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 Preface
Railway Recr uit ment Boar d (RRB) Junior Engineer Examinat ion 2019 is a combined t wo-st age examinat ion
followed by Document Ver ificat ion conduct ed by t he r espect ive RRBs for r ecr uit ment of Junior Engineer in
I ndian Railways (I R). I n ever y t wo year s, a lar ge number of candidat es appear for t his exam, compet i ng for a
limit ed number of post s. Thus RRB(JE) is consider ed one of t he most sought exams in I ndia due t o it s low
select ion r at io and t echnical nat ur e.
Unlike befor e, t he RRB(JE) 2019 exam pat t er n and syllabus has been complet ely changed. The old pat t er n
consist ed of single st age examinat ion wher ein t he candidat es wer e allot t ed depar t ment s in I ndian Rai lways
aft er clear ing t he exam. But t he r evised pat t er n includes t wo st ages – CBT-I and CBT-I I followed by document
ver ificat ion, t he candidat e is r equir ed t o qualify each st age in or der t o move on t o t he next st age. The pr elims
stage includes Gener al I nt elligence and Reasoning, Quantit at ive Apt it ude, Gener al Science and Gener al Awar e-
ness. H er e t he CBT-I is common for all t he br anches. The second st age, CBT-I I is of t he object ive t ype t o t est t he
t echnical abilit y of t he r espect ive engineer ing discipline.
GK Publicat ions has been t he ‘‘publisher of choice’’ t o student s pr epar ing for GATE, ESE and ot her technical t est
pr ep examinat ions in t he count r y. GK P's RRB(JE) 2019 ser ies pr ovides a wide r ange of st udy mat er ial which is
classified into guides and object ive solved paper books t o simplify t he ent ir e pr epar at ion. These books have been
t hor oughly updat ed as per t he lat est pat t er n and syllabus t o pr ovide ever yt hing you need t o per fect your scor e.
GK P has also launched an andr oid app t o pr ovide you wit h an updat e on all upcoming vacancies in t he technical
segment and it also has a lot of added cont ent t o aid your pr epar at ion.
We hope t his lit t le effor t of our s will be helpful in achieving your dr eams. I f you have any suggest ions for
impr ovement of t his book, you can wr it e t o us at gkp@gkpublicat ions.com.

All the Best!

Team GKP
 Contents
 SYL L ABU S

CBT – I
MATHEMATICS
1. N umber Syst em 1.1 - 1.9
2. Per cent age and Rat i o & Pr opor t i on 2.1 - 2.16
3. Pr obl ems On Age 3.1 - 3.4
4. Al l i gat i ons & M i xt ur es 4.1 - 4.5
5. Ti me and Wor k 5.1 - 5.11
6. Ti me and Di st ance 6.1 - 6.10
7. Boat s and St r eams 7.1 - 7.3
8. Si mpl e I nt er est and Compound I nt er est 8.1 - 8.10
9. Pr ofi t , L oss and Di scount 9.1 - 9.9
10. Aver age 10.1 - 10.12
11. Algebr a 11.1 - 11.10
12. Tr i gonomet r i c Rat i os and H ei ght & Di st ance 12.1 - 12.13
13. Cl ock and Cal endar s 13.1 - 13.10
14. Geomet r y 14.1 - 14.18
15. M ensur at i on 15.1 - 15.12

GENERAL INTELLIGENCE & REASONING

1. Al phabet i cal and N umber Ser i es 1.1 - 1.7
2. Anal ogy 2.1 - 2.10
3. Odd One Out 3.1 - 3.4
4. Codi ng Decodi ng 4.1 - 4.10
5. Bl ood Rel at i ons 5.1 - 5.7
6. Di r ect i on Sense Test 6.1 - 6.4
7. Venn Di agr ams 7.1 - 7.7
8. Syl l ogi sm 8.1 - 8.10
9. St at ement Concl usi on 9.1 - 9.7
10. St at ement Assumpt i on 10.1 - 10.6
11. M at hemat i cal Puzzl es 11.1 - 11.6
12. Cubes and Di ce 12.1 - 12.4
13. Anal yt i cal Reasoni ng 13.1 - 13.6
14. Dat a Suffi ci ency 14.1 - 14.9
 GENERAL SCIENCE*
1. Physi cs 1.1 - 1.32
2. Chemi st r y 2.1 - 2.22
3. Bi ol ogy 3.1 - 3.43
GENERAL AWARENESS*
1. Science and Technology 1.1 - 1.7
2. Spor ts 2.1 - 2.7
3. I ndian Hist or y 3.1 - 3.8
4. Geogr aphy 4.1 - 4.14
5. I ndian Polit y 5.1 - 5.6
6. Cur r ent Affair s 6.1 - 6.21

CBT – II
BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL
• Basics of Envir onment and Pollut ion Cont r ol 1 - 16

BASICS OF COMPUTERS AND APPLICATIONS

• Basics of Computer s and Applicat ions 1 - 15

MECHANICAL
1. Engi neer i ng M echani cs 1.1 - 1.17

2. Engi neer i ng M at er i al s 2.1 - 2.36

3. St r engt h of M at er i al s 3.1 - 3.30

4. M anufact ur i ng Engi neer i ng (M achi ni ng, Wel di ng and Fi ni shi ng Pr ocess) 4.1 - 4.51

5. M et r ol ogy and I nspect i on 5.1 - 5.41

6. Fl ui d M echani cs and H ydr aul i c M achi ner y 6.1 - 6.50

7. I ndust r i al Engi neer i ng 7.1 - 7.34

8. Ther mal Engi neer i ng 8.1 - 8.64

PRACT I CE PAPE R
• CBT-I 1 - 12
• CBT-II 1 - 10

* Common for CBT-I and CBT-I I

 SYL L ABU S
RECRUITMENT PROCESS
Only single online applicat ion {common to all the notified posts in opted RRB - Junior Engineer (JE), Junior
Engineer (I nformat ion Technology) [JE(I T )], Depot M aterial Superintendant (DM S) and Chemical &
M etallurgical Assistant (CM A)} has t o be submit t ed by t he candidat e t hr ough t he link pr ovided on t he official
websit e of RRBs.
The ent ir e r ecr uit ment pr ocess shall involve, 1st st age Comput er Based Test (CBT), 2nd st age CBT, and
Document Ver ificat ion/M edical Examinat ion as applicable. Select i on is made st r i ct ly as per mer it , on t he basis
of CBTs.
The dat e, t ime and venue for al l t he act ivi t i es vi z CBTs and DV or any ot her addit ional act ivi t y as applicable
shall be fixed by the RRB and shall be intimated to the eligible candidates in due cour se. Request for postponement
of any of t he above act ivity or for change of venue, date and shift will not be enter tained under any cir cumstances.

1ST STAGE CBT (COMMON FOR ALL NOTIFIED POSTS OF THIS CEN)
Duration : 90 minutes (120 Minut es for eligible PwBD candidat es accompanied wit h Scr ibe)
No. of Quest ions : 100
The 1st st age CBT is of scr eening nat ur e and t he st andar d of quest ions for t he CBT wi ll be gener all y in
confor mit y wit h t he educat ional st andar ds and/or minimum t echnical quali fi cat ions pr escr ibed for t he post s.
The nor mali zed scor e of 1st st age exam shall be used only for shor t l ist ing of candi dat es for 2nd st age exam as
per t heir mer i t . Candidat es who ar e shor t li st ed for 2nd st age CBT avail ing t he r eser vat i on benefi t s of a
communi t y, PwBD and ExSM shall cont i nue t o be consider ed onl y against t hat communi t y for all subsequent
st ages of r ecr ui t ment pr ocess.
The Quest ions wi ll be of object ive t ype wit h mul t i pl e choices and ar e li kely t o i ncl ude quest ions per t aining t o:

a. Mathematics :
N umber syst ems, BODM AS, Deci mal s, Fr act i ons, L CM and H CF, Rat i o and Pr opor t i on, Per cent ages,
M ensur at i on, Time and Wor k , Time and Dist ance, Simpl e and Compound I nt er est , Pr ofit and L oss, Algebr a,
Geomet r y, Tr igonomet r y, El ement ar y St at ist i cs, Squar e Root , Age Cal cul at ions, Calendar & Clock , Pipes &
Cister n.

b. General Intelligence and Reasoning :

Anal ogi es, Alphabet ical and Number Ser ies, Coding and Decodi ng, M at hemat ical oper at i ons, Rel at ionshi ps,
Syll ogism, Jumbl ing, Venn Di agr am, Dat a I nt er pr et at i on and Suffi ci ency, Conclusions and Decision M ak ing,
Si mi lar it ies and Di ffer ences, Analyt ical r easoni ng, Classifi cat ion, Dir ect ions, St at ement – Ar gument s and
Assumpt ions et c.
c. General Awareness :
K nowledge of Cur r ent affair s, I ndian geogr aphy, cult ur e and histor y of I ndia including fr eedom st r uggle, I ndian
Polit y and const itution, I ndian Economy, Envir onmental issues concer ning I ndia and t he Wor ld, Spor ts, Gener al
scient ifi c and t echnologi cal development s et c.
d. General Science :
Physics, Chemi st r y and L ife Sci ences (up t o 10t h St andar d CBSE syll abus).
The sect i on wi se Number of quest i ons and mar k s ar e as bel ow :
Subjects N o. of M arks for each
Questions Section
Stage-I Stage-I
M athematics 30 30
Gener al I nt ell igence & Reasoni ng 25 25
Gener al Awar eness 15 15
Gener al Sci ence 30 30
Tot al 100 100
Ti me i n M inut es 90
The sect ion wise dist r ibut ion given in t he above t able is only indicat ive and t her e may be some var i at ions in
t he act ual quest ion paper s.
M inimum per cent age of mar ks for eligibilit y in var ious cat egor ies: U R -40%, OBC-30%, SC-30%, ST -25%.
These per cent age of mar ks for eli gibil it y may be r elaxed by 2% for PwBD candi dat es i n case of shor t age of
PwBD candidat es against vacanci es r eser ved for t hem.
2nd Stage CBT
Shor t l ist i ng of Candidat es for t he 2nd St age CBT exam shall be based on t he nor mali zed mar ks obt ained by
t hem in t he 1st St age CBT Exam. Tot al number of candi dat es t o be shor t li st ed for 2nd St age shall be 15 t imes
t he communi t y wi se t ot al vacancy of Post s not ifi ed agai nst t he RRB as per t heir mer i t i n 1st St age CBT.
H owever, Railways r eser ve t he r ight t o i ncr ease/decr ease t his li mi t i n t ot al or for any speci fi c cat egor y(s) as
r equir ed t o ensur e avai labil it y of adequat e candi dat es for al l t he not i fi ed post s.
Dur ation : 120 minut es (160 M inut es for eligible PwBD candidat es accompanied wit h Scr ibe)
No of Quest ions : 150
Syllabus
The Quest ions wi ll be of object ive t ype wi t h mult i pl e choices and ar e l ik ely t o i nclude quest ions per t aining t o
Gener al Awar eness, Physics and Chemist r y, Basics of Comput er s and Applicat ions, Basics of Envir onment and
Pollution Contr ol and Technical abilities for the post. The syllabus for Gener al Awar eness, Physics and Chemistr y,
Basi cs of Comput er s and Appl icat i ons, Basics of Envir onment and Pol lut ion Cont r ol is common for all not i fi ed
post s under t his CEN as det ai led bel ow:-
a) General Awareness
K nowledge of Cur r ent affair s, I ndian geogr aphy, cult ur e and histor y of I ndia including fr eedom st r uggle, I ndian
Polit y and const itution, I ndian Economy, Envir onmental issues concer ning I ndia and t he Wor ld, Spor ts, Gener al
scient ifi c and t echnologi cal development s et c.
b) Physics and Chemistry
Up t o 10t h st andar d CBSE syllabus.
c) Basics of Computers and Applications
Ar chit ect ur e of Comput er s; i nput and Out put devi ces; St or age devi ces, Net wor k ing, Oper at i ng Syst em l i ke
Windows, Unix, L inux; M S Office; Var ious dat a r epr esent at ion; I nt er net and Email; Websit es & Web Br owser s;
Comput er Vir us.
d) Basics of Environment and Pollution Control:
Basi cs of Envi r onment ; Adver se effect of envi r onment al poll ut i on and cont r ol st r at egies; Ai r, wat er and N oi se
poll ut i on, t heir effect and cont r ol; Wast e M anagement , Gl obal war mi ng; Aci d r ai n; Ozone deplet ion.
e) Technical Abilities:
The educat i onal quali fi cat ions ment ioned agai nst each post shown in Annexur e-A, have been gr ouped int o
di ffer ent exam gr oups as bel ow. Quest i ons on t he Technical abili t i es wi ll be fr amed i n t he syll abus defined for
var ious Exam Gr oups
gi ven at Annexur e-VI I -A, B, C, D, E, F & G.
The sect i on wi se Number of quest i ons and mar k s ar e as bel ow :
Subjects N o. of M arks
Questions for each Section
Stage-I I Stage-I I
Gener al Awar eness 15 15
Physics & Chemi st r y 15 15
Basi cs of Comput er s and Applicat ions 10 10
Basi cs of Envi r onment and Pollut i on
Cont r ol 10 10
Technical Abilit ies 100 100
Tot al 150 150
Ti me i n M inut es 120
The sect ion wise dist r ibut ion given in t he above t able is only indicat ive and t her e may be some var i at ions in
t he act ual quest ion paper s.
M i nimum per cent age of mar k s for eligibi lit y in var ious cat egor i es: UR -40%, OBC-30%, SC-30%, ST -25%. This
per cent age of mar ks for el igibi li t y may be r elaxed by 2% for PwBD candidat es, i n case of shor t age of PwBD
candidat es against vacanci es r eser ved for t hem.
Vi r t ual cal cul at or wi ll be made availabl e on t he Comput er M onit or dur ing 2nd St age CBT.
D iscipline M apping Tables:-
(I )
Sl. N o. T hree years Diploma in Engineering E xam Gr oup
or Bachelor ’s D egr ee in Engineering/Technology
1. M echanical Engineer ing
Pr oduct ion Engi neer ing
Aut omobi le Engineer ing
M anufact ur ing Engineer ing M echanical and Allied
M echat r onics Engineer ing Engineer ing
I ndust r ial Engineer ing
M achining Engineer ing
Tool s and M achini ng Engi neer i ng
Tool s and Die M aki ng Engineer i ng
Combinat i on of any sub st r eam of basic st r eams of above di scipl ines
2. Elect r ical Engineer ing Electr ical and Allied
Combinat i on of any sub st r eam of basic st r eams of Elect r ical Engi neer i ng Engineer ing
3. Elect r oni cs Engineer ing
I nst r ument at i on and Cont r ol Engineer i ng
 Communicat i on Engineer i ng
Comput er Science and Engineer i ng Elect r onics and Allied
Comput er Engineer ing Engineer ing
Comput er Sci ence
I nfor mat i on Technology
Combinat i on of sub st r eams of basic st r eams of above discipli nes.
4. Civil Engineer ing
Combinat i on of any sub st r eam of basic st r eams of Civil
Engineer ing Civi l and Allied Engineer ing
B.Sc., in Civi l Engineer i ng of 3year s dur at i on
5. Pr int ing Technology/Engi neer i ng Pr int ing Technology
(I I )
Sl. N o. E ducat ional Qual ificat ions E xam Gr oup
1. B.Sc., Chemi st r y and Physi cs CMA
(I I I )
Sl. N o. E ducat ional Qual ificat ions E xam Gr oup
1. BE/B.Tech., (Comput er Science)
BE/B.Tech., (I nfor mat ion Technol ogy)
PGDCA Comput er Science and
B.Sc. Comput er Sci ence I nfor mat ion Technology
BCA
DOEACC “ B” L evel Cour se of 3 year s dur at i on or equivalent
Al l t he candidat es wi t h t he above qual ificat i on shall be t est ed i n t he Exam Gr oup mapped as per t he above
char t . H owever, candi dat es wit h educat ional qualificat i on of BE/B.Tech (Comput er Science) or BE/B.Tech
(I nfor mat ion Technology), appl ying for bot h t he post s of JE(S& T Depar t ment ) and JE (I T), have t o opt for
ei t her El ect r oni cs and All ied Engineer ing Exam Gr oup or Comput er Science and I nfor mat ion Technology
Exam Gr oup. The educat i onal quali fi cat ion for t he post of DM S (Depot M at er ial Super int endent ) i s Thr ee
Year s Diploma in Engi neer i ng i.e a candidat e wit h Thr ee Year s Diploma in any of Engi neer i ng di sci pl ines, can
appl y for t hese post s as appli cable. Candi dat es wi t h educat ional qual ificat i ons not figur i ng in t he above char t
and el igi bl e for DM S post s have t o choose any one of t he above l ist ed Exam Gr oups ot her t han CM A Exam
Gr oup, dur ing t he r egist r at ion for onl ine appl icat i ons of t his CEN.
A candidat e possessing mor e t han one minimum educat i onal quali fi cat ion, mapped t o differ ent Exam Gr oups,
can choose any one Exam Gr oup. These candi dat es woul d be el igibl e for all t he post s for which t hey possess
minimum educat ional qualificat ions.
SH ORTLI ST I N G OF CAN DI DAT ES FOR 2 nd STAGE CBT, DV AN D EM PAN ELM EN T:
Shor t l ist i ng of Candidat es for t he DV shal l be based on t he nor mal ized mar ks obt ained by t hem i n 2nd St age
CBT. The nor mali zat ion scheme t o be adopt ed for shor t l ist ing t he candidat es fr om 1st St age CBT t o 2nd St age
CBT and for DV on t he basis of per for mance i n 2nd St age CBT is det ail ed below:
N ORM ALI SAT I ON OF TH E M ARKS:
Whenever CBT is conducted in multiple sessions for t he same syllabus, the r aw mar ks obtained by the candidat es
in differ ent sessions wi ll be conver t ed t o nor malized mar k s.
The r aw mar ks for single session paper and nor malized mar ks for mult i session paper will be used for comput ing
M er i t I ndex, whi ch is a common benchmar k for gener at ing mer it for candi dat es fr om differ ent Exam Gr oups.
CALCU LATI ON OF N ORM ALI ZED M ARKS FOR M U LT I -SESSI ON PAPERS:
I n 1st St age CBT and for some Exam Gr oups i n 2nd St age CBT, t he exami nat ion may be conduct ed in mult i-
sessions. H ence, for t hese mult isession paper s, a sui t able nor mal izat i on is appl ied t o t ake int o account any
var i at i on i n t he di fficult y l evel s of t he quest i on paper s acr oss differ ent sessi ons.
The for mula for cal culat ing t he nor mal ized mar ks for t he mul t i-session paper s is det ail ed below:

Nor mal izat i on mar k of j t h candidat e i n i t h sessi on M̂ ij is given by :

M tg  M qg
M̂ ij 
M ti  M i q
 M i j  M i q   M qg
M ij : is t he act ual mar ks obt ained by t he j t h candidat e i n i t h session.

M tg : is t he aver age mar k s of t he t op 0.1% of t he candidat es consider i ng al l sessi ons.

M qg : is t he sum of mean and st andar d devi at i on mar k s of t he candidat es in t he paper consider i ng al l sessi ons.

M ti : is t he aver age mar k s of t he t op 0.1% of t he candidat es in t he i t h session or mar ks of t opper i f sessi on

st r engt h is less t han 1000.
M iq : is t he sum of t he mean mar ks and st andar d deviat ion of t he i t h session.
CALCU LATI ON OF M ERI T I N DEX FOR ALL PAPERS :
I n or der t o gener at e a common mer it l ist compr i si ng of candidat es who gave exami nat ion fr om differ ent Exam
Gr oups, but el igi bl e for a common post , mer it i ndex wil l be comput ed. For all paper s for which t her e is only one
session, act ual mar ks obt ained by t he candi dat es will be used for calcul at ing M er i t I ndex, whi le for paper s in
mult i-sessi ons, nor mali zed mar ks wi ll be calcul at ed cor r esponding t o t he r aw mar ks obt ai ned by a candi dat e
and t he M er it I ndex will be cal culat ed based on t he nor mal ized mar k s.
The M er it I ndex wil l be comput ed usi ng t he for mula gi ven bel ow :

M  Mq
M er i t I ndex = Sq + (St – Sq)
Mt  Mq

(M er it I ndex i s t he r el at i ve scor e of a candi dat e wi t hi n t he discipli ne.)

M : M ar ks obt ained by t he candi dat e (act ual/r aw mar ks for single session exam and nor malized mar ks for mult i
session exam.
M q: The qualifyi ng mar k s for gener al cat egor y candidat e in t he paper (40).

M t : The mean mar ks of t op 0.1% or t op 10 whi chever is lar ger of t he candi dat es who appear ed in t he paper (in
case of mult i sessi on exam incl udi ng all sessi ons)
Sq: 350 i s t he scor e assigned t o M q.

St : 900 i s t he scor e assi gned t o M t .

The quali fying mar ks (M q) for gener al cat egor y candi dat e is 40.
The M er it I ndex wi ll be calculat ed for UR, OBC, SC, ST candi dat es whose act ual mar k s for singl e session exam
and nor mali zed mar ks for mul t i session exam ar e equal or above t he communi t y qual ifying mar ks pr escr ibed
in Par a 13.2. Based on t he M er it I ndex gener at ed, a combined mer it list of t he candidat es of differ ent disciplines/
Exam Gr oup wil l be pr epar ed in t he descendi ng or der of mer i t and t he al lot ment of t he pr efer ence wil l be done
on t he basi s of t his mer it l ist .
CBT – I

 1
CHAPTER
N U M BER SYSTEM
I t divided int o r eal number and imaginar y number.
The number which we can put on a number line ar e
1 1 1
r eal number , e.g. , 2, , , 2 et c.
2 3 4
And ot her number s ar e i magi nar y number s, e.g.
4 , 6 et c.
H er e 1 is denot ed by i .
REAL N U M BERS
Real number s ar e divided int o r at ional number s and
ir r at ional number s.
1. Rat ional N umbers.
p = (6 × 7 × 9 × 2) = 756
Rat ional number s can be put in t he for m of
wher e q is not equal t o 0. q H ence, unit digit in t he given pr oduct is 6.
2 3
e.g. , et c.
3 5
Again r ational number s ar e divided into terminating
decimals and non-t er minat ing decimals.
e.g. 1/2 = 0.5 i s a t er mi nat i ng deci mal whi l e
1/3, 1/6 ar e non-t er minat ing decimal. Ter minat ing
decimals ar e being identified by t he fact t hat t her e
i s n o pr i m e f act or ot h er t h an 2 or 5 i n t h e
denominat or of t he lowest fr act ion while if t her e
is any ot her pr ime fact or ot her t han 2 or 5, t han
non-t er minat ing but r epeat ing. We can put a bar
on it for defi ni ng t he same. For exampl e, 2. 3
—  U nit digit in 753 is 7. (U ni t digit in 1 × 7 i s 7)
means 2.333........, 4. 67 means 4.676767........
2. I rr at ional N umbers.
The number s which ar e non-t er minat ing and non
r epeat ing ar e ir r at ional number s.
e.g. 2,3 et c.
Classificat ion of Rat ional numbers.
Rat ional number s ar e fur t her divided int o decimals
and i nt eger s. Ther e ar e posi t i ve i nt eger s, 0 and
negat ive integer s. Posit ive int eger s ar e called natur al
number s. whi le posi t i ve i nt eger s wit h 0 ar e cal led
whole numbers.
Nat ur al number s fur t her classified int o t wo differ ent
categor ies :
( i ) Even and Odd numbers : This concept of even
and odd looks t o be ver y simple but certain t hings
need t o be under st ood
i.e. E + E = E, E + O = O, O + O = E, E × E = E,
O × E = E, O × O = O
0 (zer o) is neit her posit ive nor negat ive.
Number System
( ii ) P r i m e an d Com posi t e n u m ber s : Pr i m e
number s ar e t hose, which does not have any fact or
except 1 and it self like 2,3,5,7,11,13 et c. Composit e
number s ar e number s ot her t han pr ime.
Note : (1) 1 is neit her pr ime nor composit e.
Note :(2) 2 is t he only even pr ime.
Note : (3) Ther e ar e 25 pr ime number s fr om 1 t o
100 and 15 pr ime number s fr om 1 t o 50.
U N I T’S DI GI T I N TH E PRODU CT
E xampl e. F i n d t h e u n i t ’s di gi t i n t h e pr odu ct
(256 × 27 × 159 × 182).
Solution : Pr oduct of unit ’s digit s in given number s
E xampl e. F i n d t h e u n i t ’s di gi t i n t h e pr odu ct
(367 × 639 × 753).
Solution : Cl ear ly, unit di git i n 34 i s 1
 Unit di gi t i n 364 i s 1.
 U nit digit in 367 is 7.
(U ni t digit in 1 × 3 × 3 × 3 i s 7)
Cl ear ly, uni t di git i n ever y power of 6 i s 6.
 U nit digit in 639 is 6.
Cl ear ly, unit di git i n 74 i s 1.
 Unit di gi t i n 752 i s 1.
Unit di git i n given pr oduct
= Unit digit in (7 × 6 × 7) = 4
FACTORI AL N U M BERS
The hi ghest power of a pr i me number ‘a’ which i s
cont ained in n ! is
n  n   n 
 a    2    3   ............
  a  a 
wher e [ x ] r epr esent s t he gr eat est int eger less t han or
equal t o x.
Example. What is t he highest power of 2 cont ained
in 70! ?
Sol ut i on.
 70   70   70   70   70   70   70 
 2    2    3    4    5    6    7  ...........
  2  2  2  2  2  2 
= 35 + 17 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 + 0... = 67
 1.2 Number System
I DEN TI T I ES (General Formulae) e.g. 1  [1 + 1  {1 + 1  (1 + 1  2) } ]
 (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 1
= 1  [1 + 1  {1 + 1  (1 + )}]
 (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2 2
 (a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2 3
= 1  [1 + 1  {1 + 1  }]
 (a + b)2 + (a – b)2 = 2(a2 + b2) 2
 (a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab 2
= 1  [1 + 1  {1 + }]
 (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca 3
 (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b) = a3 + b3 + 3a2b + 3ab2
5
= 1  [1 + 1  ]
 (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab (a – b) = a3 – b3 – 3a2b + 3ab2
3
 a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2) = (a + b)3 – 3ab(a + b)
3
= 1  [1 + ]
 a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2) = (a – b)3 + 3ab(a – b)
5
8
 a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 – 2ab or (a – b)2 + 2ab =1
5
 a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca)
5
 I f a + b + c = 0, t hen a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc =
8
 (x + a) (x + b) = x 2 + x (a + b) + ab
RATI ON AL I SAT I ON
 (a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4
I f pr odcut of t wo sur ds is r at ional, t hen one of t hem is
 a4 + a2b2 + b4 = (a2 + ab + b2) (a2 – ab + b2) called r at ionalising fact or (R.F) of t he ot her.
 a4 – b4 = (a + b) (a – b) (a2 + b2) I RRATI ON AL N U M BERS
 (a + b)2 = (a – b)2 + 4ab TI PS : When doing t hese sort of problems, remember :
 (a – b)2 = (a + b)2 – 4ab (1) When you conver t a fr act ion int o a decimal, you
 a3 + b3 + c3 = (a + b + c)3 – 3(a + b) (b + c) (c + a) end up wi t h eit her a t er mi nat i ng decimal or a
 (a + b) (b + c) (c + a) = (a + b + c) (ab + bc + ca) – abc
r ecu r r i n g deci m al . N u m ber s w h i ch can be
expr essed as a fr action ar e called rational numbers.
 a2 + b2+ c2 – ab – bc – ca
1/4 = 0.25 (Ter minat ing decimal)
1 1/3 = 0.33333..... (Recur r ing decimal)
= [( a – b) 2  (b – c) 2  ( c – a) 2 ]
2 (2) Number s which cannot be expr essed as a fr act ion
 I f a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca = 0, t hen a=b=c ar e called ir r at ional number s. These number s go
on for ever wit hout any appar ent pat t er n
FG a  1 IJ 2
1 2a e.g : , 2 , 7 et c.

H bK = a2 +
b 2
+
b   has been calculat ed by comput er s t o millions
of decimal places and st ill no pat t er n has been
FG a – 1 IJ 2
1 2a found!

H bK = a2 +
b2
–
b  Squar e r oot s of all non-squar es ar e ir r at ional.
 Cube r oot s of all non-cubes ar e ir r at ional.
BOD M AS
(3) The pr oduct of 2 ir r ational number s can sometimes
To do t he simplificat ion, we should always car r y out
be a r at i on al num ber. Remem ber on e of t he
t he oper at ions in t he or der of each let t er of t he wor d
examples below:
‘BODM AS’, wher e
e.g., 3  12  36  6
B br acket s [{( )}]
O of or 5  5  25  5
D division  (4) Expr essi ons which i nclude at l east 1 ir r at ional
M multiplication  number ar e called sur ds.
A addition + e.g., 2, 5  7 et c.
S subtr action – I N DI CES
e.g. 12 – 4  5 + 36  9 + 8 = 12 – 4  5 + 4 + 8 an is t he pr oduct of n fact or s each of which is ‘a’ called
= 12 – 20 + 4 + 8 base of t he power and ‘n’ is any nat ur al number called
index or exponent of t he power .
= 24 – 20
e.g. I f a  a  a  a is wr it t en as a4, t hen a4 is called
= 4. indices of base.
 Number System 1.3
LAW OF I N DI CES M ethods to find H CF.
 ao = 1 1. By met hod of fact orizat ion :
 a1 = a 36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3
 am  an = am+n 64 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
 am  an  ap  ... = am + n + p + ...  HCF = 2 × 2 = 4 (Pr oduct of common fact or s)
 (am )n = amn 2. By division method : Suppose t wo number s ar e
 (ab)m = am bm given. Divide t he gr eat er number by t he lesser ;
t he l esser by t he r emai nder ; di vi de t he fi r st
p
m n r emainder by t he new r emainder and so on t ill
  a   = am  n  p  ...
t her e is no r emainder. The last divisor is t he H CF
 am  an = am – n r equir ed.
 I f am = an, t hen m = n Example. Find t he H CF of 64 and 36.
 I f am = bm , t hen a = b Solution : 36)64(1
 I f am = 1, t hen m = 0 36
32)36(1
1
 a– m = 32
am
4)32(8
FG a IJ m
am 32

H bK =
bm 0
am The H CF of 64 and 36 is 4.
 = am– n if m > n
bn Example. Find t he H .C.F. of 126, 396 and 1080.
Solution : Expr essing the number s in pr ime fact or s.
am 1
= if n > m 126 = 2 × 32 × 7
an a n– m
396 = 22 × 32 × 11
n

a .n b  n
ab 1080 = 23 × 33 × 5
The highest power of 2, which will divide 2, 22, and
 m
a .n a  mn
am  n 23, is 2.
The highest power of 3, which will divide 32 and
mn
 a  mn a 33, is 32, and t her e ar e no ot her common fact or s.
Thus H .C.F. is 2 × 32, or 18.
n
a mn Example. Find t he H .C.F. of 440, 1800, 2800.

m
 am  n
a Solution : 440 = 10 × 11 × 4, and of t hese t hr ee
fact or s 10 and 4 divide all t hr ee number s 11 does
 p n a . q n b  pq n ab not .
 H .C.F. = 10 × 4 = 40
 I f x n = y, t hen x = y 1/n  x = n y
2 Some I mport ant Result s
 e aj =a  The pr oduct of t wo number is equal t o pr oduct of
t heir H CM and L CM .
n
 a p = ap/n  I f t wo number s divided by a t hir d number gives
t he same r emainder, t heir differ ence is exact ly
p m = divisible by t hat number.
 n m
a  mn
a pm
 I f ther e ar e mor e than 2 number s, say 4 number s.
Find t he H CF of any 2 number s and t he H CF of
n
 a n b  an b the other 2 number s. The HCF of their HCFs gives
t he H CF of all t he 4 number s.
H I GH EST COM M ON FACTOR (H CF) LEAST COM M ON M U LTI PLE (LCM )
I t is t he gr eat est fact or common t o t wo or mor e given L east common mult iple (L CM ) of t wo or mor e given
number s. I t is also called GCM (Gr eat est Common number is the least number which is exactly divisible
Measur e). by each of t hem
e.g. 4 is t he GCM of 12 and 16. e.g. 30 is t he L CM of 2, 3, 5, 6.
 1.4 Number System
M ethod to find LCM . 2. U si n g t h e f or m u l a : Pr odu ct of n u m ber s =
1. By met hod of fact orizations: Resol ve each one H CF × L CM
of t he given number s int o pr ime fact or s, t hen t heir I f t wo number s ar e given, t heir L CM is given by
L CM is t he pr oduct of highest power s of all fact or s,
t hat occur in t hese number s. Pr oduct of t wo number
LCM =
Example. Find t he L CM of 36 and 64. H CF
Solut ion : 36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 For t he above example
64 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 36  64
LCM = = 576
 L CM = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 = 576 4

DI VI SI BI LI TY RU LES.
N umber
Conditions
divisible by
2 Last digi t is 0 or an even number .
3 Sum of all t he digit s of t he number is divisible by 3.
4 Last t wo digit s of t he number is divisible by 4 or 00.
5 Last digi t of t he number is 0 or 5.
6 Last digit i s 0 or an even number , and sum of all t he digit s of t he
number is divisible by 3.
7 Differ ence bet ween digit /digit s in fr ont and doubled value of t he last
digit is 0 (or ) is divisi ble by 7.
8 Last t hr ee digit s of t he number is divi sible by 8.
9 Sum of all t he digit s of t he number is divisible by 9.
10 Last digi t is 0.
11 I f ever y second digit is added and t hen subt r act ed sum of all ot her
digit s, t he answer is 0, or divisible by 11.
12 Number is divisi ble by bot h 3 and 4.

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 4. I f n umer at or an d den omi nat or of a pr oper
1. I f t he following gr oups of fr act ions is ar r anged in fractions ar e incr eased by the same quantity, then
ascending or der ? t he r esult ing fr act ion is
5 7 6 7 6 5 (a) always gr eat er t han t he or iginal fr act ion
(a) , , (b), , (b) always less t han t he or iginal fr act ion
16 18 17 18 17 16
5 6 7 6 7 5 (c) always equal t o t he or iginal fr act ion
(c) , , (d) , ,
16 17 18 17 18 16 (d) none of t hese
9 2 8 5 5. I f x + y > 5 and x – y > 3, t hen which of t he
2. If f r act i on s , , , ar e ar r an ged i n following gives all possible values of x ?
13 3 11 7
ascendi ng or der, t hen t he cor r ect sequence (a) x > 3 (b) x > 4 (c) x > 5 (d) x < 5
is
6. I f x an d y ar e n egat i ve, t hen whi ch of t he
9 2 8 5 2 9 5 8
(a) , , , (b) , , , following st at ement s is/ar e always t r ue ?
13 3 11 7 3 13 7 11
I . x + y is posit ive
2 8 5 9 5 8 2 9
(c) , , , (d) , , , I I . xy is posit ive
3 11 7 13 7 11 3 13
3. Which one of t he following is t he lar gest ? I I I . x – y is posit ive
(a) I only (b) I I only
2 5 , 6 3 , 3 7 and 8 2 (c) I I I only (d) I and I I I only
(a) 8 2 (b) 2 5 (c) 6 3 (d) 3 7
 Number System 1.5

7. The value of 3
0.000064 is 3. 10 = 3.1623(appr ox.). What is the appr ox, value
1
(a) 0.02 (b) 0.2 (c) 2.0 (d) N one of ?
8. I f 11, 109, 999 is divided by 1111, then what is t he 10
r emainder ? (a) 0.333 (b) 0.3162
(a) 1098 (b) 11888 (c) 1010 (d) 1110 (c) 0.3221 (d) 0.3437
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
1 1 1
 of 4. Find the value of (2744)1/3 :
2 2 2
9. The value of is (a) 24 (b) 14
1 1 1
 of
2 2 2 (c) 34 (d) 16
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
2 1 5. Find the L.C.M. of 148 and 185.
(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 1 (d) 3
3 3 (a) 680 (b) 740
10. Taking 2 = 1.414, 3 = 1.732, 5 = 2.236 and (c) 2960 (d) 3700
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
6 = 2.449, t hen t he value of
1
6. If 22n 1  , then the value of 'n' is :
9 2 9– 2 8n  3
+ to three places of decimals is
5 3 5– 3 (a) 3 (b) 2
(c) 0 (d) –2
(a) 9.2321 (b) 13.716 (c) 10.723 (d) 15.892
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
11. The cube r oot t o 1.061208
7. What is the largest possible length of a scale that
(a) 1.022 (b) 10.22 (c) 0.102 (d) 1.02
can be used to measure exactly the lengths 3 m,
12. The least number having four digit s which is a 5 m 10 cm and 12 m 90 cm ?
per fect squar e is
(a) 10 cm (b) 20 cm
(a) 1004 (b) 1016
(c) 1036 (d) None of t hese (c) 25 cm (d) 30 cm
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
13. The missing number in t he ser ies 8, 24, 12, 36,
18, 54,  is 8. After measuring 120 metres of a rope, it was
(a) 27 (b) 108 discovered that the metre rod was 3 cm longer.
The true length of the rope measured is :
(c) 68 (d) 72
14. What is t he eight h t er m of t he sequence 1, 4, 9, (a) 116 m 40 cm (b) 121m 20 cm
16, 25,........ ? (c) 123 m (d) 123 m 60 cm
(a) 8 (b) 64 [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(c) 128 (d) 200 9. Solve 3
0.000064 = ?
15. Which of t he following is t he best appr oximat ion
for t he following expr ession, (a) 0.4 (b) 0.04
(c) 0.004 (d) 0.0004
(7.9986 / 0.115)  19.97 ?
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(a) 15 (b) 10 (c) 1.0 (d) 1.3 10. The HCF of two numbers is 6 and their LCM is
LEVEL-1 72. If one number is 24, the other number is
1. The val ue of (1 +0.1 +0.11 +0.111) is (a) 12 (b) 18
(a) 1.321 (b) 1.211 (c) 36 (d) 72
(c) 1.111 (d) 1.331 [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] 11. The largest number which divides by 72 and 125,
2. When a number is divided by 5, it gives r emainder leaving remainders 7 and 8 respectively is
3. What i s t he r emainder when squar e of t hat (a) 13 (b) 56
number is di vi ded by 5?
(c) 65 (d) 900
(a) 9 (b) 3 [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
(c) 4 (d) 1
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
1.6 Number System

12. The HCF of two numbers is 12 and their LCM 5. Value of  (appr ox. value 3.14) is :
is 72. If one number is 36, the other number is (a) Ter minat ing decimal
(a) 12 (b) 24 (b) Recur r i ng decimal
(c) 36 (d) 48 (c) Non-t er minat ing non-r epeat ing decimal
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ] (d) I ndet er minat e
13. The largest number which divides 81 and 108, [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
leaving remainders 6 and 3 respectively is 6. Which one of the following is not a pr ime number ?
(a) 9 (b) 15 (a) 71 (b) 91
(c) 18 (d) 515 (c) 61 (d) 31
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
14. The HCF of two numbers is 15 and their LCM
7. Fi nd t he val ue of :
is 270. If one number is 45, the other number is
(a) 18 (b) 90  489  3752   489  375 2
(c) 81 (d) 675  489  375
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ] (a) 144 (b) 864
15. The largest number which divides 247 and 319, (c) 2 (d) 4
leaving remainders 7 and 4 respectively is [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(a) 15 (b) 30 1 5 2 4
8. Fi nd t he L .C.M . of , , , :
(c) 45 (d) 56 3 6 9 27
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ] 1 10
(a) (b)
LEVEL-2 54 27
3 3 20
1. 22  22   is equal t o: (c)
3
(d) None of t hese

(a) 22 (b) 21 [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]

(c) 2– 2 (d) 2– 1 5 7 13 16 3
9. Ar r ange t he fr act ions , , , and in
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] 8 12 16 29 4
2. Ar r ange t he fol l owi ng fr act i ons i n ascendi ng ascendi ng or der of magnit ude :
or der.
16 7 5 3 13
7 3 4 (a)    
, , 29 12 8 4 16
10 8 5
16 5 7 13 3
3 7 4 3 4 7 (b)    
(a) , , (b) , , 29 8 12 16 4
8 10 5 8 5 10
4 3 7 7 3 4 3 13 7 5 16
(c) , , (d) , , (c)    
5 8 10 10 8 5 4 16 12 8 29
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] 3 5 7 13 16
3. By what l east number shoul d 192,000 be divided (d)    
4 8 12 16 29
so as t o become a per fect cube?
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(a) 2 (b) 5
x 1 x 3
(c) 3 (d) 7  a  b
10. I f     , t hen t he val ue of 'x ' i s :
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]  b  a
4. Fi nd t he value of:
3 + 0.03 + 0.003 + 0.0003 1
(a) (b) 1
2
(a) 12 (b) 3.0333
(c) 3.3333 (d) 6.0333 (c) 2 (d) – 1
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
 Number System 1.7

11. Fi nd t he val ue of (0.000216)3 : 14. H CF of t wo number s, each consi st i ng of four

(a) 0.6 (b) 0.06 di gi t s, i s 103 and t h ei r L CM i s 19261. The
di ffer ence of t he number s is
(c) 0.006 (d) 0.0006
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(a) 6/8 (b) 5/9
12. I f a = 2129 × 381 × 5128 , b = 2127 × 381 × 5128 (c) 5/8 (d) 4/8
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
c = 2126 × 382 × 5128 and d 2125 × 382 × 5129 t hen H CF
of a, b ,c and d is 15. L et a  3129  5128  7 22 ,b  3128  5129  722
(a) 2125 × 381 × 5129 (b) 2125 × 381 × 5128
c  3128  5128  722 andd  3129  5128  723
(c) 2125
×3 ×5
82 128
(d) 2129 × 382 × 5129
H CF of a, b, c and d is
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
128
13. L et x be a l east number which when divided by (a) 3129  5128  722 (b) 15   7 22
21,33,35 and 55 leaves i n each case a r emai nder
129
3, but is exact ly divisible by 67. The sum of digit s (c) 3128  5128  723 (d) 15  723
of x is
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(a) 8 (b) 10
(c) 12 (d) 15
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (b)
LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 3. 2 5 = 2  2.236 = 4.472
5 6 3 = 6  1.732 = 10.392
1. = 0.312
16
3 7 = 3  2.646 = 7.938
6
= 0.352 8 2 = 8  1.414 = 11.312
17
7 Clear ly 8 2 is lar gest .
= 0.388
18 2
4. L et pr oper fr act ion =
9 2 3
2. = 0.692, = 0.666 21 3
13 3  Result ing fr act ion = =
31 4
8 5 2 3
= 0.727, = 0.714 H ence <
11 7 3 4
2 9 5 8 1 2
H ence ascending or der is , , ,  <
3 13 7 11 2 3
3 31
<
5 51
1.8 Number System

3 4 1
 < et c. 6. 22n 1 
5 6 3n  9
5. Solving x + y > 5 and x – y > 3 we get ,
 22n 1  23n  9  20
x > 4.
 5n – 10 = 0
6. Pr oduct of – ve number s is also +ve.
10
7. Given expr ession = 3
0.008 = 0.2 n 2
5
1 1 1 1 4 7. Requi r ed scal e has t o be of l engt h 10 cm
  
2 2 2 because 10 cm is t he shor t est lengt h in i n
9. Given expr ession = 1 1 1 = 2 1
+  3 gi ven quest ion.
2 2 2 4 8. Act ual lengt h has t o be
4 8 2 120m + (120 × 3) cm = 120 m + 360 cm
= 2 = =2
3 3 3  123 m 60 cm.
9 2 6– 2
10. + 3 4 4 4
5 3 5 3 9. 0.000064  3   = .04
100 100 100
1
= 9 5  9 3  10 – 6 10. We know that, x × y = LCM × HCF
53
(x, y are the two distinct numbers)
6 5  6 3  10  3  x × 24 = 72 × 6
1  x = 18.
= 15 5 – 3 5  2 6
2 11. In such a questions it is better to check the
options. In this case 13 satisfies the given
1
= [15  2.236 – 3  1.732 – 2  2.449] condition. Rest of the numbers are large
2
enough to be eliminated easily.
1
= [33.540 – 5.196 – 7.898] 12. set the number be x
2
 x × 36 = 12 × 72
= 10.732
 x = 24
11. H er e 1.061208 = (1.02)3
13. Checking the options we get the correct
Requir ed cube r oot = 1.02 answer as 15.
12. Requir ed number =1024 = (32)2 14. HCF × LCM = Product of numbers
13. Second t er m is 3 t imes of t he fir st t er m and t hir d
15  270
t er m i s hal f of t he second t er m, r epeat t hi s  other number = = 90
pr ocess t he missing t er m is half of 54, i.e. 27. 45
15. Numbers = 247, 319
14. Given sequence can be wr it t en as
 remainders = 7 & 4,
12, 22, 32, 42, 52, ...
H ence it ’s eight h t er m = 82 = 64 247  7  240
 319  4  315 are divisible

8
15. Rounding off, we get  20  100 HCF (240, 315) = 15
0.1
LEVEL-2
LEVEL-1
1. 1 + 0.1000 + 0.110 + 0.111 = 1.321 3 3

2. Let the number be 8.

1. 22  22  
Thus, when 82 = 64 will be divided by 5, then = 28  26 = 22.
remainder will be 4.
7
1 2.  0.7
3. will be less than 0.3333. 10
3.1623
4. 2744 i s a mul t i ple of 7. 3
 0.375
H ence, t he answer has t o be 14. 8
5. 148 = 37 × 4 and 185 = 37 × 5
3 7 4
LCM = 37 × 4 × 5 = 740   
8 10 5
 Number System 1.9

4  a
x 1
 b
x 3
 0.8  
5 10.  
 b  a
192000
3.  96,000  Not a perfect cube.  a
x 1
 a
3 x
2  
   b
b
192000
 64,000  A perfect cube
3   x  1  3  x
 Ans = 3  2x = 4
4. 3 + 0.03 + 0.003 + 0.0003  x=2
= 3.0333 1
1 1
6. 91 is not a prime number 11.  0.000326  3   216  3  216 6  3

91 = 7 × 13
= 6 × 10–2 = 0.06
 489  3752   489  3752 12. Highest power of 2 common in a1 b1 c1 d = 125
7.
 489  375 Highest power of 3 common in a1 b1 c1 d = 81
Highest power of 5 common in a1 b1 c1 d = 128
 a  b 2   a  b 2
i.e  HCF  2125  381  5128
ab

4ab x  21k1  3 
 4 x  33k 2  3 
ab 13. A/Q x  35k 3  3   x
x  55k 4  3
LCM 1,5,2,4 
8. LCM  = LCM (211 331 351 55)k + 3
HCF  3,6,9,27 
= 1155k + 3
20 A/Q x = 67 k5

3
 67k 5  1155k  3
5 at k = 4
9.  0.625
8 Number = 4623 which
7 satisfies all conditions.
 0.583  sum of digits = 4 + 6 + 2 + 3 = 15
12
14. Product of two Numbers = LCM × HCF
13
 0.8125  x × y = 103 × 19261
16
= 103 × 103 × 11 × 17 = 1133 × 1751
16 6
 0.551
29  Difference = (Ans)
8
3 15. Highest power of 3 common answer
 0.75
4 a1 b1 c1 d = 129
 option (a) is correct Highest power of 5 common answer
a1 b1 c1 d = 129
Highest power of 7 common answer
a1 b1 c1 d = 23

 2
CHAPTER
Percentage and
Ratio & Proportion
Percentage
PERCEN T
Per cent means out of hundr ed. For example if we say 50% Con ver si on t abl e of per cen t age i n t o
50 25 fract ion and vice-versa. (To learn)
t h at m ean s , 25% m ean s . Or w e can say
100 100 1/2 50% 1/10 10%
per cent age is a fr act ion in which denominat or is 100. 1 1
1/3 33 % 1/11 9 %
Fir st lear n how to change per centage into fr action or fr action 3 11
1
int o per cent age. 1/4 25% 1/12 8 %
3
25 9
25% means or i n conver sion of % int o fr act i on 1/5 20% 1/13 7 %
13

100
2 1
divide t he number by 100. 1/6 16 % 1/14 7 %
3 7
 I n conver sion of fr act ion int o per cent age mult iply by 2 2
100. 1/7 14 % 1/15 6 %
7 3
¼ × 100 = 25% 1
(fr act ion) (per cent age) 1/8 12 ½% 1/16 6 %
4
1
1/9 11 %
9

Nor mally a st udent get s quest ions based on per cent ages given in per cent age t able.
N ote : I f a fr act ion is given mor e and you have t o find for less per cent age, t hen decr ease t he fr act ion and a
lower fr act ion is t he answer or vice-ver sa.
U SE OF PERCEN TAGE TABLE
TYPE I
Example 1. I f t he salar y of A is 20% mor e t han B, t hen by what %, B's salar y is less t han A?
1
Solution : I f we see t he per cent age t able, 20% =
5
1 2
We have t o find a fr act ion less t han t his, i.e. , t he answer is 16 %.
6 3
Example 2. I f t he r at e has r educed by 10%, by what % t he consumpt ion has t o be incr eased, so t hat
expendit ur e r emains t he same ?
1 1 1
Solution : I n percentage table, 10% = . We have to find increased fraction, i.e. or 11 % is the answer..
10 9 9
Example 3. I f lengt h of a r ect angle is r educed by 40%, t hen by what % t he br eadt h has t o be incr eased so
t hat ar ea r emains t he same ?

