r o g r e s s of the a l l e g o r y , and

t h i s has a t h r e e - p a r t s t r u c t u r e o f i t s own. Jean P a u l b e l i e v e d t h a t "while

on e a r t h , o n l y our dreams can g i v e us i n t i m a t i o n s of the h i g h e r r e a l i t y " ^

and he wrote a number o f a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s . I n one o f them,

 130

'Der Tod i n der l e t z e n z w i e t e n W e l t , ' he e x p r e s s e s " t h e i d e a o f a

s e r i e s of ' d e a t h s ' " as " a g r a d u a l approach to a p e r f e c t s t a t e o f

being."7 T h i s i s e x a c t l y the p r o g r e s s o f A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s , where

each of the t h r e e s e c t i o n s b e g i n s w i t h images o f the b i r t h of M a s k u l l ,

and ends w i t h images of h i s d e a t h . I n the l a s t s e c t i o n , of course,

Maskull l i t e r a l l y dies. Each of t h e s e t h r e e s e c t i o n s has a c l i m a x

i n w h i c h d e f i n i t i v e a l l e g o r i c a l s t a t e m e n t s are made. Each s e c t i o n is

on a d i f f e r e n t l e v e l , and the p r o c e s s i s r a t h e r l i k e W i l s o n ' s Chinese

boxes, o r P e e r Gynt p e e l i n g h i s o n i o n , e x c e p t t h a t t h e r e i s something

i n the m i d d l e : the v i t a l s p a r k . N a t u r e h e r e i s not w i t t y , b u t t r a g i c .

T h i s s p i r a l p r o g r e s s inwards w i l l be examined i n the n e x t , c h a p t e r .

M a s k u l l ' s journey i s , as i s common i n dream f a n t a s i e s , a quest

to d i s c o v e r ( i n t h i s c a s e , uncover) h i s t r u e i d e n t i t y i to f i n d h i s

r e a l n a t u r e (at p r e s e n t , masked) and h i s t r u e name. "Who i n the w o r l d

am I ? " A l i c e asks h e r s e l f . "Ah, that's the g r e a t p u z z l e . " It isn't.

The g r e a t p u z z l e i s , who she i s Out of the w o r l d . I n a l l e g o r i c a l dream

fantasies, the embodiments' names and n a t u r e s are one: the honest man

i n The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s is c a l l e d Honest. P r o t a g o n i s t s , however, tend

to be d o u b l e , o r of a d u a l n a t u r e . Even A l i c e i s " v e r y fond of p r e t e n d -

9
ing t o be two p e o p l e . " Maskull is two p e o p l e i n t h a t he i s a l s o N i g h t s p o r e :
he i s b o t h n o t h i n g and n o t h i n g . L i k e Thingumbob i n The H u n t i n g of the
10

Snark—who "came as a b a k e r " b u t who w i l l n o t , l i k e t h e o t h e r s , accept

his t r a d e as h i s n a m e — M a s k u l l meets a d r e a d f u l Boojum o f N o t h i n g n e s s ,

C r y s t a l m a n , and d i s c o v e r s t h a t he i s , i n the w o r l d , n o t h i n g . But j u s t

before h i s death, Maskull i s t o l d by K r a g , " y o u are N i g h t s p o r e " (VA 2 7 7 ) :

 131

he does, a f t e r a l l , have an i d e n t i t y out of the w o r l d , and t h a t is,

nothing. M r . Vane i n L i l i t h f o l l o w s a s i m i l a r q u e s t : " I became a t

once aware t h a t I c o u l d g i v e [Mr. Raven] no n o t i o n o f who I was. . . .

Then I understood t h a t I d i d n o t know m y s e l f . . . . As f o r the name

I went by i n my own w o r l d , I had f o r g o t t e n i t , and d i d not care to

r e c a l l i t , f o r i t meant n o t h i n g . " 1 ' ' " When M a s k u l l , a f t e r .the

mask has been s t r i p p e d o f f i n the p r o g r e s s , does get t o know h i m s e l f ,

he d i s c o v e r s t h a t he i s r e a l l y N i g h t s p o r e , a s , i n the same way, after

h i s much s h o r t e r b u t more c o n c e n t r a t e d p r o g r e s s up the tower, N i g h t s p o r e

discovers t h a t he i s r e a l l y M u s p e l , and t h e r e f o r e , r e a l l y Krag also.

The g n o s t i c Irenaeus t e l l s us that

knowledge i s s a l v a t i o n o f the i n n e r man; and i t i s n o t

c o r p o r e a l , f o r the body i s c o r r u p t i b l e ; n o r i s i t
p s y c h i c a l , f o r even t h e s o u l i s a p r o d u c t of the d e f e c t
and i s as a l o d g i n g to the s p i r i t : s p i r i t u a l t h e r e f o r e
must a l s o be s a l v a t i o n ( 1 2 ) .

M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e are day- and n i g h t - s e l f o p p o s i t e s ; K r a g and Gangnet

form a c o r r e s p o n d i n g d u a l i t y . But i n the a l l e g o r y as p r o g r e s s we have a

t r i n i t a r i a n s t r u c t u r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the t h r e e f o l d n a t u r e of the human

being. Man i s made up of body and s o u l , and " e n c l o s e d i n the s o u l is

the s p i r i t , or 'pneuma' ( c a l l e d a l s o the ' s p a r k ' ) , a p o r t i o n of the

13

d i v i n e s u b s t a n c e from beyond w h i c h has f a l l e n i n t o the w o r l d . " That

is, a fragment of n o t h i n g . As N i g h t s p o r e i s the e s s e n t i a l self of

M a s k u l l , a s l e e p w i t h i n h i m , so K r a g i s the s p a r k submerged w i t h i n N i g h t -

spore.
I n i t s unredeemed s t a t e the pneuma thus immersed i n s o u l
and f l e s h i s unconscious of i t s e l f , benumbed, a s l e e p , o r
i n t o x i c a t e d by the p o i s o n of the w o r l d : in brief, i t is
'ignorant.' I t s awakening and l i b e r a t i o n i s e f f e c t e d
through ' k n o w l e d g e ' ( 1 4 ) .
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M a s k u l l t e l l s N i g h t s p o r e , " I ' m b e g i n n i n g to r e g a r d you as a second

K r a g " (VA 3 4 ) . By c l i m b i n g the t o w e r , N i g h t s p o r e i s l i b e r a t e d by

the knowledge of the r e a l s t a t e o f the w o r l d . J u s t as M a s k u l l became

N i g h t s p o r e , now N i g h t s p o r e has become K r a g : the K r a g w i t h i n h i m h a s ,

liter{3.ally> surfaced.

I t has o f t e n been n o t i c e d t h a t the P l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h e r m y t h o l -

o g i s e s w h i l e the P l a t o n i c poet p h i l o s o p h i s e s . B l a k e , S h e l l e y and Y e a t s

are examples o f the l a t t e r ; L i n d s a y h i m s e l f w r o t e ' S k e t c h Notes Towards

a New System of P h i l o s o p h y . ' F o r the P l a t o n i c p o e t , again, philosophy

means, by and l a r g e , m e t a p h y s i c s : t h a t i s , as the r e c e n t outgrowth o f

' l i n g u i s t i c p h i l o s o p h e r s ' has not t i r e d o f r e i t e r a t i n g , the w o r l d o f

15

w h i c h we can know n o t h i n g . The poets would i t a l i c i s e t h i s d i f f e r e n t l y :

through l i t e r a t u r e , they would a r g u e , we can know n o t h i n g . Lindsay

pays V i s i a k the v e r y h i g h e s t o f compliments when he says of the latter's

Medusa t h a t i t " t r a n s c e n d s p o e t r y and seems to e n t e r the r e a l m of

metaphysics, as a l l s u r p a s s i n g p o e t r y does" (L 5 3 ) . T h i s k i n d of j u d g -

ment i s the b a s i s o f L i n d s a y ' s defense of D e v i l ' s T o r :

There are two o r d e r s of i m a g i n a t i v e w r i t e r s — t h o s e who
d e s c r i b e the w o r l d and those who e x p l a i n i t . The f i r s t —
by f a r the l a r g e r c l a s s — a r e the poets o r p o e t i c - m i n d e d ,
even though t h e i r merchandise be c y n i c i s m o r s o r d i d n e s s :
they aim o n l y at s e t t i n g f a m i l i a r t h i n g s i n new and
s t r i k i n g l i g h t s . But the second have the m u s i c a l temper
—between metaphysics and music i s t h i s i n e x p l i c a b l e l i n k
o f c o n s a n g u i n i t y . T h e i r aim i s the p r e s e n t a t i o n of
p a s s i o n , e m o t i o n , and the e l e m e n t a l f o r c e s g e n e r a l l y .
They w i s h to get down to the r o o t s of the w o r l d (TSG 2 7 ) •
In Keats's phrase, p o e t r y " i s not so f i n e a t h i n g as p h i l o s o p h y . " But

music is.
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The m u s i c i a n can "awaken t h a t i n e x p r e s s i b l e f e e l i n g , a k i n to

n o t h i n g e l s e on e a r t h — t h e sense o f a d i s t a n t s p i r i t w o r l d , and o f
16

our own h i g h e r l i f e i n i t , " a c c o r d i n g to Hoffmann. "Music i s the

e x p e r i e n c e of a s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d " (TSG 1 3 ) , a c c o r d i n g t o L i n d s a y .

Much l a t e r , L i n d s a y w r o t e t h a t
D e v i l ' s Tor was c o n c e i v e d i n a s p i r i t o f m u s i c . A
p r e v i o u s book of m i n e , A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s , was
s i m i l a r l y g e n e r a t e d ; and the g r e a t e s t compliment i t
e v e r r e c e i v e d was from the mouth o f an a r t i s t and
m u s i c i a n , who found i t s whole c o n s t r u c t i o n and compo-
s i t i o n e s s e n t i a l l y ' m u s i c a l ' (TSG 2 8 ) .

The o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e o f A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s i s t h r e e f o l d : Introduction

t o the c e n t r a l themes ( E a r t h ) , e x p o s i t i o n and development (Tormance),

c o n c l u s i o n (the t o w e r ) . The c e n t r a l s e c t i o n i s o f the 'theme and

variations' kind: each embodiment M a s k u l l meets i s an i n s t r u m e n t o f

Crystalman's. The name o f the t e c h n i q u e , , the l e i t m o t i f , i s a l s o borrowed

from m u s i c . The thought o f A Voyage i s e x p r e s s e d through r e c u r r i n g images.

For example, K r a g r e f e r s to the "specimen g o b l i n " (VA 23) m a t e r i a l i s e d

17

by Backhouse as a f r u i t of Tormance. One of the f i r s t t h i n g s M a s k u l l

p i c k s up on Tormance i s a " h a r d f r u i t . . . . o f the s i z e of a l a r g e apple,

and shaped l i k e an egg" (VA 5 3 ) . J o i w i n d w i l l n o t a l l o w h i m to eat i t - -

"We d o n ' t e a t l i v i n g t h i n g s . The thought i s h o r r i b l e to u s " (VA 53)—

and he throws i t away. Panawe produces out o f h i m s e l f " a d e l i c a t e l y

b e a u t i f u l egg-shaped c r y s t a l o f p a l e g r e e n " (VA 6 3 ) , w h i c h he throws

away, s a y i n g " n o t h i n g comes from i t b u t v a n i t y " (VA 6 3 ) . Panawe and

J o i w i n d c u l t i v a t e non-attachment to t h e w o r l d . Oceaxe, by c o n t r a s t , tries

t o dominate t h e w o r l d by sheer w i l l - t o - p o w e r . She uses " a l i g h t - e m i t t i n g

stone" (VA 8 2 ) , " a pebble the s i z e of a h e n ' s egg" (VA 8 3 ) , to c o n v e r t

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M a s k u l l to h e r way of s e e i n g . Dreamsinter gives M a s k u l l a b i t t e r fruit

to e a t , " a h a r d round n u t , o f t h e s i z e o f a f i s t " (VA 1 5 2 ) , and t h i s

i n d u c e s a new k i n d o f v i s i o n , of Muspel r a d i a n c e . In Matterplay Maskull

finds

a f r u i t . . . l y i n g on the g r o u n d , of the s i z e and

shape of a lemon, b u t w i t h a tougher s k i n . He p i c k e d
i t u p , i n t e n d i n g to eat the c o n t a i n e d p u l p ; b u t i n s i d e ,
i t was a f u l l y formed young t r e e , j u s t on the p o i n t o f
b u r s t i n g i t s s h e l l (VA 1 9 2 ) .

M a s k u l l f i n d s S u l l e n b o d e "under a huge t r e e " w h i c h b e a r s " a m u l t i t u d e

of red f r u i t " : " h e r forearms were l i g h t l y f o l d e d , and i n one hand she

held a half-eaten f r u i t " (VA 2 4 2 ) . L a s t l y , Gangnet t a k e s "two o r three

o b j e c t s t h a t resembled eggs" from " t h e f o o t o f one o f the t r e e s " i n

Barey (VA 2 6 9 ) . M a s k u l l e a t s two b e f o r e K r a g s n a t c h e s " t h e r e m a i n i n g

egg out o f h i s hand and f l u n g i t a g a i n s t a t r e e t r u n k , where i t b r o k e

and s t u c k , a s p l a s h o f s l i m e " (VA 2 7 0 ) . "Is there a s i g h t filthier

t h a n a smashed p l e a s u r e ? " asks K r a g (VA 2 7 0 ) .

The image o f the e g g - s i z e d f r u i t r e c u r s through A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s

as a m o t i f . Of c o u r s e , t h e r e i s no one meaning common t o each occurrence:

the meaning of t h e f r u i t depends on who uses i t and why. J o i w i n d and

Panawe have not been e x p e l l e d from Eden: they throw t h e i r f r u i t away,

whereas S u l l e n b o d e i s a t e m p t r e s s , l i k e E v e , who has eaten the f r u i t

and w i l l now seduce M a s k u l l i n t o c a r n a l i t y . Dreamsinter gives M a s k u l l

a h a r d n u t w i t h an " i n t e n s e l y d i s a g r e e a b l e " (VA 152) p u l p ; Gangnet gives

him a f r a g i l e egg w i t h a s l i m y i n t e r i o r . Each f r u i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e to

the g i v e r . The t h i n g t h a t i s common t o these l a s t two examples i s the

r e l a t i o n s h i p between the i n s i d e and t h e o u t s i d e : Gangnet's fruit is an

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e v i l good and D r e a m s i n t e r ' s a good e v i l . The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f M a s k u l l

and N i g h t s p o r e i s a l s o one o f o u t s i d e to i n s i d e : Maskull is the s h e l l ,

N i g h t s p o r e the k e r n e l .

I n m u s i c , a l e i t m o t i f i s a theme a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a person o r a

thought which r e c u r s when the p e r s o n appears on the s t a g e o r the thought

becomes prominent i n the a c t i o n of the drama t o w h i c h the music i s an

accompaniment. I n A Voyage, the drum taps o f S o r g i e , a s s o c i a t e d with

S u r t u r , are l i t e r a l l y a l e i t m o t i f , b u t t h e r e are s e v e r a l o t h e r themes

e s t a b l i s h e d i n the opening s e c t i o n w h i c h i n l i t e r a t u r e we may t h i n k o f

as b e i n g l e i t m o t i f s a l s o . F o r example, the images o f b i r t h and death

t h a t we have a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , the problem of w e i g h t and the c l i m b i n g

of the t o w e r , the C r y s t a l m a n g r i n , and the phenomenon o f b a c k - r a y s . We

must n o t , as p r e v i o u s c r i t i c s have done, e i t h e r p r e t e n d t h a t A Voyage

b e g i n s on Tormance (Joanna R u s s ) , o r w i s h t h a t i t d i d ( W i l s o n ) . A Voyage

t o A r c t u r u s does b e g i n i n the suburban r e s i d e n c e (people always 'reside'

i n suburbs) of Montague F a u l l , and not w i t h v i s i o n b u t w i t h theosophy and

spiritualism. I n t h i s opening s e c t i o n , however, the main m o t i f s essential

f o r the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the a l l e g o r y are i n t r o d u c e d , and we must examine

i t i n some d e t a i l .

I n h e r p o l e m i c i n E x t r a p o l a t i o n , Joanna Russ complains, t h a t A Voyage

to A r c t u r u s c o n t a i n s too l i t t l e s p e c i f i c i t y , o r p a r t i c u l a r i t y , o r c o n -

c r e t e n e s s ( t h r e e terms w i t h , b u t a s i n g l e thought) . I n the opening c h a p t e r ,

however, t h e r e i s enough c o n c r e t e n e s s to s i n k almost any n o v e l . I n the

v e r y f i r s t sentence we are g i v e n the month and the time o f day, the name

of a house and i t s s i t u a t i o n , the names of two c h a r a c t e r s and the p r o f e s s i o n

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o f one of them. So i t goes o n . The scene i s v e r y t h o r o u g h l y set.

18

We are i n a room decked out f o r a p s y c h i c e v e n t : Backhouse is to

'materialise' a spirit. Yeats w o u l d have been f a s c i n a t e d . The s e t t i n g

i s " a r e p l i c a , or n e a r l y so, of the Drury Lane p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the

temple scene from The Magic F l u t e " (VA 1 6 ) , and a " h i d d e n o r c h e s t r a "
19

p l a y s " t h e b e a u t i f u l and solemn s t r a i n s of Mozart's 'temple' music."

The s p e c t a t o r s — t h e p e o p l e L i n d s a y h a t e s most, who c a r r y o v e r t h e i r

m a t e r i a l i s m i n t o the s p i r i t w o r l d — i n c l u d e " P r i o r , the prosperous City

coffee i m p o r t e r , and L a n g , the s t o c k j o b b e r , w e l l known i n h i s own c i r c l e

as an amateur p r e s t a d i g i t a t o r " (VA 1 4 ) , and F a u l l , the South American

Merchant h i m s e l f . A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s b e g i n s , i n fact, as good dream

allegories i n p r o s e tend t o do (MacDonald's P h a n t a s t e s and L i l i t h ,

L e w i s ' s That Hideous S t r e n g t h ) , l i k e a v e r y bad n o v e l .

I n t o t h i s w o r l d , though c l e a r l y from a n o t h e r k i n d o f w o r l d , enter

M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e . N a t u r a l l y , i n t r o d u c t i o n s are d i f f i c u l t : "One

rejoices i n the name o f M a s k u l l " says M r s . T r e n t (VA 1 5 ) , who has invited

them. She cannot t e l l the assembled company what these two do ' i n the

City': t h a t i s n ' t where t h e y ' r e from. And t h e i r names are not ' n e u t r a l ' :

t h e i r names are what they e s s e n t i a l l y a r e . When M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e

e n t e r the room, t h e r e i s " a l o u d and t e r r i b l e c r a s h o f f a l l e n masonry"

w h i c h causes " t h e assembled p a r t y t o s t a r t up from t h e i r c h a i r s i n c o n -

sternation. I t sounded as i f the e n t i r e upper p a r t o f the b u i l d i n g had

collapsed" (VA 1 8 ) . But no one o u t s i d e the room has h e a r d a n y t h i n g , and
20

nothing i s amiss. N i g h t s p o r e says—and t h e s e are h i s f i r s t w o r d s — " i t

was s u p e r n a t u r a l " i n o r i g i n (VA 1 8 ) . T h i s i s e v i d e n c e t h a t "we are

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surrounded by a t e r r i b l y queer unseen u n i v e r s e " (1, 43) , w h i c h i s the

real world.

Of the ' t e m p l e s c e n e ' L i n d s a y s a y s , "what words are t o M u s i c ,

i n d i v i d u a l s are t o the S u b l i m e " (TSG 1 3 ) . What m u s i c g i v e s us i s a

sense of the s u b l i m e : the s u b l i m e i s " t h e shadow of the beauty of

another w o r l d " (DT 6 8 ) . L i n d s a y w r i t e s , "Long s i n c e ( f o r my own use)

I have p o s t u l a t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e of a ' s u b l i m e ' w o r l d , the word b e i n g

employed f o r want of a b e t t e r . But t h i s 'sublime' i s not i d e n t i c a l

21

w i t h the ' s u b l i m e ' i n common u s e . " And l a t e r , "Schopenhauer, for

example, opposes the s u b l i m e t o the b e a u t i f u l . I s h o u l d w i s h to oppose

it to the v u l g a r " (L 5 0 ) . L i n d s a y h e r e t r i v i a l i s e s Schopenhauer, who

a c t u a l l y says i n The World as W i l l and I d e a t h a t " t h e p r o p e r opposite

of the s u b l i m e i s something w h i c h would n o t at f i r s t g l a n c e be r e c o g -

22

n i s e d as s u c h : the charming o r a t t r a c t i v e ( T h i r d Book, s e c . 40).

T h i s i s a c t u a l l y q u i t e c l o s e t o what L i n d s a y means by the v u l g a r :

something w h i c h e x c i t e s the w i l l , something w h i c h o f f e r s immediate (often

trivial) satisfaction. M o z a r t ' s temple music i s s u b l i m e , b u t i n the

c o n t e x t i t i s b e i n g p u t to v u l g a r u s e . Faull's interest i n spiritualism

i s v u l g a r , and Backhouse sees " t h e c o n c e a l e d b a r b a r i a n i n the complacent

gleam of h i s e y e " (VA 1 5 ) . Backhouse i s enormously g i f t e d — " I dream

w i t h open e y e s , " he s a y s , "and o t h e r s see my dreams" (VA 1 3 ) — b u t , in

s p i t e of h i s p r o t e s t a t i o n s , he i s p r o s t i t u t i n g h i s t a l e n t : he too is
23

vulgar. When J o i w i n d asks M a s k u l l why he l e f t e a r t h , he i s a b l e to

say, " I was t i r e d of v u l g a r i t y " (VA 6 2 ) . The opening c h a p t e r provides

the v u l g a r i t y w h i c h makes the escape to Tormance n e c e s s a r y , and a g a i n s t

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w h i c h the s u b l i m i t y o f the v i s i o n i n the l a s t c h a p t e r w i l l contrast.

I n t o t h i s v u l g a r Hampstead w o r l d , then, bursts the f i e r y K r a g ,

a stranger and i n t r u d e r . He guffaws, thumps F a u l l on the b a c k , and

s t r a n g l e s " w i t h h i s h a i r y h a n d s " the b e a u t i f u l s p i r i t t h a t the medium

has m a t e r i a l i s e d . One might have s a i d K r a g came i n ' l i k e a b r e a t h of

f r e s h a i r ' were i t n o t f o r the result:

the body f e l l i n a heap to the f l o o r . I t s f a c e was

uppermost. The guests were u n u t t e r a b l y shocked t o
observe t h a t i t s e x p r e s s i o n had changed from the
mysterious but f a s c i n a t i n g smile to a v u l g a r , s o r d i d ,
b a s t i a l g r i n , w h i c h c a s t a c o l d shadow o f m o r a l n a s t i -
ness i n t o every h e a r t . The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n was accompanied
by a s i c k e n i n g s t e n c h o f the g r a v e y a r d (VA 2 2 ) .

Thus i s a c e n t r a l m o t i f i n t r o d u c e d . N i g h t s p o r e , who t h r o u g h dreaming

has m a i n t a i n e d some c o n t a c t w i t h the r e a l w o r l d , r e a l i s e s t h a t t h a t is

" C r y s t a l m a n ' s e x p r e s s i o n on i t s face" (VA 2 3 ) . The u l t i m a t e mockery

o f the body and the phenomenal w o r l d i t i n h a b i t s i s the g r i n o f the

skull. There i s t h e s m e l l o f the g r a v e y a r d , and we may r e c a l l t h e s m e l l

of the g r a v e y a r d i n w h i c h Hamlet p h i l o s o p h i z e s over the s k u l l of the

former j e s t e r , "Not one now t o mock y o u r own g r i n n i n g " (Hamlet, V . i . 1 8 7 ) .

The g r i n o f t h e s k u l l , the f a c e o f C r y s t a l m a n , i s worn i n death by a l l

of H i s c h i l d r e n on Tormance: C r i m t y p h o n , Tydomin, G l e a m e i l , L e e h a l l f a e ,

and S u l l e n b o d e . It is the s i g n o f damnation. I t i s "the true likeness

of S h a p i n g " : " I t i s Shaping s t r i p p e d o f i l l u s i o n " (VA 1 4 7 ) . Maskull

h i m s e l f i s one o f C r y s t a l m a n ' s c h i l d r e n , and, h i s name a s s u r e s u s , he

too must wear i t i n d e a t h , when the mask of i l l u s i o n , i s s t r i p p e d o f f , and

the g r i n n i n g s k u l l r e v e a l e d . The N i g h t s p o r e l i b e r a t e d by M a s k u l l ' s death

f i n d s the g r i n t o be t h e whole n a t u r e o f the shadow, the darkness that is

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Crystalman: " t h e darkness around h i m , on a l l f o u r s i d e s , was g r i n n i n g "

(VA 2 8 6 ) . I n the words of the S y b i l , "Nowhere was t h e r e e a r t h n o r

24

heaven above, / But a g r i n n i n g gap."

At the end o f the f i r s t and at the b e g i n n i n g o f the second chapter,

Krag's rough humour c o n t r a s t s b e a u t i f u l l y w i t h the s t i l t e d n a r r a t i o n

("The guests were u n u t t e r a b l y shocked t o observe . . .") appropriate to

the w o r l d of v u l g a r s u b u r b a n - v i l l a theosophy o f the o p e n i n g . Krag says,

" T r y and s i m p l i f y y o u r i d e a s , my f r i e n d . The a f f a i r i s p l a i n and serious"

(VA 2 5 ) . I t sounds i n c r e d i b l e . M a s k u l l i s asked i f he would " l i k e to

see t h e l a n d where t h i s s o r t o f f r u i t Ithe "specimen g o b l i n " ] grows w i l d "

(VA 2 2 ) ; t h a t i s , Tormance, w h i c h i s " t h e r e s i d e n t i a l suburb o f A r c t u r u s "

(VA 2 4 ) . Much as through a " P e r s p e c t i v e G l a s s " C h r i s t i a n i s shown " t h e

25

Gates of the C e l e s t i a l C i t y " by the Shepherds, M a s k u l l i s shown, through

a l e n s , a c l o s e - u p v i e w of the double s t a r and i t s p l a n e t , as a s i g n . A

few days l a t e r , M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e t r a v e l northwards to the b l e a k

observatory o f S t a r k n e s s ( s t r e s s e d as a s p o n d e e ) , i n S c o t l a n d . This is

the f i r s t s t a g e of a l o n g j o u r n e y , taken c o n s i s t e n t l y northwards.

The l i g h t of. A l p p a i n can sometimes be seen i n the N o r t h e r n sky

(VA 1 1 2 ) ; B r a n c h s p e l l , l i k e our own s u n , s e t s i n the west (VA 142). On

e a r t h , the n o r t h i s ' t h e l a n d o f t h e m i d n i g h t s u n ' , and A l p p a i n i s , as

we have s e e n , a k i n d o f ' n o c t u r n a l s u n ' , l i g h t i n g God's road r a t h e r than

the w o r l d ' s . A g a i n , on e a r t h t h e n o r t h has been the home of the Norsemen,

whom L i n d s a y admired and c l a i m e d as h i s a n c e s t o r s , and the c o u n t r y of

the Norsemen has a w i l d and s u b l i m e grandeur (as noted by C a r l y l e and

M o r r i s ) unknown i n e f f e t e s o u t h e r n c l i m e s . L a s t l y , although Surt'comes

 140

from the s o u t h at the end o f the w o r l d , i n I c e l a n d i c l i t e r a t u r e "the

n o r t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y the l a n d of death and the l a n d o f man's

26 27
enemies." " H e l i s a l s o somewhat t o the n o r t h as w e l l as downward."

I n the a p o c a l y p s e , a c c o r d i n g to the 'Song o f the S y b i l , ' "Men t r e a d

28

H e l ' s Road." Maskull follows a straight and narrow p a t h t o H e l l

a c c o r d i n g to "an i n f a l l i b l e r u l e , " he t e l l s Corpang: " I always go

due n o r t h " (VA 2 2 4 ) . T h i s must l e a d h i m t o h i s death i n the hands of

h i s enemy, C r y s t a l m a n . M a s k u l l ' s death i s a l s o the end o f the w o r l d ,

s i n c e the w o r l d (any w o r l d , Schopenhauer would argue) i s o n l y h i s idea:

Tormance i s the p r o j e c t i o n o f M a s k u l l ' s m i n d . When M a s k u l l d i e s , it

dissolves, and N i g h t s p o r e f i n d s h i m s e l f c l i m b i n g a tower w h i c h must be

the same as the tower of S t a r k n e s s , from w h i c h the voyage began.

The o b s e r v a t o r y a t S t a r k n e s s i s " a square tower o f g r a n i t e masonry,

29

s e v e n t y f e e t i n h e i g h t " . (VA 29) w i t h s i x windows a l l f a c i n g e a s t

( s u n r i s e ) and l o o k i n g o v e r the s e a . I n l i t e r a t u r e the tower i s a t r a d -

i t i o n a l i c o n , l i t e r a l l y p r o v i d i n g and f i g u r a t i v e l y s y m b o l i s i n g an increase

in vision. None may a s c e n d , Bacon p o i n t e d o u t , except by the w i n d i n g

stair. Many poets have used t h i s i c o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y M i l t o n , R i l k e and

Y e a t s , b u t s t a n d i n g b e h i n d the whole p o e t i c t r a d i t i o n , most i m p o r t a n t l y ,

i s Dante. Gilgamesh r e a l i s e s t h a t " o n l y the gods l i v e f o r e v e r w i t h

g l o r i o u s Shamash, b u t as f o r us men, our days are numbered, our occupa-

t i o n s are a b r e a t h of w i n d " and he asks,. "Where i s the man who can clamber

30

to heaven?" I n The D i v i n e Comedy, t h i s i s what ' D a n t e ' does, h u t i t

i s o n l y a v i s i o n , and h i s poem b u t a b r e a t h of w i n d . The s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n

w r i t e r , A r t h u r C. C l a r k e , w r i t e s ,
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Of a l l the n a t u r a l f o r c e s , g r a v i t y i s the most m y s t e r -

i o u s and the most i m p l a c a b l e . I t c o n t r o l s our l i v e s
from b i r t h t o d e a t h , k i l l i n g o r maiming us i f we make
the s l i g h t e s t s l i p . No wonder t h a t , c o n s c i o u s o f t h e i r
e a r t h - b o u n d s l a v e r y , men have always l o o k e d w i s t f u l l y
at b i r d s and c l o u d s , and have p i c t u r e d the sky as the
abode o f the gods. The v e r y e x p r e s s i o n ' h e a v e n l y b e i n g '
i m p l i e s a freedom from g r a v i t y w h i c h , u n t i l the p r e s e n t ,
we have known o n l y i n our dreams ( 3 1 ) .