FG x  100%IJ
Solution :
H 100  x K
As 40% is not given in per cent age t able, we ar e asking for mor e, so denominat er must be less.
FG 40  100IJ = 66 2 %.
H (100 – 40) K 3
2.2 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion

TYPE I I
Ther e ar e t hr ee differ ent cases.
We have t o solve in t he example : A + x % of A = B
Case 1. Value of A and x are given and we have to find B.
Example. Add 20% of a number t o a given number 600.
20
So, 600 + 20% of 600 = 600 + × 600 = 720.
100
Case 2. Value of A and B are given, we have to find the value of x.
Example. What % has t o be added t o 200 t o get 250 ?
H er e, A = 200, B = 250.
Fir st of all , see t he change, i.e. 50 ( 250 – 200 )
I mportant  On which value it is changing on 200, or on 250. I n t his case it is 200.
50 1
 = or 25%
200 4
Case 3. Value of x and B are given and we have to solve for A.
Example. Adding 20% t o a number gives 480, what is t he number ?
H er e, x = 20%, B = 480,
20FG
 A = 480
IJ
A+
100 H K
This is fr equent ly asked quest ion.
Adding 20% or 1/5 t o a number gives B, means subt r act a lower fr act ion
1
i.e. 1/6 (lower t han 1/5) fr om t he number 480 (B) or 480 – × 480 = 400.
6
I f %age asked is not given in per cent age t able t hen.
Example. A's salar y 30% mor e t han B, by what % B salar y less t han A ?
Formulae : ( x /100 ± x ) × 100 %
As we ar e asking for a lower per cent age, so denominat or must be mor e or (+) has t o be done.
FG 30 IJ × 100 300 1
H 130 K =
13
= 23
13
%.

TYPE I I I

A×B=D
I n t his case A and B ar e decr easing or incr easing hence changing t he value of C or find % change in C.
I n quest ion of per cent age we can assume any t hing or ever yt hing t o be 100 inst ead of assuming x and y .
Example. The lengt h and br eadt h of a r ect angle ar e incr eased by 30% and 20% r espect ively. What is %age
change in Ar ea?
Solution. I nst ead of assuming x and y as lengt h and br eadt h, assume 100 for lengt h and 100 for br eadt h.
Ar ea = l × b
L engt h incr eased by 30% means fr om 100 it became 130,
Br eadt h incr eased by 20% means fr om 100 it became 120, so t he ar ea became
15600, which is 5600 mor e t han 10000,
5600 56
or = = 56%.
10000 100
TYPE I V
We gener alize t he concept , A% of B = C
 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion 2.3
I n t his concept :
(i ) Eit her A and B ar e given and we have t o find t he value of C.
(ii ) A and C ar e given and we have t o find t he value of B.
(iii ) B and C ar e given and we have t o solve for A

SOLVED EXAM PLES

1. (0.756 × ¾ ) is equivalent t o.
FG0.756  3IJ × 100 = 56.7%.
Solution.
H 4K

2. Find (12 ½) % of 88.

FG12 1 IJ % means 1 and 1 of 88 is 11. H ence t he answer is 11.1.
Solution. H 2K 8 8

FG 2 IJ % of 75.
3. Find 6 H 3K
Solution.
FG 6 2 IJ % means 1 and 1 of 75 = 5.
H 3K 15 15

4.
F 1I
Find GH 37 JK % of 48
2

FG12 1 IJ % is 1 .
Solution.
H 2K 8
I f we mult iply by 3,
3 F 1I
is GH 37 JK % ,so
3
× 48 = 18.
8 2 8
5. Find 43.5% of 20
Solution. 43.5% doesn't have any easy fr act ional r epr esent at ion
x % of y = y % of x leads t o conclude
1
43.5% of 20= 20% of 43.5, i.e. × 43.5 = 8.7
5
FG 11 1 IJ % of which number is 12 ?
6. H 9K
Solution.
F 1 I 1 and C is 12
A = GH 11 JK % =
9 9
1
× B = 12
9
or B = 108.
7. 16% of ------- is 40.
Solution. A = 16%, C = 40
16
 × B= 40, or B = 250.
100
8. 24 is ------- % of 36.
Solution. C = 24, B = 36. A t o find out .
2.4 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion

A 2
× 36 = 24, or A = 66 %.
100 3
24 2
24 is of 36, i.e. of 36,
36 3
2 1 1
hence 66 as 33 % = mult iply by 2.
3 3 3
9. What is 3% of 5%?
Solution. A = 3%, B = 5%, C t o find.
3 5
 =C
100 100
or C = .0015
10. What % is 3% of 5% ?
Solution. A t o be find out , B = 5%, C = 3%.
A 5 3
 =
100 100 100
or A = 60%.
11. 3% of what number is 5% ?
Solution. A = 3%, B = t o be find out , C = 5%.
3 5
×B =
100 100
5
or B = = 1.6
3
At t imes we have t o find t he fr act ion like 15%, 18% and so on.
12. Find 15% of 480 (concept for ment al calculat ion)
Solut ion. Fi r st fi nd 10% of 480 = 48 and 5% sh oul d be hal f of t he val u e (48) whi ch i s 10% .
So 5% = 24 add t he t wo, i.e. 72.
13. Find 18% of 450.
1
Solution. 10% of 450, i.e. of 450 = 45 mult iply by 2 it becomes 20% = 90
10
1
of 20% is 90 t han 2% is 9 as ( 2 is of 20)
10
I f one subt r act ion 2% fr om 20%, one get s 18%, so 90 – 9 = 81.

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 3. What will be 160% of a num ber whose 200% is 140
?
1. What per cent of 72 is 6 ?
(a) 200 (b) 160
(a) 10% (b) 20%
(c) 140 (d) 112
1
(c) 8 % (d) N one 1
3 4. I f A's in come is 33% mor e t han t hat of B , t hen
3
2. I f 30% of a num ber is 12.6, t hen t he num ber is how mu ch per cent is B 's in come less t han t hat of
(a) 41 (b) 51 A?
(c) 52 (d) 42 1
(a) 25% (b) 33 %
3
(c) 40% (d) N one
 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion 2.5

4 15. 300 gms of sugar solut ion has 40% sugar in it .

5. 63% of 3 is H ow much sugar should be added t o make it 50%
7
in t he solut ion?
(a) 2.25 (b) 2.40
(a) 10 gms. (b) 40 gms.
(c) 2.50 (d) 2.75
(c) 60 gms. (d) 30 gms.
6. What per cent age is 3% of 5% ? LEVEL-1
(a) 60% (b) 50%
1. The salar ies of A and B t ogether amount to ` 2000.
(c) 15% (d) 30% A spends 95% of his salar y and B 85% of his. I f
now, t heir savings ar e t he same, t hen what is A's
1
7. A number i n cr eased by 37 % gi ves 33. The salar y ?
2
(a) ` 1500 (b) ` 1250
number is
(c) ` 750 (d) ` 2600
(a) 27 (b) 25
2. I f t he r adius of a cir cle is decr eased by 50%, it s
(c) 24 (d) 22
ar ea is r educed by
8. 40 quint als is what per cent of 2 m t ones ? (a) 25% (b) 50%
(a) 20% (b) 2% (c) 75% (d) N one
(c) 200% (d) 150%
3. The populat ion of a t own is 18000. I t incr eases by
9. I f 15% of 40 is gr eat er t han 25% of a number by 2, 10% during first year and by 20% during the second
t hen number is year. The populat ion aft er 2 year s will be
(a) 16 (b) 20 (a) 19800 (b) 21600
(c) 24 (d) 32 (c) 23760 (d) N one
1
10. 12.5 % of 192 = 50% of ? 4. By mixing wat er a man gains t he pr ofit of 11 %.
9
(a) 48 (b) 96 Find t he quant it y of wat er mixed by him.
(c) 24 (d) N one 1 1
(a) lit er s (b) lit er s
11. x% of y is y% of ? 9 8
x
(a) x (b) 1 1
100 (c) lit er s (d) lit er s
10 11
y
(c) 100x (d) 5. M ohan’s expendit ur e and saving ar e in t he r at io
100
of 4:1. H is income incr eases by 20% if his saving
12. A st udent has t o secur e 40% mar ks t o pass. H e i ncr eases by 12%. By how much % shoul d hi s
get s 178 m ar k s and f ai l s by 22 m ar k s. Th e expendit ur e incr eases ?
maximum mar ks ar e (a) 21% (b) 20%
(a) 200 (b) 500 (c) 42% (d) none
(c) 800 (d) 1000 6. A candidat e has t o secur e 40% of t he t ot al mar ks
13. I n an exam i n at i on 1100 boys an d 900 gi r l s to pass. He gets 190 mar ks and fails by 190 mar ks.
appear ed. 50% of t he boys and 40% of t he gir ls Find t he t ot al mar ks.
passed t he exam. The per cent age of candidat es (a) 900 (b) 800
failed is (c) 700 (d) 950
(a) 45 (b) 45.5
7. M ukesh ear ned ` 4000 per mont h. Fr om t he last
(c) 54.5 (d) 59.2 mont h his income incr eased by 8%. Due t o r ise in
14. Fr om a container having pur e milk, 20% is replaced pr ice, his expendit ur e incr eased by 12%and his
by water and the process is r epeated thrice. At the sav i n g decr eased by 4%. F i n d h i s i n i t i al
end of the third oper ation, the milk is expendit ur e and init ial saving.
(a) 40% pur e (a) 3000, 1000
(b) 50% pur e (b) 1000, 3000
(c) 51.2% pur e (c) 12000, 4000
(d) 6000, 2000
(d) None of t hese
2.6 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion
8. A vessel of 80 lit r es is filled wit h milk and wat er. 15. I n school X, t her e ar e 600 pupils of whom one
70% of milk and 30% of wat er is t aken out of t he quar t er ar e gir ls. I n school Y, t her e ar e 500 pupils
vessel. I t is found t hat t he vessel is vacat ed by of whom t hr ee-fift h ar e gir ls, and in school Z ther e
55%, find t he init ial quant it y of wat er. ar e 700 pupi l s of whom hal f ar e gi r l s. What
(a) 50 L (b) 60L per cent age of t he t ot al number of pupils in t he
t hr ee schools is compr ised of gir ls ?
(c) 40 L (d) 30 L
(a) 44.44% (b) 45%
9. I mixed some wat er in pur e milk and t he mixt ur e
(c) 50% (d) 55.55%
is sold at t he cost pr ice of t he milk. I f I gained
LEVEL-2
2
16 %, in what r atio did I mix water in the milk ?
3 1. What st r engt h of 20 ml alcohol should be added t o
(a) 1:5 (b) 5 :1 10 ml of 50% alcohol t o get an aver age st r engt h of
20% alcohol ?
(c) 7:1 (d) none
(a) 0.5% (b) 5%
10. I n a cer t ai n camp, 20% of t he boys ar e fr om (c) 50% (d) 5.5%
M ahar asht r a st at e and 30% of t hose ar e fr om
Bombay cit y. I f t her e ar e 49 boys in t he camp who 2. A dishonest dealer sells as a weight of 800 gm in
ar e fr om M ahar asht r a stat e but not fr om Bombay place of 1 kg and adds 20% impur it ies in sugar.
city, what is the t ot al number of boys in the camp ? What would be his profit % if he claims to be selling
(a) 70 (b) 245 at cost pr ice?
(c) 163 (d) 350 (a) 50% (b) 40%
(c) 45.5% (d) None of t hese
11. A r ise of 600m is r equir ed t o get a r ail r oad over a
m ou n t ai n t h e gr ade can be k ept dow n by 3. The populat ion of a t own gr ows at t he r at e of 20%
lengt hening t he t r ack and cur ving it ar ound t he ever y 5 year s. I n how many year s will it double
mount ain peak. The addit ional lengt h of the tr ack it self? (appr oximately)
r equir ed t o r educe t he gr ade fr om 2% t o 3% is (a) 12 (b) 15
appr oximately (c) 16 (d) 20
(a) 10000 m (b) 20000 m 4. 30% of t he st udent s in a class wear glasses, 10%
(c) 120000 m (d) 30000 m of t he st udent s who wear gl asses, wor e gol d
12. An insur ance collect or r eceives 15% commissions r immed glasses. I f t he class has 200 students, how
on t he pr emi um coll ect ed. H ow much must he many wear gold r immed glasses ?
collect per week in or der t hat his annual income (a) 6 (b) 7
may be ` 6500/- ? (c) 8 (d) None of t hese
1 5. I n a village, 18% of t he populat ion ar e childr en
(a) ` 1250 (b) ` 833
3 and 10% of childr en ar e female. I f t he number of
2 female childr en is 90, what is t he populat ion ?
(c) ` 720 (d) ` 650
3 (a) 500 (b) 5000
13. A man t axed at a r at e of 5% as income t ax and (c) 600 (d) 6000
10% special sur char ge on t he amount of income
t ax pays alt oget her ` 1110. Find his gr oss income 6. For annual income in t he slab of ` 1200000 t o
if he is allowed a deduct ion of 20%. 2000000, a per son pays tax at 20% over the sur plus
on ` 1200000. Wini's annual salar y is ` 1500000.
(a) 20000 (b) 25000
H ow much t ax does she pays per annum?
(c) 30000 (d) none
(a) ` 300000 (b) ` 240000
14. A gar den has only r ed, gr een and whit e flower s. (c) ` 120000 (d) ` 60000
60% of t he flower s have r ed colour s, 30% have
gr een colour and 50% have whit e colour. I f no 7. The pr ice of a book includes 10% pr int ing cost ,
flower has all t he t hr ee colour s, what per cent age 20% paper cost , and anot her 15% labour cost . I f
of t he flower s have only one colour ? t he r emainder is ` 110, what is t he t ot al pr ice of
t he book ?
(a) 40
(a) ` 200 (b) ` 300
(b) 50
(c) ` 400 (d) ` 500
(c) 60
(d) None of t hese
 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion 2.7
8. The populat ion of a t own has incr eased t o 110% 13. A sum of money doubl es i t sel f at compound
of it s value last year. I f t he populat ion t his year inter est in 15 yr s. I n how many yr s it will become
is 2.2. lakhs, what is last year 's populat ion? eight t imes ?
(a) ` 2.32 L akhs (a) 30 (b) 45
(b) ` 2 L akhs (c) 50 (d) 60
(c) ` 2.5 L akhs 14. A man buys 6 dozen eggs for ` 10.80. 12 eggs ar e
(d) None of t hese found t o be r ot t en and t he r est ar e sold at 5 for
` 1. Find his % gain or % loss.
9. The t ot al sales of a company amount s t o ` 24
1
cr or es and t he volume sold is 20000 unit s. What (a) gain of 11 % yr s.
is t he aver age pr ice/ unit ? 9
1
(a) ` 1000 (b) ` 1200 (b) loss of 11 % yr s.
9
(c) ` 120 (d) ` 12000
1
10. Six fr iends have an aver age height of 167 cms. (c) gain of 9 % yr s
11
Penshu wit h height 162 cms leaves. What is t he 1
new aver age height ? (d) loss of 9 %
11
(a) 166 cm (b) 167 cm
(c) 168 cm (d) 169 cm 15. A bor r owed ` 800@ 6% and B bor r owed ` 600
@10%. Aft er how much t ime will t hey bot h have
11. M adhu got mar r ied 6 year s ago. Today her age is equal debt s ?
1 1 2
1 t imes her age at t he t ime of mar r iage. H er (a) 15 yr s. (b) 16 yr s.
4 3 3
son's age is 1/10 her age. H er son's age is
(a) 3 yr s (b) 2.5 yr s 1
(c) 18 yr s (d) none of t hese
(c) 2 yr s (d) 4 yr s 3

12. I n a village t he cur r ent bir th r at e per t housand is

55 wher eas cor r esponding deat h r at e is 34 per
t h ou san d. T h e n et gr ow t h r at e i n t er m of
populat ion incr ease will be
(a) 0.021% (b) 0.0021%
(c) 21% (d) 2.1%

AN SWE RS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (b)

2.8 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion

Ratio & Proportion

RAT I O
Rat io is t he r elat ion which one quant it y bear s t o anot her of t he same kind. The r at io of A t o B is usually
wr it t en: A : B. The fir st t er m is called t he ant ecedent and t he second t er m t he consequent .
a ma
=
b mb
i.e., t he value of a r at io r emains unalt er ed if t he ant ecedent and t he consequent ar e mult iplied or divided
by t he same quant it y.
e.g., A and B have income in t he r at io of 5 : 4 does not mean t hat t he incomes ar e ` 5 and ` 4, but it means
any income which is a mult iple of 5 and 4, i.e. 5x and 4x , wher e x is a var iable.
Example 1. Divide ` 80 in t he r at io of 3 : 5 ?
Solution. Divide 80 by 8 (sum of t he r at ios) we get 10 and have 10 is t he k fact or. H ence mult iply t he
r at io 3 : 5 by 10 or 30 : 50.

Example 2. Divide ` 98 among a, b, c, d in t he r at io in t he r at io 2 : 3 : 4 : 5 ?

Solution. Divide ` 98 by 14 (sum of t he r at ios), we get 7 t hat is k fact or.
The amount in ` ar e 7  2 ,7  3,7  4, 7  5 or 14, 21, 28, 35.

 Rat ios ar e compounded by mult iplying t oget her t he fr act ions which denot e t hem.
Example 3. Find t he r at io compounded of t he t hr ee r at ios ?
Solution. 2 a : 3b, 6 ab : 5 c2, c : a
2a 6 ab c 4 a
 Requir ed r at io =   
3b 5c2 a 5c
 When t he r at io a: b is compounded wit h it self t he r esult ing r at io is a2:b2 and is called t he duplicat e r at io
of a:b. Also a½ : b½ is called t he sub duplicat e r at io of a:b.
(i ) The duplicat e r at io of 2a: 3b is 4a2 : 9b2.
(ii ) The sub duplicat e r at io of 49 : 25 is 7 : 5
(iii ) The t r iplicat e r at io of 2x : 1 is 8x 3 : 1

Rat io of Equalit y, Great er inequat lit y and L ess inequalit y.

A r at io is said t o be a r atio of gr eat er inequalit y, of less inequality, or of equality, accor ding as the ant ecedent
is gr eat er t han less t han or equal t o t he consequent .
 A r at i o of gr eat er i n equ al i t y i s di m i n i sh ed an d a r at i o of l ess i n equ al i t y i s i n cr eased,
by adding t he same quant it y t o bot h it s t er ms.
 When a ser ies of fr act ions ar e equal, each of t hem is equal t o t he sum of all t he numer at or s divided by
t he sum of all t he denominat or s.
An import ant t heorem.
a
I f a1 , a2 , a3 ,..............., n be unequal fr act ions, of which t he denominat or s ar e all of t he same sign,
b1 b2 b3 bn
a1  a2  a3  ...  an
t hen t he fr act ion lies in magnit ude bet ween t he gr eat est and least of t hem.
b1  b2  b3  ...  bn
PROPORT I ON
When t wo r at ios ar e equal, t he four quant it ies composing t hem ar e said t o be pr opor t ionals. Thus if
a c
= , t hen a, b, c, d ar e pr opor t ionals. This is expr essed by saying t hat a is t o b as c is t o d, and t he
b d
pr opor t ion is wr it t en a:b::c:d
 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion 2.9
The t er ms a and d ar e called t he extremes, b and c t he means.
 L et a, b, c, d be t he pr opor t ionals.
a c
Then by definit ion =  ad = bc
b d
H ence if any t hr ee t er ms of a pr opor t ion ar e given, t he four t h may be find out .
ad
Thus if a, c, d ar e given, t hen b = .
c
 Quant it ies ar e said t o be in cont inued pr opor t ion when t he fir st is t o t he second, as t he second is t o t he
thir d.
I f t hr ee quant it ies a, b, c, ar e in cont inued pr opor t ion, t hen
a : b= b : c and ac = b2.
 I f thr ee quant it ies ar e pr opor t ional, t he fir st is t o t he t hir d is t he duplicat e r at io of t he fir st t o t he second.

a b
L et t hr ee quant it ies be a, b, c, t hen =
b c

a a b a a a2
Now =  =  = 2
c b c b b b
i.e. a : c = a2 : b2
I f a : b = c : d, and e : f = g : h, t hen ae : bf = cg : dh .
 I f four quant it ies a, b, c, d, for m a pr opor t ion, many ot her pr opor t ions may be deduced by t he pr oper t ies
of fr act ions.
(1) I f a : b = c : d, t hen b : a = d : c. [I nver tendo]
(2) I f a : b = c : d, t hen a:c= b:d [Alternando]
(3) I f a : b = c : d, t hen a + b : b = c + d : d. [Componendo]
(4) I f a : b = c : d, t hen a– b : b = c – d : d [Dividendo]
(5) I f a : b = c : d, t hen a+ b:a– b= c+ d :c– d
Example. Find second pr opor t ion of 2, 4 and 8.
Sol ut i on. a:b =c:d
or 2:b =4:8
or 4 b = 16
or b =4

Example. Find t he t hir d pr opor t ion of .5, 12 and 8.

Solution. I n t his quest ion, we have t o find t he value of c
a:b =c:d
or .5 : 12 = c : 8
or 12c = 4
1
or c=
3
COM PARI SON OF TWO RATI OS
Example. I f a : b = 2 : 3 and b : c = 4 : 5 , t hen what is t he r at io of a : b : c ?
Sol ut i on. a = (2  4) = 8 a: b: c
b = (3  4) = 12 2 3
c = (3  5) = 15.
So t he r at io a : b : c = 8 : 12 : 15 4 5
2.10 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion
 I f t he r at ios among 4 differ ent quant it ies has t o be found out .
Example. What is t he r at io of a, b, c, d. I f r atio of a : b = 2 : 3, b : c = 4 : 5 and c : d = 6 : 7?
Solution.
a : b : c : d
2 : 3 : 3 : 3
4 : 4 : 5 : 5
6 : 6 : 6 : 7
48 : 72 : 90 : 105
a : b : c : d = 16 : 24 : 30 : 35

a b c 2
Example. Divide ` 1300 among a, b, c, d such t hat = = = .
b c d 3
Solution. a b c d
2 3
2 3
2 3
Then, r at io of a, b, c, d = 8 : 12 : 18 : 27
so, sum of r at ios of a, b, c, d = 65.
Divide 1300 by 65 t o get t he key fact or as 20.
So t he division of money among a, b, c, d ar e 160, 240, 360, 540, i.e 8  20, 12  20, 18  20, 27  20.

SACRI FI CI N G RATI O
I f t wo or mor e par t ner s give some par t of t heir shar es t o incoming par t ner, t hen t he loss in t he shar es of
exist ing par t ner s is called sacr ificing r at io.
Sacr ificing r at io = Old r at io – New r at io.
Example. What is t he sacr ificing r at io of t wo par t ner s who wer e dividing t heir shar e in t he r at io of 2 : 3
and aft er joining by incoming par t ner t heir r at io changed t o 1 : 1 : 1 ?
Sol ut i on. Sacr ificing r at io = Old r at io – New r at io

2 1 3 1 1 4
  5  3  :  5  3  = 15 : 15  1 : 4
   
E xample. Thr ee men wer e t r avell ing in a r ail way compar t ment . One of t hem was a ver y weal t hy
businessman. The ot her t wo had food wit h t hem and invit ed t he businessman t o join t hem in t heir meal.
One man had br ought 5 chapat his and t he ot her had 3. The t hr ee of t hem at e t oget her and t he food was
shar ed equally. On par ting, the businessman gave 8 gold coins to the t wo men, as a token of his appreciation
of t heir hospit alit y, and t old t hem t o shar e t he coins in pr opor t ion of t heir cont r ibut ion of food. What
number of coins will each of t hem get ?

3 1 5 1 1 7
Solut ion. Sacr i fici ng r at io    :    = : 1:7
 8 3   8 3  24 24
` 8 has t o be divided in t he r at io of 1 : 7, i.e. ` 1 t o A and ` 7 t o B.

FRACTI ON AL RATI O
Cer t ain quest ion have t o be solved accor ding t o t heir fr act ional r at io t hat means t he r at io should be
divided aft er solving fr act ion.

Example 1. A and B can complet e a wor k in 2 & 3 days r espect ively. They complet e a wor k t oget her and
get ` 50 as t he wages. H ow should t hey divide it ?

Solution. ` 50 is not being divided in t he r at io of 2 : 3 as A who can complet e t he wor k in 2 days is mor e
 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion 2.11

efficient t hen B who complet ed t he wor k in 3 days.

Divide ` 50 in t he r at io of
1 1 3:2
Efficiency of A : Efficiency of B =: = =3:2
2 3 6
So A should get ` 30 and B should get ` 20

Example 2. A, B and C can complet e a wor k in 2, 3 and 4 days r espect ively. I f t hey complet e t he wor k
t oget her, in what r at io t hey should divide t he money ?

1 1 1
Solution. Efficiency of A : Efficiency of B : Efficiency of C = : : = 6:4:3 = 6 : 4 : 3
2 3 4 12
N ote : Ever yt hing which is inver sely pr opor t ional should be divided in fr act ional r at io.

Example 3. The M ahar aja of an I ndian St at e invit ed t hr ee ar t ist s t o per for m at his cour t . H e was much
impr essed, and honor ed t hem wit h t he gold and gift s.
On t he day of t heir depar t ur e he pr esent ed t he t hr ee of t hem wit h sevent een elephant s, expr essing a
wish that t he oldest of t he ar t ists should get one-half of t he number of elephant s, t he middle one one-t hir d
of t he number, and t he last one one-nint h. H ow t he elephant s will be divided among t hem?

Solutilon. Rat io in which t hr ee ar t ist s should divide 17 elephant s

1 1 1 9: 6: 2
=
: : =
2 3 9 18
So oldest ar t ist s should get 9 elephant s middle one 6 and t he last 2 elephant s r espect ively.

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 7. T h e speeds of t h r ee car s ar e i n t h e r at i o
1. I f (4x 2 – 3y 2) : (2x 2 + 5y 2) = 12 : 19, t hen x : y is 5 : 4 : 6. The r at io bet ween t he t imes t aken by
t hem t o t r avel t he same dist ance is
(a) 2 : 3 (b) 1 : 2
(a) 5 : 4 : 6 (b) 6 : 4 : 5
(c) 3 : 2 (d) 2 : 1
(c) 10 : 12 : 15 (d) 12 : 15 : 10
x x
2. I f = , t hen (x+ 5) : (y + 8) is equal t o 8. A dog t akes 3 leaps for ever y 5 leaps of a har e. I f
5 8
(a) 3 : 5 (b) 13 : 8 one leap of t he dog is equal t o 3 leaps of t he har e,
t he r at io of t he speed of t he dog t o t hat of t he
(c) 8 : 5 (d) 5 : 8
har e is
3. I f x : y = 6 : 5, then ( 5x + 3y) : ( 5x – 3y) is equal to
(a) 8 : 5 (b) 9 : 5
(a) 2 : 1 (b) 3 : 1
(c) 8 : 7 (d) 9 : 7
(c) 5 : 3 (d) 5 : 2
9. ` 180 cont ained in a box consist s of one r upee,
4. What same number must be added t o each t er m 50 paise and 25 paise coins in t he pr opor t ion of
of t he r at io 7 : 3 so t hat t he r at io becomes 2 : 3? 2 : 3 : 4. What is t he number of 50 paise coins?
(a) 1 (b) 2 (a) 120 (b) 150
(c) 5 (d) Can’t be det er mined (c) 180 (d) 240
5. The r at io of t he t wo number s is 3 : 4 & t heir sum 10. I n a school, 10% of t he boys ar e same in number
is 420. The gr eat er of t he t wo number s is
1
(a) 175 (b) 200 as of t he gir ls and 10% of t he gir ls ar e same in
4
(c) 240 (d) 315
6. Five bananas and four apples cost as much as three number as 1/25 of t he boys. What is t he r at io of
bananas and seven apples. The r at io of t he cost of boys t o gir ls in t hat school?
one banana t o t hat of one apple is (a) 3 : 2 (b) 5 : 2
(a) 3 : 2 (b) 4 : 3 (c) 2 : 1 (d) 4 : 3
(c) 3 : 4 (d) 1 : 3
2.12 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion

11. Two number s ar e in t he r at io 3 : 4 and t he pr oduct 6. In two vessels A and B, milk and water are in
of t heir L .C.M . & H .C.F is 10800. The sum of t he the ratio of 4 : 3 and 3 : 5 respectively. The ratio
number s is in which these are to be mixed to obtain new
(a) 180 (b) 210 mixture which contains half milk and half water
is
(c) 225 (d) 240
(a) 7 : 4 (b) 7 : 8
12. The ages of x and y ar e in t he r at io of 3 : 1. Aft er
15 year s t he r at io will be 2 : 1. Their pr esent ages (c) 1 : 2 (d) 4 : 5
( in year s) ar e [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]

(a) 30, 10 (b) 45, 15 7. If a : b = 4: 5 and b : c = 2 : 3, then c : a is

(c) 21, 7 (d) 60, 20 (a) 15 : 8 (b) 3 : 4
13. Gold is 19 t imes as heavy as wat er and copper is 9 (c) 8 : 15 (d) 3 : 5
times as heavy as water. I n what r atio should ther e [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
be mixed to get an alloy 15 times as heavy as water 8. If a : b = 5 : 6 and b : c = 3 : 4, then c : a is
(a) 1 : 1 (b) 2 : 3 (a) 4 : 5 (b) 5 : 4
(c) 1 : 2 (d) 3 : 2 (c) 8 : 5 (d) 5 : 8
14. 85 lit er s of a mixt ur e cont ains milk and wat er in [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
t he r at io 27 : 7. H ow much mor e wat er is t o be 9. If a : b = 2 : 3 and a + b = 45. then a is equal to
added t o get a new mixt ur e cont aining milk and
(a) 27 (b) 25
wat er in t he r at io 3 : 1?
(c) 18 (d) 9
(a) 5 lt . (b) 6.5 lt .
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
(c) 7.25 lt . (d) 8 lt .
2
10. If 2, x, x , 4 are in proportion, then x is equal to
LEVEL-1
(a) 2 (b) 4
1. Sachin is younger than Rahul by 4 years. If their
ages are in the ratio of 7 ; 9, then how old is Sachin (c) 8 (d) 16
? [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]

(a) 14 years (b) 21 years 11. In two vessels A and B, spirit and water are in
(c) 18 years (d) 25 years the ratio 2 : 1 and 2 : 3 respectively. The ratio in
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
which these ire mixed which contains half water
is
2. The sum of two numbers is 40 and the difference
of these two numbers is 4. Find the ratio of these (a) 5 : 3 (b) 3 : 5
two numbers. (c) 2 : 3 (d) 3 : 2
(a) 11 : 9 (b) 11 : 18 [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]

(c) 22 : 9 (d) 17 : 13 12. The average of 20 observations is 18 and average

[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] of 30 observations is 25. The average of all 50
3. IfA exceeds B by 40% and B is less than C by 20%. observations is
then A : C = ? (a) 21.5 (b) 21.8
(a) 3 : 1 (b) 3 : 2 (c) 22.2 (d) 22.5
(c) 26 : 25 (d) 28 : 25 [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] 13. If 4, x, 2x, 32 are in proportion, then x is equal to
4. If a : b = 3 : 5 and b : c = 2 : 3, then a : c is (a) 8 2 (b) 8
(a) 3 : 2 (b) 2 : 5
(c) 5 : 2 (d) 5 : 8 (c) 16 (d) 16 2
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]

5. Which of the following numbers are in proportion 14. If 8, 3x, 6, 27 are in proportion, then x is equal to
(a) 12, 27, 54, 24 (b) 27, 12, 24, 54 (a) 6 (b) 9
(c) 12, 27, 24, 54 (d) 54, 24, 12, 27 (c) 12 (d) 15
[RRB JE 2015 26 th
AU G 1 SH I FT ]
st [RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion 2.13
15. In two vessels A and B, the milk and water are 7. X is 40 year s ol d and Y i s 60 year s old H ow many
in the ratio 5 : 4 and 3 : 5 respectively. The ratio year s ago was t he r at io of t hei r ages 3:5?
in which these are mixed to obtain new mixture (a) 5 year s (b) 10 year s
which Contains half milk and half water is
(c) 20 year s (d) 37 year s
(a) 9 : 4 (b) 4 : 9 [RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(c) 4 : 3 (d) 3 : 4 8. Rs. 680 i s divided among A, B, C such t hat A get s
[RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
2 1
LEVEL-2 3
of what B get s and B get s
4
of what C get s.
1. I f a : b = 4 : 3 and b : c = 7 : 9, t hen a : b : c : ? Then t hei r shar es ar e r espect i vely
(a) 24 : 21 : 30 (b) 12 : 15 : 21 (a) Rs. 75, Rs. 325, Rs. 280
(c) 8 : 6 : 12 (d) 28 : 2l : 27
(b) Rs. 80, Rs. 120, Rs. 480
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c) Rs. 90, Rs. 210, Rs. 380
2 3
2. Ravi spends of his salar y on H ouse Rent ; (d) Rs. 100, Rs. 200, Rs. 380
5 10
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
1
of hi s sal ar y on Food and of hi s Sal ar y on
8 9. X. Y and Z st ar t a busi ness X invest s 3 t i mes as
Con v ey an ce. A f t er t h i s, h e i s l ef t w i t h
Rs. 1400. Find his expendit ur e on Food. 2
much as Y invest s and Y invest s r d of what Z
(a) Rs. 8000 (b) Rs. 3200 3
(c) Rs. 2400 (d) Rs. 1000 invest s. Then t he r at io of capit als of X. Y, Z is 3
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (a) 3 : 9 : 2 (b) 6 : 10 : 15
3. A sum of Rs. 312 was di vi ded among 60 boys and (c) 5 : 3 : 2 (d) 6 : 2 : 3
some gi r l s in such a way t hat each boy get s Rs.
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
3.60 and each gir l Rs. 2.40. The number of gi r ls is
10. Ent r y fee t o an exhibit ion was Rs.80. L at er, t his
(a) 35 (b) 40
was r educed by 25% which incr eased t he sal e by
(c) 60 (d) 65
20%. The per cent age i ncr eased in t he number of
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
vi si t or s is
4. Some st udent s planned a t r ip. The budget for food
(a) 30 (b) 40
was Rs. 500 But , 5 of t hem fai led t o go and t hus
t he cost of food for each member incr eased by Rs. (c) 60 (d) 80
5. H ow many st udent s at t ended t he t r ip ? [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
(a) 15 (b) 20 11. I f a : b = 8 : 15 , b : c = 5 : 8 and c : d = 4 : 5, t hen
(c) 25 (d) 30 b : d is
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 1 : 3
5. I n a cl ass, t her e ar e t wo sect i ons A and B. I f 10
(c) 4 : 15 (d) 5 : 8
st udent s of sect ion B shift over t o sect i on A, t he
st r engt h of A becomes t hr ee t i mes t he st r engt h [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
of B. But , if 10 st udent s shift over fr om A t o B,
bot h A and B ar e equal in st r engt h. H ow many 1
12. A per son gave par t his income t o hi s son and
st udent s ar e t her e in sect ions A and B ? 5
(a) 50 and 30 (b) 45 and 15 40 % par t of his i ncome t o his daught er. H e lent
(c) 90 and 40 (d) 80 and 40 out t he r emai ni ng money i n t hr ee t r ust s A, B
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] and C i n t he r at io of 5 : 3 : 2. I f t he differ ence
6. Si x per sons went t o a hot el for meal s. Fi ve of bet ween t he amount got by son and daught er is
t hem spent Rs. 32 each on t heir meal s while t he Rs. 50,000, how much amount di d he invest in
6t h per son spent Rs. 80 mor e t han t he aver age t r ust B?
expendit ur e of all t he si x. Tot al money spent by (a) Rs. 20000 (b) Rs 30000
al l t he per sons is :
(c) Rs 40000 (d) Rs 50000
(a) Rs. 192 (b) Rs. 240
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
(c) Rs. 288 (d) Rs. 336
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
2.14 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion

13. Two all oys A and B cont ain zinc and copper in t he 15. A sum of Rs.16500 is t o be divided among A, B, C
r at io 5 : 6 and 7 : 8 r espect ively. I f equal quant it ies and D i n such a way t hat t he r at i o of shar es of A
of all oys ar e melt ed t o for m a t hir d all oys C, t hen and B i s 3:4, t hat of B and C i s 1:3 and t hat of C
t he r at io of copper and zinc i n C wil l be and D is 6:7. Sum of shar es of A and D is
(a) 76 : 89 (b) 89 : 76 (a) Rs.8000 (b) Rs.7500
(c) 48 : 35 (d) 35 : 48 (c) Rs.8500 (d) Rs.9000
[RRB SSE 2015 1 SEP 1 SH I FT ]
st st [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]

14. I f A : B = 2 : 3, B : C = 5 : 6 and C : D 8 : 9, t hen A:

D is
(a) 2 : 9 (b) 20 : 81
(c) 20 : 27 (d) 40 : 81
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (a)
LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (c)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
LEVEL-1 6. Applying allegation for milk we get:
1. S : R = 7X : 9x A B

 9x – 7x = 4 4 3
or x = 2 7 8
Hence, S or age of Sachin 1
= 7 × 2 = 14 years. 2
2. a +b = 40 and a – b = 4 1 1
 a = 22 and b = 18 8 14
Hence, a : b = 11 : 9 1 1
Hence, required ratio = : = 7 : 4.
8 14
3. L et C = 100, such t hat B = 80 and
7. a : b = 4 : 5 and b : c = 2 : 3
A = 80  1.4 = 112
a : b = 8 : 10 and b : c = 10 : 15
H ence, A : C = 112 : 100 = 28 : 25  c : a = 15 : 8
4. Given: a : b = 3 : 5 and b : c = 2 : 3 8. a : b = 5 : 6; b : c = 3 : 4
 a : b = 6 : 10 and b : c = 10 : 15 = 15 : 18 = 15 : 20
(making the value of ‘b’ equal in both the = 18 : 24
ratios)  c : a = 24 : 15
 a : c = 6 : 15 = 2 : 5. =8:5
5. Among the given options only 12, 27, 24 and
54 are in proportion i.e. 12 : 27 = 24 : 54 = 4 : 9.
 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion 2.15

a 2 33x 7x
9.  a + b = 45  Money left = 1    1400
b 3 40 40
a : b = 2x : 3x  5x = 45  x = 8000
 a = 2x = 18
3
10. 2, x, x2, 4 are in proportion  Money spent on food   8000  2400
10
 2x2 = x × 4
3
x=2  60  3.6
11. spirit  3. No. of girls  2 = 40
A B 2.4
2 2 4. Let the no. of students initially = x
3 5
500 500
According to question  =5
1 x 5 x
2
 x = 25
 No. of students who attended the trip = x – 5
1 1
10 6 = 20

1 1 5. Let the no. of students in class A = x

 ratio =  Let the no. of students in class B = y
10 6
According to question
= 6 : 10 = 3 : 5
(x + 10) = 3(y – 10) … (i)
20  18  30  25
12. Average = = 22.2 also (x – 10) = y + 10 … (ii)
50
13. 4, x, 2x, 32 are in propertion Solving eq. (i) and (ii), we get

 Product of extremes = product pf weavs x = 50 and y = 30

 4 × 32 = 2x × x 6. Let avg expenditure be x.

x=8 32  5   80  2
 x
14. Product of means = product of extremes 6
 3x × 6 = 8 × 27  x = 48
 x = 12  Total money spent = (32 × 5) + (80 + 48)
15. Let quantity of liquid of A m mixture = x = 288.
Let ________________ B __________ = y 7. According to question,
 Milk from A + Milk from B = total milk
40  k 3
5 3 1 
 x  y  x  y 60  k 5
9 8 2
 k = 10 years
x 9
  9:4 8. According to question,
y 4
LEVEL-2 A
2
B
3
1. a : b   4 : (3)  7   43  47 : 37
 3
b : c   7 : (9)  3   and 7 : 9  7  3 : 9  3 B A
2
 a : b = 28 : 21
1
b : c = 21 : 27 and B  C
4
 a : b : c = 28 : 21 : 27
2. Let the salary of Ravi be Rs. x 3
C  4B  4  A
2 3 1 33 2
Total expenditure  x x x  x
5 10 8 40  C  6A
Now A + B + C = 680
2.16 Percentage and Ratio & Proportion
13. Let quantity of alloy A = x
3
A  A  6A  680 Let quantity of alloy B = y
2
 A = 80 5x 7y
Zinc in alloy (A + B) = 
 B = 120 11 15
 C = 480
6x 8y
9. According to question, x = 3y copper in alloy (A + B)  
11 15
3 2 6
 x: y=   6x 8x
1 2 2 
copper in C 11 15 89

2 Zinc in C 5x 7y 
 76
y z 11 15
3
 y:x=2:3  x = y (quantities are same)
 x:y=6:2 A 2 B 5 C 8
14.  ,  ; 
 x:y:z=6:2:3 B 3 C 6 D 9
10. Entry fee × No. of visitors = sales. A B C 2 5 8
    
3 6 B C D 3 6 9
multiplying factor  x 
4 5 A 40
 
D 81
8  3 3
x   1    increase of in no. of
5  5  5 15. A : B  3 : 4

B : C  1 : 3   A : B : C  3 : 4 : 12
persons C : D  6 : 7 
 60 % increase
A : B : C = 3 : 4 : 12
a 8 b 5 c 4
11.  ;  ;  C : D = 12 : 14
b 15 c 8 d 5
 A : B : C : D = 3 : 4 : 12 : 14
b c 5 4 1 sum of shares of A and D is
    
c d 8 5 2
 3  14 
   16500  8500
Amount received by son = 20%   33 
12. Amount received by daughter = 40%  

Amount given to trust = 40 %
Difference = 20% is Rs. 50,000
40% = Rs. 1,00,000.
A:B:C=5:3:2

3
 B gets  1,00,000  Rs. 30,000
10
 Problems On Age 3.1

3
CHAPTER Problems On Age
Quicker M at hemat ical Appr oach Example. Thr ee year s ago t he fat her was 7 t imes
FORM U LA 1. as old as his son. Aft er t hr ee year s t he fat her 's age
t 1 year s ear lier, t he fat her 's age was  t imes t hat of would be four t imes t hat of his son. What ar e t he
his son. At pr esent t he fat her 's age is  t imes t hat pr esent ages of t he fat her and t he son ?
of his son. What ar e t he pr esent ages of t he son 3 (4  1)  3 (7  1)
Solution. Son's age =
and t he fat her ? 74
t1 (  1) 9  18
= = 9 years.
Son's age = 3
(  )
7(4  1)(3  3)
Example. At pr esent t he age of fat her is five t imes Fat her ’s age =
t hat of t he age of his son. Thr ee year s hence, t he 74
father 's age would be four times that of his son. Find 736
=
t he pr esent ages of fat her and t he son. 3
= 42 years.
3  (4  1)
Sol ut i on. Son's age = = 9 year s Example. The age of man is 4 t imes t hat of his son. 5
54 year s ago, t he man was nine t imes as old as his son
and Fat her 's age = 5  9 = 45 year s. was at t hat t i me. What i s t he pr esent age of t he
FORM U LA 2. man ?
The pr esent age of t he fat her is  t imes t he age of
his son aft er t 2 year s, t he fat her 's age becomes  Solution. Son's age =
b
5 91 g = 8 year s
t imes t he age of his son. What ar e t he pr esent ages
b9  4 g
of t he fat her and his son ?  Fat her 's age = 4  8 = 32 years
(  1) t 2 Example. 10 year s ago, Asha's mot her was 4 t imes
Son's age = older t han her daught er. Aft er 10 year s, t he mot her

wi ll be t wice older t han t he daught er. What i s t he
Example. Thr ee year s ear lier fat her was 7 t imes as pr esent age of Asha ?
ol d as hi s son. Aft er t hr ee year s t he fat her 's age
woul d be four t i mes t hat of hi s son. What ar e t he 10  2  1  10 (4  1)
Solution. Asha's age =
pr esent ages of the father and son ? 42

3 (4  1)  3 (7  1) = 20 years
Solution. Son's age = FORM U LA 4 : (DI RECT FORM U LA).
74
Daught er 's/ son's age
9  18
= = 9 yr s. Total age  Number of years ago (Times  1)
3 =
Times  1
FORM U LA 3.
Example. The sum of t he age of a mot her and her
t 1 year s, ago t he age of t he fat her was  t i mes t he daught er is 60 year s. Also 6 year s ago, t he mot her 's
age of hi s son. Aft er t 2 year s, t he age of t he fat her age was 8 t imes t he age of t he daught er. What ar e t he
becomes  t i mes t he age of hi s son. What ar e t he pr esent ages of t he mot her and t he daught er ?
pr esent ages of t he son and t he fat her ?
t (  1)  t 1 (  1) 60  6 (8  1)
Son's age = 2 Solut ion. Daught er 's age =
 81
 ( y  1) (t1  t 2 ) = 11.33 years
Fat her ’s age =
 and M ot her 's age = 48.67 years.
 3.2 Problems On Age
Example. The sum of t he age of son and fat her is 56
t (  )
year s. Aft er 4 year s t he age of t he fat her will be t hr ee t hen, Son's age = y 
t imes t hat of t he son. What is t he age of t he son ? difference of cross product
Solution. Son's age
t (  )
Fat her 's age = x 
Total age  Number of years after (Times  1) difference of cr oss product
=
Times  1 E xample. The r at i o of t he age of t he fat her and
t he son at pr esent is 6 : 1, aft er 5 year s t he r at io will
56  4 (3  1) become 7 : 2. What is t he pr esent age of t he son ?
=
31 Sol ut i on
48 Pr esent age = Fat her : 6, Son : 1
= Aft er 5 year s = 7 : 2
4
= 12 years. 5 (7  2)
Son's age = 1  = 5 year s.
N ote : When the question deals wit h ‘ago’ a ‘+’ ve sign 6  271
exists and when it deals with ‘after’ a ‘– ’ ve sign exists in
t he numer at or s in for mula 4. 5 (7  2)
Fat her 's age = 6  = 30 years.
FORM U LA 5 : 6  271
Pr esent age = Fat her : son = x : y N ote : While calculat ing t he differ ence t he cr oss
Aft er t year s =  :  pr oduct always t akes t he ‘+ ’ ve sign.

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
1. The r at io of t he ages of t he fat her and t he son at 1
pr esent is 7:1. After 4 year s, the r atio will become 5. I f Dennis is t he age of his fat her K eit h now,,
3r d
4 : 1. What is t he sum of t he pr esent ages of t he and was 1/4 t he age of his fat her 5 year s ago,
th

fat her and t he son ? then how old will his fat her Keith be 5 year s fr om
(a) 29 year s (b) 35 year s now ?
(c) 32 year s (d) None of t hese (a) 20 year s (b) 45 year s
2. I f 10 year s ar e subt r act ed fr om t he pr esent age (c) 40 year s (d) 50 year s
of Ram and t he r emainder divided by 14, t hen 6. The ages of t he t wo per sons differ by 20 year s. I f
you would get t he pr esent age of his gr andson 5 year s ago, t he older one be 5 t imes as old as
Shyam. I f Shyam is 9 year s younger t o Sunder t he younger one, t hen t hei r pr esent ages, i n
whose age is 14, t hen what is t he pr esent age year s, ar e
of Ram? (a) 25, 5 (b) 30, 10
(a) 80 year s (c) 35, 15 (d) 50, 30
(b) 70 year s 7. Rajan got mar r ied 8 year s ago. His pr esent age is
(c) 60 year s 6/5 times his age at t he t ime of his mar r iage.
(d) None of t hese Rajan’s sister was 10 year s younger to him at the
time of his mar r iage. The age of Rajan’s sister
1
3. A’s age is of B’s age. B’s age will be t wice of is
6
C’s age aft er 10 year s. I f C’s eight h bir t hday was (a) 32 year s (b) 36 year s
celebr at ed t wo year s ago, t hen t he pr esent age (c) 38 year s (d) 40 year s
of A must be 8. A fat her ’s age is t hr ee t imes t he sum of t he ages
(a) 5 year s (b) 10 year s of his t wo childr en, but 20 year s hence his age
(c) 15 year s (d) 20 year s will be equal t o t he sum of t heir ages. Then t he
4. Sur esh is half his fat her ’s age. Aft er 20 year s, fat her ’s age is
hi s fat her ’s age wi l l be one and a hal f t i mes (a) 30 year s
Sur esh’s age. What is his fat her ’s age now? (b) 40 year s
(a) 40 year s (b) 20 year s (c) 35 year s
(c) 26 year s (d) 30 year s (d) 45 year s
 Problems On Age 3.3
9. Rat io of Ashok’s age t o Pr adeep’s age is 4 : 3. 10. Sonu is 4 year s younger t han M anu while Dolly
Ashok will be 26 year s old aft er 6 year s. H ow old 1
is Pr adeep now? is four year s younger t han Sumit but t imes
5
(a) 18 year s as old as Sonu. I f Sumit is eight year s old, how
(b) 21 year s many t imes as old is M anu as Dolly?
(c) 15 year s 1
(a) 6 (b)
(d) 24 year s 2
(c) 3 (d) None of t hese

AN SWERS
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (a)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
1. Fat her : Son = x : y = 7 : 1 Now C’s eight bir t h day is celebr at ed t wo year s
After t = 4 year = :  = 4 : 1 ago is pr esent age of
y  t ( – ) C = 10 year s = 2x
Son’s age =  x=5
differ ence of cross pr oduct
 Pr esent age of A = 1  x = 1 5 = 5 year s
1  4(4 – 1)
= 4. L et fat her ’s pr esent age be x and t hat of Sur esh
7 1– 4 1 be y.
143 1
= = 4 year s  y= x ...(i )
3 2
x  t (  )
and Fat her ’s age = 3
differ ence of cr oss product and x + 20 = (y + 20) ...(ii )
2
7  4(4  1) Fr om (i ) and (ii ), we have
=
7  1 4  1
FG
3 x  20 IJ
=
743
3
= 28 year s
x + 20 =
2 2 H K
 4x + 80 = 3x + 120
H ence sum of t he ages of fat her and son
 x = 40.
= (28 + 4) = 32 year s
2. L et t he Ram’s pr esent age be x year s. 1
5. Dennis = (Keith)
and Shyam’s pr esent age be y year s. 3
Now accor ding t o quest ion 1
Dennis – 5 = (K eit h – 5)
x  10 4
=y ...(1)
14 1 1 5
Now, Shyam is 9 years younger to sunder whose age  K eit h – 5 = K eit h –
3 4 4
 Pr esent age of Shyam (y ) = 14 – 9 = 5 year s.  Keit h = 45
Put t ing t he value of y in equat ions (1) will get H en ce K ei t h i s 50 year s ol d, 5 year s f r om
x – 10 now.
=5
14 6. L et ages of t wo per sons be x and y .
 x = 80 year s.  x – y = 20 ...(i ) [ x > y ]
H ence pr esent age of Ram is 80 year s. x – 5 = 5(y – 5)
3. A B C  x – 5y = – 20 ...(ii )
10 : 60 : 20 Solving equat ions (i ) and (ii )
 5x : 30x : 10x  y = 10, x = 30
 1x : 6x : 2x
3.4 Problems On Age
7. L et t he age at t he t ime of mar r iage be x . 9. Ashok’s pr esent age = 26 – 6 = 20 year s
Then Ashok' s age 4
 
6 Pr adeep' s age 3
x+8= x
5 H ence Pr adeep’s age = 15 year s
Solving, we get x = 40. 10. Age of Sonu + 4 year s = Age of M onu
Age of his sist er = 40 – 10 + 8 = 38. Age of Dolly+ 4 year s = Age of Sumit
8. L et t he sum of ages of t wo childr en = x year s, I f Sumit is 8 year old, t han Dolly is 4 year old
L et t he fat her ’s age = y year s and Sonu is 20 year old.
 y = 3x ...(i ) M onu = 24 year
20 year s hence, y + 20 = x + 20 + 20 ...(ii )
M onu 24
Solving (i ) and (ii ), we get t hen = =6
Dolly 4
y = 30 year s.

 4
CHAPTER Alligations & Mixtures
ALLI GATI ON
Wor d Alligation lit er ally means ‘linking', This r ule enables us t o find t he mean or aver age value of mixtur es
when t he pr ices of t wo or mor e ingr edient s which may be mixed t oget her and t he pr opor t ion in which t hey
ar e mixed ar e given.
Rule of Alligat ion.
I f t wo ingr edient s ar e mixed, t hen
Quant it y of cheaper C.P. of dear er – Mean pr ice
=
Quantity of dearer M ean pr ice – C.P. of heaper
We represent it as under
C.P. unit quant it y of cheaper (c) C.P. unit quant it y of dear er (d)
mean pr ice (m )
(d – m ) (m – c)
Cheaper quant it y : dear er quant it y = (d – m ) : (m– c)
Solut ion of all t he quest ions given above can be done by using fundament als of t he same chapt er s but
Alligat ion r ule incr eases t he speed and accur acy. Simult aneously enhances your I .Q.
Alligat ion is not a chapt er but it 's a met hod or r ule t o solve quest ions based on weight ed aver age. Some
examples ar e given below.
So all t he above quest ions ar e fr om differ ent chapt er s. The fir st quest ion is fr om Simple I nt er est , second
quest ion fr om t he Per cent ages and so on but t he met hod we use is t he same ‘Alligat ion'.

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
1. Two vessels A and B ar e filled wit h dilut e sulfur ic 3. The cost of pur e milk is Rs. 12 per lit r e. Wat er is
aci d (i .e. m i xt u r e of su l f u r i c aci d an d wat er ). added t o it and t hen mixt ur e is sold at Rs. 13.75
Vessel A h as t h e r at i o of aci d an d w at er i n per lit r e and t hus 25% of pr ofit is r ealized. The
1 : 2, whi l e t he vessel B has t he r at io of aci d and r at io of milk and wat er in t he mixt ur e is
wat er i n 3 : 1. To pr epar e 5 l i t r e mi xt ur e, di l ut e
(a) 12 : 1
sulfur ic acid containing equal amount of acid and
(b) 10 : 1
water
(c) 11 : 1
(a) 2 and 3 lit r e
(d) none of t hese
(b) 3 and 2 lit r e
4. I n br and A t he r at io of t wo t ypes of oils ar e 4 : 3
(c) 1 and 4 lit r e
and in br and B t he r at io of t hese t wo oils is 2 : 3
(d) 4 and 1 lit r e
H ow much kg of br and A should be mixt ur e wit h
2. The wei ght of 1 l i t r e wat er i s 1 k g and 1 l i t r e of
5 kg of br and B t o gain t he r at io of t wo oils in
anot her liquid in 1.340 kg. The mixtur e weight of 5:4
t he t wo l i qui ds i s 1.270 k g/l i t r e. The r at i o of t he
(a) 80
two in 1 litr e mixture is
(b) 90
(a) 27/34 : 7/34
(c) 49
(b) 7 : 27
(d) None of t hese
(c) 27 : 7
(d) none of t hese
4.2 Alligations & Mixtures

5. A milkman sells milk on CP aft er adding wat er. I f 11. An alloy contains 90% copper and 10% tin. Another
he had bought it at 85 paise per lit er and pr ofit alloy has 93% copper and 4% t in. I n what r at io
1 t hese t o be mixed so t hat t he mixt ur e must have
r ealized is 11 %, t hen quant ity of wat er added is
9 9% t in ?
(a) 1 lit r e
(a) 5 : 1
(b) 2 lit r e
(b) 1 : 5
(c) 2.5 lit r e
(c) 2 : 7
(d) none of t hese
(d) None of t hese
6. A mer chant buys tea A @Rs.8 per kg and t ea B @
12. Gold in 19 t imes as heavy as wat er. Copper is 9
Rs. 14 per kg. The two br ands of tea, he mixed and
t imes as heavy as wat er. I n what r at io t hese t wo
sells the mixtur e @Rs. 12 per kg. I f pr ofit r ealized
be mi xed, so t hat wei ght of t he mi xt ur e be 15
is 20%, then r atio of two br ands of tea in mixture is
t imes as heavy as wat er ?
(a) 15 : 2
(a) 2 : 3
(b) 1 : 16
(b) 1 : 5
(c) 2 : 1
(c) 3 : 2
(d) none of t hese
(d) None of t hese
7. A, B , C and D br ands of t ea ar e pur ch ased
13. I n a m i xt u r e, t h e r at i o of wi n e t o wat er i n
@Rs. 12, 15, 18 and 21 per kg r espectively mixt ur e
3 : 2. I n anot her mi xt ur e, t he r at i o of wi ne t o
i n t he r at i o 4 : 3 : 2 : 1. What i s t he SP per k g of
wat er is 4 : 5. What quantit y (in gallons) of second
t he mi xed, so t hat 10% of pr ofi t can be obt ai ned ?
mixt ur e shoul d be mi xed wit h t he gal l ons of fir st
(a) 6 mi xt ur e, so t hat t he r at i o of wi ne and wat er
(b) 7 be 1 : 1 ?
(c) 16.50
22
(d) None of t hese (a)
5
8. Two alloys of silver and copper cont ain silver and
copper in the r atio 5 : 1 and 7 : 2. What quantities of 2
each should mixed to pr epar e silver being 80% in 5 (b) 5
5
lbs ?
(c) 5
(a) 1 : 4
(d) None of t hese
(b) 2 : 3
14. How much kg of tea (cost Rs. 10.40 per kg) should
(c) 3 : 2
be mixed wit h tea (cost Rs. 8.8.per kg.) t o pr epar e
(d) None of t hese 15 kg to sell at Rs. 146.40 ?
9. To pr epar e 21 lit r e of a 95% pur e solut ion 90% (a) 7 kg
and 97% of pur e acidic solut ion ar e mixed.What
(b) 8 kg
quant it y of each solut ion is r equir ed ?
(c) 9 kg
(a) 6 and 15 lit r e
(d) None of t hese
(b) 10 and 11 lit r e
15. 4 li t r es wi ne is wi t hdr awn fr om a vessel ful l of
(c) 5 and 16 lit r e
wi ne and agai n fi l l ed wi t h wat er. 4 l i t r es i s
(d) none of t hese w i t h dr awn an d r epl aced w i t h w at er t o f i l l
10. Two vessels cont ain milk and wat er in t he r at io 3 t he vessel . I f r at i o of wi ne and wat er i n t he
: 1 and 5 : 3 r espect ively. I n what r at io t hese t o be vessel n ow i s 36 : 13, t h en capaci t y of t h e
mixed t o pr epar e a t hir d mixt ur e cont aining mild vessel s i s
and wat er in t he r at io 2 : 1 ? (a) 23 gallons
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 49 gallons
(b) 2 : 1 (c) 28 gallons
(c) 1 : 1 (d) none of t hese
(d) None of t hese
 Alligations & Mixtures 4.3

16. 10 lit r e milk is wit hdr awn fr om a bucket full wit h 21. H ow many kg t ea wor t h Rs. 3.60 per kg should be
milk and r efilled wit h wat er. The same pr ocess is mixed wit h 8 kg of t ea wor t h Rs 4.20 per kg t o get
r epeat ed for t he 4 t imes. I f t he r at io of milk t o a pr ofit of 10% by selling t he mixt ur e @Rs. 4.40
wat er is found t o be 16 : 65m t hen capacit y of t he per kg ?
bucket is (a) 2 kg
(a) 81 lit r es (b) 49 lit r es (b) 3 kg
(c) 30 lit r es (d) none of t hese (c) 4 kg
17. I n what r at io, a gr ocer can mix t ea leaves of Rs. (d) 5 kg
10 per kg and Rs. 15 per kg t o make a mixt ur e of 22. I n what r atio must a gr ocer mix t wo var ieties of
Rs. 12 per kg ? pulses costing Rs. 15 and Rs. 20 per kg r espectively
(a) 3 : 2 so as to get a mixtur e wor th Rs. 16.50 per kg ?
(b) 2 : 3 (a) 3 : 7
(c) 3 : 4 (b) 5 : 7
(d) None of t hese (c) 7 : 3
18. A bottle contains mixtur e of spir it and water. Spir it (d) 7 : 5
is 18%, 8 lit r es of mixt ur e is t aken out fr om t he 23. I n what r at io must a gr ocer mix t wo var iet ies of
bot t le which is again filled wit h wat er. I f pr esent t ea wor t h Rs. 60 a kg and Rs. 65 a kg so t hat by
per cent age of spi r i t i s 15%, t hen quant i t y of selling t he mixt ur e at Rs. 68.20 a kg he may gain
mixt ur e in t he bot t le is 10% ?
(a) 43 lit r e (a) 3 : 2
(b) 47 lit r e (b) 3 : 4
(c) 48 lit r e (c) 3 : 5
(d) none of t hese (d) 4 : 5
19. Fr om a vessel cont aining 72 lit r e of milk, 9 lit r e 24. I n what r at io must wat er be mixed wit h milk t o
of milk is t aken out and wat er is added in place of 2
gain 16 % on selling t he mixt ur e at cost pr ice ?
it . The pr ocess was r epeat ed t wice again. What is 3
t he quant it y of milk r emained in t he vessel ? (a) 1 : 6
(a) 3087/64 lit r es (b) 6 : 1
(b) 2087/64 lit r es (c) 2 : 3
(c) 4087/64 lit r es (d) 4 : 3
(d) None of t hese 25. Tea wor t h Rs. 126 per kg and Rs. 135 per kg ar e
20. Thr ee ident ical vessels cont ain mixt ur e of milk mixed wih a t hir d var iet y in t he r at io 1 : 1 : 2. I f
and wat er. I n t he fir st vessel, r at io of milk and mixt ur e is wor t h Rs. 153 per kg, t hen pr ice of t he
wat er is 5 : 4, in t he second vessel it is 4 : 3 while t hir d var iet y per kg will be
in t he t hir d vessel it is 3 : 2, The t hr ee mixt ur e (a) Rs. 169.50
wer e mi xed i n a bi gger vessel t o mak e a new (b) Rs. 170
mixt ur e. What is t he r at io of milk and wat er in
(c) Rs. 175.50
t he new mixt ur e ?
(d) Rs. 180
(a) 544 : 401 (b) 401 : 544
(c) 501 : 544 (d) 544 : 501

AN SWERS
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (a)

11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (a)

21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (c)
4.4 Alligations & Mixtures

EXPLAN ATI ON S
H ence 2 pounds and 3 lbs.
1. 1 3
3 4 9. 90 97
1.27 i .e. 3, 2
1 1 95
4 6 2 5

2. 1000 1340 2 5
I =  21  6, I I =  21  15
7 7
1
2 H ence (6, 15)
.7 .27
10. 3 5
4 8
3. 12 0 2
3
1 1
11 24 12
11 1

11. 10 4
4 2 100 100
4. 9
7 5 100
5 5 1
9 100 100
7 1
45 63
12. 19 9

6. 8 14 15
6 4
10
4 2 3 4
13.
5 9
7. 12  4 = 48 1
15  3 = 45 2
1 1
18  2 = 36
18 10
21  1 = 21
5 3 gallons
Cost pr ice = 150 Again, =
9 ?
Pr ofit = 15
2
 ? = 5 gallons
165 5

165 14. 10.40 8.80

 SP =  Rs. 16.50
10

.96 .64
8. 5 7
6 9 3 ?
80 4
= Again =
100 5 32 15
1 1
 ? = 9 kg
45 30
 Alligations & Mixtures 4.5

15. Let total volume of wine be ‘a’ gallon and ‘b’ gallon is By t he r ule of alligat ion :
drawn out and refilled with water.
Then aft er n t imes. Cost of 1 k g t ea Cost of 1 k g t ea
n of 1st t ype of 2nd t ype
Volume of l eft wine  a  b
=   Rs. 60 Rs.65
Tot al volume of wine  a  M ean pr i ce
Volume left wine 36 Rs.62
Given: =
Volume of wat er in vessel 13 3 2
Volume of left wine
 Volume of left wine  Volume of wat er  Requir ed r at io = 3 : 2

36 36 24. L et C.P of 1 lit r e milk be Re. 1.

= =
36  13 49 S.P. of 1 lit r e of mixt ur e = Re. 1
2
 a  b 36
 = 50

a  49 Gain = %.
3
a4 6
 =  C.P. of 1 lit r e of mixt ur e
a 7
 a = 28 gallons 3 6
= 100   1  Rs. .
16  10 
2 350 7
16. =  1  
65 V By t he r ule of alligat ion :
 V = 30 lit r e
C.P.of 1 l it r e of wat er C.P. of 1 li tr e of mil k
17. 10 15 0 Re. 1
12 M ean pr i ce
6
3 2 Re.
7
 a = 30 lit r e
1 6
21. 3.6 4.2
7 7
4 1 6
 Rat io of wat er and milk = :  1 : 6.
2 4 7 7
Again 4.40 = 110%
25. Since fir st and second var iet is ar e mixed in equal
 = 4 kg pr opor t ions, hence t heir aver age pr ice
22. By t he r ule of alligat ion : 126  135
= = Rs. 130.50
2
Cost of 1 k g pulses Cost of 1 k g pulses
So, mixt ur e i s for med by mixing t wo var iet i es,
of 1st t ype of 2nd t ype
one at Rs. 130.50 per kg and t he ot her at say,
Rs.15 Rs. 20
Rs. x per kg in t he r at io 2 : 2 i.e., 1 : 1
M ean pr i ce
Rs.16.50 By t he r ule of alligat ion :

3.50 1.50 Cost of 1 k g t ea Cost of 1 k g t ea

of 1st t ype of 2nd t ype
Rs. 130.50 Rs. x
 Requir ed r ate = 3.50 : 1.50
= 35 : 15 M ean pr i ce
Rs.153
=7:3
(x – 153) 22.50
23. S.P. of 1 kg of mixtur e = Rs. 68.20
Gain = 10%
 C.P. of 1 kg of t he mixt ur e x  153
 =1
22.50
 100 
= Rs.   68.20 
x – 153 = 22.50
 110  
= Rs. 62.  x = 175.50. 
 5
CHAPTER Time and Work

TI M E AN D WORK
Wor k is defined as t he amount of job assigned or t he amount of job act ually done.
Wor k is always consider ed as a whole or 1.
1 th
 I f A can do a piece of wor k in ‘a' number of days, t hen in one day of t he wor k is done.
a
1
Con v er sel y, i f a m an does th
of a w or k i n 1 day, t h en h e can com pl et e t h e w or k
a
1
in 1 / = a days.
a
1 th
 I f A is ‘x ' t imes as good a wor kman as B, t hen he will t ake of t he t ime t aken by B t o do t he same
x
wor k .
 I f A and B can do a piece of wor k in ‘x ' and ‘y ' days r espect ively, t hen wor king t oget her, t hey will t ake
xy x  y th
days t o finish t he wor k and in one day, t hey will finish par t of t he wor k.
x y xy
 To compar e t he wor k done by differ ent people, fir st find t he amount of wor k each can do in t he same
t ime.
 I f t he number of men t o do a job is changed in t he r at io a : b, t hen t he t ime r equir ed t o do t he wor k will
be in t he r at io b : a, assuming t he amount of wor k done by each of t hem in t he given t ime is t he same,
or t hey ar e ident ical.
 I f t wo men A and B t oget her can finish a job in ‘x ' days and if A wor king alone t akes ‘a' days mor e t han
A and B wor king t oget her and B wor king alone t akes ‘b' days mor e t han A and B wor king t oget her,
t hen x= ab .
 To do a piece of wor k, t he number of men employed and t he number of days r equir ed t o do t he wor k
ar e in inver se pr opor t ion. Also, t he number of men employed and t he hour s wor ked per day ar e in
inver se pr opor t ion.
EFFI CI EN CY
When we say t hat A can complet e a wor k in 10 days we put 1 day wor k i.e., 1/10 ,but we have t o wor k on it
as, an efficiency which is inver sely pr opor t ional t o number of days in which a per son can complet e a piece
of wor k.
Example 1
A can complet e a piece of wor k in 12 days and B is 60% mor e efficient t han A. I n how many days B wil l
complet e t he same wor k ?
1
Sol ut i on. A's efficiency or A's one day wor k =
12
160 1 2 15
B's efficiency is 60% mor e t han A or  = or days = 7.5 days
100 12 15 2
5.2 Time and Work
Example 2
A is t hr ee t imes mor e efficient t han B and t her efor e can complet e one wor k in 60 days less t han B t akes. I n
how many days t hey will complet e t he wor k wor king t oget her ?
number of days
Solution. As A is t hr ee t imes mor e efficient t han B and efficiency =
1
So, if number of days in which A will complet e t he wor k = x
Then, B will complet e t he wor k in 3x days
 3x – x = 60
or x = 30 days
1 1 31 1
 Toget her A's and B's efficiency =    22 days
30 90 90 2
M AN DAYS
I f we say a par t icular building of ar ea 1000 sq m has t o be const r uct ed ,what could be appr ox cost defined
by t he engineer, he calculat es t he mat er ial cost and labour cost .
Now in what for m he calculat es t he labour cost .
(a) I n how many days will t he building be complet ed depends on t he number of labour s.
(b) H ow many labour s ar e to be used depends on the number of days in which the building is to be completed.
So, the engineer calculates mandays i.e. multiplication of labour needed and days in which it will be completed
and mandays always r emains const ant for a specific wor k.
e.g. A building can be complet ed in 2000 mendays means
if t her e ar e 20 men, it t akes 100 days,
if t her e ar e 50 men it t akes 40 days,
if t her e ar e 100 men it t akes 20 days.
Or t he mult iplicat ion of man and days r emain const ant .
Example 3
40 men can complet e one wor k in 20 days. I n how many days 50 men can complet e it ?
Solution. H er e, number of mandays t o complet e t he wor k = 40  20, i.e. 800 mandays.
800
So if t her e ar e 50 men, t hey can complet e t he wor k in , i.e. 16 days
50
Example 4
50 men can complet e t he wor k in 100 days. I n how many days t he wor k will be complet ed if 10 men st ar t
t he wor k and 10 mor e men joined aft er ever y 10 days?
Sol ut i on.
Number of mandays r equir ed t o complet e t he wor k = 50  100 = 5000
I n fir st 10 days, t he number of mandays = 10  10 = 100
For next 10 days, t he number of mandays = 20  10 = 200
For next 10 days, t he number of mandays = 30  10 = 300
For next 10 days, t he number of mandays = 40  10 = 400
For next 10 days, t he number of mandays = 50  10 = 500
For next 10 days, t he number of mandays = 60  10 = 600
For next 10 days, t he number of mandays = 70  10 = 700
For next 10 days, t he number of mandays = 80  10 = 800
For next 10 days, t he number of mandays = 90  10 = 900
Tot al wor k which has been complet ed = 4500 mandays.
For t he r emaining 500 mandays wor k, t her e ar e 100 men so t he number of days in which r emaining wor k
500
will be complet ed = = 5 days
100
So t ot al number of days = 95 days
 Time and Work 5.3
FRACTI ON OF WORK DON E BY A + FRACTI ON OF WORK DON E BY B =1
I f A can complet e one wor k in 20 days, t hen
10
in 10 days he can complet e of t he wor k,
20

5
in 5 days he can complet e of t he wor k
20

7
and in 7 days he can complet e of t he wor k .
20

Number of days for which A did t he wor k

 Fr act ion of wor k done by A =
Number of days in which A can complet e t he wor k
Gener ally speaking if A can complet e a wor k in 50 days and did t he wor k for x number of days, x might be
x
anyt hing bet ween 1 t o 50, t hen t he fr act ion of wor k complet ed by A = .
50
I f it is known t hat 3 per sons ar e complet ing one wor k, t hen
Fr act ion of t he wor k complet ed by 1st + Fr act ion of t he wor k complet ed by 2nd
+ Fr act ion of t he wor k complet ed by 3r d = 1
Example 5
A can complete the wor k in 12 days while B can complete it in 15 days. They star t the wor k together but A left
aft er 4 days. I n how many days t he wor k will be complet ed?
Solution. A did t he wor k for 4 days while B did t he wor k for (4 + x ) days, or
Fr act ion of t he wor k complet ed by A + Fr act ion of t he wor k complet ed by B = 1
4  x  4
  1
12 15
 x  4 4
or 1  or =6
15 12
or x=6
so, t ot al number of days t hey t ake t o complet e t he wor k = 4 + 6 = 10 days

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 3. Sohan and Rohan can do a piece of wor k in 10
1. Rambabu can do a piece of wor k in 5 days and days, Rohan and Mohan can do in 12 days, Sohan
Sant osh can do t he same wor k in 7 days. I f bot h and M ohan in 15 days. The t ime t aken by t hem
wor k t oget her, t hey will finish t he wor k in how t o do t his wor k t oget her is
many days? (a) 16 days (b) 15 days
(a) 12 days (b) 2 days (c) 12 days (d) 8 days
11 12 4. Sunil and Sant osh t oget her can finish a wor k in
(c) 2 days (d) day 30 days. They wor ked for it for 20 days and t hen
12 35
2. Rajan can do a piece of wor k in 10 days, Rakesh Sant osh left . The r emaining wor k was done by
can do in 12 days and M ukesh do t he same wor k Sunil alone in 20 mor e days, Sant osh alone can
in 15 days. I n how many days t hey can finish t he finish t he wor k in
wor k, wor king t oget her ? (a) 52 days
(a) 3 days (b) 5 days (b) 30 days
(c) 4 days (d) 2 days (c) 48 days
(d) 60 days
5.4 Time and Work
5. Rambabu, Santosh and Sunil can finish a piece of 13. Rajan can do a piece of job in 6 days, Sunil in 8
work in 10, 12 and 15 days respectively. I f Santosh days and M ukesh in 12 days. Sunil and M ukesh
st ops doing t he wor k aft er 2 days, Rambabu and wor k ed t oget her for 2 days and t hen Raj an
Sunil will finish t he wor k in r eplaces M ukesh. Now how long t he new par t ner
(a) 2 days (b) 3 days will have t o wor k t o complet e t he job ?
1 1 (a) 10 days (b) 7 days
(c) 2 days (d) 3 days
2 2 (c) 4 days (d) 2 days
6. A man under t akes t o do a cer t ain wor k in 150 14. 25 men wer e employed to do a piece of wor k which
days. He employs 200 wor ker s. H e discover s that they could finish in 20 days. But t he men dr opped
only a quar t er of t he wor k is done is 50 days. I n off by. 5 at t he end of ever y 10 days. I n what t ime
or der t o complet e t he wor k on shcedule, he must will t he wor k be complet ed ?
addit ionally employ
1
(a) 50 wor ker s (b) 100 wor ker s (a) 17 days (b) 23 days
3
(c) 150 wor ker s (d) 200 wor ker s
(c) 8 days (d) 26 days
7. Rajan can do a pi ece of wor k i n 30 days and
M ukesh in 20 days. M ukesh alone at it for 10 15. I f 10 men can do a wor k in 6 days and 15 women
days and t hen leaves. Rajan alone can finish t he can do t he same i n 5 days, t hen 8 men and
r emaining wor k in 5 women can t oget her do t he wor k in
(a) 15 days (b) 12 days (a) 7 days (b) 6 days
(c) 14 days (d) 18 days (c) 5 days (d) 4 days
8. A gr oup of 10 st udent s wor king one hour per day LEVEL-1
complet e a piece of wor k in 12 days. I f t her e ar e 1. 4 men can complet e a piece of wor k i n 5 days.
12 st udent s in t he gr oup and t hey wor k one hour H ow many men ar e r equir ed t o complet e 3 t imes
per day, t hen will be able t o complet e t he wor k in t he wor k i n 4 days?
(a) 8 days (b) 9 days (a) 5 (b) 15
(c) 10 days (d) 11 days (c) 80 (d) 20
9. Ram and Sunil can finish a work in 8 and 16 hours [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
repectively. I f they work at it alternatively for an 2. When Ram and Mohan work together, they
hour Ram beginning first, the work will be finish in complete a work in 4 days. If Ram alone can
3 2 complete this work in 12 days then in how many
(a) 8 hour s (b) 10 hour s
4 3 days Mohan alone can complete this work ?
1 2 (a) 10 days (b) 8 days
(c) 10 hour s (d) 11 hour s
2 3 (c) 6 days (d) 16 days
10. 12 men complet e a wor k in 18 days. 6 days aft er [RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
t hey had st ar t ed wor king, 4 men joined t hem.
3. Pipe 'F can fill a tank in 36 hours and pipe 'Q'
H ow many days will all of t hem t ake t o complet e
can fill this tank in 45 hours. If both the pipes
t he r emaining wor k ?
are opened simultaneously, then how much time
(a) 8 days (b) 12 days will be taken to fill this tank ?
(c) 13 days (d) 9 days
11. 72 men can build a wall 280 m long in 42 days. 1
(a) 20 hours (b) 40 hours
The number of per sons who would t ake 36 days 2
t o build a similar will 100 m in lengt h will be (c) 9 hours (d) 42 hours
(a) 15 (b) 30 [RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(c) 25 (d) 20 4. To complete a work P takes 50% more time than
12. Sunil can do a wor k in 36 days, Ram in 54 days Q. If together they take 18 days to complete the
and Bal u i n 72 days. They st ar t ed wor k i ng work, how much time shall Q take to do it?
together but befor e the wor k was to be over, Sunil (a) 30 days (b) 35 days
left 8 days befor e and 12 days befor e Ram. Balu (c) 40 days (d) 45 days?
will complet e t he wor k alone in
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(a) 20 days (b) 24 days
(c) 30 days (d) 34 days
 Time and Work 5.5
5. Two pipes can fill a tank in 20 minutes and 30 12. A and B can do a piece of work in 24 days. If
minutes respectively. If both the pipes are opened efficiency of A is double than B, then in how
simultaneously, then the tank will be filled in many days B alone can do the same work?
(a) 10 minutes (b) 12 minutes (a) 72
(c) 15 minutes (d) 25 minutes (b) 60
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] (c) 36
6. A and B can do a piece of work in 8 days. A (d) 30
alone can do the same work in 12 days. The
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
number of days in which B alone can do the
13. P and Q can do a piece of work in 12 days, Q and
same work is
in R in 15 lays and R and P in 20 days. In how
(a) 20 many days R alone can do the same work?
(b) 24 (a) 70 (b) 60
(c) 40 (c) 45 (d) 30
(d) 48 [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ] 14. A can do a piece of work in 20 day and B can do
the same work in 30 days. If they work together
7. P and Q can do a piece of work in 12 days, Q and
th number of days required to do the same work
R in 15 days and R and P in 20 days. In how
is
many days P alone can do the same work?
(a) 18 (b) 16
(a) 15 (b) 30
(c) 14 (d) 12
(c) 23.5 (d) 35
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
15. P and Q can do a piece of work in 10 days. Q and
8. A and B can do a piece of work in 24 days. If R in 12 days and R and P in 15 days. In how
efficiency of A is double than B, then in how many days R alone can do the same work?,
many days, A alone can do the same work?
(a) 70 (b) 60
(a) 30 (b) 36
(c) 40 (d) 30
(c) 60 (d) 72 [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2015 26 th
AU G 2 nd
SH I FT ] LEVEL-2
9. P and Q can do a piece of work in 12 days, Q and 1. A, B and C can do a piece of wor k in 12, 15 and
R in 15 days and R and P in 20 days. In how 20 days r espect i vely. H ow long will t hey t ak e t o
many days Q alone can do the same work? fi ni sh t he wor k t oget her ?
(a) 20 (b) 30 (a) 10 days (b) 5 days
(c) 47 (d) 60 (c) 8 days (d) 12 days
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
10. A can do a piece of work in 15 days and B ran do 2. Pi pe 'P' can fill a t ank i n 10 hour s and Pi pe 'Q'
the same work in 10 days. If they work together, can fil l t hi s t ank in 12 hour s. Pi pe 'R' can empt y
number of days required to complete the same t he ful l t ank in 20 hour s. I f all t he t hr ee pipes
work is ar e oper at ed simult aneoulsy, t hen in how much
(a) 5 (b) 6 t i me t his t ank wi ll be fill ed ?
(c) 7 (d) 8 1
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ] (a) 7 hour s (b) 7 hour s
2
11. P and O can do a piece of work in 10 days, Q
and R in 12 days and R and P in 15 days. 1
(c) 8 hour s (d) 8 hour s
In how many days P alone can do the same 2
work? [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(a) 24 (b) 40 3. 36 men can compl et e a wor k in 18 days. I n how
many days will 27 men complet e t he same wor k?
40
(c) 6 (d) (a) 24 days (b) 12 days
3
(c) 30 days (d) 42 days
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
5.6 Time and Work
4. A man, a woman and a boy can t ogether complet e 10. Two pipes A and B r unning t oget her can fi ll a
a pi ece of wor k in 3 days. I f a man alone can do it
2
in 6 days and a boy alone in 18 days, how long ci st er n in 6 mi nut es. Pipe B t ak es 3 minut es
3
wi ll a woman t ak e t o complet e t he wor k?
mor e t han A t o fill it . The t ime, in minut es, t aken
(a) 9 days (b) 21 days
by B al one t o fil l t he cist er n is
(c) 24 days (d) 27 days
(a) 15 (b) 16
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(c) 18 (d) 12
5. A t ap can fill a cist er n in 8 hour s and anot her t ap
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
can empt y i t i n 16 hour s. I f bot h t he t aps ar e
open, t he t i me t aken t o fi ll t he t ank wil l be 11. 2 men and 7 women complet e a wor k in 14 days,
whil e 3 men and 8 women complet e t he same
(a) 8 hr s. (b) 10 hr s.
wor k i n 11 days. I n how many days will 8 men
(c) 16 hr s. (d) 24 hr s. and 6 women compl et e 3 t imes of t his wor k ?
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(a) 14 (b) 21
6. A t eam of 100 wor k er s i s supposed t o do a wor k
(c) 24 (d) 28
in 40 days. After 35 days, 100 mor e wor ker s wer e
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
empl oyed and t he wor k was fi ni shed on. Time.
H ow many days would have i t been del ayed if 12. To do a cer t ain pi ece of wor k B t ak es four t imes
addi t ional wor ker s wer e not employed? as l ong as A and C t oget her and C t akes t hr ee
t i mes as long as A and B t oget her. I f all t he t hr ee
(a) 1 (b) 2
wor k ing t oget her complet e t he wor k in 12 days,
(c) 3 (d) 5 how long (in days) would A alone t ake to complete
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ] t he wor k?
7. A, B and C can do a wor k 6,12 and 24 days
r espect ively. They all begin t oget her. A cont inues 9 2
(a) 21 (b) 26
t o wor k t il l i t is fi nished, C leaves off 2 days and 11 3
B one day befor e complet ion. I n what t ime (in (c) 48 (d) 60
days) is t he wor k finished? [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
(a) 2 (b) 4 13. I f 6 men and 8 women can do a pi ece of wor k in
(c) 6 (d) 8 10 days whil e 5 men and 15 women can do t he
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ] same wor k in 8 days? I n how many days wi ll
8. Two per sons wor ki ng 2 hour s a day assembl e 15 men and 20 women do t he same wor k?
3 machines in 3 days. The number of machines (a) 2 (b) 3
assembled by 5 per sons wor king 4 hour s a day in (c) 4 (d) 5
4 days is [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
(a) 10 (b) 12 14. 8 men and 12 women can do a pi ece of wor k in
(c) 15 (d) 20 5 days, whi le 6 men and 8 women can do i t in
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ] 7 days. The t i me (i n days) t aken by t wo women
9. Two pipes A and B can fi ll a t ank wi t h wat er in and one man t o do t he same wor k is
2 hour s and 32 hour s r espect ively. Bot h t he pipes (a) 21 (b) 28
ar e open t oget her. I f t he t ank i s fi l l ed up i n (c) 35 (d) 40
14 hour s, t hen t he fir st pipe must be t ur ned off [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
after
15. Two pi pes X and Y can fi l l a t ank i n 15 and
1 20 minut es r espect i vel y. I f bot h t he pi pes ar e
(a) 10 hour s (b) 12 hour s opened t oget her aft er how much t i me pi pe y
2
should be t ur ned off so t hat t he t ank i s ful l in
1 12 minut es?
(c) 13 hour s (d) 12 hour s
2 (a) 3 minut es (b) 4 minut es
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ] (c) 5 minut es (d) 6 minut es
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
 Time and Work 5.7

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (b)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
2(R b  S A  SL ) = 2
FG 1  1  1 IJ  1
57 35 11
5.
H 10 12 15 K 2
1. = 2 days Balance wor k t o be done by Rb and SL
57 12 12
1 1
= 1 
1 1 1 654 1 2 2
2.   = 
10 12 15 60 4 (Rb + SL )’s 1 day wor k
H ence t hey can finish t he wor k in 4 days 1 1 32 1
=   
10 15 30 6
1
3. (S + R)’s 1 days wor k = 1
10  (Rb + SL ) will t ake 3 days to do of t he wor k
2
1
(R + M )’s 1 days wor k = 1
12 6. 200 per sons do of t he wor k in 50 days
1 4
(M + S)’s 1 days wor k = 1
15  1 person does of work in 50200 days
1 4
2(S + R + M )’s 1 day wor k = 3
4 1 per son does of wor k in 350200 days
1 4
 (S + R +M )’s 1 days wor k = 3
4 3  50  200
n per sons do of the wor k in days
H ence t i me t ak en by t hem t o do t hi s wor k 4 n
t oget her = 8 days
3  50  200
 = 100
4. Aft er 20 days, n
1  n = 300
Balance wor k = Alr eady 200 wor ker s ar e t her e, hence 100 mor e
3
per sons ar e t o be employed.
1
 20 x =
3 10 1
7. M ukesh’s 10 day’s wor k = 
1 20 2
 x =
60 1 1
 Balance wor k = 1  
1 2 2
Again, x+y = 1 30
30 H ence wor k Rajan can do in
1 1 2 2
 y = = 15 days
60 30
1 8. Students Days
 y =
60 10 12
i.e. Sant osh can finish in 60 days. 12 x
5.8 Time and Work
 12 : x :: 12 : 10,  5 women = 4 men
12 12  8 men + 5 women = 8 men + 4 men
 = = 12 men
x 10
 x = 10 days N ow,
10 men can finish t he wor k in 6 days
1 1 1 1 2  1  2  1...  12 m en can f i n i sh t h e w or k i n
9.    ... = 1  =1
8 16 8 16 16 6  10
= 5 days
1 12
i .e. 10 days
2 LEVEL-1
6 1 1. Required number of men will be
10. 12 men’s 6 days wor k = 
18 3
453
1 12  18   15
 2
= 4
3 16  ?
2. L et t he t ot al wor k be 12 unit s such t hat wor k
 ? = 9 days done by Ram in one day be 1 uni t .
280 72  42  Wor k done by M ohan i n one day
11. =
100 ? 36 12
 ? = 30 men. =  1 = 2 unit s.
4
x  8 x  12 x 3. Let the capacity of the tank be 180 units i.e
12.   =1
36 54 72 LCM of 36 and 45 such that efficiencies of the
 x = 24 days two pipes = 5 units and 4 units.