' D a n t e ' has the extreme good f o r t u n e to grow l i g h t e r as he c l i m b s .

V i r g i l t e l l s h i m , "Such i s t h i s m o u n t a i n , / That i t i s always arduous

s t a r t i n g up, / But the f u r t h e r up one goes, the l e s s i t h u r t s " (II 4).

J u s t the r e v e r s e i s the case f o r M a s k u l l when he t r i e s t o climb the

ziggurat or pathway t o heaven t h a t i s the tower a t Starkness:

H a r d l y had he mounted h a l f a dozen s t e p s , however, b e f o r e

he was compelled to p a u s e , to g a i n b r e a t h . He seemed t o
be c a r r y i n g u p s t a i r s n o t one M a s k u l l , b u t t h r e e . As he
p r o c e e d e d , the s e n s a t i o n o f c r u s h i n g w e i g h t , so f a r from
d i m i n i s h i n g , grew worse and w o r s e . I t was n e a r l y p h y s i c -
a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o go o n ; h i s lungs c o u l d n o t take i n
enough ©xygen, w h i l e h i s h e a r t thumped l i k e a s h i p ' s
engine (VA 3 6 ) .

Even at the end o f A Voyage, when N i g h t s p o r e has been f r e e d of the burden

of the f l e s h w h i c h i s M a s k u l l , N i g h t s p o r e e x p e r i e n c e s a g r e a t d e a l of

d i f f i c u l t y i n c l i m b i n g the t o w e r , t h e " l a d d e r to h e a v e n " (VA 2 8 1 ) :

A f t e r he had mounted a dozen s t e p s o r s o , he paused to

take b r e a t h . Each s t e p was i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o
a s c e n d ; he f e l t as though he were c a r r y i n g a heavy man
on h i s s h o u l d e r s . I t s t r u c k a f a m i l i a r chord i n h i s
mind (VA 2 8 1 ) .

The a s c e n t grew more and more e x h a u s t i n g , so much so t h a t

he had f r e q u e n t l y to s i t down, u t t e r l y crushed by h i s own
deadweight. S t i l l , he got t o the t h i r d window (yA 2 8 2 ) .
 142

N i g h t s p o r e had a foreknowledge t h a t the s i x t h window

would prove to be the l a s t . N o t h i n g w o u l d have k e p t
him from a s c e n d i n g to i t , f o r he guessed t h a t the n a t u r e
o f C r y s t a l m a n h i m s e l f would t h e r e become m a n i f e s t . Every
s t e p upward was l i k e a b l o o d y - l i f e - a n d - d e a t h s t r u g g l e .
The s t a i r s n a i l e d him to the ground; the a i r p r e s s u r e
caused b l o o d t o gush from h i s nose and e a r s ; h i s head
clanged l i k e an i r o n b e l l (VA 284-^85) .

Nightspore experiences such d i f f i c u l t y because he i s p a s s i n g through

the opaque body o f C r y s t a l m a n ; he i s , literally, c l i m b i n g out o f

c r e a t i o n , out of the r i v e r of m a t t e r : "As soon as h i s head was above

t h e t r a p , b r e a t h i n g the f r e e a i r , he had the same p h y s i c a l sensation

32

as a man s t e p p i n g out o f w a t e r " (VA 2 8 6 ) .

M a s k u l l ' s r i g i d l y n o r t h w a r d t r i p a c r o s s Tormance has some ups and

downs t o keep i t d r a m a t i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g . These are n o t t o w e r s , but

more n a t u r a l z i g g u r a t s : mountains, l i k e Dante's. "We have made the

m o u n t a i n - t o p a symbol f o r a c o n d i t i o n of mind open to e v e r y influence

of t h e sky and d o m i n a t i n g the v a s t l a n d s c a p e o f e a r t h " w r i t e s Maud

33
B o d k i n , when d i s c u s s i n g Dante. J . A . M a c C u l l o c h has found t h a t t h e r e
34

is . . . e v i d e n c e of mountain w o r s h i p among I the a n c i e n t c e l t s ] . " We

have a l r e a d y p o i n t e d out t h a t some o f L i n d s a y ' s names c o n t a i n s u g g e s t i o n s

of m o u n t a i n s : Tormance, A l p p a i n , K r a g . C o l i n W i l s o n has suggested t h a t

o t h e r names i n A Voyage "seem t o be d e r i v e d from S c o t t i s h names. One

has o n l y to l o o k a t the names of peaks v i s i b l e from Ben N e v i s t o see the

resemblance: C o r p a c h , G u l v a i n , Ben S g r i o l , Ladhar B h e i n n , w h i l e Loch

Hourn i m m e d i a t e l y b r i n g s D i s c o u r n [ s i c ] t o m i n d " (TSG 4 8 ) . There are

t h r e e i m p o r t a n t mountain areas on Tormance: the Ifdawn M a r e s t , Sant,

and L i c h s t o r m .
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Maskull f l i e s on a shrowk, a monster r e m i n i s c e n t of Dante's

Geryon ( I 1 7 ) , w i t h Oceaxe, to the mountains o f the Ifdawn M a r e s t .

T h i s i s , as the name s u g g e s t s , a l a n d where almost a n y t h i n g i s pos-

sible. The "mountains have most e x t r a o r d i n a r y shapes. A l l the l i n e s

are s t r a i g h t and p e r p e n d i c u l a r — n o s l o p e s o r c u r v e s " (VA 8 9 ) . Oceaxe

says " t h a t ' s t y p i c a l of I f d a w n . N a t u r e i s a l l hammer blows w i t h us.

N o t h i n g s o f t and g r a d u a l . " I t i s " a p l a c e of q u i c k d e c i s i o n s " (VA 8 9 ) .

I t i s the w o r l d as w i l l . Everyone a c t s from naked w i l l t o power.

M a s k u l l has j u s t l e f t Panawe and J o i w i n d , who have renounced w i l l al-

t o g e t h e r , who l i v e on w a t e r , and i n i n n o c e n c e . W i t h Oceaxe, Maskull

has t r a v e l l e d t o a w o r l d o f e x p e r i e n c e , where t h e v i e w i s that "animals

were made to be e a t e n , and s i m p l e n a t u r e s were made t o be absorbed"

(VA 8 8 ) . There has been some i n c r e a s e i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s (there are

mountains), but i t i s p r e c a r i o u s : mountains and v a l l e y s appear and

disappear erratically. M a s k u l l sees

a l a r g e t r a c t o f f o r e s t n o t f a r ahead, b e a r i n g many
t r e e s and r o c k s , suddenly s u b s i d e d w i t h an a w f u l r o a r
and crashed down i n t o an i n v i s i b l e g u l f . What was
s o l i d l a n d one minute became a c l e a n - c u t chasm the
n e x t (VA 9 9 ) .

I t i s a w o r l d of k i l l and be k i l l e d ; l i f e on a k n i f e edge.

Sant i s much more s o l i d and r e l i a b l e than I f d a w n . I t i s not

mountainous at a l l , b u t a v e r y h i g h p l a t e a u . M a s k u l l i s now t r a v e l l i n g

w i t h Tydomin and S p a d e v i l , whose law i s duty (VA 1 3 3 ) .

S h o r t l y b e f o r e sunset they a r r i v e d a t the e x t r e m i t y

of the upland p l a i n , above w h i c h towered the b l a c k
c l i f f s of the Sant L e v e l s . A dizzy, a r t i f i c i a l l y
c o n s t r u c t e d s t a i r c a s e , o f more than a thousand s t e p s
of v a r y i n g d e p t h , t w i s t i n g and f o r k i n g i n o r d e r t o
conform to the a n g l e s o f the p r e c i p i c e s , l e d t o the
w o r l d overhead (VA 140) .
 144

From here " t h e huge p y r a m i d " of D i s s c o u r n , h i g h e s t peak of Ifdawn,

" l o o k e d n o t h i n g more than a s l i g h t s w e l l i n g on the f a c e o f the earth"

(VA 140)• But the law o f duty the t r a v e l l e r s b r i n g i s r e j e c t e d by

C a t i c e on b e h a l f of the men o f S a n t . T h e i r s o c i e t y i s not perfect,

b u t i t i s the b e s t t h a t can be managed. F o r one t h i n g , i t i s an a l l -

male s o c i e t y , and C a t i c e i s n o t about to a l l o w any women i n t o i t .

For a n o t h e r , duty i s " b u t a c l o a k under w h i c h we s h a r e the p l e a s u r e

of o t h e r p e o p l e " (VA 145). Maskull decides,

H e n c e f o r w a r d , as l o n g as I l i v e , I s h a l l f i g h t w i t h
my n a t u r e , and r e f u s e t o f e e l p l e a s u r e ,

for

the w o r l d w i t h i t s sweetness seems to me a s o r t of

charnel house. I f e e l a loathing for everything i n
i t , i n c l u d i n g m y s e l f (VA 1 4 5 ) .

The l a n d of Sant may be f l a t and u n e x c i t i n g (Wayne Booth says "Even

35

the most e l e v a t e d p l a t e a u i s l e s s i n t e r e s t i n g than a m o u n t a i n " ) but

i t i s s e c u r e and r e l i a b l e and the b e s t t h a t can be g o t . To h a t e

p l e a s u r e and a v o i d women i s the b e s t way to a v o i d C r y s t a l m a n ' s traps.

M a s k u l l does n o t , o f c o u r s e , remember what he has l e a r n e d i n Sant

when p u r s u i n g o t h e r i n t e r e s t s i n o t h e r l a n d s c a p e s , o t h e r w i s e he would

n o t f a l l f o r S u l l e n b o d e , who l i v e s on the mountain c a l l e d S a r c l a s h in

the l a n d of L i c h s t o r m . This land i s a l i t t l e l i k e Ifdawn, but w i t h o u t

Ifdawn's mercenary v u l g a r i t y . The Mornstab P a s s , seen by the l i g h t o f

Tormance's moon, T e a r g e l d , has a " w i l d , n o b l e , l o n e l y b e a u t y " (VA 248)

" S a r c l a s h was a mighty mountain mass i n the shape of a h o r s e s h o e . Its

two ends p o i n t e d w e s t , and were s e p a r a t e d from e a c h o t h e r by a m i l e o r

more of empty s p a c e . The n o r t h e r n end became the r i d g e on w h i c h they

 145

stood" (VA 2 4 9 ) . I t i s a l o n g t h i s r i d g e , which corresponds to the

knife-edge p r e c i p i c e j o i n i n g Panawe's homeland t o the Ifdawn Marest

(VA 7 0 - 7 1 ) , t h a t M a s k u l l , S u l l e n b o d e and Corpang t r a v e l . A l o n g the

ridge, " t h e road descended by an easy g r a d i e n t , and was f o r a l o n g

distance c o m p a r a t i v e l y smooth" (VA 2 5 1 ) . The g o i n g i s e a s y — d o w n h i l l .

Virgil tells the c l i m b i n g Dante t o

r i s e u p , and master y o u r e x h a u s t i o n
W i t h the s p i r i t , w h i c h w i n s every b a t t l e ,
P r o v i d e d the body does n o t drag i t down ( I 24).

We have seen b o t h M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e , i n c l i m b i n g the tower to

h e a v e n , f i g h t i n g w i t h the w e i g h t of c r e a t i o n . A l s o , l i g h t has an

opposite i n dark as w e l l as i n heavy. Dante i s c l i m b i n g towards the

l i g h t , and even he "cannot t r a v e l up by n i g h t " :

You c o u l d n o t even
Pass beyond t h i s l i n e , once the sun had gone.
Not t h a t a n y t h i n g b u t the dark of n i g h t
Could h i n d e r y o u from making the a s c e n t .
That dark a l o n e makes the w i l l powerless ( I I 7 ) .

In h i s f i r s t attempt to c l i m b the t o w e r , M a s k u l l attempts to l i g h t h i s

own way w i t h a few h a s t i l y s t r u c k matches (VA 3 6 - 3 7 ) : they are a poor

substitute f o r Muspel f i r e . Krag i s the b e a r e r o f the l i g h t , though on

e a r t h i t i s o n l y a " f e e b l y g l i m m e r i n g l a n t e r n " (VA 3 9 ) . The t h r e e men

c l i m b the tower t o g e t h e r a f t e r M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e have had t h e i r arms

slashed: they are now dead to E a r t h and the tower i s not a z i g g u r a t but

a launching platform. K r a g goes f i r s t w i t h the l a n t e r n : "the others

hastened a f t e r h i m , to t a k e advantage o f the l i g h t " (VA 4 0 ) . Maskull

s t o p s t o l o o k out of a window. " K r a g and N i g h t s p o r e meanwhile had gone

on ahead w i t h the l i g h t , so t h a t he had to complete the a s c e n t i n

darkness" (VA 4 1 ) .
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On Tormance, i m p o r t a n t s y m b o l i c a l v a l u e i s a t t a c h e d to the light

o f the t w i n s u n s , B r a n c h s p e l l and A l p p a i n , as M a s k u l l t r a v e l s from

Branchspell's day to A l p p a i n ' s , from the south t o the n o r t h . These

suns we d i s c u s s e d i n Chapters Three and F o u r . Tormance i s a l s o l i t

by a t h i r d h e a v e n l y body, the moon T e a r g e l d . This plays only a s m a l l

p a r t i n the a l l e g o r y , and i t s g e n e r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e seems to be roughly

t h a t of our own moon. F i r s t l y i t makes l a n d s c a p e s m y s t e r i o u s and

beautiful, and i s t h e r e f o r e an agent of C r y s t a l m a n , who l i k e s the

mysterious and b e a u t i f u l . H i s w o r l d i s r e a l l y , of c o u r s e , a "charnel

h o u s e " (VA 145) o f w i l l i n g and k i l l i n g . I t i s Teargeld that gives

Lichstorm i t s " w i l d , noble, l o n e l y b e a u t y " (VA 2 4 8 ) . Secondly the

moon, s i n c e i t waxes and wanes p e r i o d i c a l l y , s i n c e i t i s inconstant,

and s i n c e i t s h i n e s by r e f l e c t e d l i g h t , is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h woman, whom

the Archons d e s i g n e d to keep man bound to the w o r l d . Teargeld lights

the j o u r n e y of M a s k u l l and S u l l e n b o d e , and t h a t o f M a s k u l l and G l e a m e i l

— h e r name s u g g e s t s a fragment of m o o n l i g h t — o n Swaylone's Island.

T h i r d l y , as the female muse, the moon l i g h t s the w o r l d o f p o e t s . Keats

i s an e a r t h l y example, E a r t h r i d a Tormantic one. When M a s k u l l and

G l e a m e i l go to see E a r t h r i d p l a y h i s l a k e - l i k e i n s t r u m e n t I r o n t i c k , he

must w a i t f o r the moon to r i s e b e f o r e s t a r t i n g . He c r e a t e s a w o r l d of

shapes w h i c h i s a d i f f e r e n t r e a l i t y from the r e a l i t y o f the w o r l d (he

i s e a r t h - r i d ) , b u t i t i s n o t the t r u e r e a l i t y of M u s p e l . H i s music

comes from the s u b c o n s c i o u s (the l a k e ) , n o t from the w o r l d beyond. It

i s l i t n o t by the n o c t u r n a l s u n , but by the o r d i n a r y moon.

A c c o r d i n g to E a r t h r i d , t h e r e are two k i n d s o f m u s i c : t h a t based on

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p l e a s u r e and t h a t based on p a i n . He t e l l s M a s k u l l , "my music is

founded on p a i n f u l t o n e s ; and thus i t s symmetry i s w i l d , and d i f f i c u l t

to discover; i t s emotion i s b i t t e r and t e r r i b l e " (VA 1 8 1 ) . The m a t e r i a l

a t the Demiurge's d i s p o s a l proved i n t r a c t a b l e , but

I f S h a p i n g ' s p l a n s had gone s t r a i g h t , l i f e would have

been l i k e t h a t o t h e r s o r t of m u s i c . He who seeks can
f i n d t r a c e s o f t h a t i n t e n t i o n i n the w o r l d of n a t u r e .
But as i t has t u r n e d o u t , r e a l l i f e resembles my music
and mine i s the t r u e music (VA 181).

E a r t h r i d i s not p l a y i n g Crystalman's t u n e , even i f he i s n o t p l a y i n g

Surtur's: though E a r t h r i d i s k i l l e d , we are n o t t o l d t h a t i n death he

wears the C r y s t a l m a n g r i n (VA 1 8 7 ) . In f a c t , using E a r t h r i d ' s instrument,

M a s k u l l i s a b l e to c o n j u r e up the M u s p e l r a d i a n c e , alongside which "Tear-

g e l d looked f a i n t and p a l e " (VA 1 8 5 ) , and " f i n a l l y disappeared e n t i r e l y . "

" M a s k u l l p l a y e d h e r o i c a l l y o n " (VA 185):

The r a d i a n c e grew t e r r i b l e . I t was everywhere, b u t

M a s k u l l f a n c i e d t h a t i t was f a r b r i g h t e r i n one p a r t -
i c u l a r quarter. He thought t h a t i t was becoming
l o c a l i z e d , preparatory to c o n t r a c t i n g i n t o a s o l i d
form....
Immediately a f t e r w a r d t h e bottom o f the l a k e
subsided. I t s waters f e l l t h r o u g h , and h i s i n s t r u m e n t
was b r o k e n .
The M u s p e l - l i g h t v a n i s h e d . The moon shone out
a g a i n , b u t M a s k u l l c o u l d n o t see i t . A f t e r t h a t u n e a r t h l y
s h i n i n g , he seemed t o h i m s e l f to be i n t o t a l b l a c k n e s s
(VA 1 8 5 - 8 6 ) .

A r t of the r i g h t k i n d ( p a i n f u l and d i f f i c u l t ) may be u s e f u l i n g i v i n g us

an i d e a o f the w o r l d o f M u s p e l , b u t i t cannot b r i n g the w o r l d i n t o b e i n g .

Its i n s t r u m e n t s cannot cope w i t h the s t r a i n .

As was p o i n t e d out i n Chapter F o u r , C r y s t a l m a n ' s tune i s a w a l t z ,

while Surtur's i s a march rhythm on a drum. We have t o go on a little

e x c u r s i o n from S t a r k n e s s f o r t h i s m o t i f t o be i n t r o d u c e d , though i t is
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i m p l i c i t i n M a s k u l l ' s experience c l i m b i n g the tower f o r the f i r s t time,

on h i s r e t u r n from the e x c u r s i o n ( " h i s h e a r t thumped l i k e a ship's

engine" [VA 3 6 ] ) . N i g h t s p o r e takes M a s k u l l to " a showplace" (VA 3 4 ) ,

the gap of S o r g i e (from the German s o r g e , c a r e ) . To get t h e r e they

have t o traverse

a narrow l e d g e , w i n d i n g a l o n g the f a c e of the p r e c i p i c e

a few y a r d s beneath where they were s t a n d i n g . I t averaged
from f i f t e e n to t h i r t y i n c h e s i n w i d t h . . . . The s h e l f
d i d not extend f o r above a q u a r t e r of a m i l e , b u t i t s
passage was somewhat u n n e r v i n g ; t h e r e was a sheer drop t o
the sea f o u r hundred f e e t below (VA 3 4 - 3 5 ) .

A t the end of t h i s ledge i s a " f a i r - s i z e d p l a t f o r m o f r o c k " o v e r l o o k i n g

" a narrow i n l e t of the s e a . " T h i s i s the Gap of S o r g i e . Maskull follows

N i g h t s p o r e ' s example i n " l y i n g at f u l l l e n g t h , f a c e downward" and s t a r i n g

"straight down a t the w a t e r . " " W h i l e he was i n e f f e c t u a l l y g a z i n g , he

h e a r d what sounded l i k e the b e a t i n g of a drum. . . . I t was v e r y f a i n t ,

but quite d i s t i n c t . " "The b e a t s were i n no way drowned by the f a r l o u d e r

sound of the s u r f , b u t seemed to b e l o n g to a d i f f e r e n t w o r l d " (VA 3 5 ) .

Nightspore prophesies t h a t M a s k u l l w i l l h e a r the sound a g a i n and s a y s ,

" O n l y t r y always to h e a r i t more and more d i s t i n c t l y " (VA 3 6 ) . Maskull

does h e a r the sound a g a i n . In f a c t , he f o l l o w s i t a l l the way a c r o s s

Tormance, and the d i s c o v e r y o f i t s o r i g i n w i l l c o n s t i t u t e h i s own f i n a l

vision.

Soon a f t e r a r r i v i n g on Tormance, when w i t h Panawe and J o i w i n d ,

M a s k u l l r e p e a t s the e x p e r i e n c e he has had w i t h N i g h t s p o r e . He w a l k s out

onto a l a k e , " l a y down a t f u l l l e n g t h , and peered i n t o the d e p t h s . It

was w e i r d l y c l e a r : he c o u l d see down f o r an i n d e f i n i t e d i s t a n c e , w i t h o u t

a r r i v i n g a t any b o t t o m " (VA 6 5 ) . H i s t r i p t o Tormance has b r o u g h t M a s k u l l

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much c l o s e r to the s u r f a c e , v i z . of the m a t e r i a l w o r l d (which seems

r e a l but i s dreamlike) and to p e n e t r a t i n g through to the reality.

He h e a r s " t h e rhythm of a drum" (VA 6 6 ) :

The sound appeared to h i m to b e l o n g to a d i f f e r e n t w o r l d

from t h a t i n w h i c h he was t r a v e l i n g . The l a t t e r was
m y s t i c a l , d r e a m l i k e , and u n b e l i e v a b l e — t h e drumming was
l i k e a v e r y dim undertone of r e a l i t y (VA 6 6 ) .

I n t h i s case—though no l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i o n i s i m p l i e d — t h e experience

o f the drumming i s f o l l o w e d by M a s k u l l ' s b e i n g " t o r m e n t e d " (VA 66) by

the b l u e l i g h t of A l p p a i n , w h i c h has j u s t set.

I f the drum-taps are " l i k e a v e r y dim undertone o f r e a l i t y " (VA 6 6 ) ,

then t h i s w o r l d must be f a l s e . This i s the c o n c l u s i o n M a s k u l l reaches

when he has " f l u n g h i m s e l f at f u l l l e n g t h on h i s c h e s t , to see what

c o u l d be seen of the l a k e o f f i r e " (VA 127) i n w h i c h Tydomin i s b u r y i n g

Crimtyphon:

A f a i n t sound o f drumming came up. He l i s t e n e d i n t e n t l y ,

and as he d i d so h i s h e a r t quickened and the b l a c k c a r e s
r o l l e d away from h i s s o u l . A l l the w o r l d and i t s a c c i d -
e n t s seemed at t h a t moment f a l s e , and w i t h o u t meaning
(VA 127).

I f the drumming reminds us we are a l i e n s i n a false world, then i t must

a l s o remind us o f our t r u e home:

The drum b e a t s had t h i s p e c u l i a r i t y — t h o u g h odd and

m y s t i c a l , t h e r e was n o t h i n g a w e - i n s p i r i n g i n them, b u t
on the c o n t r a r y they reminded [ M a s k u l l ] o f some p l a c e
and some l i f e w i t h w h i c h he was p e r f e c t l y f a m i l i a r (VA 151).

Our t r u e home i s the w o r l d o f M u s p e l . But t h a t i s , as we have s e e n , the

w o r l d which N i g h t s p o r e , not M a s k u l l , w i l l e v e n t u a l l y r e a c h . Further,

M a s k u l l must d i e to make t h i s p o s s i b l e . T h i s i s s i g n i f i e d by the v i s i o n

M a s k u l l sees when he has e a t e n the f r u i t g i v e n to h i m by Dreamsinter.

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"The now f a m i l i a r drum rhythm was h e a r d — t h i s time accompanied by

the tramp o f marching f e e t " (VA 153). M a s k u l l sees phantom M a s k u l l ,

K r a g and N i g h t s p o r e marching p a s t h i m to " t h e p u l s e o f the drum"

(VA 153). Phantom K r a g s t a b s phantom M a s k u l l i n the back w h i l e phantom

" N i g h t s p o r e marched on a l o n e , s t e r n and unmoved" (VA 154) towards the

Muspel l i g h t w h i c h i s now a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the drumming. "Maskull felt

h i s s o u l l o o s e n i n g from i t s b o d i l y e n v e l o p e . " " H i s body was incapable

of e n d u r i n g such s h o c k s , and a l l of a sudden he tumbled o v e r i n a f a i n t

t h a t resembled d e a t h " (VA 154). The r e a l N i g h t s p o r e i s , of course,

i n s i d e M a s k u l l , who must d i e f o r h i s complementary double t o be released.

When t h i s happens, we d i s c o v e r the s o u r c e of the drumming.

I n the r e f e r e n c e s to the drumming, L i n d s a y has r e p e a t e d l y mentioned

the b e a t i n g of M a s k u l l ' s h e a r t . On the s t e p s of the t o w e r , " h i s heart

thumped l i k e a s h i p ' s e n g i n e " (VA 3 6 ) ; above the l a k e o f f i r e " h i s heart

q u i c k e n e d " (VA 12 7 ) . H e a r i n g the drumming w i t h Corpang, " M a s k u l l ' s

h e a r t b e a t q u i c k l y " (VA 2 2 1 ) ; h e a r i n g i t w i t h Sullenbode

M a s k u l l ' s heart beat w i l d l y . H i s body was l i k e a p r i s o n .

He longed t o throw i t o f f , to s p r i n g up and become i n c o r -
p o r a t e d w i t h the s u b l i m e u n i v e r s e which was b e g i n n i n g t o
u n v e i l i t s e l f (VA 2 5 9 ) .

When M a s k u l l f i n a l l y d i e s on S u r t u r ' s Ocean, the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s

explicitly made:

H i s h e a r t was thumping h e a v i l y and q u e e r l y ; i t s b e a t i n g

reminded h i m of the drum t a p s . He gazed l a n g u i d l y at
the r i p p l i n g w a t e r , and i t seemed to him as i f he c o u l d
see r i g h t through i t . . . away, away down . . . to a s t r a n g e
fire....
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The w a t e r d i s a p p e a r e d . The two suns were e x t i n g u i s h e d .

The i s l a n d was transformed i n t o a c l o u d , and M a s k u l l — a l o n e
on i t — w a s f l o a t i n g through the a t m o s p h e r e . . . . Down b e l o w ,
i t was a l l f i r e — t h e f i r e of M u s p e l . The l i g h t mounted
h i g h e r and h i g h e r , u n t i l i t f i l l e d the whole w o r l d . . . .
He f l o a t e d toward an immense p e r p e n d i c u l a r c l i f f o f
b l a c k r o c k , w i t h o u t top o r b o t t o m . Halfway up i t K r a g ,
suspended i n m i d a i r , was d e a l i n g t e r r i f i c blows at a b l o o d -
r e d s p o t w i t h a huge hammer: The r h y t h m i c a l c l a n g i n g sounds
were h i d e o u s .
P r e s e n t l y M a s k u l l made out t h a t these sounds were the
f a m i l i a r drum b e a t s . "What are you d o i n g , K r a g ? " he a s k e d .
K r a g suspended h i s w o r k , and t u r n e d a r o u n d .
" B e a t i n g on your h e a r t , M a s k u l l , " was h i s g r i n n i n g r e -
sponse (VA 2 7 6 - 7 7 ) .

"You know o n l y the s p a r k s o f the s p i r i t : but you do n o t see the a n v i l

36

w h i c h the s p i r i t i s , n o r the f e r o c i t y of i t s hammer!" says Zarathustra.

D i s c o v e r i n g the f e r o c i t y of t h a t hammer c o s t s M a s k u l l h i s l i f e . "A

f r i g h t f u l pang passed through M a s k u l l ' s h e a r t , and he d i e d immediately"

(VA 2 7 7 ) .

B e f o r e d y i n g , M a s k u l l asks K r a g , "Who are y o u ? " (VA 2 7 7 ) , b u t he gets

37
no r e p l y . Krag i s S u r t u r . Like Blake's Los (who i n B l a k e i s identical
38
with Christ ) , K r a g comes to f r e e man from the p r i s o n of the body, to
39

break the f e t t e r s of t i m e , and r e s t o r e us to e t e r n i t y . Thus, Maskull's

death i s a l s o N i g h t s p o r e ' s birth: Nightspore reawakes t o c l i m b the tower

which M a s k u l l f a i l e d to c l i m b at the b e g i n n i n g of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s .

I n c l i m b i n g the t o w e r , N i g h t s p o r e l e a v e s the f a l s e day-dream w o r l d o f

c r e a t i o n b e h i n d , and r e t u r n s to h i s t r u e home. T h i s use of the i c o n o f

the tower i s t r a d i t i o n a l , b u t L i n d s a y has another symbol f o r the d e s i r e of

the s p i r i t t o r e t u r n home, and t h a t i s the back rays w h i c h power the s p a c e -

ship. A g a i n the i d e a o f back r a y s , as w i t h so much e l s e i n A Voyage to

A r c t u r u s , may have been suggested by George MacDonald. In L i l i t h , M r .

 152

Vane sees l i g h t d i s a p p e a r i n g i n t o a m i r r o r , and n o t b e i n g r e f l e c t e d

out a g a i n . "Where are the sunrays gone?" he a s k s . " ' T h a t I cannot

tell,' r e t u r n e d M r . Raven; " ' — b a c k , perhaps, to where they came from

first"' (40).

A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s i s n o t o n l y a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , it is

a l s o space f a n t a s y . The voyage to Tormance i s t o be made from the top

of the tower at S t a r k n e s s i n what i s , f o r 1920, r a t h e r an o l d - f a s h i o n e d

41

space-ship: i t i s a " t o r p e d o o f c r y s t a l " (VA 43) " f o r t y feet long,

e i g h t w i d e , and e i g h t h i g h " (VA 4 4 ) . The main d i f f e r e n c e between this

and, f o r example, Hugh M a c C o l l ' s ' S h o o t i n g S t a r ' (1899) i s t h a t L i n d s a y ,

l o g i c a l l y , puts the f u e l tank a t the f r o n t . Very e a r l y space-flight

stories tended to use f a n t a s t i c — o f t e n l u d i c r o u s — w a y s o f g e t t i n g to our

satellite: B i s h o p Godwin's a s t r o n a u t was towed by a team o f w i l d geese

( 1 6 3 8 ) , K e p l e r ' s by demons (1634)—a method r e ^ s u r r e c t e d r e c e n t l y by

the a n t i - s c i e n t i f i c C. S. L e w i s . I n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , Joseph A .

Herley started something o f a new t r e n d i n h i s A Voyage to the Moon

(1827) by u s i n g a newly ' d i s c o v e r e d ' s u b s t a n c e a t t r a c t e d to the moon

42

and c a l l e d , a p p r o p r i a t e l y enough, l u n a r i u m . Mark Wicks i n To Mars v i a

the Moon (1911) found ' m a r t i a l u m ' t o have s i m i l a r p r o p e r t i e s . Such

d e v i c e s are c o n v e n i e n t and p s e u d o - s c i e n t i f i c : they do n o t mean a n y t h i n g .

Lindsay's space-ship, however, w h i l e i t i s powered by a s i m i l a r d e v i c e ,

does have meaning, and so do the A r c t u r a n back r a y s which power i t .

L i n d s a y ' s s p a c e - s h i p i s a womb. Damon K n i g h t , i n a c o l l e c t i o n of

reviews o f s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n , s a y s , " I t h i n k i t i s s a f e t o p o s t u l a t e that

'an a l i e n l a n d s i n a s p a c e - s h i p ' is d r e a m - t a l k f o r ' a baby i s b o r n , ' and

 153

t h a t the passengers o f such s h i p s are bound to be f o e t a l . " For t h i s

reason, perhaps, the t h r e e t r a v e l l e r s s t r i p naked b e f o r e embarking.

When M a s k u l l wakes up, a l o n e , on Tormance, he i s n e w - b o r n : his 'mother'

is Joiwind. To be r e b o r n one must d i e . M a s k u l l has been s y m b o l i c a l l y

44

murdered by K r a g , who has s l a s h e d h i s arm (VA 40) i n o r d e r t o enable

him t o c l i m b the tower to the s p a c e - s h i p , and thus to be t r a n s p o r t e d by

the b a c k - r a y s an enormous d i s t a n c e homewards.

When w a i t i n g w i t h N i g h t s p o r e i n the tower at S t a r k n e s s , Maskull

a c c i d e n t a l l y knocks over a b o t t l e l a b e l e d ' S o l a r Back R a y s ' (VA 3 1 ) .

The b o t t l e d i s a p p e a r s . Nightspore e x p l a i n s :
The v a l v e became u n f a s t e n e d . The c o n t e n t s have escaped
through the open window, toward the s u n , c a r r y i n g the
b o t t l e w i t h them. But the b o t t l e w i l l be burned up by
the e a r t h ' s atmosphere, and the c o n t e n t s w i l l d i s s i p a t e ,
and w i l l n o t r e a c h the sun (VA 3 2 ) .

S o l a r Back Rays r e t u r n to the s u n , i f they c a n ; A r c t u r i a n Back Rays

r e t u r n to A r c t u r u s , t a k i n g a l o n g w i t h them the s p a c e - s h i p . Back r a y s

c o n s i s t o f " L i g h t t h a t goes back to i t s s o u r c e " (VA 3 2 ) . This i s , of

course, the whole theme of the book. It encapsulates, i n miniature,

the d e s i r e o f the fragments o f Muspel f i r e t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r source,

and of the d i s s i p a t e d fragments o f D i v i n e L i g h t , i n the G n o s t i c myth-

o l o g y , to be r e s t o r e d to the Godhead. Like Shelley's Alastor looking

a t the swan, l i k e MacDonald's Anodos l o o k i n g f o r h i s m o t h e r , l i k e Henry

i n N o v a l i s ' s Kunstmarchen, the l i g h t j o u r n e y s homewards. But w h i l e the

s p i r i t is willing, as the proverb puts i t , the f l e s h i s weak. If the

b o t t l e i s burned up i n the atmosphere, the back r a y s w i l l n e v e r r e a c h

 154

the s u n . Maskull i s also a vessel: h i s f u n c t i o n — i t i s almost a

s a c r e d f u n c t i o n — i n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s i s t o c a r r y the fragment o f

l i g h t he c o n t a i n s (imprisons) to the l i m i t o f C r y s t a l m a n ' s w o r l d ,

where i t can f i n a l l y escape to M u s p e l . Maskull i s defeated, but h i s

d e f e a t i s no empty one. H i s b l o o d y j o u r n e y a c r o s s Tormance makes

victory possible.
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F o o t n o t e s t o Chapter Five

I n E a g l e and E a r w i g (London: John B a k e r , 1 9 6 6 ) , C o l i n W i l s o n

says " a c a r p i n g c r i t i c might f i n d A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s no more than
an attempt to w r i t e The World as W i l l and Idea as a n o v e l " ( p . 150).

2
A r t h u r Schopenhauer, The E s s e n t i a l Schopenhauer (London: Unwin
Books, 1 9 6 2 ) , pp. 49-50.
3
F o r Dante, as f o r the w o o l - c a r d e r s o f H e r a c l e i t u s ' fragment, "the
s t r a i g h t way and the w i n d i n g way a r e one and the s a m e . "
4
The p o i n t i s made at l e n g t h by K a t h l e e n Raine i n h e r s t u d i e s of
Dante, M i l t o n , B l a k e and Y e a t s i n Defending A n c i e n t S p r i n g s (London:
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1967). Raine mentions A Voyage i n a c h r o n o -
l o g i c a l l i s t of g r e a t f a n t a s y , p l a c i n g i t between She and P e t e r Pan
(p. 125).

^ T h i s i s a l o n g e r i n t r o d u c t i o n than i s common. C. S. Lewis s u b t i t l e s

That Hideous S t r e n g t h (London: The B o d l e y Head, 1969), the t h i r d book i n
h i s t r i l o g y , " a modern f a i r y t a l e f o r grown-ups" " i n the hope t h a t no one
who d i s l i k e s f a n t a s y may be m i s l e d by the f i r s t two c h a p t e r s i n t o r e a d i n g
f u r t h e r , and then complain of h i s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t . I f you ask w h y — i n t e n d -
i n g to w r i t e about m a g i c i a n s , d e v i l s , pantomine a n i m a l s , and p l a n e t a r y
a n g e l s — I n e v e r t h e l e s s b e g i n w i t h such humdrum scenes and p e r s o n s , I r e p l y
t h a t I am f o l l o w i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l f a i r y - t a l e " ( p . 7 ) . C u r i o u s l y enough,
t i t l e and e p i g r a p h are from the o t h e r D a v i d L i n d s a y .

J . W. Smeed, Jean P a u l ' s 'Dreams' (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,

1969), p. 9.

7
J. W. Smeed, Jean P a u l ' s 'Dreams', p. 27.

Lewis C a r r o l l ^ The Adventures o f A l i c e i n Wonderland and Through

the L o o k i n g G l a s s (London: The H e i r l o o m L i b r a r y , 1954), p . 24.

9
Lewis C a r r o l l , A l i c e i n Wonderland, p . 19.

Lewis C a r r o l l , The H u n t i n g of the Snark: An Agony i n E i g h t Fits

(London: M a c M i l l a n , 1 9 1 3 ) , p . 8.
 156

George MacDonald, L i l i t h (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1 9 6 9 ) ,

p . 11. Read i n the l i g h t of A r c t u r u s , every p h r a s e of t h i s q u o t a t i o n
has two meanings.

12
Hans J o n a s , The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n : The Message o f the A l i e n God
and the B e g i n n i n g s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , 2nd e d . ( B o s t o n : Beacon P r e s s ,
1963) , p . 176.
13
Jonas c o n t i n u e s , "and the Archons c r e a t e d man f o r the e x p r e s s
purpose of k e e p i n g i t t h e r e " (The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 4 4 ) . Crystalman
i s an A r c h o n .

"*"^Hans J o n a s , The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 44.

"'""'The most famous statement i s W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s "Whereof one cannot

speak, t h e r e o f one must remain s i l e n t . "

16
E . T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Automata' i n The B e s t T a l e s o f Hoffmann,
e d . E . F . B l e i l e r (New Y o r k : Dover P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1967), p . 95.

17
M a n as f r u i t may sound s t r a n g e , b u t i t i s n ' t . On a f a r c i c a l
l e v e l , f o r example, i n The Man Who Was Thursday (New Y o r k : Modern L i b r a r y ,
1 9 1 7 ) , D r . B u l l i s t o l d , " I dare say i t ' s the s o r t o f f a c e t h a t grows on
one . . . i n f a c t , i t grows on y o u ; and who am I to quarrel"., w i t h the
w i l d f r u i t s upon the t r e e of l i f e " (p. 1 3 2 ) . More s e r i o u s l y , i n The
G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , Hans Jonas says " t h e V a l e n t i n i a n s . . . drew an a l l e g o r -
i c a l p a r a l l e l between [ J e s u s ] and the f r u i t from the t r e e : by b e i n g
a f f i x e d to a ' w o o d , ' he 'became a F r u i t o f the Knowledge of the F a t h e r ,
w h i c h d i d n o t , however, b r i n g p e r d i t i o n upon those who ate i t ' " (p. 9 4 ) .

18
'Backhouse' would n o t seem to be a r e f e r e n c e to ' t h e room out the
b a c k , ' i . e . the l a v a t o r y . R. M. Rennick s u p p l i e s the i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t
"Backhouse was the 14th Century E n g l i s h bakehouse and was g i v e n as a name
to a person who worked i n or f o r a b a k e r y " i n 'Obscene Names and Naming
i n F o l k T r a d i t i o n , ' Names, 16 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , p . 214.
19
L i n d s a y p a r t i c u l a r l y admired t h i s s c e n e . He w r i t e s ,
What words are t o M u s i c , i n d i v i d u a l s are t o the S u b l i m e .
T h i s i s e x c e l l e n t l y shown i n the Temple scene o f the M a g i c
Flute. The massive gloom of the i n t e r i o r , the g i g a n t i c
s t a t u e s i l h o u e t t e d a g a i n s t the gleaming s k y , M o z a r t ' s hymn;
c o n t r a s t e d w i t h the d e c l a m a t i o n of the High P r i e s t , and
the double row o f w h i t e - r o b e d p r i e s t s who a s s i s t h i m . B o t h
words and men.appear a b s o l u t e l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t and meaning-
l e s s b e s i d e the music and the solemn grandeur of the
Temple (TSG 13) .
 15 7

20
T h i s a l s o can be t r a c e d to an i n c i d e n t i n L i n d s a y ' s own l i f e .
In a l e t t e r dated 9 t h September 1921, he w r i t e s t o V i s i a k :

A few weeks b e f o r e the death o f my o n l y b r o t h e r , some

y e a r s b a c k , I was awakened i n the m i d d l e o f the n i g h t
by a tremendous c r a s h , as though a chimney s t a c k had
c r a s h e d through the r o o f o v e r h e a d . That i t was n o t
i m a g i n a t i o n i n any case i s proved by the f a c t t h a t my
a u n t , who s l e p t i n the room above, came f l y i n g down-
s t a i r s f o r h e l p — s h e a l s o had h e a r d the n o i s e , and was
f r i g h t e n e d n e a r l y out o f h e r s e n s e s . The o t h e r two
inmates o f the house h e a r d n o t h i n g , and i n the morning
no damage c o u l d be d e t e c t e d e i t h e r t o o u r house o r to
any o t h e r i n the road (L 4 3 ) .

T h i s c r a s h appears t w i c e i n A Voyage: when M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e e n t e r

F a u l l ' s house (VA 18) and when, r e - e n a c t i n g the scene on Tormance,
M a s k u l l and Tydomin e n t e r a cave (VA 1 2 1 ) .

21
In a l e t t e r dated November 25, 1921, quoted by W i l s o n (TSG 4 6 ) .
22
In a l e t t e r dated May 12, 1923. Schopenhauer does i n d e e d oppose
or c o n t r a s t the s u b l i m e and the b e a u t i f u l , b u t not i n the way L i n d s a y
implies. Schopenhauer f i n d s b o t h the s u b l i m e and the b e a u t i f u l t o be
produced by pure c o n t e m p l a t i o n ( i . e . o f Ideas o r F o r m s ) : where t h a t
which r a i s e s us t o c o n t e m p l a t i o n i s s u b j e c t to t h e w i l l , we a r e f i l l e d
w i t h a sense of b e a u t y , b u t where they have " a h o s t i l e r e l a t i o n to the
human w i l l i n g e n e r a l " ( t o the b o d y ) , then we are f i l l e d w i t h a sense
of the s u b l i m e . See The World as W i l l and Idea ( T h i r d Book, s e c . 3 9 ) .
Muspel i s , of c o u r s e , c o m p l e t e l y h o s t i l e to the human w i l l and t h e r e f o r e ,
a c c o r d i n g to Schopenhauer's system as w e l l as L i n d s a y ' s , i s s u b l i m e .
23
See VA 12-13 f o r Backhouse's c o m p l a i n t s about the s e t t i n g : "the
f r i v o l o u s a e s t h e t i c i s m of o t h e r s " i s "obnoxious t o h i s g r i m , b u r s t i n g
h e a r t ; b u t he was o b l i g e d t o l i v e , a n d , t o pay h i s way, must put up w i t h
t h e s e i m p e r t i n e n c e s " (VA 1 9 ) . K r a g c a l l s him "my l i t t l e mercenary f r i e n d "
(VA 2 2 ) . The p r o b l e m o f p a y i n g o n e ' s way soon became an acute one f o r
L i n d s a y , who shows more sympathy f o r i t i n h i s t h i r d book, S p h i n x .
24
'Song of the S y b i l ' i n The E l d e r Edda: A S e l e c t i o n , t r a n s . P a u l
B. T a y l o r and W. H . Auden (New Y o r k : V i n t a g e Books, 1 9 7 0 ) , p. 145. We
have a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d the d u a l i s t i c o p p o s i t i o n o f n o t h i n g ( C r y s t a l m a n ' s
w o r l d ) and n o t h i n g ( M u s p e l ) : " I n the moment of d e a t h " the face l o s e s a l l
i t s " p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r . . . g i v i n g p l a c e t o a v u l g a r , g r i n n i n g mask
w h i c h e x p r e s s e d n o t h i n g " (VA 1 0 3 ) .
 158

^ J o h n Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s (London: J . M. Dent,

1927) , p . 123.

26
Quoted from the I n t r o d u c t i o n by P e t e r H . S a l u s and P a u l B.
T a y l o r to The E l d e r Edda, p . 31.
27
I n t r o d u c t i o n to The E l d e r Edda, p . 31.
28
'Song o f the S y b i l ' i r i The E l d e r Edda, p . 151.
29
Man i s a worm 70 i n c h e s l o n g — s e v e n t y y e a r s and 5 ' 10"—seven
decades o r ' a g e s ' . The tower has s i x windows, and N i g h t s p o r e has s i x
i n t e r i m v i s i o n s c l i m b i n g i t (VA 2 8 1 - 8 6 ) . Because the f i n a l v i s i o n may
not be through a window of g l a s s o r c r y s t a l , at the e n d , N i g h t s p o r e
c l i m b s out i n t o r e a l i t y .
30
The E p i c of G i l g a m e s h , trans. N . K. Sandars (Harmondsworth:
Penguin Books, 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 69.
31
A " x t h u r C. C l a r k e , P r o f i l e s o f the F u t u r e (New Y o r k : Bantam
B o o k s , 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 46.
32
C f . S t e i n i n L o r d J i m by Joseph Conrad (New Y o r k : Rinehart,
1957): " A man t h a t i s b o r n f a l l s i n t o a dream l i k e a man who f a l l s
i n t o the s e a " ( p . 1 8 4 ) . S t e i n sends J i m to l i v e i n h i s dream w o r l d :
"Had S t e i n arranged t o send h i m i n t o a s t a r . . . the change c o u l d n o t
have been g r e a t e r . He l e f t h i s e a r t h l y f a i l i n g s b e h i n d h i m and . . .
t h e r e was a t o t a l l y new s e t o f c o n d i t i o n s f o r h i s i m a g i n a t i v e f a c u l t y
to work upon" (pp. 1 8 8 - 8 9 ) . F o r a thorough a n a l y s i s o f the d r e a m / r e a l
w o r l d o p p o s i t i o n o f P a t n a and P a t u s a n see E l l i o t t B. Gose J r , I m a g i n a t i o n
I n d u l g e d (London and M o n t r e a l : M c G i l l — Q u e e n ' s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1972).

^^Maud B o d k i n , A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s i n P o e t r y (London: Oxford

U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 146. Cf. " L i f e wants to r a i s e i t s e l f on
h i g h w i t h p i l l a r s and s t e p s ; i t wants to gaze i n t o the f a r d i s t a n c e and
out upon j o y f u l s p l e n d o u r — t h a t i s why i t needs h e i g h t " says Z a r a t h u s t r a
i n F r e i d r i c h N i e t z s c h e ' s Thus Spoke Z a r a t h u s t r a , t r a n s . R. J . H o l l i n g d a l e
(Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 125.

34
J . A . M a c C u l l o c h , The R e l i g i o n o f the A n c i e n t C e l t s (Edinburgh:
C l a r k , 1 9 1 1 ) , p . 39.
35
Wayne B o o t h , The R h e t o r i c of F i c t i o n ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y of
Chicago P r e s s , 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 60.
 159

36
F r e i d r i c h N i e t z s c h e , Thus Spoke Z a r a t h u s t r a , p . 125.

37
Los i s the E t e r n a l B l a c k s m i t h who f r e e s us from the Promethean
Cycle (Orc-Urizen) i n Jerusalem. "The blow o f h i s Hammer i s J u s t i c e ,
t h e swing of h i s Hammer M e r c y , / The f o r c e of L o s ' s Hammer i s e t e r n a l
f o r g i v e n e s s " ( P l a t e 8 8 ) ; see The Complete W r i t i n g s o f W i l l i a m B l a k e ,
e d . G e o f f r e y Keynes (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966), p . 734.
38
"Then Jesus appeared . . . And the D i v i n e Appearance was the
l i k e n e s s & s i m i l i t u d e of Los" ( P l a t e 96); W i l l i a m B l a k e , 'Jerusalem'
i n The Complete W r i t i n g s , p . 743.
39
I n N o v a l i s ' s Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , one of the t h i n g s A r c t u r u s
s y m b o l i z e s seems t o be Time.
40
George MacDonald, L i l i t h , p. 42.
41
As every s c h o o l b o y knows, r e a l s p a c e - s h i p s are n o t shaped l i k e
t o r p e d o e s , s i n c e t h e r e i s no wind r e s i s t a n c e i n deep s p a c e . The shape
i s r e s e r v e d f o r g r o s s l y underpowered and e x t r e m e l y s h o r t range r o c k e t s
b u i l t on underdeveloped p l a n e t s such as S o l T h r e e .
42
A s u b s t a n c e w o r k i n g by r e p u l s i o n from e a r t h i s more d i f f i c u l t to
h a n d l e — e s p e c i a l l y on the r e t u r n j o u r n e y — b u t P e r c y Greg uses ' a p e r g y '
thus i n A c r o s s the Z o d i a c ( 1 8 8 0 ) , and Hugh M a c C o l l uses an unnamed
v a r i a n t i n M r . S t r a n g e r ' s S e a l e d Packet ( 1 8 9 9 ) . See Roger L . G r e e n ' s
I n t o Other W o r l d s : S p a c e - F l i g h t i n F i c t i o n , from Lucan to Lewis (London
and New Y o r k : Abelard-Schuman, 1957), f o r i n f o r m a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f
these and o t h e r forms of m o t i v e power.
43
Damon K n i g h t , I n Search o f Wonder ( r e v . e d . , Chicago: Advent,
1967) , p . 278.
44
T h i s i s a h a b i t w i t h K r a g : he k n i f e s M a s k u l l t w i c e (VA 40, 154)
and t w i c e w r i n g s h i s neck (VA 123, 2 7 7 ) .
 160

Chapter S i x :

THE WINDING WAY: MASKULL'S SPIRAL INWARDS

A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s i s a s c h e m a t i c book. We have d i s c u s s e d it

as a b a t t l e between two o p p o s i n g camps, and as a p r o g r e s s . However,

A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s not s i m p l y an a l l e g o r i c a l b a t t l e i n the way

t h a t Bunyan's The H o l y War i s , n o r i s i t s i m p l y a p r o g r e s s as i s The

P i l g r i m ' s Progress. M a s k u l l , l i k e Dante, f o l l o w s n o t a s t r a i g h t and

narrow p a t h b u t a s t r a i g h t and w i n d i n g one: a spiral. The theme

of t h e p r o g r e s s i s the d e s i r e t o r e t u r n home, w h i c h we have seen to be

common i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s . The i d e a i s e x p l i c i t i n t h a t

N i g h t s p o r e r e p e a t s M a s k u l l ' s c l i m b i n g o f the t o w e r , and i t i s implicit

i n the i d e a of c l i m b i n g a tower i t s e l f : "the i n d i v i d u a l , changed and

e n r i c h e d by h i s e x p e r i e n c e as he f o l l o w s t h i s [ s p i r a l ] p a t h , must

r e t u r n to the p o i n t of o r i g i n a t a d i f f e r e n t l e v e l . " ' ' ' For t h i s reason,

2

Nabokov c a l l s the s p i r a l " a s p i r i t u a l i z e d c i r c l e . " Dante i s spirit-

u a l i z e d by c l i m b i n g a w i n d i n g s t a i r i n The D i v i n e Comedy. However,

M a s k u l l ' s i s n o t a s p i r a l l i k e D a n t e ' s , w h i c h takes us upwards, i t is

a s p i r a l w h i c h takes us i n w a r d s . I t i s a s p i r a l which takes us r i g h t

i n t o the c e n t r e o f C r y s t a l m a n , who i s " a g i g a n t i c , s e l f - l u m i n o u s sphere"

(VA 2 8 2 ) , and b e y o n d , i n t o the i n c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d of M u s p e l .

The f i r s t s e c t i o n of the p r o g r e s s b e g i n s w i t h M a s k u l l ' s 'birth,'

when he wakes up t o the w o r l d of Tormance, and h i s s u r r o g a t e m o t h e r ,

J o i w i n d (Chapter 6 ) . T h i s c y c l e i s completed a t the end o f the t h i r d

day, a f t e r t h e problems of man i n s o c i e t y have been t r e a t e d , when a

 161

"deep and heavy u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s " s e i z e s M a s k u l l (VA 1 4 9 ) . The second

s e c t i o n b e g i n s w i t h the r e b i r t h o f the Wombflash f o r e s t and the v i s i o n

i n d u c e d by D r e a m s i n t e r (Chapter 1 3 ) . T h i s second c y c l e d e a l s w i t h the

problem of how l i f e can be l i v e d out of s o c i e t y , on a p e r s o n a l level.

I t ends w i t h M a s k u l l ' s re-emergence from Corpang's underground c o u n t r y ,

which i s the t h i r d r e b i r t h f o r M a s k u l l . The t h i r d s e c t i o n , b e g i n n i n g

w i t h Chapter 18, c o n t i n u e s the p r o c e s s o f s t r i p p i n g down the layers

of e a r t h l i n e s s to ' p u r e , unaccommodated man' and woman, the main

characters i n t h i s s e c t i o n b e i n g Haunte and S u l l e n b o d e . Each o f the

p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s has ended w i t h an appearance o f the M u s p e l r a d i a n c e

and M a s k u l l ' s r e b i r t h . I n the t h i r d s e c t i o n , under the l i g h t of

A l p p a i n , M a s k u l l d i e s and the p r o g r e s s ends (Chapter 2 0 ) , leaving

N i g h t s p o r e t o a c h i e v e the f i n a l v i s i o n o f n o t h i n g and t o be promised

rebirth. Such i s the " a l m o s t m a t h e m a t i c a l p r e c i s i o n " of the design,

and one wonders why i t has not been n o t i c e d b e f o r e .

The t h r e e c y c l e s i n M a s k u l l ' s e x p l o r a t i o n of the n a t u r e o f C r y s t a l m a n

and h i s w o r l d s h o u l d be thought of as l y i n g i n s i d e one a n o t h e r . Crystal-

man's w o r l d c o n s i s t s b a s i c a l l y of three 'sphere s' of a c t i v i t y : how

man r e l a t e s to the e x t e r n a l w o r l d and to s o c i e t y , how man r e l a t e s to

h i m s e l f , and how man r e l a t e s t o God. Of c o u r s e , none of these levels

can be s e p a r a t e d a b s o l u t e l y , and L i n d s a y does n o t t r y t o do s o . However,

each l e v e l has i t s central interests, t o w h i c h the i n t e r e s t s of o t h e r

l e v e l s , being contiguous, are i m p o r t a n t . But s i n c e t h e movement of the

book i s i n c r e a s i n g l y i n w a r d s , the o u t e r l e v e l s are l e s s i m p o r t a n t t o

the i n n e r t h a n v i c e v e r s a . The p r o c e s s i s , as has a l r e a d y been remarked,

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r a t h e r l i k e p e e l i n g an o n i o n , and t h i s a l s o i s an image r e l e v a n t to

gnosticism. F o r example, A r n o b i u s , S e r v i u s and Macrobius a l l g i v e

accounts of the descent of the s o u l through the s p h e r e s , by w h i c h i t

i s corrupted. Hermes T r i s m e g i s t u s i n Poimandres, and, i n c i d e n t a l l y ,

Dante i n The D i v i n e Comedy, g i v e p a r a l l e l accounts o f the r e v e r s e

j o u r n e y through the spheres by w h i c h the s o u l i s freed.

The s o u l c l e a r l y i s o f God ( L i g h t ) and b e l o n g s w i t h God. However,

t h e r e has been a ' f a l l ' (from God on h i g h ) and a c r e a t i o n , these two

t h i n g s , as i n the myth of Prometheus, b e i n g i d e n t i c a l . P l o t i n u s and

B l a k e t e l l us t h a t the immortals f e l l i n l o v e w i t h t h e i r images i n t h e

r i v e r of matter, d i e d t o e t e r n i t y and were b o r n on e a r t h , f e l l asleep

t o e t e r n i t y and woke up on e a r t h h a v i n g f o r g o t t e n t h e i r t r u e home.

M a c r o b i u s ' s account i s b a s i c a l l y t h e same, b u t c o m p l i c a t e d by the

accretions of the f a l l through the s p h e r e s :

L o o k i n g down from the h i g h e s t summit and p e r p e t u a l l i g h t ,

and h a v i n g w i t h s e c r e t d e s i r e contemplated the appetence
o f the body and i t s " l i f e , " so c a l l e d on e a r t h , the s o u l
by the v e r y w e i g h t of t h i s i t s e a r t h l y thought g r a d u a l l y
s i n k s down i n t o t h e n e t h e r w o r l d . . . . In each sphere
[which i t p a s s e s ] i t i s c l o t h e d w i t h an e t h e r i a l e n v e l -
opment, so t h a t by t h e s e i t i s i n s t a g e s r e c o n c i l e d to
the company of t h i s e a r t h e n garment. And thus i t comes
through as many deaths as i t passes spheres to what here
on e a r t h i s c a l l e d " l i f e " ( 3 ) .

Thus t h e r e i s the n e c e s s i t y f o r a s e r i e s of "so c a l l e d ' d e a t h s ' " — a s i n

Jean P a u l ' s dream—through w h i c h the s o u l can be r e b o r n a g a i n to the w o r l d

of e t e r n i t y . Hans Jonas w r i t e s t h a t , a c c o r d i n g to t h i s v i e w ,

the r e s u l t a n t t e r r e s t i a l " s o u l " i s comparable t o an o n i o n

w i t h so many l a y e r s , on the model of the cosmos i t s e l f ,
o n l y i n i n v e r s e o r d e r : what i s outermost t h e r e i s i n n e r -
most h e r e , and a f t e r the p r o c e s s i s completed w i t h i n c a r n a -
t i o n , what i s innermost i n the s p h e r i c a l scheme o f t h e
cosmos, the e a r t h , i s as body the o u t e r garment o f man ( 4 ) .
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From the sphere of the e a r t h , 'up' i s i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s outwards,

'down' i n a l l cases i n w a r d s .

The n o r m a l method o f g n o s t i c a l l e g o r y i n v o l v e d t h e r e v e r s a l of

the t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s embodied i n e x t a n t myths and a l l e g o r i e s . It

i s therefore c u r i o u s l y appropriate that Lindsay should reverse the

v a l u e system of the s p h e r i c a l cosmos. I n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s , the

w o r l d of M u s p e l i s somewhere t h r o u g h and beyond (wherever t h a t i s ) the

c e n t r e o f the s p h e r e , i n w a r d s , w h i l e outwards ( ' u p ' ) i s Crystalman's

world. The f a l l i s o u t w a r d s , from the c e n t r e t o the c i r c u m f e r e n c e .