13. 2(S  M ) = 2 FG 1  1 IJ  2FG 3  2 IJ  5 180

H 8 12 K H 24 K 12  required time =
54
 20hrs.

5 7 4. L et t he t ime t ak en by P and Q t o complet e

 Balance wor k = 1– =
12 12 t he wor k alone be 3x and 2x such t hat t ot al
1 1 w or k be 6x u n i t s an d t h ei r r espect i v e
(R + S)’s 1 day wor k =  effi ci encies be 2 unit s and 3 unit s.
6 8
43 7 6x
    18
24 24 32
H ence balance wor k will be done by R and S in
 x  15
7 12
= 2 days H ence, Q wi ll compl et e t he wor k i n 2x
7 24
25  20 = 2 × 15 = 30 days
1
14. = 5. L et t he capaci t y of t he t ank be 60 uni t s i.e.
1 25  10  20  10  15  D
L CM of 20 and 30 such t hat t hei r r espect i ve
1 effi ci encies be 3 unit s and 2 unit s.
 D = 3 days
3
H ence t ime t o complet e t he wor k 60
H ence, r equir ed t i me = = 12 minut es.
1 1 32
= 10  10  3 = 23 days.
3 3 6. Let the total work be 24 units i.e. LCM of 8
and 12.
15. 10 men can do t he wor k in 6 days.
I f t he wor k is t o be finished in 5 days, t hen 24
 work done by A and B in one day =
number of women r equir ed = 15 8
I f t he wor k is t o be finished in 6 days, t hen = 3 units
number of women r equir ed 24
15  5 25 and that by A alone in one day = = 2 units
= = 12
6 2
Hence, work done by B in one day = 1 unit
25
 10 men = women 24
2 and required time = = 24 days.
1
 Time and Work 5.9
7. Let the total work be 60 units i.e. LCM of 12,
 1 1
15 and 20.   x 1
 15 10 
60
 work done by P and Q in one day = x=6
12
11. Let P do work in P days
= 5 units
1 1 1
60 A/Q   (1)
and that by Q and R in one day = P Q 10
15
= 4 units 1 1 1
  (2)
Q R 12
60
and that by P and R in one day = 1 1 1
20   (3)
= 3 units P R 15
Thus, work done by P, Q and R in 1 day Solving (1), (2), (3)
P = 24
(5  4  3)
= =6 12. Efficiency ratio A : B = 2 : 1
2
Time ratio A : B = 1 : 2
and that by P in one day = 6 4(work done by
i.e x & 2x
Q and R in 1 day) = 2 units
1 1 1
60 A/Q  
Hence, required time = = 30 days. x 2x 24
2  x = 36
8. Set the work done by A and B value in one  B can do work in 2x days = 72
day be 2 units and 1 units respectively
13. Let work done in 1 day by P, Q, R
 Total work = 24 × (2 + 1) = 72 units and
1 1 1
72  , ,
required time =  36 units p q r
2
1 1 1
9. Set the total work be 60 unit i.e. LCM of 12,    ....(1)
15 and 20 p q 12
 Work done in one day 1 1 1
  ....(2)
by P and Q = 5 units ....(1) q r 15
by Q and R = 4 units ....(2)
1 1 1
and by R and P = 3 units ....(3)   ...(3)
r p 20
 Adding (1), (2) and (3) we get
By solving (4) & (2),
2(P + Q + R) = 5 + 4 + 3
1 1 1 1
    ....(4)
12 r p 15 12
 P+Q+R=  6 units
2 solving (3) & (4) :
Thus, work done y Q in one day
2 1 1 1
= (P + Q + R) – (P + R)     r  60
r 15 12 20
= 6 – 3 = 3 units  Number of days in which r can do work = 60
60
Hence, required time =  20units. 1
3 14. Work done by A in 1 day =
20
1
10. Work done by A in 1day  1
15 ___________ B _______ =
30
1
Work done by in B in 1day  Let no. of days required = D
10
Let number of days required = x  1 1
  D1
 20 30 
5.10 Time and Work
 D = 12
16
15. Let R do the work in R days emptying speed =  1 l / hr
16
1 1 1
 A/Q,   ....(1) 16
P Q 10  Time =  16 hours.
2 1
1 1 1 6. 35 × 100 + 5 × (100 + 100) = 100 × N
  ....(2)
Q R 12  N = 45 days
 No. of days object =(45 – 40) days = 5 days
1 1 1
  ....(3) 1
P R 15 7. one days work of A 
6
solving (1), (2), (3):-
R = 40 1
one days work of B 
LEVEL-2 12
1. Let time taken by A, B, C combined is D days. 1
one days work of C 
 1 1 1 24
    D1
 12 15 20 
1 1 1 1 1  1
    x      1   1
6 12 24 6 12 6
1
 D1
5 x = 2 days
 D = 5 days Ans = 2 + 1 + 1 = 4 days
2. Let capacity of tank be 120 l M1D1H1 M2 D2 H2
8. 
 filling speed of w1 w2
120
P  12 l / hr 232 544
10   x = 20 machines
3 x
 filling speed of
9. Portion of tank filled by (A +B) + position filled
120 by B =1
Q  10 l / hr
12
 1 1 1
emptying speed of  T    14  T  1
 24 32  32
120 27 1
R  6 l / hr T  13 Ans
20 2 2
120 1 1 1 3
 Time   7 hours. 10. + =
12  10  6 2 x x + 3 20
3. M1 D1 = M2 D2 x+x+3 3
=
36 × 18 = 27 × D2 x(x + 3) 20
 D2 = 24 days 2x + 3 3

4. Let the work be completed by a woman in x days. x  3 x 20
2

According to the question 40x + 60 = 3x2 + 9x

3x2 – 31x – 60 = 0
1 1 1  x = 12 minutes
     3  1
6 2 18 Pipe A takes 12 minutes
Pipe B takes 15 minutes
 x = 9 days
11. Let work done by a man in a day = x units
5. Let capacity of tank be 16 litres
Let work done by a woman in a day = y units
16  (2x + 7y) × 14 = (3x + 8y) 11
 filling speed =  2 l / hr
8
 Time and Work 5.11
 28x + 98 y = 33x + 88y
 8x  12y   5
 5x = 10 y  Time 
x  2y
 x = 2y.
 work (2x + 7y) × 14 28  5  y
  35 days
= (2 × 2y + 7y) × 14 = 154 y. 4y
3 times work will be done in 15. Let Tank capacity be 300 litres.
154y   3  filling speed of x
8x  6y 300
  20 l / min
15
154y  3
=  21 days  filling speed of y
22y
12. Let A alone takes x days to do the work. 300
  15 l / min
20
Let B alone takes y days to do the work.
Let C alone takes 2 days to do the work. Let pipe of be turned off after + minutes
According to the question According to the question
20 × 12 + 15 × t = 300
1 1 4
   t = 4 mins
x 2 y

1 1 3
 
x y 7

1 1 1 1
Also   
x y 2 12
Solving for x,

4  60 9
x  21
11 11
13. Let work done by a man = x units in one day
Let work done by a woman = y units in one day
According to the question
(6x + 8y) 10 = (5x + 15y)8
 60x + 80y = 40x + 120y
 20x = 40y  x = 2y

 6x  8y   10
 Time 
15x  20y

200y
  4days
50y
14. Let x units of work be done by a man in one day.
Let y units of work be done by a woman in one
day
 (8x + 12y)5 = (6x + 8y)7
 40x + 60y = 42x + 56y
 2x = 4y
 x = 2y
 6
CHAPTER Time and Distance

RELATI VE M OTI ON
I n t his chapt er t he r elat ive mot ion is most impor t ant concept . Ther e is only one for mula applicable
D = ST
Some I mport ant Conversions :
 1 hour = 60 minut es = 60  60 seconds.
 1 kilomet er = 1000 met r es
 1 kilomet r e = 0.6214 mile;
1 mile = 1.609 kilomet r e, i.e. 8 kilomet r es  5 miles

km 5m
 1 yar d = 3 feet  =
hr 18 s
m 18 km km 5 miles
 =  
s 5 hr hr 8 hr
miles 22 ft Tot al dist ance t r avelled
 =  Aver age Speed =
hr 15 sec Tot al t ime t aken
Relative M ot ion can be defined in t he following ways :
(i ) Dependent as in t he case of boat s and st r eams.
(ii ) I ndependent as in t he case of t r ains.
When one body which is moving inside anot her moving body, t he mot ion is known as dependent , e.g. When
a boat is moving inside a st r eam, t he speed of boat depends on t he speed of st r eam. I f boat is going in t he
same dir ect ion as t he st r eam, t hen t he boat will move fast er t han t he speed at which boat is moving in st ill
wat er, but when t he boat is moving in opposit e dir ect ion, t he speed of boat is slower t han speed of boat in
st ill wat er.

SPE E D
Dist ance
Speed =
Time
d
 v=
t
d
or t=
v
or d=vt
H er e, v is speed, d is dist ance and t is t ime

AVERAGE SPEED
Tot al dist ance cover ed
Aver age speed =
Tot al t ime t ak en
I f a cer t ain dist ance is cover ed at t wo differ ent speeds i.e., if a dist ance x is cover ed at u km/hr and t he
same dist ance is cover ed at v km/hr, t hen
2uv
Aver age speed of t he jour ney = km/hr..
u  v 
6.2 Time and Distance
Example. For a man cover ing a cer t ain dist ance at 6 km/hr and r et ur ning at 4 km/hr, calculat e aver age
speed of t he man.
Given : u = 6 km/hr.
v = 4 km/hr.
2uv
Aver age speed =
u  v 
2  6  4 48
= = = 4.8 km/hr..
6  4  10
 I f r at io of t he speeds of A and B is a : b, t hen r at io of t he t ime t aken by t hem t o cover t he same
1 1
dist ance is : or b : a.
a b
 Somet imes, in or der t o solve cer t ain pr oblems, we need t o conver t t he unit s of speed fr om km/hr.
t o m/sec and vice ver sa.
 1000   5 
(1) x k m/hr = x  x   m/sec. =  x   m/sec.
 3600  18 
(since 1 km = 1000 m and 1 hour = 3600 sec.)
 3600   18 
(2) y m/sec =  y   km/hr. =  y   km/hr..
1000  5 

STRATEGI ES AN D SOLVED PROBLEM S

(1) I f t wo bodies ar e moving in t he same dir ect ion at u km/hr and ‘v ’ km/hr, such t hat u > v
t hen t heir r elat ive speed = (u – v ) km/hr.
E xample. I f t wo car s ar e moving t owar ds Nor t h wit h t he speeds 40 km/hr and 25 km/hr r espect ively,
find t heir r elat ive speed.
Ans. H er e, t wo speeds ar e 40 km/hr and 25 km/hr.
u = 40 km/hr and v = 25 km/hr.
Relative speed = (u – v ) km/hr.
= (45 – 25) km/hr. = 15 km/hr.
(2) I f t wo bodies ar e moving in t he opposit e dir ect ions at u km/hr and v km/hr, t hen
t heir r elat ive speed = (u + v ) km/hr.
E xample. I f t w o bu ses ar e m ov i n g i n t h e opposi t e di r ect i on s, t h ei r speed h av i n g
35 km/hr and 30 km/hr r espect ively, find t heir r elat ive speed ?
Ans. H er e, t wo buses ar e moving in t he opposit e dir ect ions.
Their speeds ar e u = 35 km/hr and v = 30 km/hr.
 Relative speed = (u + v ) km/hr.
= (35 + 30) km/hr. = 65 km/hr.

(3) I f two bodies are moving in the same direction with different velocities, initiating earlier, then the distance
cover ed by bot h t he bodies at t he point of over t ake is same for bot h t he bodies.
Example. A man leaves a t own at 8 a.m. on his bicycle moving at 10 km/hr. Another man leaves the same
town at 9 a.m. on his scooter moving at 30 km/hr. At what t ime does he over take the man on the bicycle?
Ans. L et ‘t ’ be t he t ime t aken for t he scoot er t o t r avel t he dist ance, so as t o over t ake t he bicycle. The
time taken by the bicycle to cover the same distance will be(t + 1). Speed of the bicycle is 10 km/hr.
and t hat of t he scoot er is 30 km/hr. Now, using t he st r at egy, dist ance t r avelled by t he scoot er as
well as t he bicycle t ill t he point of over t ake will be t he same.
i .e. 30  t = 10  (t + 1)
 30t = 10t + 10
 30t – 10t = 10
 20t = 10
 Time and Distance 6.3

1
 t = hour = 30 mins
2
H ence, t he scoot er will over t ake t he bicycle at 9:30 a.m.

(4) I f t wo bodi es init i at e at t wo opposi t e point s and st ar t movi ng t owar ds each ot her, t hen sum of t he
di st ances cover ed by t hem t i ll t hei r cr ossi ng point is t he t ot al di st ance bet ween t he t wo ext r eme
point s.
E xample. I f t wo car s A and B move t owar ds each ot her, wher e car A st ar t s at 9 a.m. and car B at
10 a.m.. The speeds of t he car A and B ar e 40 k m/hr and 50 km/hr r espect i vel y. What dist ance does car
t r avel when t he t wo car s meet , if t he init ial dist ance bet ween A and B is 400 km ?
Ans. L et t hr s be t he t ime t aken by t he car B t o r each t he cr ossing point .
H ence, A will t ake (t + 1) hr s. t o r each t he same point .
Speed of car B = 50 km/hr.
Dist ance cover d befor e t he cr ossing = 50  t
Now, using t he st r at egy, we know t hat t ot al dist ance cover ed by t he t wo car s is t he t ot al dist ance bet ween
t heir st ar t ing point s.
i .e. 40 (t + 1) + 50t = 400
 40 t + 50 t + 40 = 400
 90 t = 360
 t = 4 hr s.
 Dist ance cover ed by car B = 50  4 = 200 km.

(5) I f an object changes its speed in the ratio m : n , then the ratio of times taken becomes n : m
E xample. The r at i o bet ween r at es of wal ki ng of A and B is 2 : 3. I f t he t ime t aken by B t o cover a
di st ance is 24 minut es, fi nd t he t ime t aken by A t o cover t he same di st ance.
Ans. Rat io of t he speeds of A and B = 2 : 3.
Using st r at egy, we get t he t ime t aken by t hem in t he r at io 3 : 2
i .e. A : B = 3 : 2.
I t is given t hat B t akes 24 minut es t o cover a dist ance, we need t o find t he t ime t aken by A.
L et x be t his t ime t aken by A
3 x
 =
2 24
 x= 24 3
2
= 36 minut es
GEN ERAL QU ESTI ON S
 I f t he r at io of t he speeds of A and B is a : b, t hen t he r at io of t he t imes t aken by t hem t o cover t he same
1 1
: or b : a.
dist ance is
a b
 Suppose a man cover s a cer t ai n di st ance at x k mph and an equal dist ance at y k mph. Then,
FG 2xy IJ kmph
aver age speed dur ing t he whole jour ney =
H x  yK
 Suppose a man cover s a cer t ain dist ance at x kmph, equal dist ance at y kmph and same dist ance at
z kmph, t hen
FG 3xyz IJ
aver age speed dur ing t he whole jour ney =
H xy  yz  zx K
6.4 Time and Distance

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 8. The radius of a cir cular wheel is 35 cm and it moves
at t he r at e of 500 r evolut ions per minut e. The
1. Two mot or car s st ar t fr om one point and move speed of wheel is
along t wo r oads at r ight angles t o each ot her. I f (a) 50 km/hr (b) 60 km/hr
t h ei r speeds be r espect i v el y 36 k m /h r an d
48 km/hr, t hen aft er half and hour t hey will be (c) 63 km/hr (d) 66 km/hr
x km apar t . What is x ? 9. Diamet er of t he fr ont wheel and hind wheel of a
(a) 30 km (b) 40 km van ar e 70 cm and 98 cm r espect ively. How many
(c) 12 km (d) 84 km mor e r evolutions the fr ont wheel will make when
2. A man goes fr om Delhi t o Dehr adun. H alf t he the hind wheel in going over a distance of 154 kms?
dist ance he cover s by bus at an aver age speed of (a) 10,000 (b) 15,000
50 km/hr and the other half by t r ain at an aver age (c) 20,000 (d) 25,000
speed of 70 k m/hr. The aver age speed for t he
whole jour ney was 10. Two men X and Y st ar t fr om a place P, walking at
3 km/hr, and 4 km/hr. By how much distance apar t
(a) 56 km/hr (b) 64 km/hr
t hey will be aft er 4 hour s if t hey ar e walking in
(c) 60 km/hr (d) none of t hese t he same dir ect ion?
3. A man cover s a dist ance of 100 km par t ly by bus (a) 4 km (b) 3 km
at 40 km/hr and par t ly by scoot er at 30 km/hr.
(c) 2 km (d) 1 km
H i s aver age speed for t he whol e jour ney was
32 km/hr. H ow far did he go by bus? 11. I n t he above quest ion, what will be t he dist ance
(a) 20 km (b) 25 km bet ween t hem aft er 5 hour s i f t hey wal k i n
(c) 30 km (d) 40 km opposit e dir ect ions?
4. A per son shoot ing at a t r aget fr om a dist ance of (a) 35 km (b) 14 km
450 metres finds that the sound of the bullet hitting (c) 21 km (d) 28 km
t he t ar get comes 1/2 seconds aft er he fir ed. A
per son equidist ant fr om t he t ar get and shoot ing 12. A per son has t o make a jour ney of 72 km. H e r ides
point hear s t he bullet hit 3 seconds after he hear d a cycle at 12 kms/hr. Aft er going cer t ain dist ance,
t he gun. The speed of sound is t he cycle got punct ur ed and he walks
1
(a) 300 m/s (b) 350 m/s t he r emaining dist ance at 4 km/hr. Wher e did
2
(c) 250 m/s (d) 400 m/s t he cycle got punct ur ed if t ot al t ime t aken for t he
5. A monkey climbs a slipper y pole 12m high. I t r ises 1
1met er in ever y one minut e and slips 1/2 met er jour ney was 8 hour s?
2
in ever y next minut e. Find how soon it will r each (a) 18 km (b) 54 km
t he t op?
(c) 36 km (d) 48 km
(a) 45 min (b) 40 min
(c) 35 min (d) 48 min 13. A car is stolen at 4.00 a.m the thief drives it towar ds
6. A boy walks at 4 km/hr. and r eaches his school n or t h at a speed of 50 k m /h r . T h e t h ef t i s
5 minut es lat e. Next day he walks at 5 kms/hr discover ed at 4.30 a.m. and a police jeep is set
and st ar t at t he same t ime, r eaches his school t owar ds nor t h at 60 kms/hr. At what t ime did t he
10 minut es. ear ly. H ow far is t he school fr om his jeep will over t ake t he car ?
house? (a) 6.00 a.m. (b) 7.00 a.m.
(a) 4 km (b) 5 km
(c) 7.30 a.m. (d) 6.30 a.m.
(c) 6 km (d) 3 km
7. A t r ain star ts fr om Delhi with a cer tain number of 14. A student goes to his school fr om his house walking
passenger s. At Ghaziabad 110 get down and 100 at 4 k m /h r . an d r each es h i s sch ool
get in. At Aligr ah 50% get down and 25 get in. At 10 min. lat e Next day st ar t ing at same t he t ime
K anpur 5 half of t hem get down and 50 get in. he wal k s at 6 k m/ hr and r eaches hi s school
Wh en t h e t r ai n l eaves K an pu r t h er e ar e 15 minut es ear ly. H ow far is t he school fr om t he
200 passenger s. How many did boar d the tr ain at house?
Delhi?
(a) 3 km (b) 5 km
(a) 300 (b) 400
(c) 9 km (d) 24 km
(c) 500 (d) 600
 Time and Distance 6.5
15. A t r ain tr avelled fr om A t o B and back in a cer t ain 7. Speed of a boat in still water is 3 km/hr. the
t ime at t he r at e of 60 km/hr. But if t he t r ain had speed of the stream is 1 km/hr. The time taken
t r avelled fr om A t o B at t he r at e of 80 km/hr. and to go 4 km upstream in minutes is
back fr om B t o A at t he r at e of 40 km/hr it would
t ak e t wo hour l onger. The di st ance bet ween (a) 48 (b) 60
A and B is (c) 96 (d) 120
(a) 480 km (b) 320 km [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) 540 km (d) 180 km
8. A train 100 m long is moving at 40 km/h. The
LEVEL-1 time in seconds, it will take to pass another train
1. The length of two trains are 140 m and 160 m 150 m long which is moving at 50 km/h in the
respectively. If they run at the speed of 60 km/h opposite direction from the moment they meet
and 40 km/h respectively in opposite directions is
on parallel tracks, then find the time in which (a) 6 (b) 8
they will cross each other. (c) 10 (d) 15
(a) 10 sec (b) 10.8 sec [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) 9 sec (d) 9.6 sec 9. The speed of a boat m still water is 15 km/hr.
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] The speed of the stream is 3 km/hr. The time
2. Ravi runs 200 metres in 24 seconds. Find his taken to go 12 km downstream in minutes is
average speed : (a) 40 (b) 45
(a) 20 km/h (b) 24 km/h (c) 50 (d) 55
(c) 28.5 km/h (d) 30 km/h [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] 10. A train 200 m long is moving at 40 km/hr . The
3. A man completes 30 km of a journey at 6 km/hr time in seconds, it will take to pass another train
and the remaining 40 km of the journey in 5 hours 150 long which is moving at 50 km/h in the
His average speed for the whole journey is : opposite direction from the moment they meet
is
4
(a) 6 km/hr (b) 7 km/hr (a) 8 (b) 12
11
(c) 14 (d) 117
1
(c) 7 km/hr (d) 8 km/hr [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
2
11. A person cycles from one place to another in 100
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
minutes. If his speed is 18 km/h, the distance
4. A train with a speed of 60 kmph crosses a pole in between two places is
30 seconds. The length of the train is
(a) 20 km (b) 30 km
(a) 500 m (b) 750 m (c) 15 km (d) 25 km
(c) 900 m (d) 1000 m [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
12. A train 200 m long is moving at 68 km/h. The
5. Speed of a boat in still water is 3 km/hr. the time in seconds, it will take to pass another train
speed of the stream is 2 km/hr. The time taken 150 m long which is moving at 50 km/h in the
to go 4 km downstream in minutes is same direction from the moment they meet is
(a) 120 (b) 96 (a) 40
(c) 80 (d) 48 (b) 50
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ] (c) 60
6. A train 100 m long is moving at 58 km/h. (d) 70
The time in seconds, it will take to pass another [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
train 150 m long which is moving at 50 km/h in
13. Speed of a boat in still water is 15 km/h. the
the same direction from the moment they meet
speed of the stream is 3 km/h. The time taken
is to go 6 km upstream in minutes is
(a) 20 (b) 30 (a) 20 (b) 30
(c) 50 (d) 70 (c) 24 (d) 25
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
6.6 Time and Distance
14. A train 120 in long is moving at 40 km/h. The 6. Find t he angle bet ween the Hour hand the Minute
time in seconds, it will take to pass another train hand of a clock when t he t ime is 03 : 40 t hat i s 40
100 m long which is moving at 32 km/h in the mi nut es past 3 ?
opposite direction horn the moment they meet (a) 120° (b) 125°
is
(c) 130° (d) 135°
(a) 11 (b) 22 [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(c) 44 (d) 88 7. Two t r ains appr oach each ot her at 30 km/hr and
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ] 27 k m/hr fr om t wo places 342 k m apar t . Aft er
15. The speed of a car is 72 km/h. The time taken by how many hour s wi ll t hey meet ?
it to cover a distance of 500 m in seconds is (a) 5 hr s. (b) 6 hr s.
(a) 20 (b) 25 (c) 7 hr s. (d) 12 hr s.
(c) 30 (d) 40 [RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ] 8. The speed of a 150 m long t r ain i s 50 kmph. H ow
LEVEL-2 much t i me wi l l i t t ak e t o pass a 600 m l ong
pl at for m ?
1. What is t he r at io of angular speed of second's
needle and hour 's needl e of a cl ock? (a) 50 sec (b) 54 sec
(a) 1 : 60 (b) 60 : 1 (c) 60 sec (d) 64 sec
(c) 3600 : 1 (d) 720 : 1 [RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]

[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] 9. A per son t r avels a cer t ai n dist ance on a bicycle
2. A man dr ives a car and r eaches hi s dest inat ion in wi t h a cer t ain speed. H ad he moved 3 k m/hour
4 h ou r s. H ad h e i n cr eased h i s speed by fast er, he would have t ak en 40 minut es less. H ad
10 k m/hr, he woul d have r eached i n 3 hour s, he moved 2 km/hour slower, he would have t ak en
12 minut es. What dist ance di d t he man cover ? 40 minut es mor e. Sl ower speed of t he per son, in
(a) 80 km (b) 120 km km/hour, is
(c) 160 km (d) 210 km (a) 8 (b) 10
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (c) 12 (d) 15
3. The speed of a boat in downst r eam dir ect ion is 14 [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
km/hour and in upst r eam di r ect i on is 8 k m/hour. 10. A and B can wal k ar ound a ci r cul ar pat h i n
Fi nd t he speed of t hi s boat in st il l wat er : 4 minut es and 9 minut es r espectively. I f they star t
(a) 22 k m/hour fr om t he same point in t he same dir ect i on, aft er
(b) 6 km/hour how much time will they meet again for fir st time?
(c) 3 km/hour (a) 4 mi nut es 12 seconds
(d) 11 k m/hour (b) 4 mi nut e 30 seconds
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (c) 7 mi nut e 12 seconds
4. M anoj can complet e a jour ney i n 10 hour s. H e (d) 36 minut es
t r avels fir st half of t he jour ney at t he speed of [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
21 k mph and second half of t he jour ney at t he 11. A t r ain l eaves a st at ion A at 5 am. And r eaches B
speed of 24 kmph. Find t he t ot al jour ney : at 9 a.m. Anot her t r ain l eave B at 6 : 30 am and
(a) 230 km (b) 234 km r eaches A at 10 am on t he same day. On par all el
(c) 220 km (d) 224 km t r acks. They wil l meet each ot her at
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (a) 7 : 40 a.m. (b) 7 : 50 a.m.
5. A t r ain, 270 met r es l ong, is r unning at t he speed (c) 8 : 40 a.m. (d) 8 : 50 a.m.
of 120 kmph. I t cr osses anot her t r ai n, which is
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
r unni ng at t he speed of 80 k mph i n opposi t e
di r ect i on on par all el t r ack, in 9 seconds. What is 12. A per son can r ow 9 k m/hour i n st ill wat er and he
t he lengt h of anot her t r ain ? fi nds t hat it t akes him t wice as much t i me t o r ow
upstr eam as to row downstream the same distance.
(a) 230 met r es
The speed of t he cur r ent , in km/hour, is
(b) 100 met r es
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 250 met r es
(c) 2.5 (d) 3.5
(d) 330 met r es
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
 Time and Distance 6.7

1 1
13. Anu t r avel by car and cover s t h of her jour ney 5 hour s, bu t i n 2 hour s 45 mi nut es when
4 2
wit h a speed of 60 km/hour, 40% her jour ney wit h t r avell ing t owar ds each ot her. Speed of t he car of
a speed of 50 km/hour, and t he r est wit h a speed Juhi , in km/hour, is
of 42 k m/hour s. The aver age speed (k m/hour ) for
t he whole jour ney i s about (a) 20 (b) 30
(a) 46.8 (b) 48.8 (c) 50 (d) 60
(c) 49.7 (d) 50.1 [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 1 SEP 2
st nd
SH I FT ] 15. A cover s a cer t ain di st ance in a cer t ain t ime, if B
14. Two places A and B ar e 220 km apar t on a highway cover s half of t hi s dist ance i n t he double t ime,
H ar i st ar t s fr om A and Juhi fr om B at t he same t he r at io of speeds of A and B is
t i me on t he same day usi ng car s. I f t hey t r avel in (a) 2 : 1 (b) 4 : 1
t h e sam e di r ect i on (A t o B ), t h ey m eet i n
(c) 1 : 2 (d) 1 : 4
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (a)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (b)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (b)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 450 m
1. x2 = 242 + 182 4. v = = 300 m/s
1
1 s
= 576 + 324 = 900 2
 x = 900 = 30 km 5. Aver age speed = 1 met er / 4minut es
For 11 met r es, t ime t aken = 44 minut es
2uv 2  50  70 1
2. v = = = 58 kph For last 1 met r e jump add 1 minut es
u +v 50 + 70 3
 Time t aken = 45 minut es
 x km (100 – x) km  6. Shor t Tr ick :
3.
@40 kph @30 kph d d 15
– =
4 5 60
Tot al dist ance
Aver age speed =
Tot al t ime 5d – 4 d 15
 
20 60
100
 32 = d 1
x 100  x
+  =
40 30 20 4
 x = 25 km  d = 5 km
6.8 Time and Distance
7. L et t her e wer e n passanger s at Delhi.
3d  6 d  4 d  4 d
 =2
n n 75 240
n
n +10  50 + 25 40 + 2 + 50  d = 480 km
10 20
   
LEVEL-1
Delhi Ghaziabad Aligar h K anpur (200)
1. Relat i ve speed of t he t wo t r ai ns
n 75 5 250
 + + 50 = 200  (60  40)   m/s
40 2 18 9
 n = 500 140  160
8. Speed = 500 r pm Thus, r equir ed t ime = = 10.8 sec.
250
22 35 1 9
= 500  2    60 =66 km/hr
7 100 100 200 18
2. Average speed =  = 30 km/hr.
9. n 1 c1 = 154 km 24 5

22 30  40 70
n 1   70 cm = 15400000 cm 3. Aver age speed =  = 7 km/hr..

7 30 10
5
6
 n 1 = 70000
and n 1 c2 = 154 km 5
4. L engt h of t he t r ain = 60   30
18
22
 n2   98 cm = 15400000 cm = 500 met er.
7
5. Speed of the boat downstream = (3 + 2) km/hr
 n 2 = 50000
Distance to be travelled = 4 km
 n 1 – n 2 = 20000 cm
10. d = v  t = (4 – 3)  4 = 4 km Hence, required time in minutes
11. d = (4 + 3)  5 = 35 km 4
= × 60 =48 minutes.
1 x 72  x 5
12. 8 = +
2 12 1 6. Relative speed of the two trains with respect
4
2 to each other
 x = 54 km 5
= 68 – 50 = 18 km/hr or 18 × = 5 m/s.
d d 1 18
13. – =
50 60 2 Distance to be covered = 150 + 100
= 250 meters
d 1
 =
300 2 250
Hence, required time = = 50 seconds.
 d = 150 5
150 4
 t= = 3 hr s. 7. Required time   60
50  3  1
H ence jeep will over t ake t he car at 7.00 a.m. = 120 minutes.
d d 25
14. – = 5
4 6 60 8. Relative speed = (40 + 50)   25m / s
18
3d – 2d 5 Hence, required time
 =
12 12
100  150
 d = 5 km   10 seconds.
25
 d d  d d 9. Relative Speed of boat (down stream)
15.  80  40  –  60  60  = 2
= 15 + 3 = 18 km/pr
Distance = 12 km
 Time and Distance 6.9

12  60 speed of sec onds needle

 Time (in minutes) = 
18 speed of hours needle
= 40 min 6
  720 : 1
10. Total distance covered by train of length  1 
 
200 m to cross another train of length 150 m = 120 
350 m 2. Let distance be D km
Relative speed = (40 + 50) km/pr = 90 km/pr Let initial speed be 5 km/hr
350  18 According to the question
 Time (in seconds) =  14 seconds
90  5 D
4 ...(1)
100 S
11. Time given = 100 min = hr.
60
D 1
speed = 18 km/hr 3 ...(2)
S  10 5
100
 Dis tan ce  18   30km Divide (1) by (2)
60
12. Total distance = length of 2 trains S  10 5

= 200 + 150 = 350 m S 4
Relative speed = 68 – 50 = 18 km/hr = 5 m/s  S = 40 km/hr
Dis tan ce  D = 40 × 4 = 160 km
 Time taken to meet  3. Let the speed of boat in still water be x km/hr
speed
Let the speed of stream be y km/hr
350
  70sec onds According to the question,
5
13. Relative speed of boat (upstream) = 15 – 3 x + y = 14
= 12 km/hr x – y = 18
Distance = 6 km 2x = 22
 x = 11 km/hr
6
 Time (minutes) =  60 = 30
12 21  24
4. Average speed =  2  22.4
14. Distance covered by train to pass = 120 + 100 21  24
= 220 m  Total Distance = 22.4  10 = 224 km
Relative speed = 40 + 32 = 72 km/hr.
5
5. Relative speed = 120  80  m /s
220  18 18
 Time (seconds)   11
72  5
5
 200 
 5 18
15. speed =  72   m / s = 20 m/s
 18  Let the length of other train be x m.