Lindsay i s a pessimist: t h e cosmos i s n o t L i g h t w i t h a few s p o t s o f

D a r k n e s s ; the L i g h t i s surrounded by the D a r k n e s s : Nightspore reaches

n o t h i n g t o f i n d " d a r k n e s s was a l l around h i m " and "he u n d e r s t o o d that

he was w h o l l y surrounded by C r y s t a l m a n ' s w o r l d " :

The t r u t h f o r c e d i t s e l f on h i m i n a l l i t s c o l d , b r u t a l
reality. Muspel was no a l l - p o w e r f u l U n i v e r s e , t o l e r a t i n g
from pure i n d i f f e r e n c e the e x i s t e n c e s i d e by s i d e w i t h i t
o f a n o t h e r f a l s e w o r l d , w h i c h had no r i g h t t o b e . M u s p e l
was f i g h t i n g f o r i t s l i f e (VA 2 8 6 ) .

Maskull is the body o f e a r t h , the outermost s p h e r e , and h i s t r i p across

Tormance i n v o l v e s the s t r i p p i n g away of e a r t h l y a c c r e t i o n s u n t i l n o t h i n g

is left.

W. H . Auden b e g i n s h i s s t u d y of ' t h e r o m a n t i c i c o n o g r a p h y of t h e sea'

i n The Enchafed F l o o d w i t h d i s c u s s i o n s of " t h e d o u b l e - n a t u r e d h e r o " who

i s h a l f " t h e d e d i c a t e d man, the K n i g h t o f F a i t h who would r e s t o r e the Age

o f G o l d " ( M a s k u l l " ' ) and h a l f e x i l e ( N i g h t s p o r e ) , and o f the p a i r e d s y m b o l s ,

the d e s e r t and the s e a . ^ M a s k u l l i s b o r n on Tormance i n the d e s e r t and,

dies ( N i g h t s p o r e i s born) on t h e s e a ; t h a t i s , M a s k u l l ' s voyage i s from

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the d e s e r t t o the s e a . Auden n o t e s t h a t the w i t h d r a w a l t o the d e s e r t

may be " a f i n a l r e j e c t i o n o f the w i c k e d c i t y o f t h i s w o r l d , a d y i n g

to the l i f e of the f l e s h and an assumption of a l i f e devoted w h o l l y

t o " 7 the l i f e of the s p i r i t , as i t i s i n the case of M a s k u l l , w h i l e

g

the sea i s " t h e p l a c e of p u r g a t o r i a l s u f f e r i n g . " But t h e r e may be

w a t e r i n the d e s e r t as t h e r e may be l a n d i n the s e a . M a s k u l l ends

h i s j o u r n e y on a l i t t l e f l o a t i n g i s l a n d , w h i c h l i k e the o a s i s i n the
9

d e s e r t may be " t h e image of the happy P r e l a p s a r i a n P l a c e . " It is to

such a p l a c e t h a t m o t h e r - J o i w i n d takes b a b y - M a s k u l l at the b e g i n n i n g

o f the j o u r n e y .

M a s k u l l has d i e d t o e a r t h , to " t h e w i c k e d c i t y o f t h i s w o r l d , "

and he i s r e b o r n on Tormance. M a s k u l l b e g i n s t o see the d e s e r t of

scarlet sand (VA 44-45) o n l y g r a d u a l l y . He c r i e s out " a t irregular

i n t e r v a l s " (VA 4 5 ) . When h i s ' m o t h e r ' J o i w i n d a r r i v e s he i s "sitting

a t h e r f e e t , naked and h e l p l e s s " (VA 4 7 ) . She dresses h i m , g i v e s h i m

a " m i l k y " (VA 49) fluid, and takes h i m to " t h e cup-shaped m o u n t a i n "

(VA 52) w h i c h i s home. P o o l i n g d r e d i s , however, the home from w h i c h

we a l l b e g i n : i t i s n o t t h e home toward w h i c h we a l l must s t r i v e . In

t h i s , Lindsay d i f f e r s most markedly from h i s most i m p o r t a n t precurser

and f o l l o w e r , MacDonald and Lewis r e s p e c t i v e l y . Anodos i n P h a n t a s t e s

t e l l s us "my mother d i e d when I was a b a b y , " ^ and h i s p a t h l e s s wander-

11

i n g s are i n s e a r c h of h i s mother o r a m o t h e r - s u b s t i t u t e . The quest

of Ransom i n Out o f the S i l e n t P l a n e t ends at O y a r s a , which i s a combin-

a t i o n of g a r d e n - i s l a n d , mount of Venus and "cup-shaped m o u n t a i n " or

breast:
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r i g h t below h i m l a y an almost c i r c u l a r l a k e — a s a p p h i r e
twelve m i l e s i n diameter set i n a border of purple f o r e s t .
Amidst the l a k e t h e r e r o s e l i k e a low and g e n t l y s l o p i n g
p y r a m i d , o r a woman's b r e a s t , an i s l a n d of p a l e r e d ,
smooth to the summit ( 1 2 ) .

Both MacDonald and Lewis are concerned w i t h the r e c o v e r y o f l o s t i n -

n o c e n c e , w h i c h f o r MacDonald i s a r e t u r n to babyhood, and f o r Lewis

i n v o l v e s a re-enactment o f the f a l l i n w h i c h man (or r a t h e r , woman)

doesn't fall. M a s k u l l b e g i n s h i s quest by f i n d i n g t h a t "Prelapsarian

P l a c e " of A r c a d i a n innocence w i t h Panawe and J o i w i n d , b u t h i s quest

i s f o r the o u t o p i a of the u n c r e a t e d w o r l d .

Panawe and J o i w i n d l i v e i n harmony w i t h C r y s t a l m a n ' s w o r l d , but

c u l t i v a t e a k i n d of ' n o n - a t t a c h m e n t ' to i t . They take as little part

as p o s s i b l e i n the w i l l i n g and k i l l i n g : they k i l l n o t h i n g , and l i v e

13

o n l y on w a t e r , N o v a l i s and W e r n e r ' s " t h e w h i t e b l o o d o f the m o t h e r . "

N e i t h e r do they i m p r i s o n L i g h t i n the Darkness o f the body by p r o -

creation: t h e r e i s " n o t the l e a s t t r a c e o f s e x " (VA 54) i n J o i w i n d ' s

c a r e s s , and she has no c h i l d r e n or o t h e r " s e l f i s h p o s s e s s i o n s " (VA 5 7 ) .

When b o r n , Panawe was " w i t h o u t s e x " (VA 6 9 ) , and h a v i n g become m a l e ,

s t e r n l y r e j e c t s the female r e c e p t i v e n e s s w h i c h on e a r t h would have made

him an a r t i s t , poet o r m u s i c i a n (VA 6 3 ) . J o i w i n d s a y s , "What you and

I are now d o i n g i n s i m p l i c i t y , w i s e men w i l l do h e r e a f t e r i n f u l l knowledge"

(VA 5 6 ) . That i s , the innocence o f Panawe and J o i w i n d i s really ignor-

ance: they do n o t posses the s a v i n g knowledge or g n o s i s which was the

g i f t of the w i s e s e r p e n t . T h i s l i m i t a t i o n i s b r o u g h t out by Panawe's

complete i n a b i l i t y to understand h i s e n c o u n t e r w i t h S l o f o r k . Slofork

t e l l s Panawe, remember, o f the o t h e r w o r l d w h i c h "we c a l l N o t h i n g — b u t

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it i s n o t N o t h i n g , but Something" (VA 7 4 ) . He then demonstrates his

own complete non-attachment to the w o r l d by jumping " t r a n q u i l l y from

the p a t h , down i n t o the empty v o i d " (VA 7 4 ) . S l o f o r k ' s judgment o f

Panawe i s " Y o u w i l l n e v e r r i s e above m y s t i c i s m . . . . But be happy i n

y o u r own way" (VA 7 4 ) .

Panawe and J o i w i n d l i v e i n harmony w i t h the w o r l d , i n i n n o c e n c e ,

by n o t s t r i v i n g and not e x e r t i n g t h e i r w i l l s . Maskull discovers that

the newfound Innocence they have g i v e n h i m can be r a p i d l y undermined

by E x p e r i e n c e . H i s n e x t mentor i s Oceaxe, who i s p o s s e s s e d by a

Nietzschean ' w i l l to power'. She says b l u n t l y t h a t " Y o u may be as

m o r a l as y o u l i k e , M a s k u l l , b u t the f a c t r e m a i n s , animals were made t o

be e a t e n , and s i m p l e n a t u r e s were made t o be a b s o r b e d " (VA 8 8 ) . Kill

or be k i l l e d ; o n l y the f i t t e s t w i l l s u r v i v e . And the landscape she

i n h a b i t s , the Ifdawn M a r e s t , i s " h i g h , w i l d , b e a u t i f u l , and dangerous"

(VA 8 0 ) : " N a t u r e i s a l l hammer blows w i t h u s . Nothing soft and g r a d u a l "

(VA 8 9 ) , says Oceaxe.

On Tormance i t is

as i f each of o n e ' s d e s i r e s were t o c o s t one the o b l i g a t i o n

t h e n c e f o r w a r d t o n o u r i s h and support an a d d i t i o n a l member.
An i n f e r n a l m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of o n e ' s s u b s t a n c e , o c c a s i o n e d
by the s l i g h t e s t t h o u g h t ! Each dream of f l i g h t adds a n o t h e r
l i n k t o my heavy c h a i n ! ( 1 4 ) .

Having f l o w n t o the dream-world of Tormance, M a s k u l l f i n d s h i m s e l f w i t h

t h r e e new o r g a n s , the magn and p o i g n s (names p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d from magn-

a n i m i t y and poignance) w h i c h b r i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y the a b i l i t y to l o v e and

the a b i l i t y t o u n d e r s t a n d and sympathize w i t h t h i n g s , and the b r e v e . These

organs are a p p r o p r i a t e to the A r c a d i a n s o c i e t y w h i c h M a s k u l l i n h a b i t s

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w i t h Panawe. and J o i w i n d . Oceaxe, however, c a l l s these "women's organs"

(VA 8 2 ) , and a d v i s e s M a s k u l l t h a t he i s g o i n g to " a man's c o u n t r y " where

they w i l l be u s e l e s s . M a s k u l l uses a drude t o c o n v e r t h i s o r g a n s , and

the b r e v e i n h i s forehead becomes a t h i r d e y e , a s o r b , through which

"he saw n o t h i n g as s e l f - e x i s t e n t — e v e r y t h i n g appeared as an o b j e c t of

importance o r n o n - i m p o r t a n c e t o h i s own n e e d s " (VA 8 3 ) . Such an organ

i s appropriate t o l i f e on the h i g h peaks o f the Ifdawn M a r e s t .

Once he has moved from Innocence t o E x p e r i e n c e , from n o n - a t t a c h m e n t ,

to s e l f - i n t e r e s t , from n o t w i l l i n g to w i l l i n g and k i l l i n g , then M a s k u l l

has a c h o i c e : he can e i t h e r be a murderer o r a v i c t i m . As soon as he

a r r i v e s i n Ifdawn he k i l l s . C r i m t y p h o n , Oceaxe's l o v e r , b u t he i s so

r e v o l t e d by t h i s t h a t he f a l l s i n t o the c l u t c h e s of C r i m t y p h o n ' s o t h e r

w i f e , Tydomin, who preaches to M a s k u l l the v i r t u e s o f self-sacrifice:

r e n u n c i a t i o n of the w i l l t o power and t h e r e f o r e o f the w i l l to live.

Tydomin d o e s n ' t a c t u a l l y want M a s k u l l ' s l i f e , o n l y h i s body. She wants

to take i t o v e r , l i t e r a l l y : " I w i s h t o s t a r t a new e x i s t e n c e i n your

body. I w i s h t o be a m a l e . I see i t i s n ' t w o r t h w h i l e b e i n g a woman"

(VA 115). Maskull's s p i r i t w i l l , i n t u r n , become (disembodied) a ghost.

M a s k u l l and Tydomin e n t e r a c a v e . " A t t h a t v e r y moment" they h e a r

" a s i c k e n i n g c r a s h , l i k e heavy thunder j u s t over t h e i r h e a d s " (VA 1 2 1 ) .

M a s k u l l l i e s down on " a stone s l a b , or c o u c h " and the chamber b e g i n s

" t o grow l i g h t " (VA 1 2 2 ) . He f a n c i e s he h e a r s m u s i c , and "someone scream

faintly" (VA 1 2 2 ) . Then he f i n d s h i m s e l f back i n F a u l l ' s h o u s e , only as

the phantom on the carved c o u c h . He sees h i m s e l f , and N i g h t s p o r e . Then

K r a g rushes i n t o s t r a n g l e h i m :
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he grasped h i s neck w i t h a p a i r o f h a i r y hands. Maskull

f e l t h i s bones b e n d i n g and b r e a k i n g , e x c r u c i a t i n g p a i n s
passed through a l l the nerves o f h i s b o d y , and he e x p e r -
i e n c e d a sense o f impending d e a t h . He c r i e d o u t , and
sank h e l p l e s s l y on t h e f l o o r , i n a heap (VA 1 2 3 ) .

He f i n d s h i m s e l f back on Tormance, and t e l l s Tydomin " I ' v e seen K r a g .

I ' m awake" (VA 1 2 4 ) . Thus M a s k u l l r e j e c t s the t e m p t a t i o n o f self-

sacrifice on Tormance, b u t i t i s , of course, a s a c r i f i c e he has already

made on e a r t h , i n o r d e r to get t o Tormance i n the f i r s t p l a c e . We

can t h i n k o f the tower as b e i n g a p h a l l u s , the s p a c e - s h i p n o t a womb

b u t a sperm. M a s k u l l r e l i v e s h i s e a r t h l y l i f e (as a child with Joiwind,

as an a d o l e s c e n t w i t h Oceaxe) on Tormance, u n t i l on Tormance he reaches

the p o i n t he has p r e v i o u s l y reached on e a r t h . From now o n , he w i l l be

l e a r n i n g r a t h e r than r e l i v i n g things.

M a s k u l l has passed t h r o u g h Innocence and E x p e r i e n c e t o a l i e n a t i o n .

Oceaxe a s k e d , "Isn't the whole w o r l d the handiwork o f innumerable pairs

of lovers? And y e t you t h i n k y o u r s e l f above a l l t h a t . You may t r y to

fly away from n a t u r e , b u t where w i l l y o u f i n d a h o l e t o h i d e y o u r s e l f

in?" (VA 8 6 ) . As V i s i a k has o b s e r v e d , " L i n d s a y v i r t u a l l y equates

C r y s t a l m a n w i t h N a t u r e " (TSG 1 1 0 ) , and t h a t i s i n d e e d from whom M a s k u l l

t h i n k s he i s fleeing. F u r t h e r , M a s k u l l i s now "above a l l t h a t , " and

he i s l o o k i n g (on the s o c i a l l e v e l ) n o t f o r a ' f e m i n i n e ' " h o l e t o h i d e

... i n " b u t the ' m a s c u l i n e ' m o u n t a i n - t o p o f D i s s c o u r n , ^ ^ on w h i c h l i v e

the people of S a n t . T h i s s o c i e t y i s h e a l t h y , m a i n l y because women are

not allowed i n i t . The p e o p l e of Sant are f o l l o w e r s of the prophet

H a t o r , who knew t h a t " a l l t h e w o r l d was a s n a r e , a l i m e d t w i g " :

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Knowing t h a t p l e a s u r e was everywhere, a f i e r c e , mocking

enemy, c r o u c h i n g and w a i t i n g a t e v e r y c o r n e r of the road
o f l i f e , i n o r d e r t o k i l l w i t h i t s sweet s t i n g the naked
grandeur of the s o u l , he s h i e l d e d h i m s e l f b e h i n d p a i n (VA 1 3 5 ) .

M a s k u l l s a y s , " H e n c e f o r w a r d , as l o n g as I l i v e , I s h a l l f i g h t w i t h my

n a t u r e , and r e f u s e t o f e e l p l e a s u r e " (VA 1 4 5 ) . He asks C a t i c e , repres-

entative of Sant,

'Why does p l e a s u r e appear so shameful to u s ? '

'Because i n f e e l i n g p l e a s u r e , we f o r g e t our home.'
'And t h a t i s — '
' M u s p e l ' (VA 148) .

All t h i s i s i n harmony w i t h the f i n a l v i s i o n a c h i e v e d by N i g h t s p o r e .

It i s , i n fact, a final vision itself, i n t h a t i t r e p r e s e n t s the c u l m i n -

a t i o n of M a s k u l l ' s e x p l o r a t i o n of the w o r l d o f G e n e r a t i o n (as Blake calls

i t ) , w h i c h i s " t h e handiwork of innumerable p a i r s o f l o v e r s " (VA 8 6 ) .

Only i n a s o c i e t y w i t h o u t l o v e r s — w i t h o u t women—are the e v i l n a t u r e of

P l e a s u r e and the n a t u r e o f N a t u r e known, are S u r t u r and Shaping d i s t i n g -

u i s h e d , and i s the name o f Muspel remembered. M a s k u l l ' s discovery of

this therefore completes the f i r s t c y c l e of the s p i r a l o f the a l l e g o r y :

L i n d s a y has completed h i s study of the problems of man i n s o c i e t y . Now

M a s k u l l must descend to the n e x t s p h e r e : he must d i e t o s o c i e t y and

then be r e b o r n i n t o the n e x t s t a g e of t h e s t r u g g l e . T h i s i s what happens

i n t h e Wombflash F o r e s t , w h i c h i s b o t h " l i k e some g i g a n t i c , supernatural

h a l l i n a l i f e after d e a t h " (VA 149) a n d , as the name t e l l s u s , the s t a r t

of a new l i f e f o r the d i v i n e spark of the s p i r i t .

From S a n t , M a s k u l l descends—'down' here i s towards the c e n t r e , and

t h e r e f o r e has the v a l u e s we more n o r m a l l y a s s o c i a t e w i t h ' u p ' — d o w n an

enormous s t a i r c a s e , l o w e r i n g h i m s e l f " f r o m s t e p to s t e p d u r i n g what seemed

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an i n t e r m i n a b l e t i m e " (VA 149). On r e a c h i n g the b o t t o m , "deep and

heavy unconsciousness s e i z e d h i m almost i m m e d i a t e l y " (VA 149). This

i s a d e a t h - s l e e p , d u r i n g which M a s k u l l has a dream v i s i o n w h i c h c o n -

16

f i r m s i n him h i s q u e s t : he meets D r e a m s i n t e r , who c o n f i r m s Panawe's

s u g g e s t i o n s t h a t M a s k u l l i s a Prometheus f i g u r e : " Y o u came t o steal

Muspel-fire, t o g i v e a deeper l i f e t o men" (VA 1 5 2 ) . M a s k u l l a l s o sees

h i m s e l f stabbed by K r a g , w h i l e N i g h t s p o r e marches on towards Muspel

(VA 1 5 3 - 5 4 ) , and he b e g i n s t o r e a l i s e t h a t he i s " a secondary character"

(VA 155). M a s k u l l i s the body, the o u t s i d e ; N i g h t s p o r e i s the essential

self.

Maskull continues h i s journey, taking "the downhill d i r e c t i o n "

(VA 155) u n t i l he comes to the S i n k i n g Sea (VA 158) where he meets a

f i s h e r m a n (who seems to be s i m p l y a f i s h e r m a n : h i s name t e l l s us of no

other s i g n i f i c a n c e ) . P o l e c r a b i s the ' o r d i n a r y man' a t h i s simplest

and b e s t . He corresponds on a p e r s o n a l l e v e l to Panawe and J o i w i n d on

the s o c i a l l e v e l , but h i s innocence i s more c l e a r l y i g n o r a n c e . This

" u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d b e i n g " (VA 161) says g r u f f l y , "I'm a fisherman. I

know n o t h i n g about wisdom" (VA 1 6 0 ) . Maskull tries to e x p l a i n to h i s

t h a t t h i s w o r l d i s f a l s e and " t h a t r e a l i t y and f a l s e n e s s are two words

f o r the same t h i n g " (VA 1 6 5 ) . P o l e c r a b i s q u i c k t o see the i m p l i c a t i o n s

o f what M a s k u l l t e l l s him and admits t h a t

I l i v e by k i l l i n g , and so does everybody. T h i s l i f e seems
t o me a l l wrong. So maybe l i f e o f any k i n d i s w r o n g , and
S u r t u r ' s w o r l d i s n o t l i f e at a l l , b u t something e l s e (VA 1 6 5 ) .

H i s a d v i c e , however, i s to "ask t h e dead . . . and n o t a l i v i n g man"

(VA 1 6 5 ) . He i s not g o i n g t o j o i n M a s k u l l i n h i s q u e s t . His w i f e ,

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G l e a m e i l , however, does.

G l e a m e i l , l i k e C h r i s t i a n i n The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , is prepared

to d e s e r t h e r f a m i l y (she has t h r e e sons) to accompany M a s k u l l . She

s a y s , " t h e r e i s another w o r l d f o r me, as t h e r e i s f o r y o u , M a s k u l l ,

and i t makes my r e a l w o r l d appear a l l f a l s e and v u l g a r " (VA 175) .

Through G l e a m e i l , L i n d s a y b r i n g s i n t o sharp focus the problem of f o l l o w -

i n g o n e ' s p e r s o n a l d e s t i n y r a t h e r than f u l f i l l i n g one's s o c i a l obliga-

tions. " B u t can i t be r i g h t " , asks M a s k u l l , " t o f o l l o w our self-nature

at the expense o f o t h e r p e o p l e ? " "No i t ' s n o t r i g h t , " G l e a m e i l r e p l i e s ,

"it i s wrong, and b a s e . But i n t h a t o t h e r w o r l d these words have no

meaning" (VA 1 7 5 ) .

One o f the most obvious ways o f s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t (and the way, i n

'real' life, L i n d s a y a c t u a l l y chose) i s the way o f the a r t i s t . Maskull

and G l e a m e i l t r a v e l to Swaylone's I s l a n d , where they v i s i t the artist

Earthrid. Earthrid is ' r i d o f the e a r t h ' o r s o c i a l n e c e s s i t y : he l i v e s

a l o n e on an i s l a n d , swayed o n l y by h i s own i n t e r e s t s : he f o l l o w s h i s

own s e l f - h o o d . In o r d e r t o p l a y h i s i n s t r u m e n t , E a r t h r i d

s a t down by the s i d e o f the l a k e , a n d , l e a n i n g on h i s

s i d e , p l a c e d h i s r i g h t h a n d , open palm downward, on
the g r o u n d , a t the same time s t r e t c h i n g out h i s r i g h t
l e g , so t h a t the f o o t was i n c o n t a c t w i t h the w a t e r (VA 182).

It i s , taken l i t e r a l l y r a t h e r than a l l e g o r i c a l l y , a c u r i o u s s t a n c e , b u t we

can f i n d something s i m i l a r i n C e l t i c m y t h o l o g y . J . A . M a c C u l l o c h says

t h a t " m y t h i c a l personages o r d i v i n i t i e s are s a i d i n the I r i s h t e x t s to

have s t o o d on one l e g , w i t h one arm e x t e n d e d , and one eye c l o s e d , when

u t t e r i n g prophesies.""'"'' A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s , E a r t h r i d must be b r i d g i n g
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two w o r l d s , one f o o t b e i n g i n the e a r t h l y r e a l m and the o t h e r . i n the

spiritual, to w h i c h the w a t e r ( m a t t e r ) w i l l g i v e shape. Earthrid is

the a r t i s t as sub c r e a t o r .

As a r e s u l t o f E a r t h r i d ' s p l a y i n g , G l e a m e i l d i e s . M a s k u l l decides

t o p l a y , and w i l l s t o c r e a t e the shape of S u r t u r . His efforts surround

h i m w i t h Muspel r a d i a n c e w h i c h , l i k e the s p i r i t form at the s e a n c e ,

s t a r t s "becoming l o c a l i z e d , p r e p a r a t o r y to c o n t r a c t i n g i n t o a s o l i d

f o r m " (VA 1 8 6 ) . But the i n s t r u m e n t , the medium, i s not s t r o n g enough

to s u r v i v e the o n s e t o f r e a l i t y : the h i l l s break a p a r t and the lake

disappears. I n the e n d , the a r t i s t cannot b r i n g i n t o the w o r l d the

Form from beyond the w o r l d .

At m i d n i g h t M a s k u l l swims out to a p a s s i n g t r e e and guides i t to

the n o r t h e r n s h o r e , M a t t e r p l a y . T h i s i s the ' r i v e r o f l i f e ' itself:

one o f C r y s t a l m a n ' s t o y s , by w h i c h he i m i t a t e s the f l o w i n g from S u r t u r

of the s t r e a m of M u s p e l , and the imprisonment o f energy i n m a t t e r .

Animals and p l a n t s seem to appear out o f nowhere: " N a t u r e was precip-

itating its shapes i n t o the w o r l d , w i t h o u t making use o f the medium o f

p a r e n t a g e " (VA 1 9 4 ) . A p p r o p r i a t e l y , the c h a r a c t e r M a s k u l l meets i n

Matterplay i s " n e i t h e r man n o r woman, n o r a n y t h i n g between the two, b u t

was u n m i s t a k a b l y of a t h i r d p o s i t i v e s e x " (VA 1 9 7 ) . Leehallfae is

beyond the w o r l d of G e n e r a t i o n , i n a s o r t of B e u l a h , where " a e " i s both

man and woman, and, s i n c e " a e r l o v e r was no o t h e r than Shaping himself",

" t h e e t e r n a l c h i l d " (VA 1 9 7 ) . T h i s , as the G n o s t i c s would i m m e d i a t e l y

have r e c o g n i s e d , s o l v e s the problem o f s i n f u l p r o c r e a t i o n (there is

none), d i s t r a c t i o n from the l o v e o f god, and the d u a l i t y of s e x . However,

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the god i s s t i l l the wrong god, Shaping o r C r y s t a l m a n ( o r Faceny, as

L e e h a l l f a e has i t ) , not S u r t u r . Sex i s commonly h e l d to be a c o n -

sequence of the f a l l (and v i c e v e r s a ) : "The r e c o r d of h i s t o r y i s the

sum t o t a l of man's e f f o r t s to r e t u r n to the s t a t e o f oneness. We are

maladjusted protozoa. . . . Lovemaking i s the l a s t s e a r c h f o r the

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o t h e r h a l f of o n e ' s s e l f . " L e e h a l l f a e says c o r r e c t l y t h a t " a man's

body c o n t a i n s o n l y the h a l f of l i f e — t h e o t h e r h a l f i s i n woman",

whereas " a phaen's body c o n t a i n s the whole of l i f e " (VA 2 0 1 ) . But life

i s wrong. Were we n o t m a l a d j u s t e d , were we not a l i e n s , we might be

19

s a t i s f i e d w i t h s e e k i n g the God o f t h i s w o r l d , and f o r g e t the w o r l d

beyond: L e e h a l l f a e has n e v e r even heard o f M u s p e l .

L e e h a l l f a e hopes to use M a s k u l l ' s " l u c k " to f i n d the god o f the

w o r l d he i n h a b i t s , and so accompanies M a s k u l l on h i s j o u r n e y i n t o a

r e g i o n i n w h i c h " a l l l i f e had c e a s e d " (VA 2 0 1 ) , s i n c e the s p a r k s near

t h e i r s o u r c e are too s t r o n g to be c o n t a i n e d by the c l o u d s of m a t t e r .

They come to " a p e r p e n d i c u l a r c l i f f about t h r e e hundred f e e t i n h e i g h t "

from whence the r i v e r o f l i f e f l o w s (VA 2 0 5 ) . A f t e r a few hours sleep,

M a s k u l l w r y l y remarks t h a t " h e i g h t s o f t e n b r i n g me i n s p i r a t i o n " (VA 206)

and b e g i n s t o c l i m b the c l i f f . His luck continues. He d i s c o v e r s an

e n t r a n c e i n t o T h r e a l l , f o r w h i c h L e e h a l l f a e has searched f o r numberless

years. S i n c e " a l l l i f e has c e a s e d " we must e x p e c t t h e underground

c o u n t r y o f T h r e a l l t o be t o m b - l i k e , and i n d e e d i t i s . I n " t h e bowels

of the h i l l " (VA 207) e v e r y t h i n g i s " c o l d , c l e a r and r e f i n e d , and somehow

suggested a u s t e r e and t o m b l i k e t h o u g h t s " (VA 2 0 8 ) . Leehallfae says,

"I shall die. But i t ' s immaterial. Tomorrow b o t h o f us w i l l be dead"

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(VA 2 0 8 ) . He does d i e , almost i m m e d i a t e l y , and h i s body e v a p o r a t e s .

H i s p l a c e i s taken by a w a l k i n g c o r p s e , Corpang, whose c o u n t r y t h i s

is. M a s k u l l s a y s , " I f e e l as i f I were" dead, and w a l k i n g i n a n o t h e r

w o r l d " (VA 2 1 7 ) .

T h i s i s M a s k u l l ' s second s y m b o l i c death on Tormance. He has died

to the w o r l d i n w h i c h he t r i e d to f i n d p e r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t . Fulfil

t-ment can o n l y be found beyond the tomb, b u t Corpang does n o t realise

this. Corpang has found the ' h o l e t o h i d e h i m s e l f i n ' t h a t Oceaxe

suggested M a s k u l l l o o k f o r i n h i s f l i g h t from G e n e r a t i o n . It is a

"mystic landscape" i n w h i c h " e v e r y t h i n g was b l a c k and w h i t e " (VA 2 0 9 ) ,

"solemn and r e l i g i o u s " (VA 2 1 0 ) . I t i s a p l a c e i n which wisdom i s

f o u n d , as i t i s i n Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n and Hoffmann's s t o r y 'The Mines

of F a l u n . ' I n The E l d e r Edda, A l v i s , the A l l - w i s e , l i v e s underground:

" A l l - W i s e I am c a l l e d : under the ground / I d w e l l i n the dark among

20

stones." Corpang i s w i s e : he e x p l a i n s at g r e a t l e n g t h the t h r e e

worlds of e x i s t e n c e , l o v e and f e e l i n g , and t h e i r gods, Faceny, Amfuse

and T h i r e . He t a k e s M a s k u l l to " t h e Three F i g u r e s , which were carved

, and e r e c t e d by an e a r l i e r r a c e of men" (VA 216) w h i c h r e p r e s e n t these

gods.