500 270  x
 Time tabeu = = 25 seconds 9
20  According to question, 200 5
18
LEVEL-2
 x = 230 m
1. speed of hour needle = 0.5°/min
 11 11
0.5  1  6. Q  30h  m  30  3   40  130.
   / sec 2 2
60  120 
7. Time after the trains meet
speed of seconds needle = 360°/min
342km
   6hours
 360  30  27 km / hr
 / sec
 60 
6.10 Time and Distance
12. speed in still water = 9 km/ pr
8. 50km / hr   50  5  m / s
 18  Time up : Time Down = 2 : 1

25  5  speed up : speed Down = 1 : 2
 m /s
9 1
speed in still water   x  2x   9
 125  2
 m/s  x = 6 km/ pr
 9 
1
150  600  m speed of current   2x  x   3 (Ans)
Time taken  2
 125 
  m/s 1 2 35
9  13. Distance  x x x
4 5 100
= 54 seconds
x 2x 35x
2 Time   
9. 3 km / hr faster ... hr less 4  60 5  50 100  42
3
Total Dis tan ce
2 Avg speed   48.8km / pr
2 km / hr slower ... hr more Total Time
3
Let initial speed = V 14. Let speed of A be x km/hr
let speed of B be y km/hr
v1 v2 (t1  t2 ) 2v1 v2
v   t  t2  40 min  220 1 11
v1 t 2  v2 t1 v1  v2  1  5 
xy 2 2
232 220 3 11
 2 2 
32 xy 4 4
 slower speed =(12 – 2) km/hr = 10 km/hr  x = 60 km/hr
10. Let length of track = LCM (4 and 9) = 36 m y = 20 km/hr
36  20 km/hr
 speed of A =  9 m/min
4 D
15. According to question, T
36 SA
speed of B   4 m/min
9
 D
36m  
2
 Time  9  4 m / min = 7 min 12 sec  2T
  SB
11. T1 : T2 = 4 : 3.5  SA : SB = 4 : 1
 V1 : V2 = 3.5 : 4
Let total distance = 4 × 3.5x 
Distance covered by train 1 till 6 : 30 am
= 1.5 × 3.5x
Distance left 14x  5.25x
 Meeting time 
Relative speed 75x
= 1.16 hours
i.e 7 : 40 am
 7
CHAPTER Boats and Streams

L et v 1 be speed of boat and v 2 be speed of t he st r eam.

 speed in up st r eam = v 1 – v 2
and speed in down st r eam = v 1 + v 2
I f boat goes a cer t ain dist ance ‘d’ down st r eam and r et ur ns upst r eam and t ot al t ime t aken be t , t hen
d d
t= 
v1  v2 v1  v2
1
Speed of boat in st ill wat er = speed in up st r eam + speed in down st r eam
2
1
Speed of st r eam = speed in down st r eam – speed i n up st r eam
2

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
1. A boat goes 20 k m upst r eam i n 2 hour s and 6. A man can r ow a cer tain dist ance down st r eam in
downst r eam in 1 hour. H ow much t ime t his boat 6 hour s and r et ur n t he same dist ance in 9 hour s.
will t ake t o t r avel 30 km in all st ill wat er ? I f st r eam flows at t he r at e of 2 km/hr, t hen what
(a) 1 hr will be man’s speed if he r ows in st ill wat er ?
(b) 2 hr s (a) 10 km/hr (b) 12 km/hr
(c) 1.5 hr s (c) 14 km/hr (d) 15 km/hr
(d) 2.5 hr s 7. A boat against t he cur r ent of wat er goes 9km/hr
2. I n t he above quest ion, t he speed at which t he and in t he dir ect ion of t he cur r ent 12km/hr. The
st r eam is flowing is boat t ak es 4 hour s and 12 mi nut es t o move
upwar ed and downwar d dir ect ion fr om A t o B.
(a) 10 km/hr (b) 20 km/hr
What is t he dist ance bet ween A and B?
(c) 15 km/hr (d) 5 km/hr
(a) 21.6 km (b) 21.0 km
3. A boat t r avels 10 km in 1 hr downst r eam and
(c) 22 km (d) 30 km
14 kms in 2 hr s upst r eam. H ow much t ime t his
boat will t ake t o t r avel 17 kms in st ill wat er ? 8. A man t ak es 3 hour s and 45 minut es t o boat
15 km wit h t he cur r ent in a r iver and 2 hour s
1 1 30 minut es t o cover a dist ance of 5 km against
(a) 1 hr (b) 2 hr s (c) 2 hr s (d) 2 hr s
2 2 t he cur r ent . Speed of t he boat in st ill wat er and
4. A man goes by mot or boat a cer t ai n di st ance speed of t he cur r ent r espect ively will be
upst r eam at 15 k m/hr and r et ur n t he same (a) 3 km/hr, 1 km/hr (b) 1 km/hr, 3 km/hr
downstr eam at 20 km/hr. The total time taken for (c) 2 km/hr, 5 km/hr (d) none of t hese
the jour ney was 7 hr s. Find how far did he go. 9. A boat can be r owed 6km/hr along t he cur r ent
(a) 60 km (b) 50 km (c) 40 km (d) 120 km and 4 km/hr against t he cur r ent . Speed of t he
2 cur r ent and speed of t he boat i n st i l l wat er,
5. A man can r ow upst r eam a dist ance of km in r espect ively will be
3
10 m i nu t es an d r et u r n s t h e same di st ance (a) 1 km/hr, 5 km/hr
downst r eam in 5 minut es. Rat io of man’s speed (b) 5 km/hr, 1 km/hr
in st ill wat er and t hat of t he st r eam will be (c) 2 km/hr, 4 km/hr
(a) 3 : 1 (b) 1 : 3 (d) none of t hese
(c) 2 :3 (d) 3 : 2
7.2 Boats and Streams
10. A boat moves down t he st r eam at t he r at e of 1 12. Speed of a boat i n st i l l wat er i s 7 k m/hr and
km in 6 minut es and up t he st r eam at t he r at e of speed of t he st r eam is 1.5 km/hr . H ow much
1 km in 10 minut es. The speed of t he cur r ent is time will it take to move up is st r eam of a distance
(a) 2 km/hr (b) 1 km/hr 7.7 km?
(c) 1.5 km/hr (d) 2.5 km/hr (a) 75 minut es (b) 84 minut es
11. A man can r ow 5 km per hour in st ill wat er. I f t he (c) 72 minut es (d) none of t hese
r iver is flowing at 1km per hour, it t akes him 75 13. A motor boat takes 2 hour s to tr avel a distance of
minut es t o r ow t o a place and back. H ow far is 9 km down the cur r ent and it takes 6 hour s to
t he place? travel the same distance against the current. What
(a) 3 km (b) 2.5 km is the speed of the boat in still water in kmph?
(c) 4 km (d) none of t hese (a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 1.5 (d) 1

AN SWERS
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (a)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
1. L et v 1 be t he speed of boat in st ill wat er and v 2 be 2
t he speed of cur r ent km
5. V1 – V2 = 3
20 10 min
 v1 + v2 =  20 ...(i )
1 2
 V1 – V2 = km min ...(i )
20 30
v1 – v2 =  10 ...(ii )
2 2
km
Fr om equat ions (i ) and (ii ) we get and V1 + V2 = 3
v 1 = 15 km/hr 5 min
d 30 2 km
 t =  2hrs. = ...(ii )
v1 15 15 min
Solving equat ion (i ) and (ii ), we get
2. Fr om t he above t wo equat ion, we get
2 2
v 2 = 5km/hr  24 6 1 km
V1 = 30 15 =  =
10 2 60 60 10 min
3. v1 + v2 =  10 ...(i )
1 2 2
 42 2 1 km
14 and V2 = 15 30 =  =
v1 – v2 = 7 ...(ii ) 2 60 60 30 mi n
2
V1 1 30
Adding equat ions (i ) and (ii ), we get  = 
V2 10 1
17
v1 = km/hr =3:1
2
6. (v 1 + v 2) t 1 = (v 1 – v 2) t 2
d 17
 t =  2hr s.  (v 1 + 2)  6 = (v 1 – 2)  9
v1 17
2  v 1 = 10 km/hr

d d d d 12
4.  =7 7.  = 4
20 15 9 12 60
 d = 60 km  d = 21.6 km
 Boats and Streams 7.3

15 d d 75
 4 k m/hr 11.  =
8. v1 + v2 = ...(i ) 5 1 5 1 60
3
3
4 2d  3d 5
 =
12 4
5  d = 3 km
v1 – v2 =  2 k m/hr ...(ii )
1
2 7.7 7
2 d 7.7  hrs.
12. t =  =
v1  v2 7  1.5 5.5 5
Solving equat ions (i ) and (ii ), we get
v 1 = 3 km/hr and v 2 = 1 km/hr 7
=  60 min = 84 minut es
9. v1 + v2 = 6 ...(i ) 5
and v1 – v2 = 4 ...(ii ) 13. L et t he speed of boat in st ill wat er and speed of
Fr om equat ions (i ) and (ii ), we get cur r ent ar e x and y km/h r espect ively.
v 1 = 5 km/hr and v 2 = 1 km/hr  Downwar d speed of boat = (x + y ) km/h.
Accor ding t o quest ion,
1km 9
10. v1 + v2 =  10 k m/hr ...(i ) x+y =  2x + 2y = 9 ...(i )
6 min 2
9
1km and x– y =  2x – 2y = 3 ...(ii )
and v1 – v2 =  6 k m/hr ...(ii ) 6
10 min
On solving equat ions (i ) and (ii ), we get
Subt r act ing equat ion (ii ) fr om (i ), we get 3
v 2 = 2 km/hr x = 3, y =
2

 8
CHAPTER
Simple Interest and
Compound Interest
I N TEREST (I )
I t is t he money paid for t he use of money bor r owed. I t is gener ally a per cent age of t he sum bor r owed. I t is
paid quar t er ly, half year ly or annually as agr eed upon.
Pr inciple (P).
The act ual money bor r owed is called pr inciple.
Amount (A).
The pr inciple t oget her wit h it s int er est is called amount .
Rate percent per annum (r).
I t is t he sum paid on ` 100 of t he loan for a year
Time (n).
Time for which money is bor r owed n is expr essed in number of per iods, which is nor mally one year.
SI M PLE I N TEREST (S.I .)
I f t hr oughout t he loan per iod, int er est is char ged on t he or iginal sums bor r owed (i.e. pr incipal), it is called
simple inter est.
F or mulae.
Pnr
 Simple int er est , S.I . =
100
S.I .  100
 Pr inciple, P =
r n
S.I .  100
 Time, n =
Pr
S.I .  100
 Rat e, r =
Pn
 Amount , A = Pr inciple + Simple int er est
A  100
 When amount is given : Pr incipal, P =
100 + nr
nr
When pr incipal is given : Amount A = P  I + 
 100 
COM POU N D I N TEREST (C.I .)
M oney is said t o be lent at compound int er est when t he int er est due aft er a given t ime is added t o t he
pr incipal goes on incr easing at t he end of ever y year by an amount t o t he int er est for t hat year. Differ ence
bet ween final amount and t he or iginal pr inciple is called compound int er est .
 When int er est is compounded annually
 r  r  r   r 
Amount , A = P 1  1  1  2  1  3  ... 1  n 
 100   100   100   100 
wher e, n = t ime in year s.
 When int er est is compounded half-year ly
2n
 r 2
Amount , A = P  1 + 
 100 
 When inter est is compound quar t er ly
4n
 r 4
Amount , A = P  1 + 
 100 
8.2 Simple Interest and Compound Interest

1
 When t ime is in fr act ion of a year, say 2
5
 1 
2 r
 r   5 
Amount , A = P  1 +    1 
 100   100 
 
 Compound inter est = Amount – Pr inciple
n
= P  1  r   1
A  
 Pr inciple (P) = n
 r   100  
 1  
100 
 When rates are different for different years, say r 1%, r 2%, r 3%, ..... r n% for 1st , 2nd, 3rd, ... nth year respectively, then
 r  r  r   r 
Amount , A = P 1  1  1  2  1  3  ... 1  n 
 100  100  100   100 

Remember.
(1) Compound int er est for one year is equal t o t he simple int er est for one year.
(2) The difference between C.I. and S.I. on the same sum for 2 years is one year interest on the S.I. for 1 year.

COM PARI SON OF SI M PLE I N TEREST AN D COM POU N D I N TEREST

I n case of simple int er est t he pr inciple r emains t he same for any fixed t ime per iod whet her for 1st year, 2nd
year or 3r d year. While in case of compound int er est , t he pr inciple keeps on incr esing as t he amount aft er
1 year becomes t he pr inciple for t he second year, amount aft er t wo year s becomes t he pr inciple for the t hir d
year and so on.
The differ ence bet ween 2nd year and 2 year s is t hat 2nd year is one year i.e. t he second one and t wo year s
means fir st and second year combined.
e.g. For t he t ime per iod 1st Jan 1991 - 1st Jan 1992 - 1st Jan 1993, fr om 1st Jan 1992 t o 1st Jan 1993 is 2nd year
while 1st Jan 1991 - 1st Jan 1993 is 2 year.
I t is always ver y easy t o calculat e t he simple int er est as compar ison t o Compound int er est . So we come
acr oss a t able
1st year 2nd year 3rd year 2 years 3 years
S.I . I1 I1 I1 2I 1 3I 1
C.I . I1 I 1+I 2 I 1+2I 2+I 3 2I 1+I 2 3I 1+3I 2+I 3

The differ ence bet ween SI and CI for 2 year s is I 2 and for 3 year s is 3I 2+I 3. Now we have t o see what is I 1,
I 2 and I 3.
I f P is t he Pr inciple and r is t he r at e of int er est , t hen for one year
Pr t Pr
SI = or as t = 1 year
100 100
Pr
H ence for fir st year t he SI is I 1 = .
100
As t he pr inciple r emains same in case of SI for ever y year weat her 2nd or 3r d, t he SI r emains I 1.
I n case of CI , as the pr inciple keeps on changing t he amount (= pr inciple + I nter est for 1 year ) aft er
1year will become the principle for 2nd year. So P2 = P + I 1, for which we have to calculate interest for 2nd year.
P2 r t (P+I 1 ) r  t
SI = =
100 100
wher e, P2 = Amount aft er 1 year or pr inciple for 2nd year
Pr I r
 S.I . =  1 = I 1 + I 2 (supposed t o be I 2)
100 100
As t = 1 year, i.e. 2nd year.
 Simple Interest and Compound Interest 8.3
As in 2nd year t he int er est is I 1 + I 2, so for t he 3r d year t he pr inciple will be equal t o amount aft er 2 year s,
i.e. P + 2I 1 + I 2.
So t he Compound I nt er est for t he 3r d year is

P+ I1 + I1 + I2
Pr inciple I nt er est for 1st year I nt er est for 2nd year

 P+2I 1 +I 2  rt
SI =
100
As for 3r d year, t = 1 year
Pr 2I r I r
 SI =  1  2
100 100 100
Pr
As alr eady define = I1
100
I 1r
= I 2.
100
I 2r
So = I3
100
or we can say, int er est for 3r d year = I 1 + 2I 2 + I 3
and t ot al int er est for 3 year s = 3I 1 + 3I 2 + I 3.
Gener ally you would be asked t he quest ion on compar ison of SI and CI . To find t he CI we go for Pascal
t r iangle.
PASCAL TRI AN GLE
I st Year 1 I1

2nd Year 1 I1 + 1 I2

3rd Year 1 I1 2 I2 1 I3

4th Year 1 I1 3 I2 3 I3 1 I4

So compound int er est for 2 year s = 2I 1 + 1I 2,

for 3 year s = 3I 1 + 3I 2 + I 3,
for 4 year s = 4I 1 + 6I 2 + 4I 3 + I 4 ... and so on.
TI PS OF COM POU N D I N TEREST
When doing t hese sor t of pr oblems, r emember :
1. Compound int er est will be of “ int er est ” t o you if you have a building societ y account , it wi ll t ell you
how much you savings wil l be wor t h next year or in 5 year ’s t i me et c.
The t able below shows how an init ial investment of £1,000 can gr ow in 5 year s, if t he int er est r ate is 6%:
Year Amount at star t I nter est Amount at T otal amount
of year (`) end of year at end of year
1 1,000 1,000  0.06 1,000 + 60 1,060
2 1,060 1,060  0.06 1,060 + 63.60 1,123.60
3 1,123.60 1,123.60  0.06 1,123.60 + 67.42 1,191.02
4 1,191.02 1,191.02  0.06 1,191.02 + 71.46 1,262.48
5 1,262.48 1,262.48  0.06 1,262.48 + 75.75 1,338.23
Compound int er est gi ves you ` 338.23 for doi ng not hing!
2. Si mple int er est gi ves you a sl ight l y wor se deal:
` 1,000 invest ed for 5 year s wit h 6% si mpl e int er est wil l just gi ve you 6% of ` 1,000 ever y year
(i .e. ` 60) mul t i pl y t hi s by 5 and we get ` 300.
8.4 Simple Interest and Compound Interest

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S (a) 9 (b) 10
1. Ram u w an t ed t o bor r ow Rs. 1000 f r om a (c) 12 (d) 11
moneylender for a per iod of one year. H owever, 8. A sum of money was lent at simple int er est at
t he moneylender deduct ed Rs. 200 as int er est
1 1
ch ar ges an d gave Rs. 800 t o Ram u . Ram u 11% p.a. for 3 year s and 4 year s r espectively..
2 2
r et ur ned Rs. 1000 at t he end of t he year. The
r at e of int er est char ged by t he moneylender is I f differ ence in int er est s for two per iods was Rs.
5500, then the sum is
(a) 20 (b) 22.5
(a) Rs. 50050 (b) Rs. 55000
(c) 25 (d) 27.5
(c) Rs. 50000 (d) Rs. 50500
2. Rajan bor r owed Rs. 50000 fr om Rakesh at simple
int er est . Aft er 3 year s, Rakesh got Rs. 3000 mor e 9. Rajan lent Rs. 1200 t o Rakesh for 3 year s at a
t han what he had given t o Rajan. What was t he cer t ain r at e of simple int er est and Rs. 1000 t o
r at e of int er est per annum ? M ukesh for t he same t ime at t he same r at e. I f he
gets Rs. 50 mor e fr om Rakesh t han fr om M ukesh,
(a) 2 % (b) 5 %
t hen t he r at e per cent is
(c) 8 % (d) 10 %
1 2
3. Rakesh t ook a loan for 7 year s at t he r at e of 6 % (a) 8 % (b) 6 %
3 3
p.a. S.I . I f t ot al int er est paid was Rs. 2100, t hen
pr incipal was 1 2
(c) 10 % (d) 9 %
(a) Rs. 4400 (b) Rs. 4800 3 3
(c) Rs. 5000 (d) Rs. 5200
10. The differ ence bet ween int er est s r eceived fr om
4. H ow much should money lender lend at simple Canar a Bank and Punjab & Sind Bank on Rs. 500
r at e of int er est of 15% in or der t o have Rs. 3234 for 2 year s is Rs. 2.50. The differ ence bet ween
1 t heir r at es is
at t he end of 1 year s ?
2 (a) 1 % (b) 0.5 %
(a) Rs. 1640
(c) 0.25 % (d) 2.5 %
(b) Rs. 2620
11. I f compound int er est for t wo successive year s is
(c) Rs. 2610
Rs. 110 and Rs. 121 r espect ively, t hen t he r at e of
(d) Rs. 2640 int er est is
5. A n am ou n t Rs. 8000 becom es Rs. 9200 (a) 10 % (b) 8 %
in 3 year s at simple int er est . I f r at e of int er est is (c) 6 % (d) 4 %
incr eased by 3%, it would amount t o
12. A money lender finds t hat due t o a fall in t he r at e
(a) Rs. 9920
3
(b) Rs. 10560 of int er est fr om 8% t o 7
%, his year ly income
4
(c) Rs. 11120
diminishes by Rs. 615. H is capit al is
(d) Rs. 11820
(a) Rs. 260000 (b) Rs. 246000
6. A sum of money deposited at compound interest (c) Rs. 238000 (d) Rs. 224000
doubles itself in 4 years. I t will amount to sixten
13. M r. M it t al finds t hat an incr ease in t he r at e of
times at the same rate in
(a) 12 year s (b) 16 year s 7 1
inter est fr om 4 % t o 5 % per annum incr eases
(c) 24 year s (d) 30 year s 8 8
his year ly income by Rs. 250. H is invest ment is
7. For how many year s should Rs. 1200 be invest ed
(a) Rs. 1,00,000 (b) Rs. 1,20,000
at 10% p.a. i n or der t o ear n t he same si mpl e
int er est as is ear ned by investing Rs. 1800 at 12% (c) Rs. 1,50,000 (d) Rs. 2,00,000
p.a. for 5 year s ?
 Simple Interest and Compound Interest 8.5

14. I n how many year s will a sum of money double 6. The simple interest on rupees 200 for 3 years at
it self at 4% per annum ? 6% per annum in rupees is
(a) 8 year s (b) 16 year s (a) 36 (b) 18
(c) 12 year s (d) 25 year s (c) 24 (d) 48
15. At a cer t ain r at e of simple int er est , a cer t ain sum [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]

doubles it self in 10 year s. I t will t r iple it self in 7. A sum of money doubles itself in 4 years when
(a) 12 year s (b) 15 year s the interests is compounded annually. The
(c) 20 year s (d) 30 year s number of years when it will become eight times
is
LEVEL-1
(a) 32 (b) 16
1. Find the simple interest on Rs. 4800 at the rate
(c) 12 (d) 8
1
of 8 % per annum for a period of 2 years 3 [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
2
8. The simple interest on rupees 800 for 7 years at
months.
5% per annum is
(a) Rs. 796 (b) Rs. 816
(a) `100 (b) `125
(c) Rs. 918 (d) Rs. 990
(c) `150 (d) `200
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
2. Simple Interest on Rs. 500 for 4 years at 6.25% [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
per annum is equal to the Simple Interest on 9. The compound interest on rupees 12000 for 1
Rs.400 at 5% per annum for a certain period of year at 10% per annum compounded half yearly
time. The period of time is is
(a) 4 years (b) 5 years (a) `1200 (b) `1230
1 2 (c) `2520 (d) `2680
(c) 6 years (d) 8 years
4 3 [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]

[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] 10. The simple interest on rupees 800 for 3 years at
3. A sum becomes Rs. 2916 in 2 years at 8% per 5% per annum in rupees is
annum compound interest. The sum is (a) 24 (b) 40
(a) Rs. 2750 (b) Rs. 2500 (c) 120 (d) 140
(c) Rs. 2625 (d) Rs. 2560 [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] 11. Compound interest on rupees 8000 for 1 year at
4. If `200 becomes `240 in 4 years, then the rate 10% per annum compounded half yearly is
of simple interest per annum is
(a) 800 (b) 1680
25 25 (c) 840 (d) 820
(a) % (b) %
6 3 [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
12. In how many years rupees 500 will amount to
25
(c) % (d) 5% rupees 800 at simple interest of 10% per year?
2
(a) 6 (b) 8
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
(c) 10 (d) 16
5. A sum of money doubles itself in 5 years when
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
the interest is compounded annually. The
number of years when it will become eight times 13. Compound interest `16000 for 1 year at 10% per
is annum compounded half yearly is
(a) 10 (b) 12 (a) 1600
(c) 15 (d) 20 (b) 1640
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
(c) 1680
(d) 3360 [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
8.6 Simple Interest and Compound Interest
14. In how many years `500 will amount to `700 at
simple interest of 5% per annum? 1
com poun ded an nu al l y at 12 %, t hen each
2
(a) 4 (b) 5
(c) 6 (d) 8 inst al lment s wil l be of (i n Rs.)
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
(a) 26736 (b) 26244
15. In how many years `2000 will amount to `2100 (c) 25736 (d) 24244
at 10% per annum compounded half yearly? [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]

(a) 2 (b) 1.5 7. Two equal sum ar e l ent out at 6 % and 5% simple
(c) 1 (d) 0.5 inter est per annum r espectively at the same time.
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ] The fi r st i s r ecover ed 24 year s ear li er t han t he
LEVEL-2 second one and t he amount r eceived in each case
was Rs. 28800. Each sum (in Rs.) was
1. Fi nd compound int er est on Rs. 7,300 at t he r at e
of 4% per an n u m f or 2 year s, compou nded (a) 18000 (b) 20000
annually? (c) 20500 (d) 2200
(a) Rs. 612 (b) Rs. 300 [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]

(c) Rs. 600 (d) Rs. 630 8. A comput er i s avai l abl e for Rs. 22750 cash
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ] payment or for Rs. 6200 cash down payment and
2. I n how many year s, a sum wil l be t hr i ce of i t at t hr ee equal annual i nst al lment s of Rs. x. I f t he
si mple int er est @10% per annum ? inter est char ged is 10% per annum. Compounded
annual ly, t he value of x is
(a) 15 year s (b) 20 year s
(a) 5517 (b) 5578
(c) 30 year s (d) 40 year s
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(c) 6565 (d) 6655

3. A sum of money amount s t o Rs. 9680 i n 2 year s [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]

and Rs. 10648 i n 3 year s. The r at e of i nt er est per
annum on compounded basi s is
(a) 5% (b) 10%
(c) 15% (d) 20%
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
4. A man buys a TV by maki ng cash down payment
of Rs. 4945 and agr ees t o pay t wo mor e year ly
inst allment s of equivalent amount s at t he end of
fi r st year and second year. I f t he r at e of int er est
1 int er est and r et ur ned i t in t hr ee year s in equal
is 7 % per annum, compounded annual ly, t he
2
cash value of t he TV (in Rs.) i s near est t o
(a) 12840 (b) 13804
(c) 13824 (d) 14835
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
5. A sum of Rs.5000 amounts to Rs 8640 at compound
i nt er est i n a ai n t i mes, t hen t he same sum
amount s t o what in one-t hir d of t he t ime?
(a) Rs 5886 (b) Rs 6000
(c) Rs 6214 (d) Rs 7000
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
6. A loan of Rs.62496 is t o be paid back in t hr ee
equal annual i nst al l ment s. I f t he i nt er est i s
9. A sum of money at simpl e i nt er est amount s t o
Rs.13800 in 3 year s . I f r ate of inter est is incr eased
by 30%,t he same sum amount s t o Rs.14340 in
t he same t ime. The r at e of int er est per annum
is
(a) 3% (b) 4%
(c) 5% (d) 8%
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
10. A per son bor r owed some money on compound
annual inst allment s. I f the r ate of inter est in 15%
per an n u m an d t h e an n u al i n st al l m en t i s
Rs.48668, t hen t he sum bor r owed was (i n Rs )
(a) 101020 (b) 111050
(c) 111120 (d) 146004
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
11. A sum of Rs. x at si mpl e int er est amount s t o Rs.
14160 i n 3 year s. I f t h e r at e of i nt er est i s
i ncr eased by 25 % t he same sum amount s t o
Rs.14700 in t he same t i me. The value of x is
(a) 12000 (b) 12400
(c) 13000 (d) 13400
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
 Simple Interest and Compound Interest 8.7

12. A cer t ain sum of many is bor r owed at compound 14. A loan of Rs. 26480 i s t o be paid back i n t hr ee
i n t er est for 3 year s at 5% per ann um. T he equal year l y i nst al l ment s. I f t he i nt er est i s
int er est for t he t hir d year is gr eat er t han t hat of compounded year ly at 10% per annum, then each
secon d year by Rs.642.60. t h e sum (i n Rs.) inst all ment is of Rs.
bor r owed is (a) 11548 (b) 10864
(a) 24480 (b) 185400 (c) 10648 (d) 8827
(c) 244800 (d) 368400 [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd
SEP 2 nd
SH I FT ] 15. A sum of Rs.78060 is divided bet ween A and B, so
13. A sum of Rs. 129780 is be paid back in thr ee equal
1
h al f year l y i n st al l m en t s. I f t h e i n t er est i s t hat t he amount of A aft er 3 year s is equal t o
2
1
compounded half year l y at t he r at e of 13 % per 1
3 t he amount of B aft er 4 year, t he int er est is
2
annum, t hen each inst all ment is of Rs.
compounded hal f year ly at 8% per annum. The
(a) 44690 (b) 45960
shar e of B in t he given sum is (i n Rs.)
(c) 46080 (d) 49152
(a) 40560 (b) 38560
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) 37800 (d) 37500
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (*) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (d)
LEVEL-2
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S FG x  x  15  3 IJ
1. Effect ively he bor r owed Rs. 800 and r et ur ned
Then H 100 2 K = 3234
Rs. 1000 aft er one year. So he paid Rs. 200 as
int er est on Rs. 800 49 x
 = 3234
40
200
 Rat e of int er est =  100 = 25%
800 FG 3234  40 IJ = 2640
 x=
H 49 K
FG
2. Rat e = 100  300 % = 2% IJ
H
5000  3 K 5. Pr incipal = Rs. 8000, S.I . = Rs. 1200,
Time = 3 year s.

3. Pr incipal = Rs.
FG 2100  100 IJ = Rs. 5000 FG 100  1200 IJ % = 5%.
H 76 K  Rate =
H 8000  3 K
4. L et r equir ed money be x . New r at e = 8%, Pr incipal = Rs. 8000,
8.8 Simple Interest and Compound Interest
Time = 3 year s.
1200  r  3 1000  r  3
9. = 50
S.I . = Rs.
FG
8000  8  3 IJ = Rs. 1920.
100

100
100 H K  6r = 50
 New amount = Rs. (8000 + 1920) 1
 r = 8 %
= Rs. 9920. 3
6. L et sum = Rs. 100, Time = 4 year s,
500  r1  2 500  r2  2
Amount due in 4 year s = Rs. 200 10.  = 2.50
100 100
FG
100 1 
10 IJ 4
= 200
 1000 (r 1 – r 2) = 250

H 100 K 250 
 r 1 – r 2=   0.25%
FG1  10 IJ = 2
4 1000 4

H 100 K 11. I n t he fir st year, int er est = Rs. 110

FG1  10 IJ = 2 I n t he second year, int er est = Rs. 121

 H 100 K 14
...(i ) Thus an additional inter eset of Rs. 11 is ear ned
in the second year. This additional inter est is
L et t he amount becomes 16 t imes in n year s ear ned on the inter est ear ned in fir st year i.e.,
on Rs. 110.
FG
100 1 
10 IJ n
= 1600 ...(ii )

H 100 K  Rat e of int er est =
11  100
110  1
= 10%

FG1  10 IJ n
= 16
12. L et t he capit al be Rs. x . Then

H 100K x  8 1 31 1
x  = 615
Fr om equat ion (i ) and (ii ) 100 4 100
n 32x – 31x = 61500  4
e2 j 14
= 16 = 24

 x = 246000
n 13. L et t he invest ment be Rs. x . Then
 =4
4
41 1 39 1
 n = 16 x  x  = 250
8 100 8 100
 2x = 20000
1800  12  5
7. S.I . r equir ed = Rs.  x = 100000
100
14. L et t he sum be x . Then
= Rs. 1080.
S.I . = x
100  1080
Ti me = = 9 year s. 100  S.I .  100  x 
120  10  Time = =   years
Sum  Rat e  x  4 
8. L et t he sum Rs. x . Then = 25 year s

 9 1 7 1  15. L et t he sum be x . Then

 x 11    x  11    = 5500 S.I . = x
2 100 2 100 
Time = 10 year s.
22 x

200
= 5500
 Rat e =
FG 100  x IJ % = 10%
 11x = 550000 H x  10 K
 x = 50000 Now, sum = x , S.I . = 2x , Rat e = 10%

 Time =
FG 100  2 x IJ years = 20 years.
H x  10 K
 Simple Interest and Compound Interest 8.9

LEVEL-1  10 
1 2

 
1. SI 
4800  8.S  2.2S
= Rs. 918  CI  8000  1  2   8000
100 100
 
2. 500  4  6.25%  400  5  t
= 820
 t  6.25 years
This is given in option 4.
3. L et t he r equir ed sum be Rs. x.
12. Simple interest = Amount – Principle
108 108
 x   2916 = 800 – 500 = 300
100 100
PRT 10
 x = Rs. 2500 SI   300  500  T
100 100
4. Given that Rs. 200 becomes Rs. 240 in  T = 6 years
4 years, thus it would have become Rs. 210 at
the end of first year. 1
13. CI for first year
2
10
Hence, rate of simple interest = × 100 = PRT 1 1
200   16000   = 800
5%. 100 10 2
5. The money gets doubled in 5 years which 1
CI for 2nd year
means it becomes twice of itself after every 5 2
years. Hence, it will be increased to 4 times 1 1
in 10 years and 8 times in 15 years.  800  800    840
10 2
200  30  6  Total I = 800 + 840 = 1640
6. S.I   Rs.36
100 14. P = Rs. 500
7. If the money gets doubled in 4 years then it A = Rs. 700
will become 5 times in 8 years and 8 times in
12 years. 500  5  T
 Interest = 200 
100
PRT
8. Simple interest =  T = 8 years
100
T
5 5  r 
 800    100 15. A = P 1  
100 2  100 
1 PRT T
9. Compound interest for year =  10 
2 100  
 2100  2000  1  2 
10 1 100
 12000    
100 2
= 600 T
 5 
 1.05   1  
1 10 1  100 
CI for next year  600  600  
2 100 2  No. of years = 0.5
= 630 LEVEL-2
 Total CL = 600 + 630
2
= Rs. 1230  4 
1. A  7500  1    812
 100 
PRT
10. SI 
100  CI = 8112 – 7500 = 612
5 2. According to the question
 SI  800   3  120 sum becomes thrice.
100
T 2  If Rs. P is invested, it becomes 3P
 r 
 Interest earned = 2P
 2 
11. CI  P  1  P
100  P  10  T
   2P   T  20years
100
8.10 Simple Interest and Compound Interest
3. According to the question 10. Let money borrowed be Rs. x
2 According to the question
 r 
9680  P  1  
 100  2 3
48668 1.5  1.15  1  x 1.15
 
3
 r  10648  r 
10648  P  1     1    x = 111120.
 100  9680  100 11. According to the question
r
 1.1  1  xr3
100 x  14160 ....(1)
100
 r = 10% P.a
4. Let c be the cost of T.V.  r
x   r   x3
 4
 1 1  x  14700. ....(2)
c  4945 1    100
 1.075 (1.075)2 
solving (1) & (2)
= 4945 + 4600 + 4279 = 13824  x =12000.
T 12. I = Interest
 r 
5. 8640  5000  1   ...(1)
 100  P
I1st year 
T
20
 r 3
k  5000  1   P P 21P
 100  I2nd year   
20 400 400
cubing both sides
P P 21P
T I3rd year   
3 r  20 400 20  400
k 3   5000  1   ...(2)
 100 
4P
Divide (1) and (2)   642.6
8000
 k3 = (5000)2 × 8640
 P = 244800
 k = 6000
13. Let each installment be Rs. x
6. Let equal instruments be of Ps. x.
3
2
x 1.125  1.125  1  62496 1.125
3  129780 1.0665 
 
2
 x = 26244 (Ans) x 1.0665  1.0665  1
 
7. Let each sum be Rs. x
According to the question  x = 49152
14. Let early equal installments be x.
x  6   t  24  2  5  t
 (26480) (1.1)3
100 100
2
x5f  1.1  1.1  1 x
 
Also, x   28800
100  x = 10648
x = 18,000 (Ans)
15. Let sum with B = x
8. (22750 – 6200) (1.2)3 = x[(1.1)2 + (1.1) + 1]
 sum with A = (78060 – x)
 x = 6655
According to the question
P  1.3r   3 P  r  3
9.   540 9 7
100 100  4   4 
x 1 
   78060  x   1  
 Pr = 60000 100 100 

Pr3 2
Also, P   13,800  4 
100  x 1    78060  x
 100 
 r = 5%
 x = 37500.
 Profit, Loss and Discount 9.1

9
CHAPTER Profit, Loss and Discount
PRI CE
When one per son ent er s int o a t r ansact ion, he buys t he ar t icle or manufact ur es t he ar t icle at a cer t ain
pr ice known as Cost Price. Then he t r ies t o sell at pr ice mor e t han t he cost pr ice, t he pr ice at which he
sells t he ar t icle is known as Selling Price.
I f he sells t he ar t icle at mor e t han t he cost pr ice, he get s t he pr ofit .
Pr ofit = Selling pr ice – Cost pr ice
But if he sells t he ar t icle at lower pr ice t han t he cost pr ice t han he get s t he loss.
L oss = Cost pr ice – Selling pr ice
Same way when a per son decides t o sell t he ar t icle at a cer t ain pr ice he wr it es a pr ice on t he ar t icle above
t he selling pr ice or t he pr ice at which he want s t o sell it . The pr ice t hat he mar ks is known as M arked
Pr ice. H e wr it es mor e pr ice on t he ar t icle becouse ever ybody asks for decr easing t he pr ice, which is
wr it t en or mar ked. So decr ease in pr ice is known as discount .
Discount = M ar ked pr ice – Selling pr ice
At t imes 2 cust omer s come for t he same ar t icle; t he shopkeeper sells t he ar t icle above t he mar ked pr ice,
t he pr ices above t he mar ked pr ices in known as Premium.
Premium = Selling price – M arked price
+Pr ofit +Pr emium

CP SP MP

– L oss – Discount

PROFI T% AN D LOSS%
Pr ofit is t he differ ence bet ween selling pr ice and cost pr ice and is t aken on t he cost pr ice.
E xample.
A man buys an ar t icle for ` 2000 and sells it for ` 2500. H e get s a pr ofit of 500 ` (2500 – 2000) on invest ing
` 2000.
Per cent means upon hundr ed as t old in per cent age chapt er. So by unit ar y met hod
On ` 2000 pr ofit made is ` 500
500
 On ` 1 pr ofit made is `
2000
500
 On ` 100 pr ofit made is `  100
2000
Pr ofit , (i.e. 500)
or Pr ofit % =  100
Cost price, (i.e. 2000)
Similar ly, if a per son get s some loss, t hen

L oss
L oss% =  100
Cost pr ice
9.2 Profit, Loss and Discount
DI SCOU N T% AN D PREM I U M %
Pr ofit on t he cost pr ice is t he same as Pr emium on t he M ar ked pr ice and loss on t he cost pr ice is same as
Discount on t he M ar ked pr ice, i.e.
(i) A man pur chases an ar t icle for ` 2000 and sells for ` 2500 get s a pr ofit of ` 500. Same way a man mar ks
t he ar t icle for ` 2000 and sells for ` 2500 get s a pr emium of ` 500.
(ii) A man pur chases an ar t icle for ` 2000 and sells for ` 1600 get s a loss of ` 400. Same way a man mar ks
t he ar t icle for ` 2000 and sells for ` 1600 gives a discount of ` 400. So
Pr emium% = Pr emium/M ar ked pr ice  100
and, Discount % = Discount /M ar ked pr ice  100
Ther e is no dir ect r elat ionship bet ween cost pr ice and M ar ked pr ice. But bot h ar e r elat ed t o selling pr ice in
some way.
CP + Pr ofit = SP

CP +
FG P%  CPIJ = SP
H 100 K
FG100  P% IJ  CP = SP
H 100 K
Same way if it is loss t han
FG100 – L % IJ CP = SP
H 100 K
Selling pr ice and mar ked pr ice ar e r elat ed as
M P + Pr emium = SP
FG100  Pr emium%IJ M P
or H 100 K = SP

or
FG100 – Discount %IJ M P = SP
H 100 K
Not e : I n quest ion of pr ofit and loss, a gener al mist ake made by st udent s is -
Finding t he pr ofit %, loss% or Discount % on t he selling pr ice. So adher e t o t he fact t hat P%, L % has t o be
calculat ed on t he cost pr ice and D% has t o be calculat ed on t he mar ked pr ice.

PRACT I CE E XE RCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 3. A man pur chases some or anges @Re. 1 for 6 and
1. I f C.P. of 21 or anges i s equal t o t he S.P. of 18 an equal number @ Re. 1 for 4. H e mixed t hem
or anges, t hen pr ofit per cent is and sol d @ 20 pai se each. H i s gai n or l oss i n
per cent is
1 5
( a) 7 % (b) 5 % (a) loss 5% (b) loss 4%
7 9
(c) pr ofit 5% (d ) pr ofit 4%
2 1 4. Rajan buys lemons at t he r at e of 9 for 80p and
(c) 16 % (d ) 7 %
3 3 sells t hem at 11 for 120p. H is gain per lemon is
2. A man sold t wo hor ses for Rs. 3000 each gaining
200 11
25% on t he one and losing 25% on t he ot her. H is ( a) (b)
loss per cent is 99 99
120 11
1 1 (c) (d )
( a) 7 % (b) 6 % 99 9
3 4
1 5
(c) 7 % (d ) 5 %
3 9
 Profit, Loss and Discount 9.3

5. By selling an ar t icle at Rs. 1250, a gain of 25% is 13. Pr ofit ear ned by selling an ar t icle for Rs. 1,060 is
made on t he CP. At what pr ice should t he ar t icle 20% mor e t han t he loss incur r ed by selling t he
be sold in or der t hat a loss of 20% is made on t he ar ticle for Rs. 950. At what pr ice should the ar t icle
selling pr ice ? be sold t o ear n 20% pr ofit ?
(a) Rs. 800 (b) Rs. 850 (a) Rs. 1,800 (b) Rs. 1,080
1 2 (c) Rs. 1000 (d ) Rs. 1200
(c) Rs. 833 (d ) Rs. 833
3 3 14. Even aft er r educing t he mar ked pr ice of a T.V. by
6. Raj an sol d h i s w at ch f or Rs. 75 an d got a
Rs. 320, a shopkeeper makes a pr ofit of 15%. I f
per cent age of pr ofit equal t o t he cost pr ice. The
t he cost pr i ce be Rs. 3200, what per cent age of
cost pr ice of t he wat ch is
pr ofit would he have made if he had sold t he T.V.
(a) Rs. 40 at t he mar ked pr ice ?
(b) Rs. 60 (a) 10% (b) 20%
(c) Rs. 50
2
(d ) Rs. 52.50 (c) 25% (d ) 16 %
3
7. By sel ling 15 mangoes, a fr uit sel ler gai ns t he 15. A mer chant blends t wo var iet ies of t ea fr om t wo
selling pr ice of 3 mangoes. H is gain is differ ent t ea gar dens, one cost ing Rs. 45 per kg
(a) 25% (b) 16% and ot her Rs. 60 per k g i n t he r at i o of 7 : 3
r espect i vel y. H e sel l s t he bl ended var i et y at
(c) 24 % (d ) 27 % Rs. 54.45 per kg. H is pr ofit per cent is
8. Ram sol d a cow t o Rah i m at 20% pr of i t . (a) 5% (b) 10%
Rahim sold it t o Rober t at 25% pr ofit . I f Rober t
1 1
paid Rs. 900, t hen Ram had pur chased t he cow (c) 9 % (d ) 11 %
11 9
(in r upees) for
(a) 600 (b) 700 LEVEL-1
(c) 750 (d ) 800 1. A man sel ls hi s t wo car s at t he same pr ice. I n one
car he makes a pr ofi t of 10%. I n ot her car he loses
9. By selling a t owel for Rs. 126.90, a dr aper loses 10% over t he cost pr i ce. H i s t ot al gai n or loss
6% For low much should he sell t he t owel t o gain per cent is
4% ? (a) 1% loss (b) 1% gain
(a) Rs. 130 (b) Rs. 140.40 (c) 2% loss (d) No l oss no gain
(c) Rs. 145.05 (d ) Rs. 160 [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
10. By selling an ar t icle for Rs. 3640, a man loses 9%. 2. A man buys an article for Rs. 490 and sells it for
H is gain or loss per cent if he sells it for Rs. 4200, Rs. 465.50. Find his loss percentage.
is (a) 4% (b) 4.5%
(a) no loss no again (b) loss 5% (c) 5% (d) 5.5%
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(c) gain 5% (d ) gain 7.5%
3. A dealer professing to sell his goods at cost price,
11. Rajan buys mangoes at t he r at e of 3 kg for Rs. 21
uses 900 gm weight for 1 Kg. His gain percent is
and sells t hem at 5 kg. for Rs. 50. To ear n Rs. 102
(a) 9% (b) 10%
as pr ofit , he must sell
(a) 34 kg (b) 52 kg 1
(c) 11% (d) 11 %
9
(c) 26 kg (d ) 32 kg
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
12. Rajan pur chased a r efr i ger at or wi t h a mar k ed
pr ice of Rs. 6000 in a sale wher e 25% discount 4
4. The setting price of a table is times its cost
was being offer ed on t he mar ked pr ice. H e was 3
price. The gam percent is
given a fur t her discount of 10% on t he amount
ar r ived at aft er giving 25% discount . What was 1 1
(a) 20 % (b) 20 %
t he final amount paid by t he Rajan ? 3 2
(a) Rs. 3900 (b) Rs. 4050 1 1
(c) 25 % (d) 33 %
4 3
(c) Rs. 5400 (d ) Rs. 5650
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
9.4 Profit, Loss and Discount
5. X, Y, Z started a business by investing Rs. 27000, 13. A shopkeeper mixes 40 kg of sugar which costs
Rs. 81000 and Rs. 72000 respectively. At the end him `36 per kg with 27 kg of sugar which costs
on one year. Y's share of total profit was Rs. him `30 per kg. He sells the mixture at `35 per
36000. kg. His gain percent is
What was the total profit ? 38 400
(a) Rs.108000 (b) Rs. 116000 (a) % (b) %
9 49
(c) Rs. 80000 (d) Rs. 92000
100
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] (c) % (d) 10%
9
6. Successive discounts of 20% and 10% are [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
equivalent to a single discount of
14. Successive discounts of 40% and 20% are
(a) 25% (b) 26%
equivalent to a single discount of
(c) 28% (d) 30%
(a) 60% (b) 55%
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
7. If CP of 10 articles is equal to SP of 8 articles, (c) 54% (d) 52%
then in the whole transaction there is a [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]

(a) Profit of 20% (b) Loss of 20% 15. If CP of 25 articles is equal to SP of 20 articles,
(c) Loss of 25% (d) Profit of 25% then in the whole transaction there is a profit
of
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
8. To gain 25% after allowing a discount of 10%, (a) 10% (b) 20%
the shopkeeper should mark the price of the (c) 25% (d) 30%
article which cost him `360 as [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
(a) `450 (b) `460
LEVEL-2
(c) `486 (d) `500
1. A , B & C i n vest Rs. 26000, Rs. 34000 an d
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
Rs. 10000 r espect ivel y in a business. They ear n a
9. A shopkeeper mixes 26 kg of tea which costs pr ofit of 3500. B 's shar e i n t he pr ofit i s:
him `800 per kg with 30 kg of tea which costs
(a) Rs. 1200 (b) Rs. 1500
him `1440 per kg. He sells the mixed tea at
`1200 per kg. His gain is (c) Rs. 1700 (d) Rs. 1900
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) 5% (b) 8%
2. A shop r educed t he pr ice of an ar t icle by 25%. I t s
(c) 9% (d) 10%
sale for t hat ar t icle incr eased by 25%. What is
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
t he net effect on sal es i n r upees?
10. Successive discounts of 30% and 10% are
equivalent to a single discount of (a) No change
(a) 20% (b) 35% (b) I ncr ease by 5.75%
(c) 36% (d) 37% (c) Decr ease by 5.75%
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ] (d) Decr ease by 6.25%
11. If C.P. of 12 articles is equal to S.P. of 10 articles, [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
then in the whole transaction there is a profit 3. A mer chant is mi xing t wo qualit ies of r i ce, one
of which fir st pr ocur es at Rs. 70/kg and second at
Rs. 40/kg i n t he r at io of 7 : 3 r espect ivel y. At what
50 25
(a) % (b) % pr ice shoul d he sel l t he mixt ur e t o ear n a pr ofit
3 3
of 20%?
(c) 25% (d) 20%
(a) Rs. 73.20/kg
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
(b) Rs. 74/kg
12. To gain 25% after allowing a discount of 20%,
the shopkeeper should mark the price of the (c) Rs. 74.6/kg
article which cost him `400 as (d) Rs. 75.4/kg
(a) `525 (b) `580 [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

(c) `625 (d) `650

[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
 Profit, Loss and Discount 9.5

4. A shopkeeper pur chased 100 or anges for Rs. 330

2 2
and t hen sold t hese or anges at t he r at e of Rs. 48 (a) loss of 16 % (b) gain of 14 %
3 7
per dozen. What is hi s per cent age pr ofit ?