Corpang k n e e l s b e f o r e the s t a t u e s , and M a s k u l l f o l l o w s s u i t . "It

grew d a r k e r and d a r k e r , u n t i l a l l was l i k e the b l a c k e s t n i g h t . . . .

He was a l o n e w i t h h i s s p i r i t " (VA 2 1 8 ) . The " t h r e e C o l o s s i " come to

l i f e in turn. The glow o f the f i r s t i n s p i r e s M a s k u l l ' s " p o e t i c sensi-

b i l i t y " w i t h a beauty o n l y d e s c r i b a b l e i n terms of n a t u r e a t i t s most

delicate: " t h e g l e a m i n g , d a r k , d e l i c a t e c o l o u r s o f the h a l f - d a w n "

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(VA 2 1 9 ) . The second s t a t u e glows and M a s k u l l f e e l s "his heart melting

t o womanish s o f t n e s s . H i s male arrogance and e g o t i s m faded i m p e r c e p t -

i b l y away; h i s p e r s o n a l i t y seemed t o d i s a p p e a r " and "he f e l t a t o r m e n t i n g

d e s i r e to s e r v e " (VA 2 1 9 ) . M a s k u l l does n o t a c t u a l l y see the t h i r d

s t a t u e glow (though he sees i t fade a f t e r w a r d s ) , b u t he h e a r s a v o i c e

t e l l h i m " Y o u are t o d i e . " " Y o u have d e s p i s e d life," i t goes o n . "Do

you r e a l l y imagine t h a t t h i s mighty w o r l d has no meaning, and t h a t life

is a joke?" (VA 2 2 1 ) . The f i r s t s t a t u e r e p r e s e n t s Faceny, who was

worshipped by L e e h a l l f a e and, i f we i n f e r c o r r e c t l y , as C r y s t a l m a n o r

Shaping by Panawe and J o i w i n d . The second was Amfuse, who was w o r s h i p p e d

by Tydomin and S p a d e v i l . The t h i r d was T h i r e , the unseen god of the

unseen w o r l d , who n e v e r t h e l e s s e x p r e s s e s h i s meaning i n t h i s w o r l d .

M a s k u l l has j u s t had a m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h i s s t r o n g l y r e m i n -

i s c e n t o f the b e g i n n i n g of N e r v a l ' s A u r e l i a :

La reve e s t une seconde v i e . . . . ou l e m o i , sous une

a u t r e forme, c o n t i n u e l ' o e u v r e de I ' e x i s t e n c e . C ' e s t un
s o u t e r r a i n vague q u i s e c l a i r e peu a geu, e t ou se de-
gagent de 1'ombre e t de l a n u i t l e s p a l e s f i g u r e s gravement
immobiles q u i h a b i t e n t l e s e j o u r des l i m b e s . P u i s l e t a b l e a u
se forme, une c l a r t e " n o u v e l l e i l l u m i n e e t f a i t j o u e r ces
apparitions bizarres: l e monde des E s p r i t s s ' o u v r e pour
nous (21) .

"The dream i s a second l i f e " i n w h i c h " t h e w o r l d of t h e s p i r i t opens

itself for us." But l i f e i n t h i s w o r l d i s a second dream i n w h i c h the

w o r l d o f the s p i r i t i s c l o s e d to u s . Even the a p p a r e n t l y genuine m y s t i c a l

experience i s d i s c r e d i t e d by r e a l i t y , as r e p r e s e n t e d by the drum taps of

Surtur. Both M a s k u l l and Corpang, a f t e r the s t a t u e s have f a d e d , hear

" t h e sound o f drumming" and t h e c a v e r n f i l l s w i t h M u s p e l l i g h t (VA 2 2 1 ) .

As a r e s u l t , " t h e f a c e o f each f i g u r e [is] c l o t h e d i n the s o r d i d and

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h o r r i b l e C r y s t a l m a n mask" (VA 2 2 1 ) . A l l Corpang's e r u d i t e t a l k of

t h r e e gods and t h r e e w o r l d s has been "mere n o m e n c l a t u r e " (VA 2 1 2 ) :

they are a l l C r y s t a l m a n . " I t must mean," says M a s k u l l , " t h a t life

i s wrong, and the c r e a t o r o f l i f e t o o , whether he i s one person or

three" (VA 2 2 1 ) . Corpang a g r e e s : "Life is c l e a r l y f a l s e " (VA 2 2 2 ) .

This i s , of c o u r s e , the c o n c l u s i o n towards which M a s k u l l has been

working a l l along. He has found t h a t f u l f i l l m e n t on a s o c i a l level

is impossible, and i t i s now c o n f i r m e d t h a t even p e r s o n a l fulfillment

i n t h i s w o r l d cannot be attained.

M a s k u l l must now be r e b o r n i n t o the t h i r d c y c l e o f the spiral

we are t r a c i n g which i s — t h o u g h i t must be doomed to failure—the

quest i n t h i s w o r l d f o r the M u s p e l w h i c h b e l o n g s to the r e a l w o r l d .

M a s k u l l ' s t h i r d b i r t h u n m i s t a k a b l y echoes the r e b i r t h o f Anodos i n

Phantastes. Anodos has been t r a v e l l i n g through "an underground country,

i n w h i c h the sky was o f r o c k , and, i n s t e a d o f t r e e s and f l o w e r s , there

22
were o n l y f a n t a s t i c r o c k s and s t o n e s " :
A t l e n g t h the c o u n t r y o f rock began to c l o s e a g a i n around
me, g r a d u a l l y and s l o w l y n a r r o w i n g , t i l l I found m y s e l f
w a l k i n g i n a g a l l e r y o f rock once more, b o t h s i d e s o f
w h i c h I c o u l d touch w i t h my o u t s t r e t c h e d hands. I t narrowed
y e t , u n t i l I was f o r c e d to move c a r e f u l l y , i n o r d e r to
a v o i d s t r i k i n g a g a i n s t the p r o j e c t i n g p i e c e s of r o c k . The
r o o f sank lower and l o w e r , u n t i l I was c o m p e l l e d , f i r s t to
s t o o p , and then to creep on my hands and k n e e s . It recalled
t e r r i b l e dreams of c h i l d h o o d ( 2 3 ) .

M a s k u l l and Corpang " f o l l o w e d the drumming" which l e a d them i n t o "the

mouth o f a l a r g e c a v e r n " (VA 2 2 3 ) :

The path narrowed and became a steep a s c e n t . Then the

a n g l e became one o f f o r t y - f i v e d e g r e e s , and they had to
climb. The t u n n e l grew so c o n f i n e d t h a t M a s k u l l was r e -
minded o f the e v i l dreams o f h i s c h i l d h o o d (VA 2 2 4 ) .
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Anodos emerges i n t o a " w i n t r y s u n , " and takes " a l i t t l e b o a t " to

h i s death. By c o n t r a s t , Corpang and M a s k u l l emerge i n t o " B r a n c h s p e l l ' s

blinding rays" (VA 2 2 4 ) , where they w a i t f o r a ferryman t o a r r i v e w i t h

h i s boat, t o t a k e them towards r e a l life.

When Gilgamesh i s on 'The s e a r c h f o r E v e r l a s t i n g L i f e ' (Chapter

26

4 ) , he passes through " t w e l v e leagues of d a r k n e s s " to the ocean o v e r

which Urshanabi w i l l f e r r y h i m . L i k e Haunte's boat, Urshanabi's i s kept

s a f e by " h o l y t h i n g s , the t h i n g s o f s t o n e " and h i s b o a t has a " s e r p e n t

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prow." Gilgamesh " s h a t t e r [ s ] the s t o n e s i n h i s a n g e r , " and U r s h a n a b i

says t o h i m : " G i l g a m e s h , y o u r own hands have p r e v e n t e d you from c r o s s -

i n g the Ocean; when you d e s t r o y e d the t h i n g s o f s t o n e , you d e s t r o y e d the

29

s a f e t y of t h e b o a t . " I t i s n o t e x p l a i n e d how the s t o n e s w o r k . Haunte's

s t o n e s are "male s t o n e s " : " t h e y a r e showering out male s p a r k s a l l t h e

time. These s p a r k s devour a l l the female p a r t i c l e s r i s i n g from the

earth. No female p a r t i c l e s are l e f t over t o a t t r a c t the male p a r t s o f

the b o a t " (VA 2 3 0 - 3 1 ) . The boat s a i l s through the a i r , o v e r the a r i d

'sea' of L i c h s t o r m , on a c u s h i o n o f male s p a r k s . I n the prow i s a staff—

the p h a l l i c e q u i v a l e n t o f U r s h a n a b i ' s " s e r p e n t " , i n t o w h i c h , as i n the

Bible, i t may i n d e e d metamorphose—which s u p p o r t s an "upper male stone"

(VA 2 3 1 ) , by w h i c h Haunte s t e e r s . He t a k e s M a s k u l l and Corpang a c r o s s

L i c h s t o r m t o " a dark s l i t i n the r o c k " w h i c h i s " t h e mouth o f h i s cave"

(VA 2 3 3 ) . I t i s only a f t e r t h e j o u r n e y t h a t " t h e s a f e t y of the b o a t "

i s destroyed: M a s k u l l h u r l s H a u n t e ' s male s t o n e s from the mouth of the

cave, thus e m a s c u l a t i n g h i m .

L e e h a l l f a e perhaps represented the attempt t o combine w i t h arid

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subsume the f e m i n i n e element i n c r e a t i o n , and Corpang, by ascetism,

to avoid i t a l t o g e t h e r . Haunte has the more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e of

complete h o s t i l i t y : "the test i s , do y o u h a t e and f e a r women?"

(VA 2 2 9 ) . I n L i c h s t o r m , "men are c a l l e d to women by p a i n , and n o t

pleasure" (VA 229) . A c c o r d i n g to Haunte, maleness " i s a l l t h a t pre-

vents the w o r l d from b e i n g a pure female w o r l d , " i n which case " i t

would be one b i g mass o f heavy s w e e t n e s s , w i t h o u t i n d i v i d u a l s h a p e s "

(VA 2 3 7 ) . The b o d y , b e i n g m a t t e r , is, i n the l a r g e r scheme o f things,

f e m i n i n e , b u t the s p a r k of l i f e i s m a s c u l i n e : h e n c e , " a n excess of

l i f e i s dangerous to the b o d y " (VA 2 3 7 ) .

M a s k u l l c o n t i n u e s northwards w i t h Haunte and Corpang to the home

of Sullenbode. " I n L i c h s t o r m the sexes are p u r e , " Haunte t o l d M a s k u l l .

"There are men t h e r e , and t h e r e are women t h e r e , b u t t h e r e are no men-

women, as w i t h y o u " (VA 2 2 9 ) . As Haunte i s pure m a l e , so Sullenbode

i s pure f e m a l e . A p p r o p r i a t e l y she i s "one b i g mass of heavy s w e e t n e s s " :

h e r f e a t u r e s are m o s t l y " u n d e v e l o p e d " and " h e r f l e s h was almost m e l t i n g

i n i t s s o f t n e s s " (VA 2 4 2 ) , as though she were made of s o f t c l a y . It

was, a g a i n , w i t h a woman,made of c l a y , P a n d o r a , t h a t Zeus tempted

Prometheus, o f whom M a s k u l l i s a t y p e . But S u l l e n b o d e ' s setting leads

us to a s s o c i a t e h e r r a t h e r w i t h Eve than w i t h P a n d o r a . As such she

30

r e p r e s e n t s the u l t i m a t e t e m p t a t i o n , t r u e l o v e . The r e a l t e s t of man

on e a r t h comes when he must choose between t r u e l o v e of woman and t r u e

l o v e o f god. I n the C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n , these may be shown t o l e a d

to the same t h i n g , as D a n t e ' s l o v e f o r B e a t r i c e l e a d s h i m to god. Before

the f a l l , they must be i d e n t i c a l , as C. S. Lewis shows i n h i s n a i v e and

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n o b l y o p t i m i s t i c Voyage t o Venus, i n which the t e m p t a t i o n of 'Eve'

i s r e s t a g e d , o n l y t h i s time she does n o t f a l l . I n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s ,

however, l o v e of woman and l o v e of god are o n l y i n complete harmony i f

the god we r e c o g n i s e i s Crystalman. Woman i s , after a l l , his creation:

she i s what he designed s p e c i f i c a l l y to t i e us to the w o r l d o f w i l l i n g

and k i l l i n g . But f o r S u r t u r ' s sake she must be r e j e c t e d completely.

Sullenbode's setting is c l e a r l y Edenic, but s y m b o l i c a l l y , not i n

the p i c t u r e s q u e sense:

A huge t r e e , w i t h g l o w i n g b r a n c h e s , came i n t o s i g h t .
I t b o r e a m u l t i t u d e of r e d f r u i t , l i k e h a n g i n g l a n t e r n s
v ( 1 4 ) ^ b u t no l e a v e s . Underneath t h i s t r e e S u l l e n b o d e
was s i t t i n g . . . . She was c l o t h e d i n a s i n g u l a r s k i n
garment. . . . Her forearms were l i g h t l y f o l d e d , and
i n one hand she h e l d a h a l f - e a t e n f r u i t (VA 2 4 2 ) .

I n the G n o s t i c v i e w , woman, symbol o f m a t t e r and p r o c r e a t i o n , creation

o f t h e A r c h o n s , i s damned, was c r e a t e d fallen. S u l l e n b o d e , even i n

h e r s e m i - p l a s m i c s t a t e , has a l r e a d y covered h e r n a k e d n e s s , and she e a t s

of the f a t a l f r u i t - , under whose t r e e she permanently s i t s . Her f u n c t i o n

i s t o tempt Adam-Maskull from the road to M u s p e l , which s h e , as E v e -

Sullenbode, can do w i t h a more t e m p t i n g f r u i t : her " f u l l , p o u t i n g and

expressive" l i p s w h i c h are h e r o n l y f u l l y developed f a c i a l f e a t u r e , "a

s p l a s h of v i v i d w i l l " on h e r u n d e f i n e d f a c e (VA 2 4 2 ) . Her mouth i s

" l i k e a gash of f i r e " (VA 2 4 5 ) : an e a r t h l y f i r e to tempt M a s k u l l from

h i s quest f o r the M u s p e l f i r e from beyond the w o r l d .

Haunte k i s s e s S u l l e n b o d e and h e r " f e a t u r e s emerged from t h e i r i n -

distinctness and became human, and almost p o w e r f u l " (VA 2 4 3 ) . But Haunte

i s not h e r p r e y : "the smile faded, a s c o w l took i t s p l a c e . She thrust

Haunte away." When Haunte k i s s e s h e r " t h e second t i m e , he f e l l backward

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w i t h a s t a r t l e d c r y , as though he had come i n c o n t a c t w i t h an e l e c t r i c

wire." When M a s k u l l l o o k s , " t h e man was dead. . . . [ H i s ] head had

been s p l i t from the top downward i n t o two h a l v e s , s t r e a m i n g w i t h strange-

c o l o r e d b l o o d , as though i t had r e c e i v e d a t e r r i b l e blow from an ax"

(VA 2 4 3 ) . M e a n w h i l e , S u l l e n b o d e has r e t u r n e d to h e r p l a s m i c s t a t e .

B e f o r e k i s s i n g S u l l e n b o d e h i m s e l f , M a s k u l l takes a c u r i o u s p r e -

caution, the s i g n i f i c a n c e of w h i c h escapes me. Perhaps M a s k u l l has

read P h a n t a s t e s , f o r t h e i n c i d e n t seems t o have an analogue t h e r e , when

the k n i g h t i s d e a l i n g w i t h s t i c k - m e n who b e a t up a l i t t l e g i r l w h i l e

she i s c o l l e c t i n g b u t t e r f l y w i n g s . The k n i g h t s a y s ,

But s u d d e n l y the r i g h t p l a n o c c u r r e d to me. I t r i p p e d

one o f them u p , and, t a k i n g h i m by the l e g s , s e t him up
on h i s h e a d , w i t h h i s h e e l s a g a i n s t a t r e e . I was de-
l i g h t e d to f i n d he c o u l d n o t move ( 3 1 ) .

At l e a s t M a s k u l l keeps S u l l e n b o d e t h e r i g h t way up, b u t h i s i n t e n t i o n is

the o p p o s i t e of the k n i g h t ' s :

He p l u c k e d n e r v o u s l y a t h i s b e a r d , and s t a r e d a t S u l l e n -
bode. His l i p s kept t w i t c h i n g . A f t e r t h i s had gone on
f o r a few m i n u t e s , he stepped f o r w a r d , bent o v e r the woman,
and l i f t e d h e r b o d i l y i n h i s arms. Setting her upright
a g a i n s t the rugged t r e e t r u n k , he k i s s e d h e r . A c o l d ,
k n i f e l i k e shock passed down h i s frame. He thought t h a t
i t was d e a t h , and l o s t c o n s c i o u s n e s s (VA 2 4 4 ) .

When he r e c o v e r s he f i n d s " S u l l e n b o d e was t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a l i v i n g

s o u l " (VA 2 4 4 ) . She t e l l s h i m ,

L i s t e n , M a s k u l l . Man a f t e r man has drawn me i n t o the

w o r l d , b u t they c o u l d n o t keep me t h e r e , f o r I d i d n o t
w i s h i t . But now y o u have drawn me i n t o i t f o r a l l t i m e ,
f o r good o r e v i l (VA 2 4 5 ) .

In f a c t , she has drawn her l i f e from h i m : she says l a t e r , " I have no

o t h e r l i f e b u t what you g i v e me" (VA 254) and " t h e term of y o u r l o v e i s

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the term of my l i f e . When you l o v e me no l o n g e r , I must d i e " (VA 2 5 4 ) .

In a more l i t e r a l sense than i s common even i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy,

Sullenbode i s M a s k u l l ' s p r o j e c t i o n . For t h i s r e a s o n , of course, she is

the i d e a l t e m p t r e s s : she must be e x a c t l y what M a s k u l l t h i n k s he w a n t s .

M a s k u l l and Corpang c o n t i n u e t h e i r j o u r n e y , accompanied by S u l l e n b o d e .

Corpang says women can see M u s p e l l i g h t "on one c o n d i t i o n " : "They must

forget t h e i r sex. Womanhood and l o v e b e l o n g to l i f e , w h i l e M u s p e l i s

above l i f e " (VA 2 4 6 ) . Corpang o f f e r s more b i t t e r c o u n s e l " t o remind

[ M a s k u l l ] of the e x i s t e n c e o f n o b l e r t h i n g s " (VA 2 4 6 ) , b u t he o n l y

succeeds i n d r i v i n g h i m i n t o S u l l e n b o d e ' s arms (or c l u t c h e s ) . Maskull

s e a l s h i s f a t e w i t h a second k i s s : "an expression of joyousness over-

spread h e r f a c e , i n s p i t e of her e f f o r t s to c o n c e a l i t " (VA 2 5 3 ) :

M a s k u l l , w i t h o u t a w o r d , bent o v e r and k i s s e d h e r l i p s .
Then he r e l i n q u i s h e d h e r body, and t u r n e d around t o
Corpang.
'How do y o u , i n y o u r g r e a t wisdom, i n t e r p r e t t h a t k i s s ? '
' I t r e q u i r e s no g r e a t wisdom to i n t e r p r e t k i s s e s ,
Maskull.'
' H e r e a f t e r , n e v e r dare t o come between u s . Sullenbode
belongs to me' (VA 2 5 3 ) .

And he b e l o n g s to Crystalman. Corpang speaks n o t another w o r d , b u t the

t h r e e t r a v e l l e r s now have t h e i r work cut out t o make any p r o g r e s s at

all. A f t e r the second k i s s , i n k e e p i n g w i t h the mode o f a l l e g o r y , almost

i m m e d i a t e l y the g o i n g b e g i n s

t o a l t e r f o r the w o r s e . The t h i n snow d i s a p p e a r e d , and

gave way to m o i s t , boggy ground. I t was a l l l i t t l e g r a s s y
h i l l o c k s and marshes. They began to s l i p about and become
d r a g g l e d w i t h mud. C o n v e r s a t i o n c e a s e d ; S u l l e n b o d e l e d
the way, and the men f o l l o w e d i n h e r t r a c k s . The s o u t h e r n
h a l f of t h e landscape grew grander (VA 2 5 4 ) .
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The image i s the m e a n i n g : f o l l o w i n g i n the f o o t s t e p s o f Sullenbode,

the men are on v e r y swampy ground i n d e e d . A man cannot f o l l o w a master

and a m i s t r e s s . But S u l l e n b o d e i s a c t u a l l y as much a v i c t i m as Maskull.

She s a y s , " T o n i g h t i s l i k e l i f e " (VA 2 5 6 ) : "So l o v e l y above and around

us, so f o u l u n d e r f o o t " (VA 2 5 7 ) . W i t h o u t s a y i n g a n y t h i n g , Corpang goes

on ahead, alone.

M a s k u l l has been tempted, and has f a l l e n . But the l i f e he has

g i v e n t o S u l l e n b o d e , he can take away. The two l o v e r s c o n t i n u e together

u n t i l suddenly M a s k u l l h e a r s a g a i n " t h e drum t a p s . They came from b e h i n d

the h i l l , and were l o u d , s h a r p , almost e x p l o s i v e . He g l a n c e d a t S u l l e n -

bode, but she appeared to h e a r n o t h i n g " (VA 2 5 9 ) . Then " t h e c r e s t of

the h i l l began to be i l l u m i n a t e d by a s t r a n g e r a d i a n c e . . . . I t was

the l i g h t of M u s p e l . " S u l l e n b o d e appears t o see n o t h i n g . "Maskull's

s p i r i t s w e l l e d " and h i s

heart beat w i l d l y . H i s body was l i k e a p r i s o n . He longed

to throw i t o f f , t o s p r i n g up and become i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h
the s u b l i m e u n i v e r s e w h i c h was b e g i n n i n g to u n v e i l i t s e l f
(VA 2 5 9 ) .

He h a s , i f o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y , f o r g o t t e n S u l l e n b o d e , and h e r k i s s e s can no

l o n g e r tempt him from the ' o t h e r ' world:

S u l l e n b o d e suddenly e n f o l d e d h i m i n h e r arms, and k i s s e d

him p a s s i o n a t e l y , a g a i n and a g a i n . He made no r e s p o n s e .
He was unaware of what she was d o i n g . She u n c l a s p e d h i m
and, w i t h b e n t head and s t r e a m i n g e y e s , went n o i s e l e s s l y
away (VA 1 6 0 ) .

S u l l e n b o d e l o s e s the b a t t l e , b u t wins the w a r . M a s k u l l has b e e n , like

32
Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , " d r e a m i n g , o r s l u m b e r i n g i n t o a n o t h e r w o r l d , "
and when the l i g h t v a n i s h e s and " t h e m o o n l i g h t r e a p p e a r [ s ] " he " s t a r e [ s ]
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around h i m l i k e a suddenly awakened s l e e p e r " (VA 2 6 0 ) . M a s k u l l runs

a f t e r S u l l e n b o d e , but she i s dead b e f o r e he reaches h e r :

Beneath i t s c o a t i n g of mud, h e r f a c e b o r e the v u l g a r ,

g h a s t l y C r y s t a l m a n g r i n , b u t M a s k u l l saw n o t h i n g o f i t .
She had n e v e r appeared so b e a u t i f u l to h i m as a t t h a t
moment (VA 260) ( 3 3 ) .

And, we are t o l d , "he c a r e d no more f o r M u s p e l " (VA 2 6 0 ) .

On the morning of h i s f i f t h and l a s t day on Tormance, M a s k u l l

"gazed a t e v e r y t h i n g i n weary a p a t h y , l i k e a l o s t soul"—which, indeed,

he i s . " A l l h i s d e s i r e s were gone f o r e v e r ; he w i s h e d t o go nowhere,

and to do n o t h i n g " (VA 2 6 2 ) . M a s k u l l , on h i s own, would p r o g r e s s no

farther. At t h i s p o i n t , t h e r e f o r e , K r a g r e a p p e a r s to d r i v e h i m f i n a l l y

into Crystalman's clutches. K r a g t e l l s h i m , "You w i l l die t h i s morning"

(VA 2 6 2 ) , and when M a s k u l l asks "Who and what i s S u r t u r ? " he i s told,

" D o n ' t d i s t u r b y o u r s e l f about t h a t . You w i l l n e v e r know" (VA 2 6 3 ) .

Krag d r i v e s M a s k u l l f o r w a r d w i t h "no . . . s t o p p i n g — e v e n f o r the sake

of theatrical effect" (VA 2 6 4 ) , u n t i l they reach B a r e y , where they meet

w i t h the embodied C r y s t a l m a n h i m s e l f , Gangnet. They are now f a r enough

n o r t h t h a t they can expect the r i s i n g o f A l p p a i n . "And t h a t , " says K r a g ,

" i s Crystalman's trump c a r d " : " Y o u ' l l renounce the w o r l d so e a g e r l y that

y o u ' l l want to s t a y i n the w o r l d merely to enjoy y o u r s e n s a t i o n s " (VA 2 6 9 ) .

The t h r e e t r a v e l l e r s f i n a l l y emerge from the " a c c u r s e d forest"

(VA 271) and s e t s a i l on a f l o a t i n g i s l a n d " o n the bosom o f " (VA 272) the

ocean. "The name o f [ t h i s ] Ocean" " i s t o l d o n l y to those who d i e b e s i d e

it" (VA 2 2 6 ) . It is, as K r a g t e l l s the d y i n g M a s k u l l , " S u r t u r ' s Ocean"

34
(VA 2 7 7 ) . On t h i s ocean, under the i n f l u e n c e o f the b e a u t i f u l and p o e t i c
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"man-woman" (VA 266) Gangnet, M a s k u l l f i n a l l y r e j e c t s t h a t " u g l y , w r i n k l e d

m o n s t r o s i t y " (VA 275) K r a g , w i t h h i s " y e l l o w , r e p u l s i v e f a c e " (VA 2 7 3 ) .

Then A l p p a i n r i s e s , and M a s k u l l says " I have l o s t my w i l l ; I f e e l as if

some f o u l tumor had been s c r a p e d away, l e a v i n g me c l e a n and f r e e " (VA 2 7 5 ) .

He i s " n o t h i n g " (VA 275) and s a y s " I understand n o t h i n g , except that I

have no s e l f any more. But t h i s is_ l i f e " (VA 2 7 6 ) . M a s k u l l has become

one w i t h C r y s t a l m a n ' s w o r l d . A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e n , K r a g must s t e p i n to

snatch n o t h i n g , M a s k u l l ' s e s s e n t i a l s e l f , N i g h t s p o r e , out o f the hands of

t h e god of c r e a t i o n . M a s k u l l d i e s arid N i g h t s p o r e i s b o r n . "Nightspore

gazed l o n g and e a r n e s t l y a t M a s k u l l ' s body. 'Why was a l l t h i s n e c e s s a r y ? '

he asks (VA 2 7 7 ) . He i s soon to f i n d o u t , by c l i m b i n g the tower which

l e a d s t o M u s p e l , w h i c h i s " a l a d d e r to h e a v e n " (VA 2 8 1 ) .

We must t h i n k of the s e p a r a t e spheres of C r y s t a l m a n ' s w o r l d , which

surrounds M u s p e l , as b e i n g l i k e the s e p a r a t e c o l o u r s of a r a i n b o w . In

fact, c r e a t i o n is_ a r a i n b o w , and i t i s a l s o a v e i l . On the e a r t h l y s i d e

o f the v e i l we are a s l e e p : we have drunk o f L e t h e , the r i v e r b o t h o f

m a t t e r and f o r g e t f u l n e s s : i n b e i n g submerged i n m a t t e r , the s p i r i t

f o r g e t s the r e a l w o r l d beyond the v e i l or what Jean P a u l c a l l s "the

gleaming Rainbow of C r e a t i o n " ( C a r l y l e ' s t r a n s l a t i o n ) . It is i n this

image t h a t a l l the m o t i f s o f A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s come t o g e t h e r . Maskull

was of day, a s l e e p to the r e a l w o r l d , bound t o c r e a t i o n , unable t o see

beyond C r y s t a l m a n . N i g h t s p o r e i s o f n i g h t , a s l e e p to t h i s b u t awake to

the r e a l w o r l d , f r e e o f c r e a t i o n , and a b l e to see what P l a t o c a l l s the

35

" t r u e and u n s l e e p i n g r e a l i t y " beyond the v e i l of Maya, rainbow o f

Creation or shadow of C r y s t a l m a n . Lindsay's relative, C a r l y l e , expresses

 185

these i d e a s c o n c i s e l y i n Sartor Resartus:

We s i t as i n a b o u n d l e s s Phantasmagoria and D r e a m - g r o t t o ;
. . . sounds and many-coloured v i s i o n s f l i t round our
s e n s e ; b u t Him, the U n s l u m b e r i n g , whose work b o t h Dream
and Dreamer a r e , we see n o t ; e x c e p t i n r a r e h a l f - w a k i n g
moments, s u s p e c t n o t . C r e a t i o n , says one, l i e s b e f o r e u s ,
l i k e a g l o r i o u s Rainbow, b u t the Sun t h a t made i t l i e s
b e h i n d u s , h i d d e n from u s . Then, i n t h a t s t r a n g e Dream,
how we c l u t c h at shadows as i f they were s u b s t a n c e s ; and
s l e e p deepest w h i l e f a n c y i n g o u r s e l v e s most awake! . . .
T h i s Dreaming, t h i s Somnambulism i s what we on E a r t h c a l l
L i f e (36).