1 2 2 2
(a) 12 % (b) 14 % (c) loss of 14 % (d) gain of 16 %
2 7 7 3
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
1
(c) 10 % (d) 15% 11. H ami d sol d a chair at a pr ofit of 6.5%. I f he had
2 sold it for Rs.687.5 mor e, he would have gained
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ] x%. I f t he cost pr ice of t he chai r is Rs.12500 t hen
5. I f a fr ame is sold at Rs. 60. t her e i s a l oss of 15%. t he value of x is
For a pr ofi t of 2%, t he fr ame is t o be sol d at (a) 10 (b) 12
(a) Rs. 70 (b) Rs. 72 (c) 14 (d) 16
(c) Rs. 75 (d) Rs. 85 [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] 12. A t r ader bought 864 ar t icles and sold 800 of t hem
6. On sel ling 100 pens, a shopk eeper gai ns pr ice of for t he pr i ce he paid for 864 ar t icle . H e sold t he
20 pens. H is gai n per cent is r emaining ar t icl es at t he same pr ice per ar t icle
(a) 25% (b) 20% as t he ot her 800. The per cent age gai n on ent i r e
t r ansact ion is
(c) 15% (d) 12%
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] 1
7. A man bought an ar t icle for Rs. 240 and sol d i t at (a) 7 % (b) 8%
2
a loss of x% .H ad he pur chased it at 10% lesser
cost pr ice and sold it or Rs.42 mor e, t hen he would 1
(c) 8 % (d) 9%
1 2
have had a gai n of of t he new cost pr ice.
4 [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]

The value of x is 13. Anki t pur chased an ar t i cle for Rs.600 and sol d it
(a) 4 (b) 5 at t h e gai n of 30% . F r om t hat am ou nt , h e
pur chased anot her ar t icl e and sold i t at a loss of
(c) 6 (d) 8
30% . I n t he ent ir e t r ansact i on he has a
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
(a) L oss of 9% (b) Gain of 9%
8. Sur bhi makes a pr ofi t of 25% by sel li ng a pen at
a cer t ain pr ice. I f she char ges Rs 1 mor e on each (c) L oss of 6.9 % (d) Gain of 6.9%
pen, she would gain 40 % .The or i gi nal cost pr i ce [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]

of one dozen pen i s(i n Rs.) 14. A shopkeeper mar ks his goods at such a pr ice t hat
(a) 60 (b) 72 aft er all owing a discount of 15% on t he mar k ed
pr ice, he st il l ear ns a pr ofi t of 15 %. The mar k ed
(c) 80 (d) 84
pr i ce of an ar t i cl e w h i ch cost s h i m
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
Rs. 8500 is
9. The sel l i ng pr i ce of a cer t ai n commodi t y was
r educed by 20%. As a r esul t of it , t he sale was (a) Rs. 11000 (b) Rs. 11500
incr eased by 30%. What was t he t ot al effect of it (c) Rs. 12000 (d) Rs. 12500
on cash col lect ed by daily sal e? [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
(a) 4% i ncr ease (b) 4% decr ease
4
(c) 2.5% decr ease (d) 2% i ncr ease 15. A per son bought an ar t icle at of it s selling pr ice
5
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
and sol d at 10% mor e t han it s or i gi nal sell ing
10. M ar k ed pr ice of a washing machi ne is Rs.7200.
pr ice. H i s gai n per cent is
2 (a) 20 (b) 10
I f i t is sold at a di scount of 16 % of t he mar k ed
3
(c) 18.75 (d) 37.5
pr ice, t he gai n is 25%. I f i t i s sold for Rs.1600
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
below mar ked pr i ce, t hen t her e is a
9.6 Profit, Loss and Discount

AN SWE RS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (b)
LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (d)

E XPL AN AT I ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S  Rober t ’s cost pr ice = Rs. 150
I f Rober t ’s cost pr ice is Rs. 150, t hen
SP – CP 3 2 Ram’s cost pr ice = Rs. 100
1.  100% =  100  16 %
SP 18 3 H ence if Rober t ’s cost pr ice is Rs. 900, t hen
Ram’s cost pr ice
1
2. 2.5  2.5 = 6 %
4 100
= Rs.  900  Rs. 600 .
3. CP for 12 eggs = 2 ; SP (24 eggs) = 4.80 150

CP (for 12 eggs) 3
9. CP = Rs.
FG 100  126.90IJ = Rs. 135
N ow,
CP for 24 eggs
=
5 H 94 K
H ence t o gain 4%,
20
 % L oss =  100%  4% 135  104
5 new SP = = Rs. 140.40
100
80 120
4. CP = ; SP =
9 11 91 3640
120 80 200 10. =
 Gain per lemon =   ? 4200
11 9 99  ?= 105%
125 1250 i.e. Gain = 5%
5. =
100 CP 11. P = 10 – 7 = 3
 CP = 1000 102
N ow, 120% of SP = 1000,  SP = = Rs. 34 per kg
3
1
 SP = 833 ()25%
3 12. Rs.6000   Rs. 4500
()1500
3
7.  100% = 25% ()10%
12   Rs. 4050
()450
8. L et Ram’s cost pr ice = Rs. 100
 Ram’s selling pr ice 13. L et CP = K
100  20 120
= Rs. 100   1960 – K = (K  950)  K = Rs 1000
20 100
= Rs. 120
 Rahim’s cost pr ice = Rs. 120 14. 15% of 3200 = 480
 Rahim’s selling pr ice M .P. = 3200 + 480 + 320 = 4000
100  25 P = 4000 – 3200 = 800
= Rs. 120 
100 800
 P% =  100%  20%
= Rs. 150 4000
 Profit, Loss and Discount 9.7
15. 7  45 = 315
7 9 63
3  60 = 180 10. x   x
CP of 10 kg = 495 10 10 100
 CP of 10 kg = 49.5 Hence, there would be a net discount of 37%
Pr ofit = 54.54 – 49.5 11. given; CP × 12 × = SP × 10
= Rs. 4.95
4.95 SP 6
 % pr ofit =  100% = 10%  
49.5 CP 5
LEVEL-1  SP = 1.2 CP
1. If the selling price and profit +/ loss percent is Hence, there will be a profit of 20%
same then there is always a loss of 4 5
 10  10  12. MP    400
  % i.e. 1%. 5 4
100 
25
490  465.5  MP   400
2. L oss % =  100 = 5% 16
490
 MP = Rs. 625.
100 1
3. Requir ed per cent =  100  11 % 13. CP of (per kg) sugar after mixing
900 9
4 40  36  27  30 2250
4. SP =  CP  Rs.
3 40  27 67
43 1 Hence, gain percent
 Requir ed pr ofit =  100  33 %
3 3
2250
4 35 
5. Y's shar e = Rs. 36000 whi ch is =  81000  67  100
9 2250
H ence, t ot al pr ofit 67
4
=  27000  81000  72000  67  35  2250 95
9   100   10
2250 225
= Rs. 80,000
6. Successive discounts of 20% and 10% will be 38
 %
equal to a single discount of: 9
– 20 – 10 + (– 20 × – 10)/100 = – 28 or 28%. 14. Let initial value = 100
7. Given that: 10 × CP = 8 × SP After 1st discount of 40%, value = 60
 SP : CP = 5 : 4 = 1.25 Discount1 = 40
Hence, there would be a profit of 25% in the
4
entire transaction. After 2nd discount of 20%, value 60   48
5
8. Given that: MP × 0.9 = 360 × 1.25
Discount2 = 12
Hence, MP or marked price will be Rs. 500.
Single discount = (40 + 12) = 52%
9. Per kg cost price of the tea after mixing the
15. Let CP of 1 article = x
(26  800  30  1440)  CP of 25 articles = 25 x
two varieties =
(26  30)
25x
8000 3P of 25 articles   25
= Rs. 20
7
and selling price is given as Rs. 1200 SP  CP
 Profit =  100  25%
CP
Hence, required profit percent
 8000  625x
 1200    25x
7  20  100  25%
  100  5% . 25x
8000
7
9.8 Profit, Loss and Discount

LEVEL-2  1  x
7. S.P initial  240 
1. The ratio is which profit distributed will be ratio  100 
of their investments.
New C.P = 0.9 (240) = 216
 B’ share
 1  x
 34000  New S.P  240    42
 3500   100 
 26000  34000  10000  = 1700

2. Let initial price be Rs. 100  x 

 240  1 
   42  1.25  216 
100 
3
 New price   100  Rs.75 x=5
4
8. old C.P = x
Let initial sales = 100 units
 old S.P = 1.25 x
5 New S.P = (1.25 x + 1)
 New sales   100  125
4 According to the question
1.25 x + 1 = 1.4 (x)
70 × 7 + 40 × 3
3. x =
10 1
x
x = Rs.610 0.15
with a profit of 20%
1
 lost of dozen   12 = Rs. 80
20 0.15
New x = 610   610
100 9. Initial cash collected = SP × Quality Sold
Rs.73.20/kg =x×y
Final cash collected = 0.8x × 1.3y = 1.04 xy
50
4. C.P of one orange =  Rs.3.5  4% Increase (Ans)
100
10. According to the question
48
S.P one orange = 4 50
12 SP  7200  7200  6000
3  100
Pr ofit  gain = 25 %
 Pr ofit %   100
CP
4
CP=  6000  4800
0.5 2 5
  100  14 %
3.5 7
if SP = 7200 – 1600 i.e 5600
5. According to the question
5600  4800
 gain %   100
60 4800
CP 
0.85
SP  CP 2
 for a profit of 2%  gain %   100%  16 %
CP 3
 60  11. SP = 6.5 % of 12500
S.P  1.02  = 72
 0.85 
 6.5 
6. According to the question x% =   12500  687.5
 100 
Profit = 20 C.P; C.P  cost price 12500
100 SP – 100 P = 20 CP
6875
 100 SP = 120 CP x = 6.5 +  12 (Ans)
125
 SP = 1.2 CP

1.2CP  CP
Pr ofit%   100  20%
CP
 Profit, Loss and Discount 9.9
12. Let price of 1 article = Rs. x 14. M. P = x
 C.P = 864,  S.P  0.85x
864
Total SP   864x 0.85x  8500
800   100  15
8500
 864  864   x = 11500
 x  864x 
 800   100 = 8% 15. Let original SP = x
 % gain 
864x  CP = 0.8x
13. At the end of transaction, he lead  SPnew = 1.1x

.1.1x  0.8x
1.3  600   0.7  546 gain    100% = 37.5%
0.8x
 loss = 600 – 546 = 54

54
 loss %   100  9%
600
10
C H A P TE R Average
AV ERAGE
The Aver age (ar i t hmet ic mean) of a gr oup or set of N number s is defined as t he sum of t hose number s
di vi ded by N.
H er e N is t he number of values or obser vat ions in a set .
Sum of N number s/values
Aver age =
Numbers of values/observat ions
Sum
A= or Sum = N  Aver age
N
e.g. I f wei ght s of t hr ee chi ldr en ar e 80, 90 and 76 pounds, t hen aver age of t he wei ght s of chil dr en can be
calcul at ed as :
Sum of weight s of childr en 80  90  76
Aver age = = = 82 Pounds.
Number of childr en 3
U sing Average to find a N umber
Somet imes aver age wil l be given and we have t o fi nd t he mi ssi ng number / obser vat ion.
I n t his t ype of case, t hey give us.
(1) Aver age value and t he number of obser vat ions, aver age of which is given.
They also give t he sum of obser vat ions.
(2) Except t he missing obser vat ions, (I f mor e t han one obser vat ions ar e missing)
e.g. I f aver age of 3, 4, 5 and x i s 5, what i s t he value of x ?
We have given, N = 4 obser vat ions, and aver age of t hese obser vat i ons i s 5.
Sum
 Aver age =
N
345x
 5=  20 = 12 + x  x = 8.
4
H ence, t he mi ssi ng obser vat ion i s 8.
e.g. I f aver age of fi ve number s i s 10 and sum of t hr ee number s is 16, t hen what is t he aver age of ot her
t wo number s.
L et t he five number s a, b, c, d and e.
a  b c d  e
So as gi ven, = 10
5
Al so, gi ven, a + b + c = 16.
d  e 16
 = 10
5
de dc
  8 = 14  = 17
2 2
So, t he aver age of ot her t wo number s is 17.
Average in Different Cases
1. I f all t he number s in a set ar e t he same, t hen t hat number is t he aver age of t hat set .
e.g. Aver age of set of values 5, 5 and 5 is 5.
Sum 555 15
Also by t heor y, Aver age = = = =5
N 3 3
10.2 Average
2. I f t he number s in a set ar e not all t he same, t hen t he aver age must be gr eat er t han t he smallest number
and less t han t he gr eat est number in t hat set .
e.g. Aver age of set of values 83, 84, 87, 97, 99
Sum 83  84  87  97  99 450
Aver age = = = = 90
N 5 5
H er e 90 > 83 and 90 < 99.
Weight ed Average
To calcul at e t he weight ed aver age of a set number s, mul t i ply each number i n t he set by t he number of
t i mes i t appear s, add all pr oduct s and divi de by t he t ot al number of number s in t he set .
e.g. On one day, 20 out of 25 st udent s t ak e t est and t heir aver age was 80. On anot her day, t he r est 5
st udent s t ake t est and t heir aver age i s 90. What was t he aver age for t he ent ir e class ?
20(80)  5 90
1600  450
Aver age of ent ir e class = = = 82.
25 25
Fact : The aver age bet ween t wo set s of number s is closer t o t he set wi t h mor e obser vat i ons.
Some import ant F act s
(1) I f each one of t he gi ven number s is incr eased by const ant K , t hen t hei r aver age is i ncr eased by K .
n 1
(2) Aver age of n consecut ive nat ur al number =
2
(n  1) (2n  1)
(3) Aver age of squar es of n consecut ive nat ur al number =
6
n (n  1) 2
(4) Aver age of cubes of n consecut ive nat ur al number =
4
(5) Aver age of n consecut ive even number s = n + 1

(6) Aver age of squar es of n consecut ive even number s = 2(n  1) (2n  1)
3
(7) Aver age of n consecut ive odd number s = n

(8) I f each one of t he gi ven number s is mult ipl ied by const ant K , t hen t heir aver age is mult i pl ied by K .
t ot al dist ance
Aver age speed =
dist ance
(9) I f a car cover s some jour ney fr om A t o B at u k m/hr, and t he r et ur n t r i p at v km/hr. t hen t he aver age
speed dur ing t he whol e jour ney i s,
 2uv 
  k m/hr .
u v
(10) I f aver age of a set of number s is A, and i f anot her number is added t o t he set and a new aver age is
calcul at ed, t hen new aver age will be l ess t han, equal t o, or gr eat er t han A, depending on whet her x is
less t han, equal t o, or gr eat er t han A, r espect ivel y.
3uvw
(11) Aver age of t hr ee differ ent speeds u , v , w t o t r avel equal dist ance =
uv  vw  uw
(12) I f a per son is r eplaced by anot her per son by which
(i ) Aver age is incr eased, t hen
Age of t he new comer = Age of per son left
= Number of per sons  I ncr ease in aver age age
(ii ) Aver age is decr eased, t hen
Age of new comer = Age of per son left – Number of per sons  Decr ease in aver age age.
(13) I f a per son joins a gr oup wit hout r eplacing any per son by which
(i ) Aver age incr eased, t hen
age of t he new comer =Pr evious aver age age
+ Number of per sons including new comer  I ncr ease in aver age age
 Average 10.3
or , age of t he new comer = I ncr eased aver age age
+ Number of per sons or iginally in t he gr oup  I ncr ease in aver age age
(ii ) Aver age decr eased, t hen
Age of t he new comer = Pr evious aver age age
– Number of per sons (including new comer )  Decr ease in aver age age.
(14) I f a per son leaves t he gr oup but no body joins t he gr oup by which
(i ) Aver age incr eased, t hen
Age of man left = Pr evious aver age age + Number of pr esent per sons  incr ease in aver age age
(ii ) Aver age decr eased, t hen
Age of man left = Pr evious aver age age + Number of pr esent per sons  Decr ease in aver age age
(15) Let aver age marks obtained by x candidates in an examination is n . I f average mar ks of passed candidates
is p and t hat of t he failed candiat es is q, t hen
Total candidates (Passed average  Failed average)
(i ) Number of passed candidat es =
Passed average  Failed average
Total candidates (Passed average  Total average)
(ii ) Number of failed candidat es =
Passed average  Failed average
(16) Geomet r ic mean of number s x 1, x 2, ............. x n
= n x1  x2 ... xn

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 6. A car t r avels 70 kilometer s in one hour befor e some
1. A m an cov er s a cer t ai n di st an ce at fault happens, t hen it t r avels for 120 km at 30
90 km/hr and r et ur ns back t o t he st ar t ing point at kmph. For t he ent ir e t r ip, aver age speed is
60 k m/hr. H is aver age speed dur ing t he whol e (a) 33
jour ney is (b) 36
(a) 60km/hr (b) 65km/hr (c) 38
(c) 72km/hr (d) 75km/hr (d) 40
2. A man goes up hi l l wi t h an aver age speed at 7. A mot or t r avels 100 miles at t he r at e of 40 miles
20 kmph and comes down wit h an aver age speed of per hour. I f it r et ur ns t he same dist ance at a r at e
30 kmph. The distance tr avelled in both the cases of 50 miles per hour, t he aver age speed for t he
being the same, the aver age speed for t he ent ir e ent ir e t r ip, in miles per hour is
jour ney is
200
(a) 18 kmph (b) 22 kmph (a) (b) 40
3
(c) 24 kmph (d) 26 kmph
50 400
3. A man t r avels fir st 80 km at 20 kmph, next 30km (c) (d)
at 15 kmph and then 80km at 20 kmph. His average 9 9
speed for t he whole jour ney (in kmph) is 8. At a const ant velocict y of 30 miles per hour, car A
(a) 20 (b) 22 l eaves point X  at 1 p.m.. Car B l eaves ‘X’ at
3 p.m. at const ant vel ocit y and over t ak es A at
(c) 17 (d) 19
5 p.m. The aver age speed of B will be
4. A car cover s four successi ve 4 km di st ances at
(a) 20 (b) 25
speeds of 10 k m ph , 20 k m ph an d 60 k m ph
r espect ively. I t s aver age speed over t ot al dist ance (c) 40 (d) 60
is 9. A car cover s a distance in 36 minut es. I t r uns at 50
(a) 10 kmph (b) 20 kmph kmph on an aver age. The speed at which t he car
(c) 25 kmph (d) 30 kmph must r un t o r educe t he t i me of jour ney by 6
minut es will be
5. Fir st 150 miles of his t r ip, John dr ove at 50 miles
per hour, t hen due t o t r affic, he dr ove at only 20 (a) 30 kmph
miles per hour for t he next 120 miles. H is aver age (b) 42.86 kmph
speed, in miles per hour, for t he ent ir e t r ip is (c) 55 kmph
(a) 20 (b) 28 (d) 60 kmph
(c) 30 (d) 32
10.4 Average
10. A car t r avelled fr om city P t o cit y R in 30 minut es. 4. The average of 35 observations is 30. Out of
The fir st half of t he dist ance was cover ed at 50 these observations the average of first 18
miles per hour, and t he second half was cover ed observations is 30 and the last 18 observations
at 60 miles per hour. What was t he over age speed is 40. The 18th observation is
of t he car ? (a) 180 (b) 190
200 400 (c( 200 (d) 210
(a) (b)
11 11 [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
500 600 5. The average of first five prime numbers is
(c) (d)
11 11 (a) 3.6 (b) 4.5
11. A man dr ives 150 km fr om A t o B in 3 hour s 20 (c) 5.5 (d) 5.6
minut es. H e comes back fr om B t o A in 4 hour s 10 [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
minut es. Then, aver age speed fr om A t o B exceeds 6. The average weight of 100 students is 46 kg.
t he aver age speed for t he ent ir e t r ip by
The average weight of boys is 50 kg. If the
(a) 4 km/hr number of boys is 60, the average weight of girls
(b) 4.5 km/hr in kilograms is
(c) 5 km/hr (a) 35 (b) 40
(d) 3 km/hr (c) 45 (d) 50
12. The aver age of fir st 50 nat ur al number s is [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
(a) 22.25 (b) 24.25 7. The average of first six even whole numbers is
(c) 25 (d) 25.5 (a) 5 (b) 6
13. M ean of 12, 22, 32, 42, 52, 62, 72 ............ 502 is (c) 7 (d) 8
(a) 850.5 (b) 858.5 [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
(c) 854.5 (d) 852.5
8. The average marks of students of section A an
14. Aver age of all odd number s upt o 100 is
B are respectively 60 and 70. The number of
(a) 51 (b) 50
students in section A is 47 and in section B is
(c) 49.5 (d) 49 53. The average marks of both sections taken
15. Aver age of 7 consecut i ve number s i s 33, t hen together are
lar gest of t hese number s is (a) 65.5 (b) 65.3
(a) 106 (b) 105
(c) 65.6 (d) 65.8
(c) 104 (d) 107 [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
LEVEL-1 9. The average weight of 100 students is 46 kg.
1. Find the average of all prime numbers between The average weight of girls is 40 kg. If the
30 and 50 : number of girls is 40, the average weight of boys
(a) 48 (b) 39 in kilograms is
(c) 39.8 (d) 38 (a) 40 (b) 45
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (c) 50 (d) 60
2. The average age of 5 members of a committee is [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
the same as it was 3 years ago, because an old 10. If 27, 12. 24, x are in proportion, then x is equal
member has been replaced by a new member. to
The difference between the ages of old and new (a) 9 (b) 30
member is (c) 54 (d) 60
(a) 12 years (b) 4 years For the above question, User had specified
(c) 8 years (d) 15 years ‘ignore’ during keys upload.
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
3. The average of 5 numbers is 40. If one number 11. The average of squares of first five whole
is excluded then the average becomes 38. The numbers is
excluded number is (a) 6 (b) 7.5
(a) 48 (b) 58 (c) 9 (d) 11
(c) 60 (d) 78 [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
 Average 10.5
12. The average of first 5 odd prime numbers is 5. I f aver age of 7 consecut ive number i s 203, t hen
(a) 5.4 (b) 5.8 t he aver age of t he small est and second number
(c) 6.8 (d) 7.8 is
[RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ] (a) 203
13. The average of 18 observations is 30 and average (b) 201
of 22 observations is 40. The average of all (c) 202.5
combined observation is (d) 203.5
(a) 35.5 (b) 35 [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
(c) 36 (d) 36.5 6. The aver age of n number s is x . I f the fir st number
[RRB JE 2015 28 th
AU G 2 nd
SH I FT ] is i ncr eased by 1, second by 2, t hi r d by 3 and so
14. The average of first seven whole numbers is on, t hen t heir aver age is y. The value of yx
(a) 8 (b) 7 is.
(c) 6 (d) 3
n
[RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ] (a) X (b) 1
2
15. The average 16 observations is 25 and average
of 24 observations is 30. The average of all 40 n  n  1 n 1
observation is (c) (d)
2 2
(a) 26 (b) 27 [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) 27.5 (d) 28 7. I n a mat hemat ics t est in a class t he aver age scor e
[RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ] of boys i s 33 and t hat of gi r l s is 42. I f t he aver age
LEVEL-2 scor e of all t he st udent s in t he class is 38, t hen
1. I f 12a + 6b = 54, what i s t he aver age of a & b? what is t he per cent age of gir ls in t he cl ass?
(a) 2.25 (b) 4.5 4 5
(a) 44 (b) 46
(c) 6 (d) Data insufficient 9 9
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
2. The aver age scor e of gir ls in a cl ass is 75 mar k s. 5 4
(c) 55 (d) 55
T h e av er age scor es of boy s i n t h e cl ass i s 9 9
65 mar k s. I f t he aver age of t he cl ass i s 68.75 [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
mar k s, what i s t he r at i o of boys t o gir ls in t he 8. Aver age scor e of gi r ls of class x in an examinat ion
class? is 73 and t hat of boys is 71. I f t he aver age scor e of
(a) 2:5 (b) 5 : 2 bot h boys and gi r ls i s 71.8, t hus per cent age of
(c) 3 : 5 (d) 5 : 3 boys i n t he cl ass is
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (a) 35 (b) 40
3. The aver age of six number s is 3.95. I f t he aver age (c) 60 (d) 80
of fir st t wo number s is 3.40 and t he aver age of [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
next t wo number s is 3.85, t hen fi nd t he aver age
9. The aver age of t he t est scor es of a cl ass of x
of t he r emaining t wo number s.
st udent s is 70 and t hat of y st udent s is 91. I f t he
(a) 4.6 (b) 4.7 scor es of bot h t he cl asses ar e combi ned, t he
(c) 4.8 (d) 4.5 aver age is 80.
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
2x  5y
4. The aver age of mar ks of 28 st udent s in M at hs The val ue of is
5x  4y
was 50. 8 st udent s left t he school and t hen t he
aver age i ncr eased by 5. What i s t he aver age of 11 33
(a) (b)
mar k s obt ai ned by t he st udent s who l eft t he 10 10
school? 24 26
(a) 37.5 (b) 42.5 (c) (d)
5 5
(c) 45 (d) 50.5 [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
10.6 Average

10. The aver age of n number s is x .I f t he fir st number 13. The aver age scor e of t he st udent s i n a class is 65.
is decr eased by 1, second is decr eased by 2,t hi r d The aver age scor e of boys is 60 and t hat of gir ls is
is decr eased by 3 and so on, t hen t hei r aver age is 68. The per cent age of gir l s in t he class i s:
y. Then find t he value of x – y. (a) 37.5 (b) 62.5

n  n  1 n 1 (c) 60 (d) 65
(a) (b) [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
2 2
14. The aver age of 30 posit ive i nt eger s i s x. I f t he
n  n  1 n 1 fir st jmber i s incr eased by 2. second by 4. t hir d by
(c) (d) 6. four t h by 8. and so on, t hen t he aver age of t he
2 2
r esult i ng number s i s y. The val ue of y-x is
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(a) 27 (b) 29
11. Four positive integer s, when added thr ee at a t ime
gi ve t he sums 180,197,208 and 219. Aver age of (c) 31 (d) 33
t hese four int eger s is [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
(a) 67 (b) 72 15. The aver age of mar k s obt ai ned by 150 st udent s
(c) 73 (d) 89 was 40. I f t he aver age mar ks of passed st udent s
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
wer e 50 and t hat of fai led st udent s was 20. Then
t h e n u m ber of st u den t s w h o p assed t h e
12. The aver age of 100 number s i s 100. I f t he fir st
examinat i on was
number is i ncr ease by 1, second by 2, t hir d by 3
and so on , t hen t he aver age of t he number s so (a) 80 (b) 90
obt ained exceeds t he or i gi nal aver age by (c) 100 (d) 120
(a) 25.5 (b) 50 [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]

(c) 50.5 (d) 60

[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (a)
LEVEL-1
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (*)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (d)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (c)
 Average 10.7

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 4. H er e a car cover s four successive 4 km dist ances
at 4 di ffer ent speeds of 10 k mph, 20 k mph,
1. H er e man cover s t he same dist ance, but wit h
30 kmph and 60 kmph
t wo differ ent speeds.
So, t ime for
When t he dist ance is same and t wo differ ent
speeds ar e given for cover ing t hat distance, t hen 4 km 24
aver age speed dur ing t he whole jour ney is given 1st 4 km = = hr s.
10 K mph 60
by,
4km 12
2uv 2nd 4 km =  hrs
Aver age speed = 20kmph 60
uv
H er e, u = 90 km/hr and v = 60 km/hr. 4 km 8
3r d 4 km =  hrs
2  90  60 10800 30 K mph 60
 Aver age speed = 
90  60 150
4 km 4
= 72 km/hr. 4t h 4 km =  hrs
60 K mph 60
2. H er e as given, man goes uphill wit h an aver age
speed of 20 k mph and comes down wi t h an  Tot al di st ance = 4+4+4+4 = 16 km.
aver age speed of 30 kmph. H ence, aver age speed of car over 16 km
Thus, u = 20kmph and v = 30 kmph
16 k m
I t is given that dist ance in both the jour ney is =
 24 12 8 4 
same.      hr
60 60 60 60 
So, aver age speed for t he ent ir e jour ney

 2uv  16  60
=  km/hr = = 20 km./hr.
 u  v  48
5. As given in dat a, John dr ove fir st 150 miles at
2  20  30 speed of 50 mile per hour.
= kmph
20  30 So, for fir st 150 miles he t ook

 1200  150 miles

=   k m/hr = 24 kmph. = hour s
50  50 miles/hr
3. M an t r avels t ot al dist ance of Next 120 miles, he dr ove at speed of 20 miles
80 + 30 + 80 = 190 kilomet er s. per hour.
Times t aken So for t hat 120 miles, he t ook,

80 k m 120 miles
for 1st phase = = 4h r = 6 hour s
20 k m /hr 20 miles
Thus, in t ot al he dr ove
30km
for 2nd phase =  2hr 150 + 120 = 270 miles in 6 + 3 = 9 hr s.
15k m/hr
So, his aver age speed for t he ent ir e t r ip
80k m
for 3r d phase =  4hr Tot al dist ance John dr ove
20k m/hr =
Tot al t ime he t ook
So, aver age speed for t he whole jour ney
Tot al dist ance 150+120 miles
= =
Tot al t ime t aken 3+6 hrs
(80  30  80) 190 k m 270
= = = 19 km/hr.. = miles / hr = 30 miles /hr..
(4  2  4)hr 10 hr . 9
10.8 Average
6. Here given that a car travels 70 km in one hour (100  100) miles
befor e fault happens means it has cover ed 70 km =
9
distnace for first phase. hr s.
2
Aft er t he faul t happened, i t has cover d t he
400
r emaining 120 km at speed of 30 km/hr = mi les/hr
9
H ence, t ot al t ime for t r ip becomes
8. As given, car A leaves point X at 1 p.m. and
= (t ime for 1st phase) t r avels wit h const ant velocit y of 30 miles per
+ (t ime for 2nd phase) hour.
= 1 hr + 4 hr s Car B L eaves point X at 3 p.m. and t r avels wit h
= 5 hr s. const ant velocit y and over t akes car A at 5 p.m.
And, t ot al dist ance becomes So, at 5 p.m. t he dist ance cover ed by bot h car A
= (Dist ance in 1st phase) and car B will be equal.
+ (Dist ance in 2nd phase) L et D 1 and D 2 would be t he dist ances cover ed by
= 70 km + 120 km car A and car B r espect ively,
= 190 kilomet er s. H ence 5 p.m. D1 = D2
 Aver age speed  (Time taken by car A  Speed of by A
= Time t aken by car B
Tot al dist ance  Speed of car B
=
Tot al t ime t aken  30 km/hr  4 hr s
(120  70) km = S2 (Speed of car B)  2 hr s
=  120 km = S2  2 hr s.
(1  4) hr
 S2 = 60 km/hr
= 38 km/hr.
9. The dist ance cover ed by a car at 50 kmph is in
7. I n fir st phase, a mot or t r avels 100 miles at r at e
36 minut es.
of 40 miles per hour.
To pr oceed fur ther, we fir st find the total distance
So, t ime t aken dur ing 1st phase
cover ed by it .
Dist ance Now, Dist ance = Speed  Time
=
Speed H er e, Speed = 50 kmph

100 miles 1 1000 500

= = 2 hr s. = 50  =
40 miles/hr 2 3600 36

Same as t hat of 1st phase, but speed t he mot or 500

 Dist ance =  36 = 500 km
is differ ent . So t he t ime for 2nd phase will be 36
differ ent.
Fur t her, we ar e gi ven t he t i me r educed by 6
So t he dist ance dur ing 2nd phase is 100 miles minut es,
and speed of mot or given is 50 miles/hr.
i.e. 30 minut es t o complet e t he same dist ance.
Dist ance
 Time (2nd phase) = Dist an ce
Speed  Speed =
Time
100 miles
= 500 50
50 miles/hr  = =
30 3
= 2 hr s.
H ence t ot al dist ance for t he ent ir e t r ip 50 3600
=  km/hr
= (100 +100) = 200 miles 3 1000
and t ime t aken for t he t r ip = 60 km/hr
1 9 10. H er e, we apply t he for mula
= 2  2 = hr s.
2 2 Dist ance = speed  t ime.
 Aver age speed (ent ir e t r ip) The t ot al dist ance cover ed in 30 mins.
Tot al dist ance of t r ip The fir st half of t he dist ance was cover ed at 50
= miles per hour.
Tot al t ime t aken for t r ip
 Average 10.9
= 40 km/hr. ...(3)
x
 Time Taken for fir st half distance = Fr om r esult s (i ) and (ii ), we get t he differ ence of
2  50
aver age speeds of (jour ney fr om A t o B) and t he
wher e, x = t ot al dist ance cover ed. whole jour ney.
The second half of t he dist ance was cover ed at  Differ ence
60 miles per hour. = (Average speed for A to B)
 Time Taken for second half dist ance – (Aver age speed for whole Jour ney)
x = (45 – 40)km/hr = 5 km/hr
=
2  60 H ence, aver age speed fr om A t o B exceeds t he
x x aver age speed for whole t r ip by 5 km/hr.
   30
2  50 2  60 n (n  1)
12. Sum of fir st n nat ur al number s =
x  1 1  2
     30
2 50 60 So, aver age of fir st n nat ur al number s
x 6  5 n (n  1) n  1
    30 = 
2  300  2n 2
30  300 1800  50  1  51
 x 2= miles.  Aver age =  = = 25.5
11 11  2  2
Tot al Dist ance n (n  1) (2n  1)
Now, aver age speed = 13. 12 + 22 + 32 + ..... +n 2 =
Tot al Time 6
 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + 502
1800
= 11 FG 50  51  101 IJ = 42925.
=
30 H 6 K
1800 600
=
11  30
=
11  Requir ed aver age = G
F 42925 IJ  858.5
11. H er e dist ance bet ween A and B is 150 km and a
H 50 K
man dr ives t his dist ance in 3 hour s 20 min. 14. Sum of odd number s upt o 100
So his speed for t he t r ip fr om A t o B. = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +... + 95 + 97 + 99
Aver age speed fr om A t o B = (1+99)+(3+97)+(5+95) +... upt o 25 pair s
= 100 + 100 + 100 + ... (25 t imes)
Dist ance 150 km = 2500
= =
Time   20  
3+  60   hr
 Aver age=
FG 2500 IJ = 50
 
H 50 K
= 45 km/hr ...(i )
15. L et t he number s be
Now, we get aver age speeds for t he t r ips fr om A
t o B and B t o A. x, x + 1, x + 2, x + 3, x + 4, x + 5 and x + 6.
Aver age speed fr om B t o A x  x 1  x  2  x  3  x  4  x  5  x  6

7
Dist ance 150 km
= = = 103
Time   10  
4   60   hr 7 x  21
   = 103
7
150 km
= = 36 km/hr ...(ii ) 7( x  3)
1  = 103
4 hr 7
6
 x + 3 = 103
Aver age speed for t he whole jour ney
 x = 100
2(Avg.Speed for A t oB) (Avg.Speed for B t oA)  L ar gest number = x + 6
=
(Avg.Speed for A toB)  (Avg. Speed for B t oA)
= (100+6) = 106
2(45)(36)
=
(45  36)
10.10 Average

LEVEL-1 3000
Average weight of boys  number of boys
1. Prime numbers between 30 and 50 are:
31, 37, 41, 43, 47 3000
  50
 required average 100  40
10. 27 : 12 : : 24 : x
31  37  41  43  47
 7 24
5  
12 x
199 288
  39 x  10.67
5 27
correct ans is not available in the options.
2. Aver age age of t he five member s should have
been incr eased by 3 year s. 11. Squares of first 5 whole numbers = 0, 1, 4, 9, 16

H ence, r equir ed di ffer ence = 3 x 5 = 15 year s. 0  1  4  9  16

 Average  =6
3. Let the number be x. 5
12. Average of first 5 add prime Numbers
 5 × 40 = x + 4 × 38
 x = 48. 3  5  7  11  13
= = 7.8
5
4. Let the 18th observation be x.
18  30  22  40
 18 × 30 + 18 × 40 = 35 × 30 + x 13. Combined Average 
18  22
 x = 210.
= 35.5
3  5  7  11
5. Required average   5.6 sum of first 7 whole numbers
5 14. Average =
7
6. Set the average weight of girls be x kg.
0 1 2 3 4  5 6
 50  60  x  40  100  46 
7
 x = 40 kg. =3
7. First six whole numbers form on AP  0, 2, 4, 16  25  24  30
... 15. Average =
40
n = 28
Sum of Ap = (2a + (n – 1)d) = 30
2
LEVEL-2
6
= (2 × 0 +(6 – 1)2) = 30 1. 12a + 6b = 54
2
As different values of a and b satisfies the given
30 equation.
 Average = 5
6
 Data is insufficient to find average.
8. Total marks in Section A = average marks ×
numbers of students = 60 × 47 = 2820
2. Gir ls Boys
Similarly, total marks in Section B = 70 × 53
75 65
= 3710
2820  3710
 Average =  65.3
47  53 68.75
9. Total weight of class = average weight ×
number of students
3.75 6.25
= 46 × 100 = 4600
similarly, total weight of girls = 40 × 40  Boys : Girls = 6.25 : 3.75 = 5 : 3
= 1600 3. Let avg of last two number be x
 Total weight of boys = 4600 – 1600 = 3000  3.95 × 6
Let the average of last 2 number be x.
 Average 10.11
According to question,
9. X Y
3.95  6  2  3.40  2  3.85  2x
70 91
 2x  23.7  14.5
x = 4.6
80
4. Let avg of students who left = x

28  50  8x
55  11 10
20
 x = 37.5  x : y = 11 : 10
5. Assume smallest No. = a
x
2 5
a  1  2  3  4  5  6  2x  5y y
  203  
7 5x  4y 5 x  4
y
 a = 200
 Avg of 200 and 206 = 203 Ans
11
2 5
n  n  1  10
6. Increase in sum of numbers  11
2 5 4
10
Distributing the sum to n numbers

n  n  1  n  1 11
  5
2n 2  5
11
7. Boys Girls 4
33 42 2

36 2 24
  
38 5 3 5
10. According to question,

4 5
nx  (1  2    n)
y
4:5 n
 5  5 n(n  1)
 percentage of girls    100  %  55 % nx 
5  4  9  2 y
n
8. Age of Boys Age of Girls
n 1
71 73 x  y 
2
11. Let the integers be a, b, c, d
71.8 a + b + c = 180
b + c + d = 197
c + d + a = 208
1.2 0.8
d + a + b = 219
B:G __________________
 3:2 3(a + b + c + d) = 804
 a + b + c + d = 268
 3 
Percentage of boys in class    100  % abcd
3  2   Avg   67
4
= 60%
10.12 Average
14. Increase in the numbers = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + …
 100 100  1 
 2  (till 30 numbers)
12. The increase in average =
100 30
= [2 × 2 + (30 – 1)2]= 930
= 50.5 2
13. Boys Girls Since total increase is 930, the increase in average
60 68 930
of 30 numbers = = 31
30
65 15. Let number of passed students = P
Let number of failed students = 150 – P

5  150 × 40 = 50P + 20(150 – P)

3
 5P + 2(150 – P) = 600
 5   P = 100
 Percentage of girls    100  %  62.5%
35 
11
CHAPTER Algebra

QU ADRATI C EQU ATI ON S

I f atleast one of the var iables in an equation is r aised to 2nd M et hod
the power of two, then it is called a Quadratic equation . H er e values of x can be det er mined by t he for mulae of
No var iable i n t he equat ion is r aised t o t he power x.
higher t han 2. For equat ion ax 2 + bx + c = 0,
e.g ax 2 + bx + c
  b  b2  4 ac 
H er e, x is var iable and a, b, c ar e r eal number s. x =  
As x is r aised t o power 2, so it is a quadr at ic equat ion.  2a 
 
SOLU TI ON OF QU ADRATI C EQU ATI ON By compar i ng gi ven quadr at i c equat i on wi t h t he
To sol ve t he quadr at i c equ at i ons t her e ar e t wo st andar d quadr at ic equat ion ax 2 + bx + c = 0, we get
met hods: values of a, b and c; then put t ing values of a, b and c in
1st M et hod t he equat i on of x , we get r oot s of gi ven quadr at i c
equat ion.
(1) For solving a Quadr at ic Equat ion, set one side of
t he equat ion equal t o zer o Consider an example: x 2 – 5x + 6 = 0
i .e. ax 2 + bx + c = 0 Compar e given equat ion wit h ax 2 + bx + c = 0, we get
(2) Then split t he bx t er m in t wo such for ms t hat a = 1, b = – 5, and c = 6.
addit ion / subt r act ion of t hese t wo t er ms would Put t hese values of a, b and c in t he equat ion, we get
be bx and t heir pr oduct is equal t o t he pr oduct of a
and c.   b  b2  4 ac 
x = 
(3) Take common fact or s fr om t he fir st t wo t er ms of  2a 
 
t he split ed equat ion and t hen again t ake common
fact or s fr om 3 r d and 4 t h t er ms of t he spl i t ed   (5)  (5) 2  4(1) (6) 
equat ion. =  
(4) Following t his pr ocedur e, we get t wo fact or s as a  2(1) 
 
r esult .
(5) Equat e t hese t wo fact or s t o zer os. H ence, we get
5 1
t wo values of x . =  
(6) These t wo values of x will be t he r oot s of the given  2 
quadr atic equation.  x=3 or x=2
Consider an example : H ence second met hod is complet ed.
(1) x 2 – 5x + 6 = 0 [by equat ing t o zer o] I mport ant F act s About Quadr at ic Equat ion
(2) Split 5x in t wo t er ms 3x and 2x . 1. Gen er al f or m of a Qu adr at i c E qu at i on i s
Addit ion of 3x and 2x = 3x + 2x = 5x and pr oduct of ax 2 + bx + c = 0,
3x and 2x = 3x  2x = 6x 2 which is equal t o (6 x 2) wher e a, b, c ar e r eal number s.
so, t he equat ion becomes :  I f  ,  ar e r oot s of ax 2 + bx + c = 0, t hen
x 2 – 3x – 2x + 6 = 0
(3) Take common fact or s fr om 1st and 2nd and 3r d and  b  b2  4 ac
 =
4t h t er ms. 2a
 x (x – 3) – 2(x – 3) = 0
(x – 3) (x – 2) = 0  b  b2  4 ac
 and  =
 x – 3 = 0 or x – 2 = 0 2a
So, t wo r oot s of t he given equat ions ar e 3 and 2.  A quadr atic equation has exactly two r oots, may
be r eal or imaginar y.
H er e, t he fir st met hod is complet ed.
 11.2 Algebra

 If p + q is a r oot of a quadr at ic equat ion,  x 1= T 2 = a + d ; x 2 = T 3 = a + 2d; x n = T n+1 = a + nd

t hen it s ot her r oot is p – q . Put t ing for d, we get
 ax 2 + bx + c = 0 is fact or izable int o t wo linear b  a na + b nb + a
fact or s only when b2 – 4ac  0. x1 = a + = ; xn =
n 1 n +1 n +1
2. Relat ion bet ween Root s and Coefficient s
Sum of n ar it hmet ic means = n (single AM .)
L et ‘a’ and ‘b’ be t he r oot s of t he equat ion
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 n
b i.e. x 1 + x 2+ x 3 +............ + x n = (x + x n )
Then, sum of r oot s =  2 1
a
c n
and pr oduct s of r oot s = a = (a + d + b – d ) [  b – x n = d]
2
3. To form a Quadrat ic Equation
Quadr at ic equat ion whose r oot s ar e  and  , is a+b
given by =n =nx
2
x2 – (  +  ) x +   = 0 wher e, x is t he AM of a and b
i .e.x 2 – (sum of r oot s) x + (pr oduct of r oot s) = 0  Any t hr ee number i n AP shoul d be t ak en as
a – d, a, a + d
A.P., G.P. AN D H .P.
Any four number, i n A.P. shoul d be t ak en as
ARI T H M ET I CAL PROGRESSI ON
a – 3 d , a – d , a + d , a + 3d
I f cer t ain quant it ies incr eases or decr eases by t he Similar ly five number in A.P. should be t aken as
same const ant , t hen such quant it ies for m a ser i es
a – 2d, a – d, a, a + d, a + 2d
whi ch i s cal l ed an ar it hmet ical pr ogr ession . Thi s
const ant called common differ ence. e.g. An y si x n um ber i n A.P. sh ou l d be t ak en as
1, 4, 7, 10, 13 ,............; 9, 6, 3, 0, – 3 ,...........; a, a+d, a – 5 d , a – 3 d , a – d , a + d , a + 3d , a + 5d
a+2d, a+3d, ............  I n an A.P., t he sum of t er ms equidist ant fr om t he
N ot at ion. begining and end is const ant and equal t o sum of
The fir st t er m of t he ser ies is denot ed by ‘a’ common fir st and last t er m.
differ ence by ‘d’, t he last t er m by l , t he number of  Any t er m of A.P. (except t he fir st ) is equal t o half
t er ms by n , sum of it s n t er ms by Sn, and t he n t h t er m t he sum of t er ms which ar e equidist ant fr om it
be T n.
1
T n = a + (n – 1) d an = (a + an+k ), k n
2 n– k
n n
Sn = (a + l ) = [2a + (n – 1) d] 1
2 2 and for k = 1, an = (a + an+1)
Arithmetic mean (A. M .). 2 n– 1
The ar it hmet ic mean bet ween t wo given quant ies a  T n = Sn – Sn– 1 (n > 2)
and b is x, so t hat a, x, b ar e in A. P.  Sum and differ ence of cor r esponding t er ms of t wo
 x– a =b– x AP’s will for m a ser ies in A.P.
 2x =a+b GEOM ET RI CAL PROGRESSI ON
a+b A ser ies in which each t er m is same mult iple of t he
 x =
2 pr eceding t er m is called a G.P..
n – arithmetic means. I n ot her wor ds a ser ies in which the r atio of successive
I f bet ween t wo given quant it ies, a and b we have t o t er ms is const ant is called a G.P..
inser t ‘n ’ ar it hmet ic means x 1, x 2,...... x n, t hen a, x 1, Thi s const ant r at i o i s cal l ed common r at i o and i s
x 2, ....x n, b will be in A.P. denot ed by ‘r ’.
I n or der t o find t he values of t hese means we r equir e e.g. 1, 4, 16, 64 ....; 9, 6, 4, ....; a, ar , ar 2....
t he common differ ence. The above ser ies consist of (n
+ 2) t er ms and t he last t er m is b and fir st t er m is a. nth term of a G.P.
 b = T n+2 = a + (n + 2 – 1) d L et t he ser ies be, a, ar , ar 2, ar 3, ...
 T 1 = a = ar 1– 1 ; T 2 = ar 2– 1 = ar ;
b a
 d = T 3 = ar 2 = ar 3– 1; ......T n = ar n– 1
n +1
 Algebra 11.3

Sum of n terms of a G.P.  I f a1, a2, a3................and b1, b2, b3 ................be

L et S = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + ...............+ ar n– 1 t wo G P’s of common r at io r 1, and r 2 r espect ively
........(i ) t hen
 r  S = [ ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + ...............+ ar n– 1] + ar n a1 a2 a3
........(ii ) a 1 b 1 , a 2 b 2, a 3 b 3. ................an d , ,
b1 b2 b3
Subt r act ing (ii ) fr om (i ), S (1 – r ) = a – ar n
................ wi ll also for m G.P., wher e common
a (1  r n )
 S= r1
1 r r at io will be r 1 r 2 and r espect ively..
r2
 Sum of an infinit e number of t er ms of a G.P.,
when r < 1  I f a1, a2, a3 ..... be a G.P of +ve t er ms, t hen
Since r  < 1, t he number of t er ms ar e infinit e l og a 1 , l og a 2 , l og a 3 w i l l be an A .P. an d
conver sely.
a
lim r n = 0 and hence in t his case S = and RELATI ON S BETWEEN A AN D G
n 
1r
Tn ab 2ab
Common r at io, (r ) = A = , G  ab, H
Tn 1 2 ab
Single geometric mean between a and b.
A G
L et x be t he singl e geomet r ic mean bet ween A H = a b = G2 and 
G H
t wo given quant it ies a and b. Then a, x , b ar e in
G.P.  A, G, H are in G.P.
x b ab 1
  = common r at io of t he G.P. A– G=  ab  ( a  b)2
a x 2 2
 x2 = ab As A – G is always posit ive hence,
 x =
ab A – G > 0,
 E v en n u m ber of t er m s i n a G.P. m u st be  A>G
a a a A G
ar 5, ar 3, ar , , ,  1   1 or G  H
r r3 r5 and
G H
a
I n par t icular, t hr ee t er ms ar e as, ar , a, ; and  G>H
r
a a  A>G>H
four t er ms as, ar 3, ar , , 3 .
r r  A, G, H ar e in descending or der of magnit ude.

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S x y ab is equal
4. I f a = and b = , t hen
1. Which of t he following equat ions has r eal r oot s? x y x– y a– b
to
(a) 3x 2 + 4x + 5 = 0 (b) x 2 + x + 4 = 0 xy x2  y2
(c) (x – 1) (2x – 5) = 0 (d) 2x 2 – 3x + 4 = 0 (a) (b)
x  y2
2
xy
2. 3 chair s and 2 t ables cost ` 700, while 5 chair s
and 3 t abl es cost ` 1100. What is t he cost of
x FG y IJ
2 chair s and 2 t ables ?
(c)
x y
(d)
H x – yK
(a) ` 300 (b) ` 350 y (y + x ) x
5. if   , det er mine t he r at io of
(c) ` 450 (d) ` 600 (x – z) z y
x : y : z.
4 ab x  2a x  2b (a) 1 : 2 : 3
3. I f x = , t hen value of + is
ab x – 2a x – 2b (b) 3 : 2 : 1
equal t o (c) 4 : 2 : 3
(a) 0 (b) 1 (d) 2 : 4 : 7
(c) 2 (d) None of t hese
11.4 Algebra

x y z
14. The t er m independent of x in t he expansion of
6. =a
 
(2x + y + z) (x + 2y + z) (x + y + 2z) FG 2x  1 IJ 6

find a if x + y + z = 0. H 3x K is

1 1 160 80
(a) (b) (a) (b)
3 4 9 9
1 1 160 80
(c) (d) (c) (d)
8 2 27 3
7. I f a + b + c = 0, find t he value of F
Find t he t er m independent of x in G 3 x
2
–
2 IJ 20

a2 b2 c2
15.
H x2 K
  (a) 126070  318  29
(a 2  bc) (b 2 – ca) (c2  ab)
(b) 184756  310  210
(a) 4 (b) 3
(c) 120000  320  219
(c) 1 (d) 0
(d) 320  221  (34)20
8. I f p, q, r , s ar e in har monic pr ogr ession and p > s,
t hen LEVEL-1
1. Fi nd t he val ue of 672 – 332.
1 1
(a)  (b) q + r = p + s (a) 3200 (b) 3400
ps qr
(c) 3146 (d) 3143
1 1 1 1 [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c)    (d) None of t hese
q p r s 2. Gi ven t hat log 2 = 0.3 appr ox., one bi ll ion would
9. I f 2x 2 – 7xy + 3y 2 = 0, t hen t he value of x : y is be appr ox.
(a) 3 : 2 (b) 2 : 3 (a) 29 (b) 210
(c) 3 : 1 and 1 : 2 (d) 5 : 6 (c) 2 20
(d) 230
10. The differ ence bet ween t he logar it hms of sum of [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
t he squar es of t wo posit ive number s A and B and 3. I n how many differ ent ways can 3 ident ical whit e
t he sum of logar ithms of t he individual number s balls and 2 identical r ed balls be ar r anged besides
is a const ant C. I f A = B, t hen C is each ot her, in a st r ai ght l ine?
(a) 2 (b) 1.3031
(a) 6 (b) 10
(c) log 2 (d) exp (2)
(c) 12 (d) 120
11. The ar it hmet ic mean of t he ser ies
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ... 2n is
4. What is t he pr obabi li t y of get t ing 3 aces i f t hr ee
2 –1n 2 n 1
–1 car ds ar e dr awn fr om a set of 52 playi ng car ds?
(a) (b)
n n 1 1
(a) 523 (b)
523
2n  1 2n – 1
(c) (d)
n 1 n 1 1 432
(c) (d)
12. I f t he sum of t he 6t h and t he 15t h elements of an 52! 52  51  50
ar it hmet ic pr ogr ession is equal t o t he sum of t he [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
7t h , 10t h an d 12t h el em en t s of t h e sam e 5. I n a class of 40 st udent s, 25 ar e spor t s per sons
pr ogr ession, t hen which element s of t he ser ies
an d 25 ar e m at h em at i ci an s. W h at i s t h e
should necessar ily be equal t o zer o ?
pr obabi lit y t hat t he monit or of t he class is bot h a
(a) 10th (b) 8th spor t s per son and a mat hemat ician?
(c) 1st (d) None of t hese
1 1
13. L et Sn denot e t he sum of t he fir st ‘n’ t er ms of an (a) (b)
40 25
S3 n
A.P. S2n = 3Sn. Then t he r at io is equal t o 1 1
Sn (c) (d)
4 50
(a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 8 (d) 10
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
 Algebra 11.5
6. Sum of t wo number s i s 15 and sum of t hei r 14. In an examination, a student gets 4 marks for
every correct answer and loses 1 mark for even'
15
r eci pr ocals is . The t wo number s ar e wrong answer. If he attempts in all 60 questions
56
and secures 130 marks, then find the number of
(a) 4, 11 (b) 5, 10 questions he attempted correctly.
(c) 6, 9 (d) 7, 8 (a) 42
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (b) 48
7. I f ,  ar e t he r oot s of quadr at i c equat ion x 2 + x + (c) 36
1 1 (d) 38
1 = 0 , t hen  is
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
 
(a) – 1 (b) 1 x 6 x2  y2
15. If  , then find the value of 2 :
(c) 0 (d) None of t hese y 5 x  y2
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
61
(a) 11 (b)
8. Value of 6  6  6  ...... i s 11

5 11
(a) (b) – 2 (c) (d) 6
2 5
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(c) 3 (d) 4
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] LEVEL-2
9. I f a, b, c, d, e and f ar e i n ar it hmet ic pr ogr ession, 1. log4 5 × l og56 × l og67 is equal t o:
t hen e – c is equal t o
 7
(a) 2(b – a) (b) c – b (a) log   (b) log4 7
4
(c) 2 (f – d) (d) 2(d – b)
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]  4
10. Fi nd t he median of t he fol lowing number s : (c) log   (d) log7 4
7
14, 23, 20, 12, 11, 15, 24, 17, 9, 21, 25 [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) 15 (b) 20 2. The sum of fir st n odd nat ur al number s i s:
(c) 17 (d) 14 (a) n 2 – 1 (b) n2
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (c) (n + 1)2 (d) (n – l )2
11. A st udent was asked t o mult iply a number by 12. [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
By mist ak e he mult i pl ied t he number by 21 and 3. A per son put s 1 gr ain of r ice in t he fir st squar e of
got t he answer 63 mor e t han t he cor r ect answer. a chess boar d. I n the subsequent squar es, he puts
What i s t he cor r ect answer ? t wice t hat of t he pr evi ous squar e. H ow many
(a) 9 (b) 8 gr ai ns woul d he need t o put on al l t he squar es of
(c) 7 (d) 84 t he chess boar d?
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (a) 64! (b) 264 – 1
(c) 2 – 1
63
(d) p(64, 2)
7683   2323 :
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
12. Find the value of
768 2  768  232   232 2 4. Which of t he fol lowing st at ement is cor r ect ?
(a) n li near equat ions wit h n var iables may have
(a) 1000 (b) 536 a unique solut i on
(c) 500 (d) 268 (b) n li near equat ions wit h n var iables may have
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] no solut i on
13. Find the value of (1+ 2 + 3 + 4+..........+45) : (c) Bot h (a) & (b) ar e cor r ect
(a) 2140 (b) 2070 (d) Bot h (a) & (b) ar e wr ong
(c) 1035 (d) 1280 [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]

11.6 Algebra
5. Fi nd t he next number in t he ser ies. 10. The sum of t he squar es of t hr ee consecut ive odd
1,2,6,24, 120,___________. number s is 2531. Find t hese t hr ee odd number s:
(a) 240 (b) 480 (a) 21, 23, 25 (b) 25, 27, 29
(c) 560 (d) 720 (c) 27, 29, 31 (d) 23, 25, 27
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]

6. A coin is t ossed t wo t i mes. On bot h occasi ons, 11. The pr esent age of a fat her is 3 year s mor e t han
t he r esul t is heads. When t he coin is t ossed a t hr ee t imes t he age of his son. Aft er t hr ee year s,
t hir d t ime, what i s t he pr obabil it y of get t i ng a fat her 's age wil l be 10 year s mor e t han t wice t he
head? age of t he son. Find t he pr esent age of t he Father.
(a) 30 year s (b) 33 year s
1
(a) 1 (b) (c) 36 year s (d) 39 year s
2
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]

1 1 3 1 12. Fi nd t he val ue of 10C3:

(c)  (d) 
4 2 4 2 (a) 720 (b) 240
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (c) 120 (d) 1000
7. I f 3x + 7 = x 2 + p = 7x + 5, t hen t he value of 'p' wi ll [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
be : 13. 1250 ar t icles wer e dist r ibut ed among st udent s of
a cl ass. Each st udent got t wice as many ar t i cl es
1 1 as t he number of st udent s in t hat gr oup. The
(a) (b) 8
2 2 number of st udent s in t he gr oup was :
1 (a) 25 (b) 45
(c) 2 2 (d) 8
4 (c) 50 (d) 100
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
 1 14. The sum of t wo number s is 2490. I f 6.5% of one
8. I f log10 7 = x, t hen t he value of logl0   i s equal number is equal t o 8.5% of t he ot her, t he gr eat er
70
t o: number is :
(a) – (1 + x) (b) (1 + x)– 1 (a) 1079 (b) 1380
(c) 1411 (d) 1250
x 1
(c) (d) [RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
10 10x 15. L et  and  be t he r oot s of x 2 + k x + 8 = 0, such
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ] t hat  –  = 2, t hen t he val ue of k ar e
9. Fi nd t he value of: (a) ±3 (b) ±6
(51 + 52 + 53+ 54 +.... +100) (c) ±4 (d) ±8
(a) 3775 (b) 5050 [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
(c) 1275 (d) 2525
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (b)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (b)
LEVEL-2
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (b)
 Algebra 11.7

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 2a3 – abc 2b2 – abc 2c3 – abc
=  
1. (x – 1) (2x – 5) = 0 abc abc abc
5 2 a3 + b3 + c3 – 3  abc
 x = 1, x =
2 =
 
Bot h r oot s ar e r eal. abc
For r eal r oot s of quadr at ic equat ion 6abc – 3abc
= =3
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 abc
we have b2 – 4ac  0  (a  b  c)3  a3  b3  c3 – 3abc 
 
For 3x 2 + 4x + 5 = 0  if a  b  c  0 
b2 – 4ac = 16 – 4  3  5 = – 44 8. p, q, r , s ar e in H . P.
For x + x + 4 = 0
2
1 1 1 1
b2 – 4ac = 1 – 4  1  4 = – 15  , , , ar e in A.P..
p q r s
For 2x – 3x + 4 = 0
2

b2 – 4ac = 9 – 4  2  4 = – 23 1 1 1 1
 – = –
2. L et cost of chair = ` x p q r s
and cost of t able = ` y 1 1 1 1
3x + 2y = 700 (i )   = 
 q r p s
and 5x + 3y = 1100 (ii )
Solving (i ) and (ii ) we get x2 x
9. 2 – 7 +3= 0
x = 100 and y = 200 y2 y
Now 2x + 2y = 200 + 400 = ` 600.
x 7  49  24 75 1
6 ab  2a 2 6b 2  2ab  = = = 3,
y 22 4 2
x  2a x  2b ab ab
3. + = 2
+ Thus x : y = 3 : 1 and 1 : 2
x  2a x  2b 2ab  2a 2 ab  2b 2
11. A.M . of t he ser ies 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, .... 2n
(a  b) ab
Sum of (n + 1) t er ms of t he given ser ies
2a(3b  a) 2b(3b  a) =
= + n 1
2a(b  a) 2b(a  b)
1.(2 n 1 – 1)
3b  a 3b  a
= – =0 = 2 1
ba ba n 1
x y
ab x y

x y = xy 2n 1  1
4. =   =
ab x y x 2
 y2 n 1
 Since ser ies is in G.P. wit h fir st t er m a = 1
x y x y
5. Subst it ut e in t he choices. and common r at io r = 2
Using x = 4, y = 2, z = 3, we find t he equat ion is Number of t er ms = n + 1
satisfied.
a.(r n  1)
6. Adding all t hr ee, we get Sum of t his ser ies, Sn + 1 =
r 1
x yz 1
=a= .
b
4 x yz g 4 r 21
12. L et a be t he fir st t er m and d be common r at io of
a2 b2 c2 an A.P.
7.  
a2 – bc b2 – ca c2 – ab  (a + 5d) + (a + 14d)
= (a + 6d) + (a + 9d) + (a + 11d)
a  2a2 – bc   2b2 – ca  b  2c2 – ab  c  a + 7d = 0
    
a  bc   ca  b  ab  c H ence 8t h t er m = 0
[Applying componendo and dividendo on each 13. L et a be t he fir st t er m and d be t he common
t er ms] differ ence of an A. P.
11.8 Algebra

n H en ce t h e t er m i n depen den t of x in
 Sn = {2a + (n – 1) d}
2 FG 3 x 2 – 2 IJ 20

S2n =
2n
{2a + (2n – 1) d}
H x2 K is (r + 1)t h i.e. 11
1t h t er m

2 = 20
C10  310 210
3n
{2a + (3n – 1) d}
S3n = 20  19 ...  11
2 =  310  210
10  9  ...  1
Given : S2n = 3Sn
= 184756  310  210
n
 n {2a + (2n – 1) d} = 3  {2a + (2n – 1) d} LEVEL-1
2
2 2
1. 67 – 33 = (67 + 33) (67 – 33)
 4a + (4n – 2) d = 6a + (3n – 3) d
 (n + 1) d = 2a = 100 × 34 = 3400.
2. 1 billion = 109
2a
 d = Let 109 = 2n
n 1

 Sn =
RS
n 2 a  (n  1) 2a UV = 2an 2
 Taking log both sides we get,

2 T n 1 W n 1
9 lot 10 = n log 2

and S3n =
3n RS2a  (3n  1) 2a UV = 12an 2
 9 = n × 0.3

2 T n  1W n 1
3.
 n = 30
Required number of ways
Sn
 = 6.
S3n 5!
 10.
3!  2!
FG 2x  1 IJ 6

14.
H 3x K 4. Required probability

FG 1 IJ + C (2x) FG 1 IJ 2 4
C3 4  3a2
= (2x )6 + 6C1 (2x )5 H 3x K H 3x K 6
2
4  52
C3

52  51  50

F1I
+ C (2x ) G J + C (2x ) G J
F1I 3 4
5. Number of boys who are both sports person
6
3 H 3x K 3
H 3x K 6
4
2
and a mathematician = 254 + 25 – 10 = 40

F1I
+ C (2x ) G J + C G J
F1I 5 6
Hence, required probability 
10 1
 .
6
H 3x K
5 H 3x K 6
6
40 4
1 1 15
H ence t er m independent of x 6. a + b = 15 and  
a b 56
1
= 6C3  23 
33 
a  b 15

ab 56
654 1 160
= 8   (a, b) = (7, 8)
3 2 1 27 27
15. (r +1)t h t er m i n t he expansi on of ( x + a)n i s 1 1 
7.  
n
Cr x n– r ar   
H ence ( r + 1)t h t er m i n t h e ex pan si on of
given, + = –1 &  = 1
FG 2 2 IJ 20

H 3x –
x
2 K is
Hence,
   1


1
 1.

FG – 2 IJ r
20
Cr (3x 2)20 – r
Hx K2 = 20Cr 320 – r  2r  x 40 – 4r , 8. 6  6  6  ......  x

which is independent of x if 40 – 4r = 0 squaring both sides we get,

i.e. r = 10 6 + x = x2
x=3
 Algebra 11.9
9. e – c = (e – d) + (d – c)
= 2(b – a) 

1  264  1 2 64
1
10. 14, 23, 20, 12, 11, 15, 24, 17, 9, 21, 25
 2  1
When written in ascending order becomes:
9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25  sn 

a rn  1 
 G.P   r  1
Hence, median or mid-term = 17
4. Both statement A and statement B are correct.
11. set the number be x.
 Ans = option (c)
 x × 21 = x + 12 + 63
x=7 1, 2, 6, 24, 12,
Hence, correct answer = 12 × 7 = 84 5.
×2 ×3 ×4 ×5 ×6
3 3
(768)  (232)  Ans = 120 × 6
12.
(768)  (768  232)  (232)2
2 = 720
6. Probability of getting head in third occasion will
(768  232)  (768)2  (768  232)  (232)2 
 1
(768)2  (768  232)  (232)2 be , since it is independent of the first two
2
= 768 + 232 tosses.
= 1000 7. 3x + 7 = x2 + p = 7x + 5
13. Required sum = (1 + 4S) ×45 3x + 7 = 7x + 5
= 23 × 4S - 1035  4x = 2
14. set the no. of correct questions be x
1
 x × 4 – (60 – x) × 1 = 130 x
2
 Sx – 60 = 130
 x = 38 2
 1  1
 3    7     p.
x 6  2  2
15. 
y 5
3 1
 7   p.
x2  y 2
6 5 61 2 2
2 4
 2  2 
x  y 6 52 11
1
LEVEL-2 p8
4
1. log 54  log 65  log 76 8. log107 = x

 1  1 
log 54 log 65 log 76 log10    log10 
    70   7  10 
4 5 6
log10 log10 log10
= –log107 – log1010
7 = –x – 1
log10
  log 74
4
log10 9. S = (51 + 52 + … 100)

2. the sum of first n odd natural numbers. 50

 51  100
= n2. 2
1 = 12 n
 sum A.P  a  l
1 + 3 = 22 2
1 + 3 + 5 = 32. = 3775
3. Number of grains = 10. Let consecutive odd numbers be
1+2+4+8+… x, (x + 2), (x + 4)
20 + 21 + 22 + … 263.
11.10 Algebra
According the question: 14. x + y = 2490
x2 + (x + 2)2 + (x + 4) = 2531
6.5 8.5
Buy hit and trial, x y
100 100
27, 29, 31 satisfies.
 13x = 17y
11. Let present age of father be x
 x = 1411
Let age of son be y
15. x2 + kx + 8 = 0
According the question:
x = 3 + 3y 8
  = =8
Also, (x + 3) = 10 + 2 (y + 3) 1
 y = 10 c
 x = 33  Product of root  for (ax2 + bx + c)
a
n!    2
12. n Cr 
r!  n  r  !
4   2
10! 2 or   4
10
 C3 
3!  7!
b
k  = sum of roots = ± 6
10  9  8  7! 2
  120
3  2  1  7! 
13. Let no. of students be x.
 According the question:
x × (2x) = 1250
 x = 25
 12
CHAPTER
Trigonometric Ratios &
Height and Distance
Syst em of M easur ement of Angles N ote: I f measur e of an angle is given in degr ee t hen
Ther e ar e t hr ee syst em of measur ement to conver t it into radians, multiply the measure of angle

1. Sexagesimal syst em by and if t he measur e of an angle is given in
180
2. Cent esimal syst em r adian, t hen t o conver t it
3. Cir cular syst em int o degr ee, wr it e 180º at t he place of .
Sexagesimal Syst em Tr i gonomet r i c Rat i os
I n t his system each angle is divided int o 90 equal par ts I n r ight angled t r iangle ABC,
and each par t is know as a degr ee. Thus a r ight angle C
is equal t o 90 degr ees. One degr ee is denot ed as 1º.
e
Each degr ee is divided int o 60 equal par t s each of us
oten
p
which is known as one minut e one minut e is denot ed Hy
as 1’ each minut e is consist of 60 par t s, each par t is
known as a second. One second is denot ed by 1” . 
A Base B
H ence, 1 r ight angle = 90º (90 degr ee)
if < CAB = q, t hen
1 = 60º (60 min)
1 = 60 (60 seconds) BC Perpendicular
sin  = =
AC Hypot enuse
Cent esimal Syst em
I n this system each angle is divided into 100 equal par ts AB Base
cos  = =
and one par ts is known as a gr ader. Thus one r ight AC Hypot enuse
angle is equal t o 100 gr ade. One gr ade is denoted as 1g.
BC Perpendicular
One gr ade is divided int o 100 equal par t s one par t is t an  = =
AB Base
known as a minut e and is denot ed as one minut e is
also divided into 100 equal par t s, one par t is known as 1 AB Base
cot  = = 
a second which is denot ed by 1’. t an  BC Perpendicular
H ence 1 r ight angle = 100g (100 gr ade) 1 AC H ypot enuse
sec  = = 
1g = 100(100 minut es) cos AB Base
1 = 100(100 seconds) 1 AC Hypot enuse
cosec  = = 
Cir cular Syst em sin  BC per pendicular
I f t he angle subt ended by an ar c of r l
Fundamental Relation Among Trigonometric
l engt h (t o t he cent r e of ci r cl e of  Rat i os
r adius r , is  t hen r
I t s is clear fr om t he definit ion of t r igonomet r ic r at ios
l that
=
r
1
I f t he lengt h of ar c is equal t o t he r adius of t he cir cle, 1. cosec  =
t hen t he angle subt ended at t he cent r e of t he cir cle sin 
will be one r adian one r adian is denot ed by 1c. 1
2. sec  =
T he rat io of t he circumference of t he circle t o cos
the diameter of the circle is denoted by a Greek 1
3. cot  =
letter  and it is a constant quantity t an 
Cir cumfer ence of ci r cle sin  cos 
 4. t an  = and cot   .
D iameter of cir cle cos  sin 
5. cos2  + sin 2  = 1
Relat ion among degree, radian and gr ade
6. 1 + t an 2  = sec2 
180º = c = 100g
7. 1 + cot 2  = cosec2 
and 1 r adian = 57º 17’ 44.8’.
 12.2 Trigonometric Ratios & Height and Distance

Tr igonomet r ic Rat ios of D iffer ent Angles CD  CD 

3. cosC  cosD  2 cos   cos  
 sin  cos  tan  cot  sec  cosec   2   2 
– 0 – sin  cos  – tan  – cot  sec  – cosec  CD  D C
90º –  cos  sin  cot  tan  cosec  sec  4. cosC  cosD  2sin   sin  
 2   2 
90º +  cos  – sin  – cot  – tan  – cosec  sec 
180º –  sin  – cos  – tan  – cot  – sec  cosec 
Trigonometric Ratios of M ultiples of an Angles
180º +  – sin  – cos  – tan  – cot  – sec  – cosec  2 t an 
1. sin 2  2sin  cos  
360º +  – sin  cos  – tan  – cot  sec  – cosec  1  t an 2 
2. cos2  cos2   sin 2   1  2sin 2 
360º +  sin  cos  tan  cot  sec  cosec 
1  t an 2 
Val ues of Tr i gonomet r i c Rat i os of Some  2 cos2   1 
1  t an 2 
I mpor tant Angles Between 0  and 180 
2 1 1
Angle 0º 30º 45º 60º 90º 3. cos   (1  cos2 ), sin 2   (1  cos2)
2 2
1 1 3 2 t an 
sin 0 1 4. t an 2 
2 2 2 1  t an 2 
1 1 cot 2   1
 3 5. cot 2 
cos 1 0 2cot 
2 2 2
1 6. sin 3  3sin  4 sin 3 
tan 0 1 3 
3 7. cos3  4 cos3   3 cos 
1 3 t an   t an 3 
cot  3 1 0 8. t an 3 
3 1  3 t an 2 
2 Some I mpor t ant Result s
sec 1 2 2 
3 3 1
1. sin 15º 
2 2 2
cosec  2 2 1
3 3 1
I ts 2. cos15º 
2 2
Trigonomet ric Rat ios of Combined Angles
3. t an 15º  cot 75 º  2 3
1. sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B.
4. cot 15 º  t an 75 º  2  3
2. sin (A– B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B.
3. cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B. 1º 2 2
5. sin 22 
4. cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B. 2 2
t an A  t an B 1º 2 2
5. t an (A + B) = 6. cos22 
1  t an A t an B 2 2
t an A  t an B 1º
6. t an (A – B) = 7. t an 22  2  1
1  t an A t an B 2
1º
cot A cot B  1 8. cot 22  2  1
7. cot (A + B) = 2
cot A  cot B
5 1
cot A cot B  1 9. sin 18º  cos72º 
8. cot (A – B) = . 4
cot B  cot A
10  2 5
1. 2sin A cosB  sin(A  B)  sin(A  B) A  B 10. cos18º  sin 72º 
4
2. 2cos A sin B  sin(A  B)  sin(A  B)
10  2 5
3. 2cos A cosB  cos(A  B)  cos(A  B) 11. sin 36 º  cos54 º 
4
4. 2sin A sin B  cos(A  B)  cos(A  B) 5 1
12. cos36º  sin 54 º 
C, D Formula 4
3 5  5 5
1. sin C  si n D  2sin  C  D  cos  C  D  13. sin 9 º  cos81º 
 2   2  4

CD  CD  3 5  5 5
2. sin C  sin D  2cos  14. cos9 º  sin 81º 
2  sin  2  4
   
 Trigonometric Ratios & Height and Distance 12.3

Angle of E levat ion P

I mpor t ant F act s
t
I f ‘O’ be t he obser ver ’s eye and Sig
h
1. Angle of elevation and angle of depression are always
of
OX be t h e h or i zon t al l i n e Lin
e
acut e angle.
t hr ough O. I f P is at a higher  2. Any per pendicular line t o a plane is per pendicular
O X
level t han eyes. Then POX Horizontal line
t o all lines lying in t he plane.
is called the angle of elevation. 3. I n si mi l ar t r i angl e, t he cor r espondi ng si des ar e
I n figur e, OX is a hor izont al line and OP is line sight pr opor tional
and POX =  is angle of elevat ion. 4. The ext er ior angle of a t r iangle is equal t o t he sum
Angl e of D epr essi on O
Horizontal line of int er ior opposit e angles
X
I f ‘O’ be t he obser ver ’s eye and  A
OX is a hor izont al line. I f object Lin
eo
fS 2
P i s at a l ower l evel t han O. igh
t
Then POX is called t he angle P
of depr ession.  1
I n fig., OX is a hor izont al line and POX =  is angle X
C
B
of depr ession. 5. I n isosceles t r iangles, t he median is per pendicular
Note: Angle of elevation of an object from an observer is t o t he base. I n Fig. ABC is isosceles and AD  BC.
same as angle of depression of observer from the object. A

Appol oni us T heor em

If in ABC, AD is median, then AB2 + AC2 = 2 (AD2 + BD2)
A

B D C
6. I n a t r i angl e, t he i nt er nal bi sect or of an angl e
divides t he opposit e side in t he r at io of t he ar ms of
t he angles.
A
C D B
M -N Theorem (Trigonometric T heorem) A A
2
I n a t r iangle ABC, D divides BC in t he r at io m : n c
2
b
A

  B D C
I n fig. AD is bisect or of  A
BD c
 =
 C
DC b
B
B
D
C 7. I n a r ight angled t r iangle ABC t he mid point D of
m:n hypot enuse. AC is equidist ant fr om it s ver t ices A,
1.  m  n  cot   n cot B  m cot C B and C.
i.e., AD = BD = CD
2.  m  n  cot   m cot   n cot . A
Pt ol emy’s T heor em
A D
I n cyclic quadr ilat er al D
ABCD
AB . CD + AD . BC = AC . BD.
B C B C
8. Angles in t he same segment of a cir cle ar e equal.
12.4 Trigonometric Ratios & Height and Distance

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 13. The cir cular wir e of diamet er 10 cm is cut and
1. I f sin  + cosec  = 2, t hen sin  + cosec  is equal
2 2 pl aced al ong t he ci r cumfer ence of a ci r cl e of
t o: diamet er 1m. The angle subt ended by t he wr it e
at t he cent r e of t he cir cle is equal t o:
(a) 1 (b) 4
(c) 2 (d) none of t hese    
(a) rad (b) rad (c) rad (d) r ad
4 3 5 10
cot 2   1
2. The value of is equal t o: 14. The gr eat est and least value of sin x cos x ar e:
cot 2   1
(a) sin 2 (b) cos 2 1 1
(a) 1, – 1 (b) ,
(c) cosec 2 (d) sec 2 2 2
1 1
3. I f t an A = 2 t an B + cot B, t hen 2 t an (A – B) is (c) , (d) 2, – 2
equal t o: 4 4
15. I f A = sin 2  + cos4 , t hen for all r eal values of 
(a) t an B (b) 2 t an B
(c) cot B (d) 2 cot B 3
(a) 1  A  2 (b)  A 1
4. I f t an A – t an B = x and cot B – cot A = y , t hen cot 4
(A – B) is equal t o: 13 3 13
(c)  A 1 (d)  A 
1 1 1 1 1 1 16 4 16
(a) y (b) (c)  (d) 
x xy x y x y LEVEL-1
4
5. I f sin  =  and  lies in t he t hir d quadr ant , 1. The value of sin 2 30° + sin 2 60° is
5

t hen cos is equal t o: 3
2 (a) 1 (b)
2
1 1 2 2
(a) (b)  (c) (d) 
5 5 5 5 3
(c) 2 (d)
6. The value of cos 1º cos 2º cos 3º... cos 100º is equal 4
t o: [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]
(a) 1 (b) – 1
2. t an 90° is undefined. As  is incr eased fr om 89°
(c) 0 (d) none of t hese t owar ds 90°, value of t an  t ends t o
7. The value of sin 12º sin 48º sin 54º is equal t o:
(a) 0 (b) +oo
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) (c) 1 (d) undefined
16 32 8 4 [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]
8. The value of 2 cos x – cos 3x – cos 5x is equal t o:
3. The angle of elevation of a ladder leaning against
(a) 16 cos3 x sin 2 x (b) 16 sin 3 x cos2 x
a wall is 60° i.e. ladder makes an angle of 60°
(c) 4 cos3 x sin 2 x (d) 4 sin 3 x cos2 x with the ground. The foot of the ladder is 4.6
1 1 1 2 1  metres away from the wall. What is the length of
9. I f cos  =  x   , t hen  x  2  is equal t o:
2 x 2 x  this ladder ?
(a) sin 2 (b) cos 2 (c) t an 2 (d) sec 2 (a) 9.2 m (b) 2.3 m
10. T h e v al u e of x f or t h e m ax i m u m v al u e of (c) 6.9 m (d) 7.8 m
3 cos x  sin x is: [RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(a) 30º (b) 45º (c) 60º (d) 90º
4. A kite is flying at a height of 75 m from the level
11. The equat ion (a + b)2 = 4ab sin 2 is possible only ground, attached to a string inclined at 60° to the
when horizontal. The length of the string is
(a) 2a = b (b) a = b
(a) 50 2m (b) 50 3m
(c) a = 2b (d) none of t hese
12. The value of t he expr ession 50 50
(c) m (d) m
sin y 2
1  cos y sin 2 3
1   is equal t o: [RRB JE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
1  cos y sin y 1  cos y
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) sin y (d) cos y
 Trigonometric Ratios & Height and Distance 12.5
5. A tower stands vertically on the ground. From a 10. From a point on the bridge across a river the
point on the ground which is 30 m away from angle of depressions of the bank on the opposite
the foot of the lower, the angle of elevation of side of the river are 60° and 45° respectively. If
the top of the tower is 60°. The height of the the bridge is at a height of 3 m from the bank,
tower is: the width of the river is
(a) 30 3 m (b) 10 3 m (a) 2  3  1 m (b) 3  3  1 m
(c) 15 m (d) 6 m (c) 3  3 m (d) 3  3 m
For the above question, User had specified [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT]
‘ignore’ during keys upload. 11. A ladder 15 m long just reaches the top of a
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT] vertical wall. If the ladder makes an angle of 60°
with the wall, the distance of the foot of the ladder
6. From a point on the bridge across a river the
from the wall is
angles of depression of the banks on the opposite
side of the river are 30° and 45° respectively. If (a) 7.5 m (b) 5 3 m
the bridge is at a height of 4 m from the bank, 15 3
the width of the river is (c) 10 3 m (d) m
2
(a) 4  3  1 m [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT]

(b) 2  2 3  1 m 12. From a point on the bridge across a river the

angles of depression of the bank on the opposite
(c) 4  3  1 m side of the river are 60° and 45° respectively. If
the bridge is at a height of 4 m from the bank,
(d) 2  2 3  1 m
the width of the river is
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT]
7. A ladder 15 m long just reaches the top of a 4 3  3 
(a) m
vertical wall. If the ladder makes an angle of 60° 3
with the wall, the height of the wall is
(a) 7.5 m (b) 5 3 m (b) 4  3  1 m

15 3 2 1  3 
(c) m (d) 10 3 m (c) m
2 3
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT]
8. From a point on the bridge across a river the (d) 2  2 3  1 m
angles of depression of the banks on the opposite [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT]
side of the river are 30° and 45° respectively. If 13. The angle of elevation of the top of a tower from
the bridge is at a height of 3m from the bank, a point on the ground Inch is 30 m away from
the width of the river is the foot of the tower is 45°. The height of the
(a) 2  3  1 m tow t is

(b) 3  3  1 m (a) 15 m (b) 10 3 m

(c) 4  3  1 m (c) 30 m (d) 30 3 m

(d) 2  2 3  1 m [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT]

[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT] 14. From a point on the bridge across a river the
angle of depressions of the bank on the opposite
9. A ladder just reaches the top of a wall. The foot
side of the river are 30° and 60° respectively. If
of the ladder is 8 m away from the foot of the
the bridge is at a height of 3 m from the bank,
wall. The ladder makes an angle of 60° with the
the width of the river is
ground. The length of the ladder is
(a) 4 m (b) 16 m (a) 4 3 m (b) 2  3  1 m
16 3 (c) 2  3  3  m (d) 2 3 m
(c) m (d) 16 3 m
3
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT]
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT]
12.6 Trigonometric Ratios & Height and Distance
15. The angle of elevation of top of a tower from a 5. The lengt h of t he shadow of a pol e i s 90m, when
point on the groin 20 m away from the foot of t he sun's el evat i on i s 30 °.The l engt h of t he
the tower is 60°. The height of tower is shadow of the pole is x meter when Sun's elevation
is 60°. The value of x is
20 3 40 3
(a) m (b) m (a) 15 3 (b) 30
3 3

(c) 20 m (d) 20 3 m (c) 45 (d) 20 3

[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT] [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
6. I f 3 si n  + 4 cos = 5, t hen t he value of 4si n  –
LEVEL-2 3cos i s
1. The angle of elevat ion of a ladder leaning against (a) – 5 (b) – 2
a wall is 60° and t he foot of t he ladder is 7.5 m (c) 1 (d) 0
away fr om t he wall. The lengt h of t he ladder is
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
(a) 15 m (b) 14.86 m
7. Fr om t he t op of a t ower 50 m hi gh t he angles of
(c) 15 64 m (d) 15.8 m depr ession of t he t op and bot t om of a pole ar e
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] found t o be 45° and 60° r espect i vely. The height
of t he pole, i n met r e, is
3
2. I f si n  + cos = 3 ,t hen t he value of (t an  +
4 (a) 50  3 1  (b) 50  3 1 
cot ) is

(a) 1 (b)
3 
(c) 50 3  3  (d) 50  3 1 
4 [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
8. I f x = (1 + cot  – cosec)(1 + t an  + sec),
3
(c) (d) 3 0°<< 90°, t hen t he value of x is
2
(a) – 2 (b) – 1
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
(c) 1 (d) 2
3. A ship is appr oachi ng a li ght home, 100m hi gh
above t he sea-level . The angle of depr ession of [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
t he ship as obser ved fr om t he t op of t he l ight 9. The angle of elevat ion of t he t op of an unfini shed
home, changes fr om 30° t o 45°. The dist ance, in t ower at a poi nt 20m away fr om i t s base is 45°.
m, t r avel l ed by t he shi p dur i ng t he per i od of H ow much higher must t he t ower be r aised so
obser vat i on , in m , is t hat it s angle of elevat ion of t he t op at t he same
point be 60°
(a) 100( 3 + l) (b) 100( 3 – l)
(a) 20 3m
(c) 100 3 + l (d) 100 3 + l
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ] (b) 20 3  1m

4. I f
sec   t an  5
 0   90 t hen t he value of (c) 20  3  1 m
sec   t an  3
20
cosec i s (d) 3  1m
3
15 [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
(a) 2 (b)
4 10. The expr ession tan 2+ cot 2– sec2cosec2 is equal
to
4
(c) (d) 4 (a) 0 (b) 1
15
(c) – 1 (d) – 2
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
 Trigonometric Ratios & Height and Distance 12.7

11. Two pol es of equal height st and on eit her side of 14. I f cos – si n  = l and t an  = m sec2, t hen t he
a r oadway which is 100m wi de. At a poi nt in t he
l 2  2m
r oadway bet ween t he poles, t he el evat i on of t he value of is
2
t ops of t he poles ar e 60°and 30°. t he hei ght of
each pole, in met er is
1 1
(a) (b)
(a) 25 3 (b) 50 3 2 4

(c) 25  3 1  (d) 25  3 1  2
(c) (d) 1
4
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd
SEP 2 nd
SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
12. I f 2si n 2 – 5si n cos +7cos2 =1, t hen possible
values of t an  ar e 15. A per son is st anding on t he gr ound and flyi ng a
ki t e wi t h a st r i ng of l engt h 140 m at an angl e of
(a) 2, 3 (b) 1, 3
30°. Anot her per son is st andi ng on t he r oof of a
5 building 20 m high and is flying a kit e at an angle
(c) 2, (d) 3, 4 of 45°. I f bot h per sons ar e on opposi t e sides of
2
bot h t he ki t es, t he lengt h (in m ) of t he st r i ng
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
t hat t he second per son must have so t hat t he
13. Fr om t he t op of a t ower 90 m high, t he angles of t wo kit es meet s,
depr ession of t he t op and bot t om of a buil di ng
ar e obser ved t o be 30° and 60° r espect i vely. The (a) 70 (b) 60 2
height of t he buil ding, in m, is
(c) 50 2 (d) 50
(a) 40 (b) 45 3 [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]

(c) 60 (d) 40 3
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (b)
LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (d)
LEVEL-2
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c)
12.8 Trigonometric Ratios & Height and Distance

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 1  5  1 1   5  1 5  1 4 1
=    =  
1. Given t hat , sin + cosec = 2 2 4 2  4  32 32 8
On squar ing bot h sides, we get 8. 2 cos x – cos 3x – cos 5x = 2 cos x – 2 cos x cos 4x
sin 2  + cosec2  + 2 = 4 = 2 cos x (1 – cos 4x ) = 2 cos x 2 sin 2 2x
 sin 2  + cosec2  = 2 = 4 cos x (2 sin x cos x )2 = 16 sin 2 x cos3 x
cot 2   1 1  t an   1 1 1
2. = 9. Given t hat cos =  x    x  = 2 cos 
cot 2   1 1  t an 2  2 x x
1 1 2
= =  sec2 1  1
We know t hat x  2   x    2
2
cos2   sin 2  cos2
x  x
3. Given t hat
= (2 cos )2 – 2 = 4 cos2  – 2
t an A = 2 t an B + cot B ...(i )
= 2 cos 2 [fr om (i )]
 t an A  t an B 
N ow, 2 t an (A – B) = 2   1 2 1  1
 1  t an A t an B    x  2    2cos2  cos2
2 x  2
 2 t an B  cot B  t an B 
= 2 [Fr om (i )] 10. L et f(x) = 3 cos x + sin x
1   2 t an B  cot B  t an B
 3 1   
t an B  cot B cot B  t an 2 B  1   f(x) = 2  cos x  sin x  = 2sin  x  
= 2 =  cot B  2 2   3
2 1  t an 2 B  1  t an 2 B 
 
4. Given t hat Since, 1  sin  x    1
 3
t an A – t an B = x ...(i )
 
and cot B – cot A = y ...(ii ) H ence, f (x ) is maximum if x  
3 2
1
N ow, cot (A – B) = 
t an  A  B   x =  30º
6
1  t an A t an B 11. We have (a + b)2 = 4ab sin 2
=
t an A  t an B
 a  b 2
1 t an A tan B  sin 2  =
=  4 ab
t an A  tan B t an A  tan B
Since, sin 2   1
1 1
=  [fr om (i ) and (ii )]  a  b 2
x y  1
5. Given t hat , 4 ab
4  (a + b)2 – 4ab  1
sin  =  and  lies in the IIIrd quadrent
5  (a – b)2  0 a = b
16 3 12. The given expr ession can be wr it t en as
 cos  =  1  
25 5 1  cos y  sin 2 y 1  cos2 y   sin  y
3 
1 1  cos y sin y 1  cos y 

N ow, cos = 
1  cos 
 5  1
2 2 2 5 cos y 1  cos y 
  0  cos y
 1 1  cos y
But we take cos =  . Since, if  lies in I I I r d
2 5 13. Given t hat , diamet er of cir cular wir e = 10 cm,
 L engt h of wir e = 10
quadr ant , t hen will be in I I nd quadr ant .
2 lengt h of arc
1 H ence, r equir ed angle =
H ence,

cos =  radius of big cir cle
2 5 10 
6. cos 1º cos 2º cos 3º ... cos 90º... cos 100º =  rad
50 5
= cos 1º cos 2º cos 3º ... 0 ... cos 100º = 0 1
[  cos 90º = 0] 14. L et f(x) = sin x cos x = si n 2 x
2
7. Now, sin 12º sin 48º sin 54º We know – 1  sin 2x  1
1 1 1 1
=  cos36 º  cos60º  cos36 º    sin 2 x 
2 2 2 2
 Trigonometric Ratios & Height and Distance 12.9
Thus, t he gr eat est and least value of f (x ) ar e
1 A
1 8.
and  r espect ively..
2 2

3m
15. We have, A = sin 2  + cos4 
= sin 2  + cos2 cos2  30° 45°
 sin 2  + cos2  (Since, cos2   1) B C D
 sin 2  + cos4  1  A  1
According to the figure.
Again, sin 2  + cos4  = 1 – cos2  + cos4 
= cos4  – cos2  + 1 AC
In ACD,  tan 45
2 CD
 2 1 3 3
=  cos       AC = CD
 2 4 4
or CD = 3 m
3
H ence A1
4 AC
Again in ACB,  tan 30
LEVEL-1 BC
1. sin2 30° + sin2 60° = sin2 30° + cos2 30° = 1  BC  3 3

2. Value of tan q will ten A to +  as tan 90° is + Hence, BD  3 3  3 3  3  1 m.

.
9.
4.2
3.  cos60
L l
 L = 4.6 × 2 = 9.2 m

75 8m 60°
4.  sin 60
L
Let length of Ladder = l
75  2
L   50 3 m 8
3 cos 60° =
l
5. Figure
1 8
tan 60° = Height / 30    l  16m
2 2
 Height of the tower = 30 3 meter.
10.
6. Figure

DB 3m
In triangle ABD, tan 30° =
AB
60° x y 45°
 AB = 4 3 meter
river
DB
Similarly, in triangle CBD, tan 45° = 3
BC  3
From the figure, tan 60° =
x
 BC = DB = 4 meter

Hence, required distance AC = 4 3 + 4 x 3

= 4( 3 + 1) meter. 3
tan 45° = 1 y  3
y
h
7. cos 60 
15  Width of river = n + y = 3  3 m

1
 h  15   7.5m
2
12.10 Trigonometric Ratios & Height and Distance

h
11. tan 45° = 1
30
60° 15m
 h = 30 m

14. bridge
x
30° 45°
4m
Let distance of foot of ladder from wall = x

x 3 60° x y 45°
sin 60  
15 2 river

3 3
 x  15 tan 60   3
2 x
x 3
12. bridge
3
tan 45  1
y
4m  y=3
 width of river = x + y  4 3
60° x y 45°
river 15.