L i n d s a y would have two q u i b b l e s w i t h t h i s : firstly, creation is not

the work of " H i m , the U n s l u m b e r i n g " S u r t u r , b u t o f C r y s t a l m a n ; and

secondly, " t h e Sun" l i e s n o t b e h i n d us b u t on the o t h e r s i d e o f the

rainbow. T h i s l e a d s t o the u l t i m a t e paradox o f A Voyage to A r c t u r u s ,

w h i c h i s t h a t the way to M u s p e l l i e s through C r y s t a l m a n , n o t away from

him. I t i s o n l y when M a s k u l l i s u n i t e d w i t h C r y s t a l m a n ' s world that

Nightspore can get f r e e of it.

The Muspel l i g h t streams from M u s p e l and through " t h e s p h e r e " of

C r y s t a l m a n , by w h i c h i t i s " s p l i t , as by a p r i s m , i n t o the two forms

of l i f e " (VA 2 8 4 ) : s p a r k s of s p i r i t and " w h i r l s " of l i v i n g will:

What had been f i e r y s p i r i t but a moment ago was now a

d i s g u s t i n g mass o f c r a w l i n g , w r i g g l i n g i n d i v i d u a l s , each
w h i r l o f p l e a s u r e - s e e k i n g w i l l h a v i n g , as n u c l e u s , a
fragment of l i v i n g green f i r e . Nightspore r e c o l l e c t e d
the back r a y s o f S t a r k n e s s , and i t f l a s h e d a c r o s s him
w i t h the c e r t a i n t y of t r u t h t h a t the green s p a r k s were
the back r a y s , and the w h i r l s the forward r a y s o f M u s p e l .
The former were t r y i n g d e s p e r a t e l y to r e t u r n to t h e i r
p l a c e o f o r i g i n , b u t were overpowered by the b r u t e f o r c e
of the l a t t e r , w h i c h wished o n l y to remain where they
were. The i n d i v i d u a l w h i r l s were j o s t l i n g and f i g h t i n g
w i t h , and even d e v o u r i n g , each o t h e r . This created p a i n ,
b u t , whatever p a i n they f e l t , i t was always p l e a s u r e t h a t
they s o u g h t . Sometimes the green s p a r k s were s t r o n g
enough f o r a moment to move a l i t t l e way i n the d i r e c t i o n
 186

of M u s p e l ; the w h i r l s would then accept the movement, not

o n l y w i t h o u t demur, b u t w i t h p r i d e and p l e a s u r e , as i f i t
were t h e i r own h a n d i w o r k — b u t they never saw beyond the
Shadow, they thought t h a t they were t r a v e l i n g toward i t .
The i n s t i n c t the d i r e c t movement w e a r i e d them, as c o n t r a r y
to t h e i r w h i r l i n g n a t u r e , they f e l l a g a i n to k i l l i n g ,
d a n c i n g , and l o v i n g (VA 2 8 4 ) .

The w i l l s w h i r l t o C r y s t a l m a n ' s w a l t z ; the s p a r k s march to S u r t u r ' s drum

taps: b u t the s p a r k s are " h o p e l e s s l y imprisoned", "effeminated and c o r -

rupted—that i s to s a y , absorbed i n the f o u l , s i c k l y e n v e l o p i n g forms"

(VA 2 8 3 ) . The w i l l s are the b o d y , the s p a r k s the s o u l . " W i l l i n g and

37

waking are one and the same t h i n g . " Willing is " k i l l i n g , d a n c i n g and

loving": "That i s what i t i s t o be awake. . . . It is to b a t t l e . It

is to w i l l . As f o r the dream, . . . i t is the s t a t e i n t o which you

n a t u r a l l y f a l l when you have l e t y o u r s e l f go, . . . when you have ceased
38

to w i l l . " M a s k u l l , under A l p p a i n , has f a l l e n a s l e e p to the w o r l d where

he has been " m u r d e r i n g and l o v e m a k i n g " (VA 2 6 4 ) , " k i l l i n g and f o n d l i n g "

(VA 2 6 5 ) , and t h i s s l e e p (death) has enabled N i g h t s p o r e (Maskull's dream-

s p i r i t self) to awake t o the r e a l w o r l d .

When N i g h t s p o r e c l i m b s the tower and passes through Crystalman's

b o d y , he f i n d s , beyond t h e rainbow o r shadow, n o t h i n g . There i s no god.

In J e a n - P a u l ' s d r e a m - v i s i o n 'Rede des t o t e n C h r i s t u s ' , translated by

Carlyle, C h r i s t addressed the dead who have assembled from t h e i r g r a v e s :

I went through the W o r l d s , I mounted i n t o the Suns, and
f l e w w i t h the G a l a x i e s through the wastes of Heaven; b u t
t h e r e i s no God! I descended as f a r as B e i n g c a s t s i t s
shadow, and l o o k e d down i n t o the Abyss and c r i e d , F a t h e r ,
Where a r t thou? But I h e a r d o n l y the e v e r l a s t i n g s t o r m
w h i c h no one g u i d e s , and the gleaming Rainbow o f C r e a t i o n
hung w i t h o u t a Sun t h a t made i t , o v e r the A b y s s , and
t r i c k l e d down ( 3 9 ) .
 187

Muspel i s not " a S u n " , i t i s n o t h i n g ; S u r t u r i s n o t a God, he i s n o t h i n g .

M a s k u l l found h i m s e l f , as N i g h t s p o r e ; N i g h t s p o r e f i n d s h i m s e l f as a second
40
K r a g , as M u s p e l i t s e l f : he
s t o o d e x p e c t a n t l y on the s t o n e - f l o o r e d r o o f , l o o k i n g
around f o r h i s f i r s t g l i m p s e of M u s p e l .
There was n o t h i n g .
He was s t a n d i n g on top of a t o w e r , measuring n o t
above f i f t e e n f e e t each way. Darkness was a l l around
h i m . He s a t down on the stone p a r a p e t , w i t h a s i n k i n g
h e a r t ; a heavy f o r e b o d i n g p o s s e s s e d h i m .
S u d d e n l y , w i t h o u t s e e i n g or h e a r i n g a n y t h i n g , he
had the d i s t i n c t i m p r e s s i o n t h a t the darkness around
h i m , on a l l f o u r s i d e s , was g r i n n i n g . . . . As soon as t h a t
happened, he understood t h a t he was w h o l l y surrounded by
C r y s t a l m a n ' s w o r l d , and t h a t Muspel c o n s i s t e d of h i m s e l f
and the stone tower on w h i c h he was s i t t i n g . . . .

F i r e flashed i n h i s h e a r t . . . . M i l l i o n s upon m i l l i o n s
o f g r o t e s q u e , v u l g a r , r i d i c u l o u s , sweetened i n d i v i d u a l s —
once S p i r i t — w e r e c a l l i n g out from t h e i r d e g r a d a t i o n and
agony f o r s a l v a t i o n from M u s p e l . . . . To answer t h a t c r y
t h e r e was o n l y h i m s e l f . . . and K r a g w a i t i n g below . . . and
S u r t u r — B u t where was S u r t u r ? (VA 2 8 6 ) .

K r a g i s S u r t u r , j u s t as N i g h t s p o r e i s S u r t u r . H i s name on e a r t h is

pain.
 188

Footnotes to Chapter S i x

Bruce Haywood f i n d s the image of the s p i r a l p a t h to be " t h e b a s i c

s t r u c t u r a l image o f " Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n i n h i s N o v a l i s : The V e i l o f
Imagery (Cambridge, M a s s . : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1959), p . 96.

2
V l a d i m i r Nabokov, Speak, Memory (New Y o r k : Pyramid B o o k s , 1968),
p. 203.
3
Quoted by Hans Jonas i n The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n ( r e v . e d . , Boston:
Beacon P r e s s , 1963), p . 158.
4
Hans J o n a s , The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 158.

^ M a s k u l l says he has " a m o r a l a i m " and Oceaxe a s k s , " A r e you p r o -

p o s i n g t o s e t t h e w o r l d r i g h t ? " (VA 9 0 ) .

6 x
W. H . Auden, The Enchafed F l o o d (New Y o r k : Vintage Books, 1967),

7
W. H . Auden, The Enchafed F l o o d , pp. 13-14.

8
W. H . Auden, The Enchafed F l o o d , p . 11.

9
W . H . Auden, The Enchafed F l o o d , p . 22.

"^George MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1 9 7 0 ) ,

p. 5. I n h i s book about MacDonald, The Golden Key (New Haven: Y a l e
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 1 ) , R. L . W o l f f t e l l s us MacDonald k e p t i n a s e c r e t
n e s t o f drawers a l e t t e r from h i s mother t o h i s grandmother s a y i n g she
d i d n o t want t o wean h i m , and comments t h a t " h i s m o t h e r ' s death d e a l t
him a wound t h a t n e v e r h e a l e d " (p. 1 3 ) . W o l f f a l s o says t h a t the f i r s t
d r a f t of L i l i t h began " ' M y mother I had no memory o f ' " (p. 3 3 0 ) .

1 1
I n P h a n t a s t e s the beech-tree-woman says "Why, you b a b y ! " and c a l l s
him "my c h i l d " ( p . 3 1 ) , the woman i n the c o t t a g e on the i s l a n d says " p o o r
c h i l d ! poor c h i l d ! " and spoon-feeds h i m " l i k e a baby" (p. 1 4 6 ) , and so on.
The women are g e n e r a l l y l a b e l l e d 'Touch N o t ' .

12
C. S. L e w i s , Out o f the S i l e n t P l a n e t (New Y o r k : Macmillan, 1968),
112,
 189

13
I n George MacDonald's L i l i t h , The L i t t l e Ones do n o t grow because
all the w a t e r has been gathered up by the f a l s e mother, L i l i t h .

^ ^ F r a n c i s Ponge, 'Fauna and F l o r a ' , t r a n s . Richard Wilbur i n

T r a n s i t i o n 50 ( P a r i s , 1950), p . 84.

"'""'On the n e x t l e v e l of the s p i r a l , he w i l l f i n d a h o l e t o h i d e i n :

w i t h Corpang i n a s e p u l c h r a l underground c o u n t r y .

16
In the ' n o v e l i s t i c ' a c t i o n , M a s k u l l i s awake—but D r e a m s i n t e r
appears between two p e r i o d s of heavy u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s , and knows t h i n g s
t h a t o n l y M a s k u l l ' s u n c o n s c i o u s mind c o u l d know: he speaks w i t h what
Schopenhauer c a l l s " t h e t r u t h o f the dream". H i s name vouches f o r h i s
dream ( i . e . r e a l ) e x i s t e n c e , and perhaps ' - i n t e r ' i s a fragment o f
' i n t e r n a l ' , or h i n t s at b u r i a l and l i f e beyond d e a t h .

1 7
J . A . M a c C u l l o c h , The R e l i g i o n o f the A n c i e n t C e l t s ( E d i n b u r g h :
Clark, 1911), p . 2 5 1 .

18
J u l e s F e i f f e r , h a r r y , the r a t w i t h women (New Y o r k : McGraw-Hill,
1963), p . 151. Cf A r i s t o p h a n e s ' speech i n P l a t o ' s Symposium.
19
T h i s i s K r a g ' s f u n c t i o n : "he dogs S h a p i n g ' s f o o t s t e p s e v e r y w h e r e ,
and whatever the l a t t e r does, he undoes. To l o v e he j o i n s d e a t h ; t o s e x ,
shame; to i n t e l l e c t , madness; to v i r t u e , c r u e l t y ; and t o f a i r e x t e r i o r s ,
b l o o d y e n t r a i l s " (VA 1 7 7 ) .
20
'The Words o f the A l l - w i s e ' i n The E l d e r Edda, t r a n s . Auden and
T a y l o r (New Y o r k : V i n t a g e B o o k s , 1970), p . 79.

N e r v a l , Oeuvres, e d . L e m a i t r e , I , p . 753.

22
George MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s , p . 134. L i n d s a y ' s c o u n t r y has r e a l
t r e e s , w i t h t h e i r r o o t s i n the c e i l i n g . I n t h i s they are l i k e Corpang,
who b e l i e v e s t h a t h i s own ' r o o t s ' are i n h e a v e n , though he i s m i s t a k e n .
Man as an i n v e r t e d t r e e i s an o l d image, b u t a p r e t t y one.
23
George MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s , p. 140.
24
George MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s , p. 141.
25
George MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s , p . 142. I n t h i s , Anodos i s l i k e
S h e l l e y ' s A l a s t o r . The e p i g r a p h t o Chapter I of P h a n t a s t e s i s from A l a s t o r .
 190

26
The E p i c of G i l g a m e s h , t r a n s . N . K . Sandars (Harmondsworth:
P e n g u i n B o o k s , 1971), p . 9 5 .

2 7
T h e E p i c of G i l g a m e s h , p . 100.

28
The E p i c of G i l g a m e s h , p . 100.
29
The E p i c of G i l g a m e s h , p . 101.
30
M a s k u l l s a y s , "My body seems f u l l of r o c k s , a l l g r i n d i n g a g a i n s t
one a n o t h e r " (VA 2 4 4 ) . One wonders i f L i n d s a y knew t h a t the F i n n i s h
for love i s rakastaa. In Emil P e t a j a ' s science-fantasy reworking of
the K a l e v a l a , one c h a r a c t e r s a y s , o f r a k a s t a a , " F i n n i s h ' l o v e ' sounds
l i k e c r u s h i n g r o c k s " ; Saga of L o s t E a r t h s (New Y o r k : Ace B o o k s , 1 9 6 6 ) ,
p . 73.
31
George MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s , p . 19 8.
32
N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n : A Romance (New Y o r k : H . H . Moore,
1853) , p . 2 3 .
33
F o r some i n e x p l i c a b l e r e a s o n , C o l i n W i l s o n says " L i n d s a y ' s purpose
seems to have wavered f o r a moment; b u t perhaps t h i s i s i n t e n d e d i r o n -
i c a l l y " (TSG 6 0 ) . N o t h i n g of the s o r t . G a n g n e t - C r y s t a l m a n ' s main p o i n t
l a t e r i s , " i f - S u l l e n b o d e can e x i s t . . . the w o r l d cannot be a bad p l a c e "
(VA 268) .
3A
Krag s a y s , "Gangnet i s the k i n g of p o e t s " . And M a s k u l l observes,
c o r r e c t l y , " i f Gangnet i s a p o e t , y o u ' r e a b u f f o o n " (VA 2 7 3 ) .
35
P l a t o , Timaeus, t r a n s . H . D. P . Lee (Harmondsworth: Penguin B o o k s ,
1 9 6 5 ) , p . 71.
36
Thomas C a r l y l e , S a r t o r R e s a r t u s (Edinburgh: The New U n i v e r s i t y
S o c i e t y , n . d . ) , pp. 5 0 - 5 1 .
37
H e n r i B e r g s o n , Dreams, t r a n s . E . E . S l o s s o n (New Y o r k : Huebsch,
1914), p . 49. In h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n to the B a l l a n t i n e e d i t i o n of A Voyage,
L o r e n E i s e l e y t a l k s o f the " B e r g s o n i a n g l i m p s e o f l i f e as some k i n d o f
i n e f f a b l e s t r e a m i n g r a d i a n c e , an e l a n v i t a l " (VA i x ) . I have i g n o r e d
Bergson (except h e r e , where he c o n v e n i e n t l y p a r a p h r a s e s Schopenhauer)
because he i s to Schopenhauer as B o c c h e r i n i was t o Haydn. F u r t h e r , L i n d s a y
i s always m e n t i o n i n g Schopenhauer b u t he n e v e r , to my knowledge, mentions
Bergson.
 191

H e n r i B e r g s o n , Dreams, p . 49. Jacob Boehme e x p l a i n s the reasons

f o r the w h i r l i n g and w i l l i n g w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c l a r i t y i n Chapter I I
s e c . 13 o f S i g n a t u r a Rerum ( t r a n s . B a x ) :

Thus the compunction w i l l e t h upwards, and w h i r l s c r o s s -

ways, and y e t cannot e f f e c t i t , f o r the h a r d n e s s , v i z .
the d e s i r e s t a y s and d e t a i n s i t , and t h e r e f o r e i t stands
l i k e a t r i a n g l e , and t r a n s v e r t e d o r b , which ( s e e i n g i t
cannot remove from the p l a c e ) becomes w h e e l i n g , whence
a r i s e s the m i x t u r e i n the d e s i r e ; f o r the t u r n i n g makes
a c o n t i n u a l c o n f u s i o n and c o n t r i t i o n , whence the a n g u i s h ,
v i z . the p a i n , the t h i r d form o r s t i n g of sense) a r i s e s .

39
Jean P a u l F r i e d r i c h R i c h t e r quoted from the t r a n s l a t i o n by C a r l y l e
i n The Works o f Thomas C a r l y l e , e d . H . D. T r a i l l , ' C e n t e n a r y E d i t i o n '
(30 v o l s . ; London: Chapman and H a l l , 1896-1899), X X V I I , p . 157.

^ ^ I n 'The Enigma of Edward F i t z g e r a l d ' Borges t e l l s us of " a t r a n s -

l a t i o n of M a n t i q a l - T a y r , t h a t m y s t i c a l e p i c about the b i r d s who s e a r c h
f o r t h e i r k i n g , S i m u r g , and f i n a l l y a r r i v e a t h i s p a l a c e , w h i c h i s a c r o s s
the seven s e a s , to d i s c o v e r t h a t they are Simurg and t h a t Simurg i s each
and everyone of them"; J o r g e L u i s B o r g e s , A P e r s o n a l A n t h o l o g y , e d . Anthony
K e r r i g a n (New Y o r k : Grove P r e s s , 1967), p . 95.
 192

Chapter Seven:

ALLEGORICAL DREAM FANTASY: THE PROBLEM OF STYLE

A Voyage to A r c t u r u s has a number of q u a l i t i e s , as we have s e e n :

i t i s symbolically inventive, p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g , a powerful,

v i s u a l f a n t a s y and a c o h e r e n t , h i g h l y - o r g a n i s e d a l l e g o r y . However, it

has g e n e r a l l y been c o n s i d e r e d , by i t s few c r i t i c s , t o be a n o t v e r y w e l l

w r i t t e n n o v e l , w h i c h i s l e s s s u r p r i s i n g when we remember t h a t i t i s n o t

a n o v e l at a l l . The s t y l i s t i c c r i t e r i a w h i c h l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s apply to

n o v e l s may n o t be a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s and works

b e l o n g i n g to o t h e r non-mimetic g e n r e s : we have a l r e a d y seen that the

same c r i t e r i a do n o t a p p l y w i t h r e g a r d t o p l o t and c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n , and

i t should not s u r p r i s e us i f t h i s i s t r u e o f s t y l e a l s o . A literary

c r i t i c who examines works of dream l i t e r a t u r e a c c o r d i n g to the c r i t e r i a

of the ' r e a l i s t i c ' s o c i a l o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l n o v e l as a c u t e l y as Joanna

Russ does w i l l f i n d the s t y l e o f dream books to have t h e f o l l o w i n g

characteristics:

Repetition. No v o i c e o r f o r c e d v o i c e . Simple f i g u r e s
of speech. Evenness of p a c i n g . Thin characters. Flat
s e n t e n c e s , l i t t l e v a r i e t y o r use of s y n t a x . No p l a y i n g
w i t h sound, o r m e c h a n i c a l sound ( 1 ) .

T h i s c o r r e c t l y d e s c r i b e s the s t y l e of A Voyage. But from t h i s p o i n t o f

v i e w , almost a l l dream works i n p r o s e have these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and

2
t h e r e f o r e they must a l l be b a d l y w r i t t e n .
When She was p u b l i s h e d ,

The P a l l M a l l Budget d e p l o r e d the ' b a t h o s ' and ' f r e q u e n t

t o r p o r s ' but praised the 'energy and i n t e n s i t y o f imag-
ination.' ' I t i s as though a s u b j e c t roughed out by
 193

M i c h a e l Angelo had been executed w i t h an eye t o New

Bond S t r e e t p o p u l a r i t y by Gustave D o r e . ' The r e v i e w e r
l i k e n s H a g g a r d ' s c o n c e p t i o n t o D a n t e ' s , h i s w r i t i n g to
t h a t of the D a i l y T e l e g r a p h ( 3 ) .

She was, of c o u r s e , such an enormous p o p u l a r s u c c e s s t h a t Haggard made

a w o r l d t o u r , and a mountain and a r i v e r were named a f t e r him i n Canada.

Clearly, to borrow D r . J o h n s o n ' s p h r a s e , the book must have had some

s p e c i e s of m e r i t . I n h i s c r i t i c a l b i o g r a p h y of Haggard, Cohen testifies

that

the s t o r y . . . has a b e w i l d e r i n g power, the s o r t one

i s accustomed t o meet o n l y i n s u p e r i o r works of a r t such
as ' C h r i s t a b e l ' and some o f P o e ' s m a s t e r p i e c e s , a power
t h a t g r i p s the r e a d e r so f i e r c e l y t h a t he brushes a s i d e
Haggard's e r r o r s i n t a s t e , h i s o c c a s i o n a l g r a m m a t i c a l
l a p s e s , h i s i m p e r f e c t c h a r a c t e r p o r t r a y a l and l a c k of
emotional u n i t y . The power of h i s i m a g i n a t i o n i s f a r
s t r o n g e r than the o b s t a c l e s h i s w r i t i n g puts i n our way ( 4 ) .

' C h r i s t a b e l ' has the " b e w i l d e r i n g p o w e r , " but i t i s not p r o s e . Poe,

however, c o u l d h a r d l y be recommended as a model f o r any a s p i r i n g prose

stylist, and h i s w r i t i n g i s f r e q u e n t l y t a s t e l e s s even i n h i s masterpieces.

Nonetheless, Cohen's testament must be a c c e p t e d . She " g r i p s the

r e a d e r so f i e r c e l y " t h a t he put a g r e a t d e a l o f time and e f f o r t i n t o

w r i t i n g a book about Haggard, as I have been s i m i l a r l y g r i p p e d by L i n d s a y

and moved to w r i t e a t h e s i s about h i m . Both She and A Voyage show ' t h e

power of i m a g i n a t i o n ' w h i c h — w h a t e v e r i t means—is what f a n t a s y is all

about. S t y l e i s f o u n d , i n the e x p e r i e n c e of r e a d i n g , to be of l e s s e r i m -

portance. T h i s i s as t r u e f o r German w r i t e r s as f o r E n g l i s h ones, o f o l d

f a n t a s i e s l i k e Bunyan's as of more modern ones. Thomas C a r l y l e w r i t e s of

his hero:

To r e a d e r s who b e l i e v e t h a t i n t r i n s i c i s i n s e p a r a b l e from
s u p e r f i c i a l e x c e l l e n c e , and t h a t n o t h i n g can be good o r
 194

b e a u t i f u l which i s not t o be seen through i n a moment,

R i c h t e r can o c c a s i o n l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y . They admit him
to be a man o f v a s t n a t u r a l endowments, b u t he i s u t t e r l y
u n c u l t i v a t e d , and w i t h o u t command of them; f u l l of monstrous
a f f e c t a t i o n , the v e r y h i g h - p r i e s t o f bad t a s t e : he knows
n o t the a r t o f w r i t i n g , s c a r c e l y t h a t t h e r e i s such an a r t ;
an i n s a n e v i s i o n a r y f l o a t i n g f o r e v e r among b a s e l e s s dreams,
which h i d e the f i r m e a r t h from h i s v i e w . . . . I n t h i s way
the m a t t e r i s a d j u s t e d ; b r i e f l y , c o m f o r t a b l y and wrong ( 5 ) .

For those who p e n e t r a t e beneath the a p p a r e n t l y c h a o t i c s u r f a c e o f the

s t y l e , however,

h i s I m a g i n a t i o n opens f o r us the Land o f Dreams; we s a i l

w i t h him through the b o u n d l e s s a b y s s , and the s e c r e t s of
Space, and Time, and L i f e , and A n n i h i l a t i o n h o v e r round
us i n dim cloudy f o r m s , and darkness and immensity and
dread encompass and overshadow us ( 6 ) .

Bunyan i s n e v e r o b s c u r e , n o r so f a r - f e t c h e d i n h i s "Dark C l o u d s , " 7 b u t

g

"he seems to w r i t e w e l l i n c o n s i s t e n t l y and by happy a c c i d e n t . " So does

M. P . S h i e l i n The P u r p l e C l o u d . So does L i n d s a y i n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s .

We f i n d the a t t i t u d e Cohen takes towards Haggard, C a r l y l e towards

R i c h t e r , and, f o r t h a t m a t t e r , MacNeice and Auden towards MacDonald, taken

by P i c k and W i l s o n towards L i n d s a y . J . B . P i c k w r i t e s t h a t
A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s i s a v i v i d account o f [ L i n d s a y ' s ]
vision. We r e q u i r e from a w i t n e s s n o t a d i s p l a y o f
educated s e n s i b i l i t y b u t an account o f what happened,
and t h i s i s what [he] g i v e s u s . The l i t e r a t i have o f t e n
proved to p r e f e r a d i s p l a y o f educated s e n s i b i l i t y . If
n o t h i n g i m p o r t a n t has happened, to d i s p l a y educated s e n s -
i b i l i t y i s the o n l y p o s s i b l e reason f o r o n l y g i v i n g an
account a t a l l ( 9 ) .

More r e a s o n a b l y , W i l s o n " n o t e s the awkward s t y l e o f the n o v e l s " (TSG 4 2 ) ,

and quotes a passage from D e v i l ' s Tor which

i s c l u m s y . I t c o n t a i n s phrases t h a t no competent w r i t e r
would l e t p a s t : ' h e r s e c r e t h e a r t was f u l l o f a w f u l
w h i s p e r s ' ; i t goes on a l i t t l e too l o n g : 'From him she
c o u l d endure i t , f o r i t was h i s r i g h t and n a t u r e ' , e t c .
But w i t h a l l i t s c l u m s i n e s s , i t ends by g a i n i n g a c e r t a i n
momentum, and making one f o r g e t i t s f a u l t s (TSG 4 1 ) .
 195

A f t e r one l e a v e s the ' n o v e l i s t i c ' w o r l d o f F a u l l (comparable to the

w o r l d o f D e v i l ' s Tor) and M a s k u l l "awakens on Tormance," says W i l s o n ,

" t h e r e a l a c t i o n of [A Voyage] b e g i n s , and moves f o r w a r d a t a pace

t h a t makes t h i s the most e x t r a o r d i n a r y f e a t of i m a g i n a t i o n i n E n g l i s h

fiction" (TSG 4 9 ) . Even C. S. Lewis takes t h i s l i n e . Describing "that

shattering, i n t o l e r a b l e and i r r e s i s t a b l e work . . . A Voyage to Arcturus"" 1 "^

he says L i n d s a y i s " u n a i d e d by any s p e c i a l s k i l l o r even any sound taste

i n language""'" 1 " s c i e n t i f i c a l l y i t ' s nonsense, the s t y l e is appalling,

12
and y e t t h i s g h a s t l y v i s i o n comes t h r o u g h . " I t i s " t h e most remarkable
, •
achievement. _ „13

C l e a r l y , something i s happening i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , and something

powerful. But i t i s n o t , e v i d e n t l y , to be i s o l a t e d i n the words on the

page, i n q u i t e the way t h a t a New C r i t i c might w i s h . The o n l y r e a s o n a b l e

d e d u c t i o n to make i s t h a t the words on the page are not the whole story,

so to speak. T h i s d e d u c t i o n has been made by Norman N . H o l l a n d , who

argues i n The Dynamics of L i t e r a r y Response t h a t

i t i s as i f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s have been l o o k i n g at a group

o f c h i l d r e n on one h a l f o f a somewhat m y s t e r i o u s see-saw,
the o t h e r h a l f b e i n g s c r e e n e d by a w a l l . They have been
t r y i n g to e x p l a i n why t h i s b o a r d s h o u l d r i s e o r f a l l o r
s t a n d out h o r i z o n t a l l y from the w a l l by examining o n l y the
w e i g h t s and p o s i t i o n s o f the c h i l d r e n on the end they can
see ( 1 4 ) .

A c c o r d i n g to H o l l a n d , form and meaning i n a work are e q u i v a l e n t to defense

s t r a t e g i e s i n the m i n d , and p e r m i t the e x p r e s s i o n of ( i n the w o r k ) , and

a l l o w the g r a t i f i c a t i o n of ( i n the m i n d ) , c e n t r a l ' c o r e ' f a n t a s i e s which

lie ' b e h i n d ' the t e x t and w h i c h a r e , i n the unconscious minds o f author

and r e a d e r , what corresponds to the o t h e r h a l f of the see-saw. Literature

 196

i s transformation: through a t e x t , u n c o n s c i o u s f a n t a s i e s are t r a n s f o r m e d

i n t o meaning. I n H o l l a n d ' s m o d e l , t h e jagged l i n e r e p r e s e n t s the t e x t

o r the words on the page:

L-L£ C T

R E A D E R

I K J T R O S E C T

ftEAOEfc

The model d e s c r i b e s the p o t e n t i a l i t i e s . When we a c t u a l l y

become engaged i n a l i t e r a r y r e s p o n s e , when we are " w i t h
i t , " the a c t u a l i t y i s the p r o c e s s of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , i n
w h i c h each of the l e v e l s ( f a n t a s y , form, meaning) o f f e r s
p l e a s u r e i n i t s e l f and m o d i f i e s the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f
p l e a s u r e from o t h e r l e v e l s . We take i n the f a n t a s y which
i s an " h a l l u c i n a t o r y g r a t i f i c a t i o n . " I n l i t e r a t u r e as i n
l i f e , such a f a n t a s y w i l l t y p i c a l l y b o t h g i v e p l e a s u r e and
provoke a n x i e t y . To the e x t e n t i t g i v e s p l e a s u r e , we s i m p l y
get p l e a s u r e from i t . To the e x t e n t i t provokes a n x i e t y , i t
must be m o d i f i e d t o reduce the a n x i e t y . Form and meaning
a r e the two agents t h a t c o n t r o l and manage the f a n t a s y , and
they i n t u r n may be sources o f p l e a s u r e i n t h e m s e l v e s .

For H o l l a n d ,

i n e f f e c t , the l i t e r a r y work dreams a dream f o r u s . It

embodies and evokes i n us a c e n t r a l f a n t a s y , then i t manages
and c o n t r o l s t h a t f a n t a s y by d e v i c e s t h a t , were they i n a
m i n d , we would c a l l d e f e n c e s , b u t , b e i n g on a page, we c a l l
" f o r m . " And the h a v i n g o f the f a n t a s y and f e e l i n g i t managed
g i v e us p l e a s u r e ( 1 6 ) .
 19 7

Even s o - c a l l e d ' r e a l i s t i c ' novels s e p a r a t e us from the e x t e r n a l w o r l d

and i n h i b i t motor a c t i v i t y , as does dreaming, and p r o v i d e f a n t a s y grat-

ification, as do dreams. But f i r s t l y , they manage the f a n t a s y partly

by p r o v i d i n g us w i t h a w o r l d i n w h i c h we can w i l l i n g l y suspend disbelief

( i . e . , what seems to be a ' r e a l ' w o r l d , what i s not o b v i o u s l y a f a n t a s y

w o r l d ) , thus a l l a y i n g a n x i e t y . And s e c o n d l y , they p r o v i d e a g r e a t deal

of defense a g a i n s t a n x i e t y through a c o n c e n t r a t i o n on f o r m , p a r t i c u l a r l y

a t the s i m p l e l e v e l of form as l a n g u a g e . Holland calls this "the dis-

placement t o l a n g u a g e , " and p o i n t s out that

p r o s e tends to t r a n s f o r m f a n t a s y toward meaning; p o e t r y

does t h a t but a l s o d i s p l a c e s c a t h e x i s to the v e r b a l l e v e l .
I n e v i t a b l y , t h e n , a n a r r a t i v e i n p r o s e w i l l make a s t r o n g e r ,
more d i r e c t a p p e a l as f a n t a s y than the same s t o r y i n v e r s e ( 1 7 ) .

The c o n c l u s i o n H o l l a n d draws from h i s comparison o f p r o s e and p o e t r y is

applicable t o our comparison between the n o v e l and the a l l e g o r i c a l dream

fantasy:

A t t e n t i o n , c o n c e r n , i f you w i l l , p s y c h i c e n e r g y , are t a k e n
away from s u b s t a n c e and g i v e n to language. I n terms o f our
m o d e l , such a d i s p l a c e m e n t weakens our i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h the
deeper, f a n t a s y l e v e l s , f r a u g h t w i t h f e a r and d e s i r e ; i n s t e a d ,
we c o n c e n t r a t e our i n v o l v e m e n t on the v e r b a l l e v e l ( 1 7 ) .

That i s , w o r d s - c o n c e r n weakens f a n t a s y concern.

New C r i t i c i s m began w i t h , and i s m a i n l y a p p l i c a b l e to, the study of

poetry. The l i t e r a r y progeny of New C r i t i c i s m , the modern n o v e l , has a

w o r d s - c o n c e r n w h i c h a s p i r e s to the l e v e l of p o e t r y . This k i n d of words-

concern p r o v i d e s massive defences a g a i n s t a n x i e t y - p r o d u c i n g fantasies,

w h i c h i s why w o r d s - c o n c e r n i s n o t g e n e r a l l y to be found i n a l l e g o r i c a l

dream f a n t a s i e s and some romances ( e . g . the G o t h i c N o v e l ) , where core

f a n t a s i e s are r e l a t i v e l y undefended.
 198

A l l literature is, i n a s e n s e , a dream e x p e r i e n c e f o r the reader.

But a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s are much more l i k e a c t u a l dreams than

are modern n o v e l s . Fantasies do n o t put us i n a seeming r e a l i t y , w i t h

w h i c h , by analogy w i t h l i f e e x p e r i e n c e , we s h o u l d f e e l a b l e to cope, b u t

i n a dream w o r l d where almost a n y t h i n g can happen, and i n w h i c h we are

therefore r e l a t i v e l y insecure. They o f t e n do n o t seem t o have w e l l

developed f o r m a l s t r u c t u r i n g i n the more t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e , b e i n g (Phantastes,

f o r example) apparently aimless s e r i e s of i n c i d e n t s . A t the l e v e l o f

language, they have almost no w o r d s - c o n c e r n a t a l l . Thus they do n o t

manage the p o w e r f u l f a n t a s i e s they d e l i b e r a t e l y s e t out to arouse i n any

r e a d i l y d i s c e r n i b l e way, and must be e x p e c t e d t o produce h o s t i l i t y and

rage when a n x i e t i e s are aroused and n o t managed i n t o g r a t i f y i n g form.

19
T h i s i s apparent i n Joanna E u s s ' s c r i t i q u e of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , in
20
W o l f f ' s judgement of L i l i t h , and i n A m i s ' s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t H . P .
L o v e c r a f t "does g i v e t h a t i m p r e s s i o n of b e i n g much more than r i p e f o r
21

psychoanalysis." On the o t h e r hand, when the f a n t a s y i s managed s t r o n g l y

enough f o r a c r i t i c , he tends to respond w i t h f o r c e f u l s t a t e m e n t s , correspond-

i n g to the rage of d e t r a c t i n g c r i t i c s . A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s manages i t s

c o r e f a n t a s y a d e q u a t e l y f o r C. S. Lewis and R. L . G r e e n : L e w i s c a l l s i t
22
a " s h a t t e r i n g , i n t o l e r a b l e and i r r e s i s t a b l e w o r k , " and Green a " s t r a n g e
23

and t e r r i f y i n g r o m a n c e , " an " a s t o n i s h i n g b o o k . " E v i d e n t l y , when the

fantasy i s n o t a t h r e a t , i t s power may be acknowledged; i n d e e d , must be

2

proclaimed. "Fantasies are what makes us grab somebody by the lapels,"

as H o l l a n d says : they provoke extremes of c r i t i c a l r e a c t i o n .

I t may w e l l be t h a t the c e n t r a l f a n t a s y i n a dream f a n t a s y or romance

 199

i s undefended i n what we have c a l l e d ' n o v e l i s t i c ' ways (words-concern

and o t h e r f o r m a l elements appropriate to the c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f the

i n t e l l e c t i n g reader) because i t was undefended by the a u t h o r i n the

act of w r i t i n g . Cohen says "Haggard wrote She d u r i n g February and

March 1886, i n a l i t t l e over s i x weeks. I t v i r t u a l l y f l o w e d from h i s

25
pen of i t s own a c c o r d . " Thus, " h a v i n g w r i t t e n i t as q u i c k l y as he
26

d i d , Haggard was w r i t i n g ' d e e p , ' as though h y p n o t i s e d . " Interestingly,

the s t a t e of h y p n o s i s i s a metaphor f o r the a c t o f r e a d i n g which H o l l a n d

f i n d s more a c c u r a t e than the metaphor o f the dream. Writing quickly,

Haggard presumably f o l l o w e d c l o s e l y the promptings o f h i s unconscious

m i n d , and h i s c o n s c i o u s mind was n o t a l l o w e d t o manage the f a n t a s y i n t o

f o r m a l o r i n t e l l e c t u a l meaning. Cohen takes Haggard's " l a t e r comments"

27

on She t o be " a l l u n s u c c e s s f u l attempts t o comprehend h i s own w o r k . "

Prose f a n t a s i e s and romances are almost always w r i t t e n v e r y q u i c k l y , and

therefore 'deep.' A famous example i s M . G. L e w i s ' s enormous G o t h i c

N o v e l , The Monk. MacDonald wrote P h a n t a s t e s i n two months, and " i n 1890,

he w r o t e , almost w i t h o u t s t o p p i n g , the f i r s t d r a f t o f L i l i t h , " though this

was " o n l y about one t h i r d t h e l e n g t h o f the v e r s i o n t h a t was finally

28

published i n 1895." D a v i d L i n d s a y seems to have spent about thirteen

months on A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s (and i t was " l o n g matured") w h i c h seems,

i n c o m p a r i s o n , t o be a v e r y l o n g t i m e . A Voyage h a s , however, as we have

s e e n , a t l e a s t f o r a f a n t a s y , an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y c o m p l i c a t e d , carefully

worked out schema, though w o r d s - c o n c e r n i n A Voyage remains low compared

to most n o v e l s .

A l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s are l i k e dreams i n t h e i r freedom from the

 200

phenomenal w o r l d , their sequential form and t h e i r i d e a t i o n through

visualisation, as we e x p l a i n e d i n Chapter Two. Reading an a l l e g o r i c a l

dream f a n t a s y , t h e n , even more than r e a d i n g (say) a modern n o v e l , is

a k i n d of dream e x p e r i e n c e f o r the r e a d e r , a s , to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , it

must have been f o r the a u t h o r when w r i t i n g i t . L i k e an a c t u a l dream,

the dream f a n t a s y i s generated by the s u b c o n s c i o u s mind w i t h little

interference from the c o n s c i o u s i n t e l l e c t of the w r i t e r , and i t commun-

icates i t s f a n t a s y to the s u b c o n s c i o u s mind of the r e a d e r , i f the conscious

mind (which would o b j e c t to the s t y l e ) can be ' p u t to s l e e p ' o r distracted

by the a l l e g o r y . The i d e a of s u b c o n s c i o u s c r e a t i o n , w h i c h may be s y m b o l -

i s e d as the 'inner l i g h t ' (e.g. o f M u s p e l , or the f i r e w h i c h Ayesha guards

i n She), i s the guarantee of the a u t h e n t i c i t y of the core f a n t a s y o r

29

vision. MacDonald, who has been c r e d i t e d w i t h ' i n v e n t i n g ' the g e n r e ,

b u i l d s h i s a e s t h e t i c t h e o r y around t h i s f a c t . C. N . Manlove has summarized

MacDonald's p o s i t i o n t h u s :
1. N a t u r e i s God's book, c o n s t r u c t e d on p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h
are beyond the reach of s c i e n c e and the human under-
s t a n d i n g , but are i m m e d i a t e l y apprehended by the
sympathetic c h i l d - l i k e i m a g i n a t i o n .
2. The c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n , w h i c h e x i s t s i n h i s s u b c o n s c i o u s ,
i s man's h i g h e s t m e n t a l f a c u l t y : n o t o n l y because i n
g i v i n g form to thought i t i m i t a t e s the c r e a t i v e work o f
God, b u t because i t is_ God, who i n h a b i t s t h i s a r e a o f the
human mind and i s the author of i t s w o r k i n g s .
3. F o r t h i s reason the human a r t i s t has no f i n a l c o n t r o l
o v e r the p r o d u c t s o f t h i s i m a g i n a t i o n however he may t r y
to o r d e r and f i x i t s p r o m p t i n g s .
4. The works o f the c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n , c o n s i d e r e d b o t h as
the p r o d u c t s of d i v i n e a f f l a t u s and as. i m i t a t i o n s o f the
n a t u r e d e s c r i b e d above, w i l l appear c o n n e c t i o n l e s s , dream-
l i k e and c h a o t i c . Such works are known as f a i r y - t a l e s ,
a n d , so c o n c e i v e d , the f a i r y - t a l e i s the h i g h e s t c o n d i t i o n
of l i f e and a r t ( 3 0 ) .
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" N a t u r e i s God's b o o k " and i t i s an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y : God

dreams the w o r l d , and the landscape e x p r e s s e s the meaning (The Romantic

b a s i s of t h i s i s e v i d e n t . ) - The images are the meaning, which i s why

t h e c h i l d l i k e i m a g i n a t i o n understands them: c h i l d r e n tend to t h i n k i n

pictures, as does the more p r i m i t i v e p a r t of the m i n d , t h e subconscious.

The "human a r t i s t " or c o n s c i o u s mind must n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h the dream

for, though i t appears c h a o t i c , i t i s n o t : i t i s u n i f i e d by the core

fantasy, which i s subrational.

I f t h i s i s the case (and i n t h i s one g e n r e , I am a r g u i n g , i t is),

then 'bad w r i t i n g ' may n o t have a n e g a t i v e f u n c t i o n . We have f o u n d , i n

l o o k i n g a t the r e a c t i o n s o f c r i t i c s to f a n t a s y and romance, t h a t the

s t y l e annoys the i n t e l l e c t i n g r e a d e r o n l y u n t i l the core f a n t a s y grips

the i n t r o j e c t i n g r e a d e r , a f t e r which the book's 'power o f i m a g i n a t i o n '

i s acknowledged and the s t y l e seems to become t r a n s p a r e n t . T h i s i s what

happens t o the Student Anselmus when t r a n s c r i b i n g m a n u s c r i p t s i n Hoffmann's

s t o r y , and to Anodos when he reads, the s t o r y o f Cosmo i n Phantastes:

In the f a i r y book, e v e r y t h i n g was j u s t as i t s h o u l d b e ,

though whether i n words o r something e l s e , I cannot t e l l .
I t glowed and f l a s h e d the thoughts upon the s o u l , w i t h
such a power t h a t the medium d i s a p p e a r e d from the cons-
c i o u s n e s s , and i t was o c c u p i e d o n l y w i t h the t h i n g s them-
s e l v e s . My r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i t must resemble a t r a n s l a t i o n
from a r i c h and p o w e r f u l l a n g u a g e , c a p a b l e of embodying the
thoughts o f a s p l e n d i d l y developed p e o p l e , i n t o the meager
and h a l f - a r t i c u l a t e speech of a savage t r i b e . Of c o u r s e ,
w h i l e I read i t , I was Cosmo, and h i s h i s t o r y was m i n e .
Yet a l l the time I seemed to have a k i n d of double c o n -
s c i o u s n e s s , and the s t o r y a double meaning ( 3 1 ) .

The " d o u b l e c o n s c i o u s n e s s " i s the s p l i t between the i n t e l l e c t i n g and i n t r o -

j e c t i n g p a r t s of the m i n d : the f a i r y book speaks (not i n words b u t i n

"something e l s e " : pictures) d i r e c t l y and p o w e r f u l l y t o the s o u l , o r

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i n t r o j e c t i n g s u b c o n s c i o u s on one l e v e l , and i n "meager and h a l f - a r t i c u l a t e

s p e e c h " to the i n t e l l e c t i n g c o n s c i o u s mind. The medium i s j u s t t h a t : a

medium, n o t a message. The medium's o n l y f u n c t i o n i s t!o e n a b l e us—and

t h i s i s the aim of A Voyage and o t h e r n e o - P l a t o n i c dream fantasies—to

b r e a k through to " t h e t h i n g s t h e m s e l v e s " : the r e a l w o r l d ( M u s p e l ) .

The b e s t s t y l e f o r an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y might seem to be a

transparent s t y l e : no w o r d s - c o n c e r n a t a l l . T h i s i s what C o l i n W i l s o n

seems to ask f o r when he complains o f L i n d s a y , "Why the h e l l c a n ' t p e o p l e

w r i t e as they t a l k ? No one has to w r i t e as s t i f f l y and awkwardly as this"

(TSG 35). In f a c t , the answer t o b o t h of W i l s o n ' s p o i n t s i s t h a t L i n d s a y

did. T h i s Edwardian L l o y d ' s u n d e r w r i t e r w i t h a S c o t t i s h C a l v i n i s t b a c k -

ground would no doubt have seemed s t i f f and awkward t o C o l i n W i l s o n . And

E. H . V i s i a k does say t h a t " t h e r e was a remarkable correspondance between

L i n d s a y ' s speech and deportment and h i s l i t e r a r y s t y l e " (TSG 9 7 ) . What

i s t r a n s p a r e n t t o one p e r s o n w i l l n o t be t r a n s p a r e n t to a n o t h e r . Perhaps

the most one c o u l d ask f o r would be a c e r t a i n p l a i n n e s s . T h i s i s something

L o u i s MacNeice c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f f a n t a s y w r i t e r s ,

V a r i e t i e s of P a r a b l e :

I t i s n o t i c e a b l e , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t most o f my p l a y -
w r i g h t s and n o v e l i s t s . . . go i n f o r a p l a i n s t y l e . . . .
The p l a i n n e s s i s l i k e a t r u t h d r u g o r , p u t t i n g i t d i f f e r e n t -
l y , the k n i f e t h a t almost k i l l e d the w r i t e r w i l l c u t the
r e a d e r to the bone ( 3 2 ) .

And Frank Kermode o b s e r v e s ,

Words, t h o u g h t s , p a t t e r n s of word and t h o u g h t , are enemies

of t r u t h , i f y o u i d e n t i f y t h a t w i t h what may be had by
phenomenological reductions (33).

But i n t h a t case t h e r e i s no p o i n t i n w r i t i n g books a t a l l . Indeed, w r i t e r s

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of a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y are o f t e n excused from b e i n g w r i t e r s .

MacNeice says of George MacDonald t h a t h i s " w r i t i n g s are not t o e v e r y -

34
o n e ' s t a s t e . . . p a r t l y because he i s n o t e s s e n t i a l l y a writer.1

Pick applies to L i n d s a y the phrase L i n d s a y a p p l i e d t o N i e t z s c h e : he

35

was "by n a t u r e a m u s i c i a n " (TSG 8 ) . W i l s o n says L i n d s a y " u n d o u b t e d l y

m i s u n d e r s t o o d h i s t a l e n t s when he d e c i d e d to become a n o v e l i s t " (TSG 90)

and t h a t " i t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t L i n d s a y was a m u s i c i a n — l i k e Hoffman

(sic)" (TSG 4 7 ) , (though W i l s o n g i v e s no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t L i n d s a y e v e r

wrote any m u s i c ) . S i n c e , as we have s e e n , " m u s i c i s t h e e x p e r i e n c e of

a supernatural w o r l d " ( i n Lindsay's phrase; TSG 1 3 ) , this is a tribute

t o the i m a g i n a t i v e power of the f a n t a s y w o r k i n g on the s u b c o n s c i o u s , but

it says n o t h i n g about style.

In f a c t , f a n t a s i e s are n o t w r i t t e n i n a ' p l a i n ' s t y l e at a l l , though

p l a i n w r i t i n g may be one element i n a m i x t u r e o f p l a i n and ornamental (?)

styles (as i n M. P. S h i e l , f o r example). F a n t a s i e s are more g e n e r a l l y

w r i t t e n i n v e r y exaggerated s t y l e s , often w i t h overpowering s t r i d e n c y

and the r e p e a t e d use of overemphatic words. An obvious example i s Poe's

'nickle-plated style.' Even w i t h o u t the b l e s s i n g o f academia, a fantasy

can s u r v i v e an enormous amount o f r e a l l y bad w r i t i n g , i f the f a n t a s y it

embodies i s p o w e r f u l enough. Thus, a c c o r d i n g to Damon K n i g h t , " T h e B l i n d

S p o t , by A u s t i n H a l l and Homer Eon F l i n t , i s an acknowledged c l a s s i c of

fantasy, f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1921; much p r a i s e d s i n c e t h e n , s e v e r a l times

36
r e p r i n t e d , v e n e r a t e d by c o n o i s s e u r s . " K n i g h t p o i n t s out t h a t H a l l was
" s t y l e d e a f , " and quotes to i l l u s t r a t e :
For y e a r s he had been b a t t e r i n g down the skepticism t h a t had
bulwarked i t s e l f i n the m a t e r i a l .
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She i s f i r e and f l e s h and c a r n a l — . . . a t whose f e e t fools

and w i s e men would s l a v i s h l y f r o l i c and f o l l y .

I t was a s t a g g e r f o r b o t h young men.

She [a dog named queen] caught him by the t r o u s e r - l e g and

drew him b a c k . She crowded us away from the c u r t a i n s . It
was almost m a g n e t i c .

K n i g h t says " ' m a g n e t i c ' — l i k e . . . ' i n t r i n s i c , ' incandescense' (sic)

and ' i r i d e s c e n s e ' (sic)—is a word H a l l k e p t t o s s i n g i n a t random, h o p i n g

37

t o h i t something w i t h i t e v e n t u a l l y . " To be p r e c i s e , the words a r e

thrown i n n o t because t h e y mean a n y t h i n g to the i n t e l l e c t i n g m i n d , b u t

(they are l o n g and i m p o r t a n t and i m p r e s s i v e s o u n d i n g words) because they

aim a t p r o d u c i n g a vague b u t exaggerated emotion i n the s u b c o n s c i o u s . The

same i n t e n t i o n l i e s b e h i n d t h e a l l i t e r a t i o n o f the second example quoted

above: fire, flesh; feet, fools; frolic, folly. T h i s must have some

effect, even i f i t d o e s n ' t mean a n y t h i n g .

Most f a n t a s y w r i t e r s a r e n o t h i n g l i k e so bad as H a l l , b u t they employ

the same t e c h n i q u e s . M. P . S h i e l i n The P u r p l e Cloud sometimes massacres

sense w i t h vowels the way H a l l d i d w i t h c o n s o n a n t s : "The s h i p had been

38

s t r i k e n i n t o s t i l l n e s s i n the t h i c k o f a b r i s k n e s s o f a c t i v i t y . " But

g e n e r a l l y he c a n ' t keep i t up f o r l o n g . W i l l i a m Hope Hodgson w r i t e s

more s i m p l y , b u t f i n d s the n i c k l e - p l a t e d word ( r e i t e r a t e , i n t h i s case)

irresistable: " F o r some l i t t l e t i m e , I s t o o d t h e r e , l o s t i n p e r p l e x i n g

thought. 'What does i t a l l mean?' was the c r y t h a t had begun t o reiterate

39

through my b r a i n . " George MacDonald and David L i n d s a y are r e l a t i v e l y

good w r i t e r s , and t h e i r e x a g g e r a t i o n s are more s u b t l e . In L i l i t h , Mr.

Vane says " A f r i g h t f u l r o a r made my h e a r t rebound a g a i n s t the w a l l s o f

its cage. The a l a b a s t e r t r e m b l e d as i f i t would shake i n t o s h i v e r s . The

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princess shuddered v i s i b l y . " T h i s i s as good as a n y t h i n g i n Poe.

I n L i n d s a y as i n B l a k e , the t e r r i f i c p a r t s are t e r r i f i c and the

p r o s a i c p a r t s are p r o s a i c . But the ' h e i g h t e n e d ' q u a l i t y o f the t e r r i f i c

p a r t s i n L i n d s a y — a n d here he d i f f e r s from S h i e l , MacDonald and Hodgson—

comes l e s s from the exaggerated use o f language than from the sheer s c a l e

of the images. The k n i g h t i n P h a n t a s t e s n o t i c e s that

n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the b e a u t y of t h i s c o u n t r y o f F a e r i e , i n
w h i c h we a r e , t h e r e i s much t h a t i s wrong i n i t . If there
are g r e a t s p l e n d o r s , t h e r e are c o r r e s p o n d i n g h o r r o r s ;
h e i g h t s and d e p t h s ; b e a u t i f u l women and a w f u l f i e n d s ; n o b l e
men and w e a k l i n g s ( 4 1 ) .

Because o f the p h i l o s o p h i c a l depth and p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o m p l e x i t y o f Lindsay's

t h o u g h t , t h e r e are no cardboard dragons and s i m p l y b e a u t i f u l h e r o i n e s on

Tormance, and i t i s too tough a w o r l d f o r e i t h e r n o b l e men o r w e a k l i n g s .

Nonetheless, A Voyage i s , i n a s i m i l a r way, dichotomous, and t h e r e are

p l e n t y of huge mountains and abysmal p r e c i p i c e s t o generate e m o t i o n a l

significance f o r displacement t o the embodiments to 'keep the allegory

vigorous.' Panawe, f o r example, d e s c r i b e s f o r us

S h a p i n g ' s Causeway. I t i s so c a l l e d e i t h e r because

Shaping once c r o s s e d i t , o r because o f i t s stupendous
character. I t i s a n a t u r a l embankment, twenty m i l e s
l o n g , which l i n k s the mountains b o r d e r i n g my homeland
w i t h the Ifdawn M a r e s t . The v a l l e y l i e s below at a
depth v a r y i n g from e i g h t t o t e n thousand f e e t — a
t e r r i b l e p r e c i p i c e on e i t h e r s i d e . The k n i f e edge of
the r i d g e i s g e n e r a l l y n o t much o v e r a f o o t w i d e . The
causeway goes due n o r t h and s o u t h . The v a l l e y on my
r i g h t hand was plunged i n shadow—that on my l e f t was
s p a r k l i n g w i t h s u n l i g h t and dew. I w a l k e d f e a r f u l l y
a l o n g t h i s p r e c a r i o u s p a t h f o r some m i l e s (VA 7 1 ) .

L i n d s a y does n o t have Panawe t r y t o r e c r e a t e f o r u s , i n w o r d s , the experience,

b u t he g i v e s us enough c o n c r e t e d e t a i l s f o r us to imagine o u r s e l v e s i n the

s i t u a t i o n , surrounded by " t h e t h i n g s t h e m s e l v e s . " I n t h i s passage t h e r e are

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o n l y two words t h a t are not s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p h y s i c a l

situation: 'stupendous' and ' t e r r i b l e . ' They d e s c r i b e not the l a n d -

s c a p e , l i t e r a l l y , but the e x a g g e r a t e d emotion i t p r o d u c e s . The

d e s c r i p t i o n i t s e l f i s e v e n l y p a c e d , s t r u c t u r a l l y r e p e t i t i v e , has only

one metaphor ("the k n i f e e d g e " ) , and o n l y once p l a y s w i t h sound ("sparkling

with sunlight" alliterates) : these are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Joanna Russ isolated.

But the passage does a c h i e v e i t s ends—the r e a l i s a t i o n o f the t e r r i b l e

n a t u r e o f the j o u r n e y a c r o s s the stupendous causeway—by p i c t o r i a l means:

each sentence g i v e s us a p r e c i s e p h y s i c a l d e t a i l to v i s u a l i s e . In fact,

impressiveness of the landscape i s r e i n f o r c e d by the u n i m p r e s s i v e (matter

42

o f f a c t ) use o f language. This i s completely appropriate w r i t i n g i n

an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , where the image i s the meaning: it is, in

fact, good w r i t i n g .

Lindsay's style i s , of a l l the V i c t o r i a n f a n t a s y w r i t e r s we have dis-

c u s s e d , the p l a i n n e s t and f l a t t e s t . Though s e n t e n c e s o f more than f i f t e e n

o r twenty words sometimes seem to f a l l a p a r t i n L i n d s a y ' s hands, fortun-

a t e l y they are r a r e . The average s y n t a c t i c a l l y complete u n i t i n L i n d s a y

i s v e r y s h o r t , and t h a t u n i t i s g e n e r a l l y a s i m p l e subject-verb-object

structure, even i f i t i s n ' t a sentence by i t s e l f . A n o t h e r t y p i c a l paragraph

is:
He l a y t h e r e w a i t i n g i n the d a r k n e s s , i g n o r a n t of what
was g o i n g to happen. He f e l t h e r hand c l a s p i n g h i s .
W i t h o u t p e r c e i v i n g any g r a d a t i o n , he l o s t a l l c o n s c i o u s -
ness o f h i s body; he was no l o n g e r a b l e t o f e e l h i s l i m b s
or i n t e r n a l organs. H i s mind remained a c t i v e and a l e r t .
N o t h i n g p a r t i c u l a r appeared t o be t a k i n g p l a c e .
Then the chamber began t o grow l i g h t , l i k e v e r y e a r l y
m o r n i n g . He c o u l d see n o t h i n g , b u t the r e t i n a of h i s eyes
was a f f e c t e d . He f a n c i e d t h a t he h e a r d m u s i c , b u t w h i l e
he was l i s t e n i n g f o r i t , i t s t o p p e d . The l i g h t grew s t r o n g e r ,
the a i r grew warmer; he h e a r d the confused sound of d i s t a n t
v o i c e s (VA 1 2 2 ) .
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The s y n t a x c o u l d h a r d l y be s i m p l e r . The o n l y n i c k l e - p l a t e d phrase i n

the two p a r a g r a p h s , " w i t h o u t p e r c e i v i n g any g r a d a t i o n , " means e x a c t l y

what i t s a y s . W o r d s - c o n c e r n , f o r the r e a d e r , c o u l d h a r d l y be s m a l l e r :

the r e a d e r ' s a t t e n t i o n may be u n d i s t r a c t e d l y f o c u s s e d on the p i c t u r e

Lindsay i s describing.

We have h e a r d MacNeice on the v i r t u e of p l a i n s t y l e . But i n fact,

even an awkwardness o f s t y l e may, by the same t o k e n , be t u r n e d to good

a c c o u n t , as i t i s by W i l l i a m Hope Hodgson i n The House on the B o d e r l a n d ,

which pretends t o be a ' f o u n d ' m a n u s c r i p t . By t h i s v e r y p o p u l a r defensive

device—as used by Haggard, Poe and hundreds o f o t h e r s — t h e author

pretends t o be o n l y the e d i t o r , and t h e r e f o r e not r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the

n e c e s s a r i l y awkward and e x a g g e r a t e d t e l l i n g . Thus Hodgson:

Amid s t i f f , abrupt sentences I wandered; and, p r e s e n t l y ,

1 had no f a u l t t o charge a g a i n s t t h e i r abrupt t e l l i n g s ;
f o r , b e t t e r f a r than my own a m b i t i o u s p h r a s i n g , i s t h i s
m u t i l a t e d s t o r y capable o f b r i n g i n g home . . . ( 4 3 ) .

The m a n u s c r i p t i t s e l f , which f o l l o w s , i s r e p o r t e d l y d i s c o v e r e d among the

r u b b l e of a d e r e l i c t h o u s e . I f we remember t h a t ( i n P o e , o f t e n ; i n The

Haunted Woman, perhaps) the house may be a symbol o f the b r a i n o r the

h e a d , t h e n Hodgson i s g i v i n g us a c l u e t o the r e a l source o f the m a n u s c r i p t :

i . e . , h i s subconscious mind. I n a r e a l s e n s e , t h e n , h e , W i l l i a m Hope

Hodgson as c e n t r e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , is_ o n l y the e d i t o r o f something t h a t

in fact comes from a p p a r e n t l y (now) d e r e l i c t depths b e n e a t h . The a u t h o r

s p l i t s h i m s e l f i n t o t h a t f a m i l i a r d o u b l e , the ' I ' who a c t s out the fantasy

o r dream, and the ' I ' - e d i t o r who o b s e r v e s , corrects, comments and e d i t s .

T h i s c o r r e l a t e s w i t h our d i v i s i o n between f a n t a s y and romance. Almost

a l l fantasy i s w r i t t e n i n the f i r s t p e r s o n , whereas almost a l l romance i s

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w r i t t e n i n the t h i r d p e r s o n . I n romance, the ' I ' who observes and e d i t s

i s i n c o n t r o l as s u b c r e a t o r , w h i l e s u b c o n s c i o u s f a n t a s i e s are s u b l i m i n a l l y

acted out. The w o r d s - c o n c e r n of a M o r r i s , w i t h h i s m e d i a e v a l i s m s , or of

a T o l k i e n , i n E n g l i s h and e l v i s h , p r o v i d e such massive defenses that

g e n e r a l l y the w r i t e r and o f t e n the r e a d e r are unaware t h a t f a n t a s i e s are

being acted out. T o l k i e n ' s i n s i s t e n t l y r e p e a t e d d e n i a l s t h a t h i s work i s

a l l e g o r i c a l are, i n effect, d e n i a l s t h a t t h e r e i s a n y t h i n g happening

beneath the s u r f a c e i n The L o r d o f the R i n g s . I n Tree and L e a f , T o l k i e n

s t r i d e n t l y complains about the " e r r o r o r m a l i c e " o f p e o p l e who " s t u p i d l y

and even m a l i c i o u s l y confound F a n t a s y w i t h Dreaming, i n w h i c h t h e r e is

no A r t ; and w i t h m e n t a l d i s o r d e r s , i n which t h e r e i s n o t even c o n t r o l :

w i t h d e l u s i o n and h a l l u c i n a t i o n " : " F a n t a s y i s a r a t i o n a l n o t an i r r a t i o n a l

activity.'.'44 MacDonald, b e i n g a f a n t a s y as opposed t o a romance w r i t e r ,

t o o k , o f c o u r s e , e x a c t l y the o p p o s i t e v i e w . No one r e a d i n g Phantastes

or L i l i t h ( e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e the advent o f F r e u d i a n r e d u c t i o n i s m , which was

abandoned by F r e u d i a n s f i f t y y e a r s ago, b u t w h i c h i s s t i l l p r a c t i s e d at

the l o w e r l e v e l s to which i t t r i c k l e d down) c o u l d miss the almost naked

f a n t a s y embodied t h e r e i n : the need f o r o r a l g r a t i f i c a t i o n , p r e f e r a b l y

a t the m o t h e r ' s b r e a s t . I n works o f f a n t a s y , t h e n , core f a n t a s i e s are

acted o u t : the ' I ' who a c t s i s i n c o n t r o l , w h i l e the ' I ' who observes

and e d i t s i s reduced to d o i n g j u s t that.

A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s an u n u s u a l book i n t h i s r e s p e c t , being

e s s e n t i a l l y a fantasy, r a t h e r t h a n a romance, but t o l d i n the t h i r d p e r s o n .

Both the ' I ' who a c t s ( M a s k u l l ) and the ' I ' who observes ( N i g h t s p o r e ) are

embodied as c h a r a c t e r s i n the book, though on Tormance they do n o t , of

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c o u r s e , h o l d the s t a g e t o g e t h e r . The f i r s t - p e r s o n p o i n t o f v i e w ,

however, had L i n d s a y used i t , would have g i v e n h i m one o f two p r o b l e m s :

e i t h e r the book would have ended w i t h M a s k u l l ' s d e a t h , and the e f f e c t

might have been l u d i c r o u s , as a t the end o f The House on the B o r d e r l a n d :

There a r e s t e p s on the s t a i r s . . . . J e s u s , be m e r c i f u l
to me, an o l d man. There i s something f u m b l i n g a t t h e
door-handle. 0 God, h e l p me now! Jesus— The door i s
o p e n i n g — s l o w l y . Somethi— (45)';

o r t h e book would have ended, as b o t h MacDonald's f a n t a s i e s e n d , w i t h

the r e t u r n to the r e a l w o r l d , w h i c h undercuts the power o f the fantasy:

' O h , i t was o n l y a d r e a m . ' A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s i s n o t p r e s e n t e d as a

dream, b u t as an account o f t e r r i b l y r e a l events in a terribly real, i f

not a r e a l , w o r l d : the s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n r e a l i s m (as we n o t e d i n Chapter

Three) g i v e s b i t e t o the f a n t a s y . On the o t h e r hand, abandoning the

f i r s t - p e r s o n p o i n t o f view i n i t s e l f d i s t a n c e s the f a n t a s y , so t h a t we

are a b l e b o t h t o i d e n t i f y w i t h M a s k u l l and to a c c e p t h i s e v e n t u a l death

and damnation.

The ' I ' who observes i n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s , L i n d s a y as i n t e l l e c t i n g

w r i t e r , i s n o t s u b c r e a t i n g a romance w o r l d , however—as would be n o r m a l

i n a romance o f the M o r r i s t o T o l k i e n type—but r e p o r t i n g as s i m p l y as

possible t h e a l l e g o r i c a l w o r l d p r o j e c t e d by t h e ' I ' who i s generating

and a c t i n g out the core f a n t a s y . The s i t u a t i o n i s v e r y l i k e t h a t i n the

Sagas, where the n a r r a t o r i s n o t h e l d t o be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the a c t i o n s o f

the c h a r a c t e r s : he i s s i m p l y r e p o r t i n g what he can see as he sees i t .

But t h e n a r r a t o r i n the Sagas can see a r e a l w o r l d , i . e . , a w o r l d where

c h a r a c t e r s behave and t h i n k as they might be expected t o do i f they were

r e a l l y people. The n a r r a t o r i n A Voyage takes e x a c t l y the same s t a n c e ,

 210

b u t he i s r e p o r t i n g a dream w o r l d . Descent i n t o t h e subconscious—for

the w r i t e r w r i t i n g , f o r the r e a d e r r e a d i n g , or f o r e i t h e r dreaming—

involves a regression to p r e v e r b a l l e v e l s . I d e a t i o n at these l e v e l s ,

as we have seen (Chapter Two), takes what i s " p r o b a b l y the most p r i m -

46
i t i v e form o f i d e a t i o n , " thinking i n pictures. In h i s f i r s t essay
on A Voyage, i n E a g l e and E a r w i g , C o l i n W i l s o n f i n d s " t h e imaginative

v i t a l i t y o f the w r i t i n g " to be t h a t " e v e r y t h i n g i s c l e a r c u t and d i s t i n c t

47

as i n p a i n t i n g . " L i n d s a y , l i k e Dante, S p e n s e r , B l a k e , N o v a l i s , MacDonald

e t c . , had a v i s u a l i m a g i n a t i o n because he was w r i t i n g out o f h i s sub-

conscious: thinking i n pictures. We have seen t h a t L i n d s a y ' s writing

concentrates on v i s u a l i z a b l e details.

J . A . H a d f i e l d i n h i s book on Dreams and Nightmares says dreams are

"more capable o f s o l v i n g our problems-by v i r t u e o f two characteristics,

n o t shared to the same e x t e n t by o r d i n a r y i d e a t i o n , namely the e x a g g e r a t e d

48

emotion i n the dream and the d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f dreams." The exaggerated

s t y l e we have n o t e d i n some dream f a n t a s i e s p a r a l l e l s the e x a g g e r a t e d

emotion of dreams, w h i l e t o a g r e a t e x t e n t i n L i n d s a y t h i s emotion i s

generated by exaggerated l a n d s c a p e s . But w o r d s - c o n c e r n , f o r a u t h o r and

reader, is a 'high' level, i n t e l l e c t u a l means o f d e f e n d i n g a g a i n s t a

core f a n t a s y . I n dream f a n t a s y , written 'deep,' where w o r d s - c o n c e r n i s

v e r y l o w , the defence a g a i n s t the a n x i e t y aroused by the core f a n t a s y is

not words-concern but image-concern. T h i s i s what we examined i n A Voyage

to A r c t u r u s : a l l e g o r y as b a t t l e and as p r o g r e s s , p r o g r e s s as a s p i r a l ;

r e c u r r e n t images o f h e i g h t and d e p t h , l i g h t and d a r k , l i g h t n e s s and w e i g h t .

When a c t u a l l y r e a d i n g A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , the i n t r o j e c t i n g r e a d e r is

 211

engaged by a v i s u a l ( i . e . dream) fantasy, a dramatization. R. L .

Green r e c o r d s t h a t A Voyage's

h a u n t i n g , t e r r i f y i n g q u a l i t y l i e s i n the f a c t t h a t
the meaning seems c l e a r somewhere i n the s u b c o n s c i o u s
m i n d , b u t e l u d e s the c o n s c i o u s mind w i t h the numbing
h o r r o r w h i c h we sometimes e x p e r i e n c e i n s e e k i n g to
r e c a p t u r e a dream w h i c h l i n g e r s somewhere i n our
b e i n g — v i v i d l y r e a l but f r i g h t e n i n g l y incomprehensible (49).

But the whole p o i n t of the b o o k — a c c o r d i n g t o H o l l a n d , the p o i n t of

all s e r i o u s l i t e r a t u r e — i s the b r i n g i n g to c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n manageable

form u n c o n s c i o u s r e a l i t i e s :

L i t e r a t u r e t r a n s f o r m s our p r i m i t i v e wishes and f e a r s i n t o

s i g n i f i c a n c e and c o h e r e n c e , and t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n g i v e s
us p l e a s u r e . I t i s t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f deep p e r s o n a l
f e e l i n g s t h a t Freud c a l l e d , ' t h e i n n e r m o s t s e c r e t , ' ' t h e
e s s e n t i a l ars p o e t i c a ' ( 5 0 ) .

H o l l a n d a l s o says t h a t "one c o u l d d e f i n e a l l e g o r y as a genre t h a t h a n d l e s

f a n t a s i e s by making the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o meaning q u i t e e x p l i c i t . " " ^

In t h i s d i s c u s s i o n of the s u b c o n s c i o u s i n t r o j e c t i o n of f a n t a s y , I have

t a l k e d of the i n t e l l e c t b e i n g ' s i d e - s t e p p e d ' ; however, w h i l e subconscious-

ness w i l l l e t i t s e l f ( a p p a r e n t l y ) be underemployed, c o n s c i o u s n e s s , being

consciousness, w i l l n o t , and i n t e l l e c t must have some p a r t t o p l a y , i f

o n l y , as I suggested i n Chapter One, to keep i t b u s y . H o l l a n d ' s comment

reminds us t h a t a l l e g o r y ( g e n e r a l l y , n a i v e a l l e g o r y ) i s most o f t e n thought

of n o t as b e i n g too f a n t a s t i c b u t as b e i n g too c e r e b r a l . I n the genre

of a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , t o w h i c h A Voyage to A r c t u r u s b e l o n g s , there

i s b o t h the v e r y ' h i g h ' engagement o f the i n t e l l e c t i n g r e a d e r puzzling

out the a l l e g o r y , and the v e r y ' d e e p ' engagement o f the i n t r o j e c t i n g r e a d e r

i n the core f a n t a s y (and n o t much i n between, where the average n o v e l

operates).
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The purpose o f the p r o g r e s s i n an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y like

A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s , however, the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f f a n t a s y i n t o

meaning and thus i n t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s . The p r o c e s s i s embodied i n the

f o u r s t a g e s o f the a l l e g o r i c a l p r o g r e s s we examined i n Chapter Two,

where we d i s c u s s e d i t i n terms of the m a n i f e s t and l a t e n t c o n t e n t s of

the dream r a t h e r than i n t e l l e c t i n g and i n t r o j e c t i n g p a r t s o f the m i n d .

We b e g i n i n the ' r e a l ' w o r l d we s h a r e w i t h F a u l l and h i s c i t y friends,

and move to the dream o r s p i r i t w o r l d o f Tormance. These two w o r l d s

clearly overlap, as we are meant to r e a l i s e e i t h e r when M a s k u l l is

r e b o r n t o mother J o i w i n d o r at l e a s t when M a s k u l l wakes up as the

phantom a t the seance ( s a c r i f i c i n g h i s body on e a r t h to the quest and

on Tormance t o Tydomin). The m a t e r i a l w o r l d ( c o n s c i o u s , intellecting,

manifest) overlays the s p i r i t w o r l d ( s u b c o n s c i o u s , introjecting, latent),

b u t the s p i r i t w o r l d n e c e s s i t a t e s what goes on i n the phenomenal w o r l d :

as w i t h L o r e ' s l e a p i n S p h i n x , our a c t i o n s i n the r e a l w o r l d have sub-

conscious fantasy motivations. I n the a l l e g o r i c a l p r o g r e s s we are given

the f a n t a s y more or l e s s d i r e c t l y (undefended by w o r d s - c o n c e r n , and

sidestepping ' r e a l i t y - t e s t i n g ' t h r o u g h dream t e c h n i q u e s ) , w i t h the

' m e a n i n g ' i n t o w h i c h the f a n t a s y may be t r a n s f o r m e d (as i t was by the

52

a u t h o r when w r i t i n g ) i n the a l l e g o r i c a l c o n c r e t e n e s s of the names.

Once the p a t t e r n has been e s t a b l i s h e d the fantasy i s transformed

towards meaning and the ( s p e c i f i c i n t e l l e c t u a l ) meaning merges w i t h the

f a n t a s y (the names becoming more opaque as the p a t t e r n s become clearer)

u n t i l the two l e v e l s are u n i t e d i n the f i n a l v i s i o n w h i c h constitutes

the t h i r d p a r t of the a l l e g o r y . This prepares f o r — i n d e e d , necessitates—

the r e t u r n of the p r o t a g o n i s t to the phenomenal w o r l d (which N i g h t s p o r e

 213

i s p r o m i s e d ) , w h i c h c o i n c i d e s w i t h the w r i t e r ' w a k i n g up' from h i s

c r e a t i v e dream and the r e a d e r ' w a k i n g u p ' t o r e a l i t y when he puts

down the book.

I n A Yoyage to A r c t u r u s the core f a n t a s y — w h i c h u n d e r l i e s b u t

does n o t negate the ' i n t e l l e c t u a l ' m e a n i n g s — i s o f p h a l l i c assertive-

ness i n the f a c e o f the t h r e a t o f m a t e r n a l engulfment ( C r y s t a l m a n i s

'Mother' Nature). The p h a l l i c a s s e r t i v e n e s s i s j u s t i f i e d by the i d e n t -

53
i f i c a t i o n of the m a t e r n a l elements w i t h e v i l . E . H . V i s i a k says the
reason f o r L i n d s a y ' s a t t i t u d e to sex

i s t w o - f o l d ; a major p s y c h o l o g i c a l shock s u s t a i n e d i n
h i s c h i l d h o o d , compounded, i n due c o u r s e , w i t h h i s
s e x u a l complex.
I have e v i d e n c e t h a t t h i s took p l a c e (TSG 1 1 5 ) .

However, V i s i a k n e i t h e r says what the shock was, n o r g i v e s h i s e v i d e n c e .

But i t i s n o t i m p o r t a n t . A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s i s i m p o r t a n t as literature

n o t because i t s u c c e s s f u l l y (or unsuccessfully) t r a n s f o r m e d L i n d s a y ' s own

f a n t a s i e s , b u t f o r how i t t r a n s f o r m s o u r s . I have shown how A Voyage to

A r c t u r u s , through i t s o v e r a l l d e s i g n , i t s m e t a p h y s i c a l s y s t e m , through

the o r g a n i s a t i o n of i t s i m a g e r y , through the s u c c e s s i o n o f i n c i d e n t s ,

organises i t s fantasy m a t e r i a l . Beyond e x p l i c a t i o n , beyond c r i t i c i s m ,

I can o n l y say t h a t , f o r me, i t w o r k s .

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Footnotes to Chapter Seven

Joanna Russ, 'Dream L i t e r a t u r e and S c i e n c e F i c t i o n ' i n E x t r a p o l a t i o n

(Dec. 1969), pp. 9-10. Joanna Russ has each sentence a s e p a r a t e p a r a g r a p h ;
I have run them t o g e t h e r to save s p a c e .

2
See my l a t e r use o f H o l l a n d ' s The Dynamics of L i t e r a r y Response on
f a n t a s y i n p o e t r y and p r o s e . I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g , however, t h a t some w r i t e r s
o f a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y i n v e r s e have had doubts c a s t on t h e i r s t y l i s t i c
effectiveness: Spenser and B l a k e , f o r example.
3
M. Cohen, R i d e r Haggard: H i s L i f e and Works (London: H u t c h i n s o n ,
1960), pp. 101-02. The r e v i e w was p u b l i s h e d on January 6, 1887. A Voyage
t o A r c t u r u s was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d as a s e r i a l i n The D a i l y News.

4
M . Cohen, R i d e r Haggard, pp. 102-03.

"'Thomas C a r l y l e , The Complete Works of Thomas C a r l y l e , 30 v o l s .

(London: Chapman and H a l l , 1 8 9 8 ) , X X I I , pT 120.

6
Thomas C a r l y l e , Works, X X I I , p . 122.

7
J o h n Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s (London: J . M. Dent, 1 9 2 7 ) , p . 2.

g
Roger S h a r r o c k , John Bunyan: The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s (London: Edward
A r n o l d , 1966), p. 9.
9
J . B. P i c k , 'The Work o f D a v i d L i n d s a y ' i n S t u d i e s i n S c o t t i s h
L i t e r a t u r e ( J a n . 1964), p . 171.

^ C . S. L e w i s , Of Other W o r l d s , e d . W. Hooper (London: Geoffrey Bles,

1966) , p . 71.

^C. S. L e w i s , Of Other W o r l d s , see pp. 11-12.

1 2
C. S. L e w i s , Of Other W o r l d s , see pp. 88-89.

13
C. S. L e w i s , Of Other W o r l d s , p . 11.
14
Norman N . H o l l a n d , The Dynamics of L i t e r a r y Response (New Y o r k :
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ) , p . 316. Henceforward c i t e d as TDLR.
 215

^ N o r m a n H o l l a n d , TDLR: the diagram i s from p . 183 and the text

quoted i s from pp. 181-82.

16
Norman H o l l a n d , TDLR, p . 75. H o l l a n d says l a t e r , " t h e sybsystem
formed w i t h i n a man by h y p n o s i s i s the most e x a c t analogy t o our i n c o r p -
o r a t i o n of l i t e r a r y w o r k s , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y n o t many o f us have been
h y p n o t i z e d . A more f a m i l i a r , i f l e s s e x a c t , analogy to our engrossment
i n l i t e r a t u r e i s dreaming" (p. 87).

17
N o r m a n H o l l a n d , TDLR, p . 6 0 . A s t r o n g e r a p p e a l as f a n t a s y , n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y as l i t e r a t u r e . Because of i t s s t r o n g e r v e r b a l d e f e n c e s , p o e t r y
may be a b l e t o h a n d l e more p o w e r f u l f a n t a s i e s , though C o l e r i d g e ' s i s the
o n l y example w h i c h s p r i n g s t o m i n d .

18
Norman H o l l a n d , TDLR, p . 135.
19
See Joanna R u s s , 'Dream L i t e r a t u r e and S c i e n c e F i c t i o n ' i n
E x t r a p o l a t i o n (Dec. 1 9 6 9 ) . I n h e r s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n n o v e l l a P i c n i c on
P a r a d i s e , Joanna Russ has a p a r t y o f e i g h t t o u r i s t s c r o s s P a r a d i s e , l e d
by a female Trans Temporal A g e n t , d u r i n g a Commercial War. Four women
out of f i v e get t h r o u g h , and the one who d i e s i s aged 9 0 , but none of t h e
f o u r men s u r v i v e ( i n c l u d i n g the one c a l l e d Machine whom A l y x , the TTA,
loves). T h i s embodies a core f a n t a s y a n t i p a t h e t i c to the one i n A Voyage,
where a l l the women except J o i w i n d (and she an Innocent t o be p r o t e c t e d )
get k i l l e d o f f .
20
L i l i t h embodies the same need f o r o r a l g r a t i f i c a t i o n and a b s o r b t i o n
i n the Mother as P h a n t a s t e s : the f i r s t d r a f t o f L i l i t h began, "My mother
I had no memory of . . . " The growth o f the L i t t l e Ones, p h y s i c a l and
e m o t i o n a l , i s s t u n t e d by the l a c k o f ' t h e w h i t e b l o o d of the m o t h e r , ' w a t e r .
And so o n . R. L . W o l f f i n The Golden Key (New Haven: Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1961) says o f L i l i t h : "One might f o r g i v e i t s c r u e l t y , i t s u g l i n e s s , i t s
i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , i t s b r o o d i n g d e p r e s s i o n , i f one c o u l d f e e l . . . t h a t the
images had i n e x h a u s t i b l e meaning, and t h a t the a u t h o r k e p t the s t o r y m o v i n g .
C l o s e r e a d i n g . . . has c o n v i n c e d me i n s t e a d t h a t . . . i t i s f e e b l e , ambig-
uous, and i n c o n s i s t e n t i n i t s i m a g e r y , f u l l o f s e n i l e h a t r e d s and r e s e n t -
ments, arid the most v i o l e n t i n i t s a g r e s s i o n s of a l l MacDonald's w o r k s "
( p . 332). Strong s t u f f indeed.
21
K i n g s l e y A m i s , New Maps o f H e l l (London: New E n g l i s h L i b r a r y , 1969),
p. 36.
22
C. S. L e w i s , Of Other W o r l d s , p . 71.
23
R. L . G r e e n , I n t o Other Worlds (New Y o r k and London: Abelard-Schuman,
195 7 ) , pp. 179-80.
 216

24
Norman H o l l a n d , TDLR, p . 27.

25
M. Cohen, R i d e r Haggard, p . 9 7.
26
M. Cohen, R i d e r Haggard, p. 103.
27
M. Cohen, R i d e r Haggard, p . 103. T h i s i s , o f c o u r s e , why She i s
i n f e r i o r as l i t e r a t u r e to A Voyage: L i n d s a y , u n l i k e Haggard, r e t a i n s
conscious c o n t r o l o f the shape o f h i s m a t e r i a l . L i n d s a y knew e x a c t l y
what he wanted to s a y , and s a i d i t c l e a r l y and unambiguously.

2 8
R. L . W o l f f , The Golden K e y , p . 328.

29
R. L . W o l f f says i n The Golden Key t h a t P h a n t a s t e s and L i l i t h " f o r m
almost a new l i t e r a r y genre i n t h e m s e l v e s " (p. 4 ) . C. N . Manlove says
b l u n t l y t h a t "MacDonald b e g i n s i n England a l i t e r a r y genre o f ' R o m a n t i c
T h e o l o g y ' w h i c h i s c o n t i n u e d i n the work of C h a r l e s W i l l i a m s , C. S. Lewis
and J . R. R. T o l k i e n " ( p . 9 7 ) . I n t h i s a r t i c l e , 'George MacDonald's F a i r y
T a l e s : T h e i r Roots i n MacDonald's Thought' i n S t u d i e s i n S c o t t i s h
L i t e r a t u r e ( O c t . 1 9 7 0 ) , Manlove does such a c r e d i t a b l e j o b o f d i s e n t a n g l i n g
MacDonald's confused and c o n f u s i n g u t t e r a n c e s t h a t one i s p r e p a r e d to f o r g i v e
h i s t w i n i d i o c i e s , m i s s i n g out L i n d s a y and i n c l u d i n g T o l k i e n on h i s l i s t .
30
C. N . M a n l o v e , 'George MacDonald's F a i r y T a l e s , ' p . 98.
31
George MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1970),
p. 95.
32
Louis MacNeice, V a r i e t i e s of Parable (Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y
Press, 1965), p . 2 3 . ~
33
Frank Kermode, The Sense o f an E n d i n g (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1966), p . 140.
34
Louis MacNeice, V a r i e t i e s of P a r a b l e , p. 95.
35
A s i m i l a r thought u n d e r l i e s Jacques B e r g i e r ' s a t t r i b u t i o n o f the
g e n r e , over the heads o f MacDonald and L i n d s a y i n E n g l i s h , t o C. S. L e w i s :
D ' a u t r e s e n f i n d i s e n t que l a t r i l o g i e de Lewis n ' e s t pas
de l a s c i e n c e f i c t i o n . Ce a q u o i m ' e s t d e j a a r r i v e de
repondre: " L a musique n ' e s t pas de l a l i t t e r a t u r e . "
Lewis a c r e e un genre nouveau o u , s i on veut a b s o l -
ument l e r a p p r o c h e r de Dante e t de M i l t o n , r e n o u v e l e un
tres ancien.

See Jacques B e r g i e r , Admirations ( P a r i s : C h r i s t i a n Bourgois, 1970), p. 214.

 217

36
Damon K n i g h t , I n Search of Wonder ( C h i c a g o : A d v e n t , 1967), p . 2 2 .
I n a l a t e r c h a p t e r , K n i g h t c i t e s a d e l i c i o u s i t e m from R i c h a r d M a t h e s o n ' s
The Shores o f Space ( 1 9 5 7 ) : "He b l i n k e d away the waves o f b l a c k n e s s
l a p p i n g at h i s a n k l e s " ( p . 2 4 0 ) .

37
Damon K n i g h t , I n Search of Wonder, p p . 22-2 3.
3 8
M . P . S h i e l , The P u r p l e Cloud (New Y o r k : Paperback L i b r a r y , 1963),
p. 44.

39

W i l l i a m Hope Hodgson, The House on the B o r d e r l a n d , p . 130.

40
G e o r g e MacDonald, L i l i t h (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e B o o k s , 1969), p. 142.

41
G e o r g e MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s , p. 194.
L i t o t e s i s a f a v o r i t e d e v i c e i n The Saga o f G r e t t i r the S t r o n g , t r a n s .
G. M. H i g h t (London: J . M. D e n t , n . d . ) . F o r example: I l l u r g i says t o
G r e t t i r a t one p o i n t , "Here i s a man coming towards us w i t h h i s axe i n the
a i r ; he has a r a t h e r h o s t i l e appearance" ( p . 1 9 7 ) .
4- 3
W i l l i a m Hope Hodgson, The House on t h e B o r d e r l a n d , p . 12.

4 4
J. R. R. T o l k i e n , Tree and L e a f (London: Unwin, 1964), p . 45.

45
W i l l i a m Hope Hodgson, The House on the B o r d e r l a n d , p . 245.
46
J . A . H a d f i e l d , Dreams and Nightmares (Harmondsworth: Penguin
B o o k s , 1954), p . 70.

4 7
C o l i n W i l s o n , E a g l e and E a r w i g (London: John B a k e r , 1966), p . 147.

48
J . A . H a d f i e l d , Dreams and N i g h t m a r e s , p . 72.
49
R. L . G r e e n , I n t o Other Worlds (London and New Y o r k : Abelard-
Schuman, 1 9 5 7 ) , pp. 180-81.
50
N o r m a n H o l l a n d , TDLR, p . 30.

1
Norman H o l l a n d , TDLR, p . 315.
 218

Joanna Russ i n 'Dream L i t e r a t u r e and S c i e n c e F i c t i o n ' i n E x t r a p -

o l a t i o n (Dec. 1969) says one " c o n c r e t e element i n Dream L i t e r a t u r e i s
the names. L i n d s a y ' s names are b r i l l i a n t . In t h e i r s u g g e s t i v e n e s s , t h e i r
w i t , t h e i r c o l l a p s i n g o f many r e f e r e n c e s and metaphors i n t o one w o r d ,
they g a t h e r i n t o themselves the p a r t i c u l a r i t y so l a c k i n g i n the r e s t o f
the book" (p. 1 1 ) .

53
D a v i d L i n d s a y i s t h u s , as D r . M e r i v a l e n o t e d i n the margin o f an
e a r l i e r d r a f t o f Chapter F o u r , an M . C . P . T h i s i s h i s defense a g a i n s t the
( c a s t r a t i n g ) t h r e a t women r e p r e s e n t . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , i t i s a chauvinism
w h i c h ( u n l i k e Schopenhauer's) r e s u l t s from an enormously h i g h e s t i m a t e o f
women, as we can see from the ' m e t a p h y s i c a l t h r i l l e r s , ' where h e r o i n e s are
more i m p o r t a n t than h e r o e s : I s b e l i n The Haunted Woman, Lore and C e l i a
i n S p h i n x , I n g r i d i n D e v i l ' s T o r . L i n d s a y ' s l a s t ( u n f i n i s h e d and u n -
p u b l i s h e d ) w o r k , i n f a c t , W i t c h , i s a l o n g monologue spoken by an E a r t h
M o t h e r . May we s u r m i s e from t h i s t h a t h i s defenses were inadequate and
t h a t he was f i n a l l y e n g u l f e d ?
 219

Appendix

Gravitationally likely is the f o l l o w i n g arrangement:

The N o r t h p o l e (N) i s l i t o n l y by A l p p a i n ( A ) , and the South p o l e (S)

o n l y by B r a n c h s p e l l ( B ) . However, w i t h Tormance r o t a t i n g around the

a x i s N - S , A l p p a i n w i l l l i g h t a l l b u t t h e southernmost t i p of Tormance

e v e r y day ( o r n i g h t ) .

G r a v i t a t i o n a l l y l e s s l i k e l y i s the f o l l o w i n g arrangement:

A l p p a i n b e i n g on the l i n e o f r o t a t i o n o f Tormance, N-S b e i n g at 4 5 ° to

the p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of Tormance around B r a n c h s p e l l , maximizes the

separation o f the l i g h t s o f the two s u n s . T h i s i s the s i t u a t i o n i n

Arcturus. But i n t h i s c a s e , A l p p a i n ' s l i g h t i s f i r s t v i s i b l e at the

equator, w h i c h i s where M a s k u l l ' s Northward j o u r n e y must end.

 220

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