From the figure,

h
4
tan 60   3
x 60°
20
4
x
3 n
tan 60° = 3  n  20 3
20
4
tan 45  1 LEVEL-2
y
1. According the question:
 y=4
A
width of river = x + y

4
 4
3



4 3 3 m 60°
3 C B
13.
7.5m

BC
h cos 60 
AC

30 m 45° 1 7.5

2 AC
 A = 15 m
 Trigonometric Ratios & Height and Distance 12.11

2. (sin + cos)2 = sin 2   cos2   2cos  sin   3 h 90

2 2
tan 60°  x  30 m (Ans)
 sin. cos = 1, since sin  + cos  = 1 x 3 3

3 3  sin2   cos2   1
 (tan + cot) =  
4 4  sin  cos   Since tan 30° 
3

3 and tan 60° = 3

(Ans)
4
6. 3 sin  + 4 cos = 5

3. 3 4
30° sin   cos   1
5 5
45°
 comparing with sin . sin + cos  – cos  = 1
100
3
we get sin  
5
60° 45°
4
cos  
x 100 5
 4 sin  – 3 cos 
100 3
3 4
 4 3  0
5 5
 x  100 3  100

sec   tan  5 7.
4. 
sec   tan  3 45°
h
 8 tan  = 2sec 

4sin  1 1 60°
   sin   50
cos  cos  4
 cosec = 4 (Ans) x

According the question:

5.
x
tan 45  1   x  50  h
50  h

h x
tan 60 
50

60°  3  50  50  h
x
30°
 h  50  3 1 
90

 tan 60  3 
8. (1 + cot  – cosec ) (1 tan  + sec )
h 90
tan 30°  h
90 3  cos  1  sin  1 
 1     1   
 sin  sin  cos  cos  
12.12 Trigonometric Ratios & Height and Distance

1 ED
sin 2   cos2  1 tan 30  
 2 3 CD
sin  cos 

=2+0=2  CD  x 3

x
A/Q  x 3  100
9. 3
h
 x  25 3

12. 2sin 2   5 cos .sin   7 cos 2   1

x
60° Divide by cos2.
45°
20  2 tan 2   5 tan   4

sin2   cos2 
x   tan 2   1
tan 45  1  cos2 
20
 x = 20  tan 2   tan   6  0

hx   tan   3 tan   2  0

tan 60  3 
20
 tan   2 or 3
 h  20 3  20
13. A
 20  3 1  60° 30°
30°
10. tan2 + cot2 – sec2 . cosec2
90
put  = 45°, since all '' values should give same 30° 90 E
value of expression. D
3
2 2
=1+1   2  2 60°
= 2 – 4 = –2 B
C 90
11. 3
A E

x
x 90
tan 60  3 
BC
60° 30°
B C D 90
 BC 
3
100 m

1 AE
tan 30  
AB 3 90
tan 60  3 
BC 3

x  AE = 30
 BC 
3  BE = 60 m
 Trigonometric Ratios & Height and Distance 12.13
14. cos– sin = l ; tan = m sec2
1 AB
put  = 45° sin 30° = 
2 AC
1  AB = 70m
l=0;m=
2  AF = (70 – 20) m = 50m

1  AE  50 2
02
l  2m 2 1
 
2 2 2
15. According to the question
A

50 2
50
140 45 E
F
20

30
C B D
 13
CHAPTER Clock and Calendars

Cl ock s 10. I n one mi nut e, t he mi nut e-hand moves one

The dial of a clock is a cir cle whose cir cumfer ence is minut e division or 6°.
divided int o 12 par t s, called hour spaces. Each hour  1


space is fur t her divided int o 5 par t s, called minute 11. I n one minut e, t he hour hand moves   .
 2
spaces. This way, t he whole cir cumfer ence is divided
int o 12 × 5 = 60 minut e spaces.  1

12. I n one minut e, t he minut e-hand gains  5  .
The t ime t aken by t he hour hand (smaller hand) t o  2
cover a dist ance of an hour space is equal t o t he t ime mor e t han t he hour -hand.
t aken by t he minut e hand (longer hand) t o cover a 13. When t he hands ar e t oget her, t hey ar e 0° apar t .
dist ance of t he whole cir cumfer ence. Thus, we may H ence,
conclude t hat in 60 minutes, the minute-hand gains
55 minutes over the hour-hand. Formed in Formed in

Note: The above statement (given in bold) is very useful 12 hours 24 hour s
in solving pr oblems in t his chapt er.I t can be r est at ed 0° or 180° 11 22
as : 90° or any
22 44
“I n an hour, the hour-hand moves a distance of 5 minute ot her angle
spaces wher eas t he minut e-hand moves a dist ance of
60 minut e spaces. Thus, t he minut e-hand r emains 60 As per t he r equi r ed angl e, di ffer ence bet ween t he
mi n ut e-hand an d t he hour -hand and t h e i ni t i al
– 5 = 55 minut e spaces ahead of t he hour -hand.”
(or st ar t i ng) posi t i on of t he hour -hand, di ffer ent
Some other facts :
for mulae ar e used t o find out t he r equir ed t ime. Now
1. I n ever y hour, bot h t he hands coincide once. consider t he Rules (Quicker M ethods) given in t he
2. When t he t wo hands ar e at r ight angle, t hey ar e following pages.
15 minut e spaces apar t . This happens t wice in Variants in a Clock: I t is evident t hat t he t wo hands
ever y hour. of a clock subt end an angle ‘’ bet ween t hem. At any
3. When t he hands ar e in opposit e dir ect ions, t hey t ime, t he same can be find out using t he foll owing
ar e 30 minut e spaces apar t . This happens once for mula :
in ever y hour.
11  11 
4. The hands ar e in t he same st r aight line when  m  30 h  when m  30 h 
t hey ar e Coincide or opposit e t o each ot her. 2  2 
5. T h e h ou r h an d m ov es ar ou n d t h e w h ol e or
cir cumfer ence of t he clock once in 12 hour s. So, 11  11 
  30 h  m  when 30 h  m
t he minut e-hand is t welve t imes fast er t han t he 2 2 
hour -hand.
(H er e, m = minut es and h = hour s)
6. T h e cl ock i s di vi ded i n t o 60 equ al m i n u t e
Gain or Loss : I n a cor r ect clock, hands of a clock
divisions.
5
360 coincide in ever y 65 min .
7. 1 minut e division =  6 apar t . 11
60
8. T h e cl ock h as 12 h ou r s n u m ber ed f r om 5
I f hands of a clock coincide in less t han 65 min . ,
1 t o 12 ar r anged ser ially. 11
9. E ach h ou r n u m ber i s ev en l y an d equ al l y t hen clock gains t ime and if hands of a clock coincide
separ at ed by fi ve mi nut e di vi si ons (= 5 × 6°) 5
= 30° apar t . in mor e t han 65 min . , t hen clock loses t ime.
11
 13.2 Clock and Calendars
Too Fast And Too Slow:
I f a watch indicat es 9.20, when the cor r ect t ime is 9.10,
it is said t o be 10 minut es t oo fast . And if it indicat es
9.00, when t he cor r ect t ime is 9.10, it is said t o be 10
minut es t oo slow.
Cal endar s
Based on t he given infor mat ion, if you ar e asked t o
f i n d ou t , wh at day of t h e week was Sept em ber
15, 2008, then you can easily calculat e it on your finger
t ips. But , if week-day on Januar y 28, 2008 is t o be find
out , t hen it may be a t ough job.
The questions on this topic ar e ver y common in var ious
compet i t i ve exams. T he met hod of sol vi ng su ch
quest ions lies in t he concept of obt aining t he number
of odd days. Befor e jumpi ng ont o t he t opi c, l et us
r eview some of t he basic concept s.
What is a Leap year and an Ordinary year?
Consider t he year 1997. I s t he number 1997 exact ly
divisible by 4? The answer is: No, it is not .
L et us t ake t he year 1996. I s t he number 1996 exact ly
divisible by 4? The answer is: Yes, it is.
Now, extending t he given concept onto the following
year s such as 1980, 1900, 1987, 1964, 1600, 1951, 1300,
1988, 2000, 1990, 1992, et c., we can conclude :
(1) Wh enever t he num ber of year i s exact l y
divisible by 4 (except t he cent ur y year s), t hen
it is a L eap year.
(2) Whenever t he number of year is not divisible
by 4, t hen it is an Or dinar y year.
(3) I n case of t he cent ur y year s, if t he number of
t he year is exact ly divisible by 400, t hen it is a
L eap year.
(4) Whenever t he number of year is not divisible
by 400, t hen it is an Or dinar y year.
Ordinary year: An or dinar y year can be defined as
t he year having 365 days which is equal t o 52 weeks
and an ext r a day.
Century year: A year is a cent ur y year if it is divisible
by 100.
N on-Century year: A year is a non-cent ur y year if it
is not a cent ur y year, or not divisible by 100.
Leap year: A year is a leap year if it is a non-cent ur y
Sol ved E xamples
Example 1
At what t ime bet ween 3 O’clock and 4 O’clock, will
the minute-hand and the hour-hand of a clock coincide
wit h each ot her ?
Sol ut i on
When t he t wo hands of a clock coincide wit h each
ot her, t he angle bet ween t hem is 0°.
year t hat is divisible by 4, or a cent ur y year t hat is
divisible by 400.
H ow to find out number of odd days?
The t ot al number of days for a specific per iod of t ime
when divided by 7 gives a r emainder. That r emainder
is t er med as t he odd day(s).
Count ing of Odd days:
i . 1 or di nar y year = 365 days = 52 week s +
1 odd day
An or dinar y year has 1 odd day.
ii. 1 l eap y ear = 366 day s = 52 w eek s +
2 odd days
A leap year has 2 odd days.
iii. 1 centur y year = 100 year s = 76 or dinar y year s
+ 24 l eap y ear s = 76 + 2 × 24 =
124 odd days = 5 odd days
Now, based on t he above fact , we can conclude t hat :
i . Number of odd days in 100 year s = 5
ii. Number of odd days in 200 year s
= 10 days = 1 week + 3 odd days = 3
iii. Number of odd days in 300 year s
= 15 days = 2 weeks + 1 odd day = 1
i v. Number of odd days in 400 year s
= (20 + 1) = 3 weeks = 0
T he following point s have t o be observed:
(1) The fol l owi ng t abl e i s based on t he fact t hat
1st Januar y, 1 A.D. was a M onday. This t able is
helpful in solving t he quest ions which assume
t he given infor mat ion.
No. of odd
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 or 0
days
Days Mon. Tue. Wed. Thu. Fri. Sat. Sun.
(2) I n an Or dinar y year, t he calendar for t he mont h
of Januar y is t he same as t he calendar for t he
mont h of Oct ober. I n shor t , in an Or dinar y
year, January = Oct ober.
(3) I n a L eap year, t he calendar for t he mont h of
Januar y is t he same for t he mont h of July. I n
shor t , in a Leap year, January = July.
11
 m  30h
2
H er e,
  0 and h = 3
 Clock and Calendars 13.3

11 11
 m  30h 90  30  5  m
2 2
11 120 10
 m  30  3 m  min .  10 min .
2 11 11
Ther efor e, t he angle bet ween t he t wo hands of t he
90  2 4
m   16 min
11 11 10
cl ock i s 90°, when t he t i me i s 5 hr s. 10 min .
Ther efor e, t he t wo hands of t he clock will coincide 11
4 7
at 16 min . past 3. and 5 hr s. 43 min .
11 11
Example 2 Example 4
At what t ime bet ween 4 O’clock and 5 O’clock will What is t he angle bet ween t he minut e-hand and t he
t he hands of a clock be in t he same st r aight line but hour -hand of a clock at 3 hr s. 20 min.?
not t oget her ? Sol ut i on
Sol ut i on
11
When t he t wo hands of t he clock ar e in t he same  m  30 h
2
straight line but not together, then the angle between
t hem is 180°.   angl e

11 m = minut es
 m  30h h = hour s
2
H er e, H er e,
m = 20 and h = 3
h = 4 and   180
11
11   20  30  3
180  m  30  4 2
2
 110  90  20
(180  30  4)  2 6
m   54 mi n .    20
11 11
Example 5
Ther efor e, t he hands of t he clock will be on t he same
The minut e-hand of an in-accur at e clock over t akes
6 t he hour -hand in ever y 65 minut es int er val. H ow
st r aight line at 4 hour s 54 min .
11 much in a day does t he clock gain or lose?
Example 3 Sol ut i on
At what t ime bet ween 5 O’clock and 6 O’clock will I n an accur at e clock, the hands of a clock coincide
the hands of a clock ar e per pendicular t o each other ? 5
Sol ut i on every 65 minutes. But in this case, they are together
11
11 again after 65 minutes, hence t he clock gains time.
 m  30h
2  5  5
Gain in 65 minut es =  65  65  minut es.
H er e,   90 and h = 5  11  11

11  Gain in one day (24 × 60 min.)

90  m  30  5
2 5 60 5  288 10
   24  min.  10 min .
11 11 65 143 143
 m  240
2 Example 6
A wat ch, which gains unifor mally, was obser ved t o
480 7
m  min .  43 mi n . be 5 minut es slow at 10 a.m. on a Tuesday. On t he
11 11 next day at 11 a.m., it was not iced t hat t he wat ch
was 5 minut es fast . When did t he wat ch show t he
11
Also,   30 h  m cor r ect t ime?
2
13.4 Clock and Calendars
Sol ut i on Example 10
Tot al hour s fr om 10 a.m. Tuesday t o 11 a.m. on t he Januar y 1, 1992 was a Wednesday. What day of t he
next day = 25 hour s week was Januar y 1, 1993?
The wat ch gains (5 + 5) = 10 minut es in 25 hour s. Sol ut i on
The wat ch gains 5 min. in 1992 being a leap year, it had 2 odd days. So, t he
fi r st day of t he year 1993 was t wo days beyond
 25  125 1
 10  5  10 hr s.  12 2 hrs. Wednesday. i.e., it was Fr iday.
Example 11
1 Januar y 12, 1980 was a Sat ur day. The day of t he
 12 hours fr om 10 a.m. Tuesday week on Januar y 12, 1979 was:
2
Sol ut i on
= 10 : 30 p.m. Tuesday.
The year 1979 being an or dinar y year, had 1 odd
Example 7
day.
Ther e ar e t wo clocks, bot h set t o show t he cor r ect
12t h Januar y 1980 was a Sat ur day. But it was one
t ime at 10 p.m. One clock gains one minut e in an
day beyond 12th Januar y 1979.
hour while t he ot her gains 2 minut es in an hour,
t hen by how many minut es will t he t wo clocks differ Ther efor e, 12t h Januar y 1979 was a Fr iday.
at 10 a.m. on t he next day? Example 12
Sol ut i on Febr uar y 20, 1999 was a Sat ur day. What day of t he
Differ ence in minut es bet ween t he t wo clocks in one week was December 30, 1997?
hour = 1 mi nut e. Tot al number of hour s (10 p.m Sol ut i on
t o 10 a.m. on next day) = 12 hour s. The year dur ing t his int er val was 1998 and it was
The t wo clocks differ by = 1 × 12 = 12 minut es. not a leap year. Now, we calculat e t he number of
Example 8 odd days in 1999 upt o Febr uar y 19:
Januar y 1999 gives 3 odd days
I f t he t ime in a clock is 8 hour s 20 minut es, t hen
what t ime does it show on t he mir r or ? 19 Febr uar y 1999 gives 5 odd days
Sol ut i on 1998, being an or dinar y year gives 1 odd day
The t i me shown by t he cl ock , when seen i n t he I n 1997, December 30 and 31 give n 2 odd days
mir r or = 12 hour s – 8 hour s 20 minut es  Tot al n u m ber of odd day s = 3 + 5 + 1 + 2
= 3 hour s 40 minut es. = 11 days = 4 odd days.
Example 9 Ther efor e, December 30, 1997 was 4 days befor e
Sat ur day i.e., a Tuesday.
What day of t he week was 16t h July, 1776?
Sol ut i on Example 13

16t h July, 1776 means The year next t o 1987 having t he same calendar as
t hat of 1987 is:
(1775 year s + 6 mont hs + 16 days)
Sol ut i on
Now, 1600 year s have 0 odd days.
St ar t ing wit h 1987, we go on count ing t he number
100 year s have 5 odd days.
of odd days t ill t he sum is divisible by 7.
75 year s contain 18 L eap and 57 Or dinar y year s and
Number of odd days = 1(1987) + 2(1988) + 1(1989) +
t her efor e, (36 + 57) or 93 or 2 odd days.
1(1990) + 1(1991) + 2(1992) + 1(1993) + 1(1994) +
 1775 year s give 0 + 5 + 2 = 7 and so, 0 odd days. 1(1995) + 2(1996) + 1(1997) = 14/7 = 0 odd days.
Also, number of days fr om 1st Jan, 1776 to 16th July, So, t he year next t o 1987 having t he same calendar
1776 as t hat of 1987 is 1998.
Jan. Feb. M ar. Apr. M ay Jun. Jul.
31 + 29 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 16
= 198 days = 28 weeks + 2 days = 2 odd days.
 Tot al number of odd days = 0 + 2 = 2.
H ence, 16t h July, 1776 was a Tuesday.
 Clock and Calendars 13.5

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 13. I f a year st ar t s and ends on M onday, t hen how
1. An accur at e clock shows 8 O’clock in t he mor ning. many M ondays ar e t her e in t hat year ?
Thr ough how many degr ees will t he hour -hand (a) 52 (b) 53
r ot at e when t he cl ock shows 2 O’cl ock i n t he (c) 51 (d) 50
after noon?
14. A clock is st ar t ed at noon. By 10 minut es past 5,
(a) 30° (b) 180°
t he angle t hat t he hour -hand has t ur ned t hr ough
(c) 90° (d) 150° is:
2. At 3 : 40, t he hour -hand and the minut e-hand of a (a) 145° (b) 150°
clock for m an angle of:
(c) 155° (d) 160°
(a) 120° (b) 125°
15. A t w h at t i m e bet w een 9 O’cl ock an d
(c) 130° (d) 140°
10 O’clock will t he hands of a wat ch coincide?
3. The angle between the minute-hand and the hour -
hand of a clock when t he t ime is 4 : 20, is: 1 1
(a) 10 hrs. 49 min . (b) 9 hr s. 49 min .
(a) 10° (b) 15° 11 11
(c) 5° (d) 20°
1 1
4. H ow many t imes do t he hands of a clock coincide (c) 11 hr s. 49 min . (d) 9 hr s. 59 min .
in a day? 11 11
(a) 24 t imes (b) 22 t imes LEVEL-1
(c) 20 t imes (d) 23 t imes 1. At what t ime bet ween 4O’clock and 5 O’clock will
5. H ow many t imes in a day, do t he hands of a clock t he hands of a wat ch point in opposit e dir ect ions?
for m a r ight angle?
6
(a) 24 t imes (b) 48 t imes (a) 4 hr s. 52 min .
11
(c) 22 t imes (d) 44 t imes
6. H ow many t imes in a day, bot h t he hands of a 6
clock for m a st r aight line? (b) 4 hr s. 32 min .
11
(a) 22 t imes (b) 24 t imes
(c) 44 t imes (d) 48 t imes 6
(c) 4 hr s. 54 min .
7. H ow many degr ees does an hour -hand move in 15 11
minut es?
6
(a) 1.5° (b) 7.5° (d) 4 hr s. 34 min .
11
(c) 18° (d) 12°
2. The angle between the minute-hand and the hour -
8. H ow many degr ees will t he minut e-hand move in
20 minut es? hand of a clock when t he t ime is 8 : 30, is:
(a) 90° (b) 150° (a) 80° (b) 75°
(c) 120° (d) 180° (c) 60° (d) 105°
9. I f t he t ime in a clock is 6 hour s 45 minut es, t hen 3. At what angle ar e t he hands of a clock inclined at
what t ime does it show on t he mir r or ? 15 minut es past 5?
(a) 6 hr s. 45 min (b) 4 hr s. 15 min 1


(c) 7 hr s. 45 min (d) 5 hr s. 15min (a) 58 (b) 64°

2
10. H ow many odd days ar e t her e in 249 days?
(a) 5 days (b) 2 days 1 1

(c) 67 (d) 72
(c) 3 days (d) 4 days 2 2
11. Which will be t he next leap year aft er 1896? 4. H ow many degr ees will t he minut e-hand move,
(a) 1900 (b) 1904 in t he same t ime in which t he second-hand moves
(c) 1908 (d) 1898 240°?
12. Today is Fr iday. After 62 days, what day will it be? (a) 4° (b) 5°
(a) Thursday (b) Saturday (c) 6° (d) 8°
(c) Friday (d) Sunday
13.6 Clock and Calendars
5. Ther e ar e t wo clocks, bot h set t o show t he cor r ect 14. I f 10t h Apr il, 1883 was a Wednesday, t hen which
t ime at 10 a.m. One clock gains t wo minut es in day of t he week was 23r d August , 1879?
one hour while t he ot her gain one minut e in one (a) Sunday (b) Tuesday
hour. I f t he clock which gains 2 minut e shows t he (c) Monday (d) Friday
t ime as 22 minut es past 9 p. m., t hen what t ime (e) Saturday
does t he ot her wat ch show?
15. On Januar y 2, 1985, it was Wednesday. The day of
(a) 9 hr s. 33 min. t he week on Januar y 2, 1984 was:
(b) 9 hr s. 12 min. (a) Monday (b) Sunday
(c) 9 hr s. 11 min. (c) Tuesday (d) Wednesday
(d) 9 hr s. 23 min. (e) Saturday
6. Which among t he following year s is a leap year ? LEVEL-2
(a) 1900 (b) 1800
1. Today is 1st August and t he day of t he week is
(c) 1700 (d) 2800 M onday. This is a leap year. The day of t he week
(e) 2600 on t his day aft er 3 year s will be
7. The fir st Republic Day of I ndia was celebr at ed on (a) Wednesday (b) Friday
26th Januar y, 1950. What was the day of the week (c) Thursday (d) Sunday
on t hat dat e?
(e) Tuesday
(a) Wednesday (b) Thursday
2. M onday falls on 4t h Apr il, 1988. What was t he
(c) Friday (d) Saturday day on 3r d November, 1987?
(e) Tuesday (a) Tuesday (b) Sunday
8. M ahat ma Gandhi was bor n on 2nd Oct ober, 1869. (c) Monday (d) Wednesday
The day of t he week was
(e) Saturday
(a) Wednesday (b) Thursday
3. The year next t o 1990 having t he same calendar
(c) Friday (d) Saturday as t hat of 1990 is ____.
(e) Sunday (a) 1998 (b) 2001
9. I ndia got I ndependence on 15th August 1947. What (c) 2002 (d) 2004
was t he day of t he week on t hat day?
(e) 2000
(a) Wednesday (b) Thursday
4. Which dat es of Apr il, 2012 will be Sunday?
(c) Friday (d) Saturday
(a) 1, 8, 15, 22, 29 (b) 3, 10, 17, 24, 31
(e) Sunday
(c) 2, 9, 16, 23, 30 (d) 5, 12, 19, 26
10. I f t oday is Sat ur day, t hen what day of t he week
(e) 4, 11, 18, 25
will be on t he 338t h day fr om t oday?
5. I f 30 Januar y 1989 is M onday t hen what was t he
(a) Monday (b) Friday
day of week on 26 Oct 2003.
(c) Sunday (d) Saturday
(a) Monday (b) Sunday
(e) Tuesday
(c) Tuesday (d) Saturday
11. I f t oday is M onday, which day of t he week will it
(e) Friday
be aft er one year ?
6. I f 9t h of t he mont h fal ls on t he day pr ecedi ng
(a) Tuesday (b) Wednesday
Sunday, on what day will 1st of t he mont h fal l?
(c) Monday (d) Eit her ‘(a)’ or ‘(b)’
(a) Friday (b) Saturday
(e) Sunday
(c) Sunday (d) Monday
12. I f 23r d Apr il, 1984 was a Monday, which day of the
7. Anil r eached a place on Fr iday. H e came t o know
week was 15t h August in t hat year ?
t hat he was t hr ee days ear lier t han t he scheduled
(a) Monday (b) Wednesday day. I f he had r eached t her e on t he fol l owi ng
(c) Tuesday (d) Thursday Sunday, how many days l at e/ear ly he would have
(e) Friday been?
13. I f 3r d M ar ch, 1984 was a Sunday, t hen which day (a) One day ear li er
of t he week was 13t h July, 1987? (b) One day lat e
(a) Monday (b) Sunday (c) Two days lat e
(c) Saturday (d) Tuesday (d) Two days ear li er
(e) Friday
 Clock and Calendars 13.7
8. I f t he day befor e yest er day was ' Sunday, what 12. lf t he 23r d of a mont h i s a Sunday, what day it
day wi l l i t be t hr ee days aft er t he day aft er woul d have been t wo weeks and four mor e days
t omor r ow? ear l ier ?
(a) Sunday (b) Monday (a) Monday (b) Tuesday
(c) Wednesday (d) Saturday (c) Wednesday (d) Thursday
9. I f t he day aft er t omor r ow is Sunday, what day 13. I f t wo days aft er day aft er t omor r ow i s Sunday,
was t omor r ow's day befor e yest er day ? what day was t he I day befor e yest er day?
(a) Friday (b) Thursday (a) Wednesday (b) Tuesday
(c) Monday (d) Tuesday (c) Monday (d) Sunday
10. Su r esh w as bom on 4t h Oct ober 1999. 14. lf t hr ee days aft er t oday wi ll be Tuesday, what
Shashikant h was bor n 6 days befor e Sur esh. The
day was four days befor e yest er day?
I ndependence Day of t hat year fell on Sunday.
Which day was Shashik ant h bom? (a) Tuesday (b) Sunday
(a) Tuesday (b) Wednesday (c) Monday (d) Wednesday
(c) Monday (d) Sunday 15. I f t he day befor e yest er day was Thur sday, when
11. Reaching a place of appointment on Fr iday, I found wi ll Sunday be?
t hat I was t wo days ear li er t han t he schedul ed (a) Day aft er t omor r ow (b) Today
day. I f I had r eached on t he following Wednesday, (c) Tomor r ow (d) Two days aft er t oday
how many days lat e woul d I have been?
(a) One day (b) Two days
(c) Thr ee days (d) Four days

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (b)
LEVEL-1
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (c)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 11
  30h  m
1. Angle t r aced by hour -hand in 6 hour s 2
0 H er e, m = 20 and h = 4
 360 
=   6 = 1800.
 12  11
   30  4   20    120  110
2
2. The angle bet ween t he t wo hands of a clock at
11    10.
3:40 is   m  30h 4. The hands of a clock coincide 11 t imes in ever y
2
12 hour s (Since bet ween 11 and 1, t hey coincide
11 only once, i.e. at 12 O’clock).
H er e, h = 3 and m = 40     40  30  3
2  The hands of a clock coincide 22 t imes in a day..
   130. 5. I n 12 hour s, t hey ar e at r ight angles, 22 t imes.
 I n 24 hour s, t hey ar e at r ight angles, 44 t imes.
3. The angle bet ween t he t wo hands of a clock at
4 : 20 is
13.8 Clock and Calendars
6. The hands of a clock point in opposit e dir ect ions
270  2 1
(in t he st r aight line) 11 t imes in ever y 12 hour s m  min .  49 min .
11 11
(because bet ween 5 and 7 t hey point in opposit e
dir ect ions at 6 O’ clock onl y). So, in a day, t he Ther efor e, t he hands of t he clock ar e t oget her at
hands of a clock point in t he opposit e dir ect ions 1
22 t imes. 9 hr s. 49 min .
11
7. I n 12 hour s t he hour -hand moves 360°.
H ence, in 15 minut es it moves
LEVEL-1
 1. When t he t wo hands of t he cl ock ar e faci ng
 360 15 
 12  60   7.5. opposit e dir ect ions, t hen t he angle bet ween t hem
is 180°.
8. The minut e-hand moves 360° in 1 hour.
11
H ence, i n 20 mi nut es t he mi nut e-hand moves  m  30h
2
360
 20  120. H er e, h = 4 and   180.
60
11
180  m  30  4
2
9. The t ime shown by t he clock when seen in t he
600 6
mir r or m  min .  54 min .
11 11
= 12 hr s. – 6 hr s. 45 min. = 5 hr s. 15 min.
Ther efor e, t he hands of t he cl ock ar e faci ng
249 6
10.  35 weeks + 4 odd days. opposit e dir ect ions at 4 hr s. 54 min .
7 11
2. The angle bet ween t he t wo hands of a clock at
11. A leap year comes aft er ever y 4 year s.
8:30 is
1896 + 4 = 1900
But 1900 i s not a l eap year, because i t i s not 11
H er e, m  30h
divisible by 400. (for a cent ur y t o be leap year, it 2
should be exact ly divisible by 400.)
11
H ence, 1900 + 4 = 1904 will be t he next leap year    30h  m
aft er 1896. 2
12. Each day of t he week is r epeat ed aft er 7 days. 11
 Aft er 63 days, it would be Fr iday..    30  8   30
2
So, aft er 62 days, it would be Thur sday.
   75
13. As t he given year st ar t s and ends wit h M onday
means t he next year wi l l st ar t wi t h Tuesday. 3. The angl e bet ween t he hands of a cl ock at 15
H ence, t he given year is a non-leap year. minut es past 5 is
11
Ther e will be 53 M ondays in t he year.   30h  m
2
14. Angle t r aced by hour -hand in 12 hr s. = 360 H er e, h = 5 and m = 15
Angle t r aced by hour -hand in 5 hr s 10 min. i.e.
11 1
31    30  5   15    67 .
hr s. 2 2
6
 240 
 360 31 
 4. Second-hand moves 240° in  40 sec.
    155. 6 
 12 6 360
I n 60 sec t he minut e-hand cover s  6 .
15. When t he t wo hands of t he clock coincide, t hen 60
t he angle bet ween t hem is 0°. H ence, in 40 sec. t he minut e-hand cover s 4°.
11 5. Differ ence in minut e bet ween t he t wo clocks in
 m  30h
2 one hour = 1 minut e.
H er e,   0 and h = 9 Number of hour s = 11 hour s.
11 I n 11 hour s, one of t he clock gains 22 minut es and
 m  30  9
2 shows t he time as 9:22 p.m. The ot her clock which
gains 1 minut e per hour shows t he t ime as 9:11
p.m.

6. A cent ur y year is a leap year only if it is exact ly
divisible by 400. Only 2800 is exact ly divisible by
400. H ence, 2800 is a leap year.
7. Tot al number of odd days = 1600 year s have 0 odd
day + 300 year s have 1 odd day + 49 year s (12 leap
+ 37 or dinar y) have 5 odd days + 26 days of Jan
have 5 odd days = 0 + 1 + 5 + 5 = 4 odd days
So, t he day was Thur sday.
8. 1600 year s have 0 odd day
200 year s have 2 × 5 = 10, i.e., 3 odd days.
68 year s cont ain 17 leap year s and 51 or dinar y
year s.
That is, 17 × 2 + 51 = 85 days, i.e., 1 odd day.
I n 1869, upt o 2nd Oct ., t ot al number of odd days
= 31(Jan.) + 28(Feb.) + 31(M ar.) + 30(Apr.) +
31(May) + 30(Jun.) + 31(Jul.) + 31(Aug.) + 30(Sep.)
+ 2(Oct .) = 275 days = 2 odd days.
 Tot al odd days = 0 + 3 + 1 + 2 = 6 odd days.
 The day was Sat ur day..
9. 15 Aug., 1947 = (1600 + 300 + 46) year s + 1 Jan. t o
15 Aug. of 1947
= (1600 + 300 + 46) year s + 365 - 16
Aug. t o 31 Dec 1947
= (1600 + 300 + 46) year s + (365 - 138) days
Number of odd days = 0 + 1 + 1 (fr om 11 leap
year s and 35 or dinar y year s) + 3 = 5 odd days.
 The day was Fr iday..
338
10. N umber of odd days i n 338 days   48
7
complet e weeks +2 odd days.
2nd day aft er Sat ur day is a M onday.
11. The given year is a leap year or a non-leap year is
not given.
So, t he answer is eit her (a) or (b).
12. Count ing the number of days after 23rd Apr il, 1984
we have: Apr il may June July August
days: 7 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 15 = 114 days
Number of odd days in 114 days
114
=  16 weeks +2 odd days
7
2nd day aft er M onday is Wednesday.
13. I t is given t hat 3r d M ar ch, 1984 was a Sunday So,
3r d Mar ch, 1987, was thr ee days after Sunday, i.e.,
on Wednesday.
Number of days fr om 3r d M ar ch, 1987 t o 13t h July,
1987: M ar ch Apr il M ay June July
Days: 28 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 = 150
150
=  3 odd days
7
3r d day aft er Wednesday is Sat ur day.
Clock and Calendars 13.9
14. I t is given t hat 10t h Apr il, 1883 was a Wednesday.
N umber of days fr om 10t h Apr i l , 1883 t o 23r d
August 1883.
Apr il may June July August
Days: 20 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 23= 135
135
Number of odd days in 135 days =
7
= 2 odd days.
2 days aft er Wednesday is Fr iday.
Number of odd days fr om 23r d August 1879 t o 23r d
August 1883 ar e five. So, 23r d August , 1879 is five
days back t o Fr iday is Sunday.
15. The year 1984 being a leap year, it has 2 odd days.
So, t he day on 2nd Jan., 1984.
But , 2nd Jan., 1985 was Wednesday.
 2nd Jan., 1984 was M onday..
LEVEL-2
1. This being a leap year none of t he next 3 year s is
a leap year. So, t he day of t he week will be 3 days
beyond M onday i.e., it will be Thur sday.
2. Counting t he number of days after 3r d November,
1987 we have :
Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. M ar. Apr.
Days: 27 + 31 + 31 + 29 + 31 + 4
= 153 days, cont aining 6 odd days.
i.e., (7 – 6) = 1 day beyond t he day on 4t h Apr il,
1988. So, t he day was Tuesday.
3. We go on count ing t he no. of odd days fr om 1990
onwar d t ill t he sum is exact ly divisible by 7.
The number of such days ar e 14 upt o t he year
2000. So, t he calendar for 1990, was r epeat ed in
t he year 2001.
N ote: Number of odd days = 1(1990) + 1(1991) +
2(1992) + 1(1993) + 1(1994) + 1(1995) + 2(1996) +
1(1997) + 1(1998) + 1(1999) + 2(2000) = 14 odd days.
4. 1st Apr il, 2012:
2000 + 11 + Number of days fr om 1st Januar y 2012
t o 1st Apr il, 2012.
Number of odd days in 2000 year s = 0
Number of odd days in 11 year s = 13
Januar y Febr uar y M ar ch Apr il
Odd days: 3 + 1 + 3 + 1 =8
Tot al number of odd days = 8 + 13 + 0 = 21
= 0 odd days.
H ence, 1st Apr il, 2012 is a Sunday.
1st , 8 t h , 15 t h , 22 nd and 29 t h of Apr i l , 2012 ar e
Sunday’s.
13.10 Clock and Calendars
5. Tot al number of odd days fr om 30 Januar y 1989 10. Shashik ant was bor n on 29t h Sept ember 1999.
t o 30 Januar y 2003 15t h August , 1999 was Sunday. Days upt o 29t h
= odd days in 3 leap year + 11 or dinar y year s Sept ember fr om 15 August
= 3 odd days 16 + 29 = 45 days = 6 week s 3 old days
Total odd days fr om 30 Januar y 2003 to 26 October Sunday + 3 = Wednesday.
2003 = 11. Fr iday  2 days ear li er
Jan F eb M ar ch A pr i l Ther efor e, scheduled day = Fr iday + 2 = Sunday,
1 28 31 30 Sunday + 3 = Wednesday
Ju n e Ju l y A u gu st Sept Ther efor e, I woul d have been l at e by 4 days
30 31 31 30 including Sunday.
= 3 odd days 12. Two weeks ear l ier t han 23r d was also Sunday.
So, t ot al odd days = 6 odd days 23 – 7 = 16
So, day on 26 Oct ober 2003 will be Sunday. 16 – 7= 9
6. Accor ding t o quest ion, 4 days ear l ier t han 9 means 5t h,
9t h  Sat ur day 9t h  Sunday
Ther efor e, 9-7 8t h  Sat ur day
= 2nd  Sat ur day 7t h  Fr iday
 1st  Fr iday 6t h  Thur sday
7. Anil r eached t he place on Fr iday and he was t hr ee 5t h  Wednesday
days ear l ier t han t he scheduled day. 13. The day aft er t omor r ow would be Fr i day.
Ther efor e, t he scheduled day Today i s Wednesday.
= Fr iday + 3 days = M onday The day befor e yest er day was M onday.
I f he had r eached on Sunday t hen he woul d have 14. Today + 3 = Tuesday
ear l ier t han one day.  Today = Tuesday – 3 = Sat ur day
8. Day befor e yest er day was Sunday. Yest er day = Sat ur day – 1 = Fr iday
Ther efor e, t oday is Tuesday. Fr iday – 4 = M onday
Day aft er t omor r ow will be Thur sday. 15. Today is Thur sday + 2 = Sat ur day
Thur sday + 3 = Sunday Ther efor e, t omor r ow will be Sunday.
9. The day aft er t omor r ow i s Sunday. 
Ther efor e, t oday i s Fr i day.
The day on t omor r ow's day befor e yest er day
= Fr iday – 1 = Thur sday
 14
CHAPTER Geometry

LI N E Classificat ion of angle :

A line segement AB when extened indefinitely in both 1. Acut e angle : I t is an angle whose measur e is mor e

t he dir ect ions is called line AB . t han 0 but less t han 90
2. Right angle : I t is an angle whose measur e is 90
A B 3. Obt use angle : I t is an angle measur e mor e t han
Collinear point s 90 but less t han 180.
Thr ee or mor e than thr ee points ar e said to be collinear , 4. St r aight angle : I t i s an angle whose measur e
if t her e is a line which cont ains all of t hem. is 180
H er e, A, B, C ar e collinear point s. 5. Reflex angle : I t is an angle whose measur e is mor e
t he 180 but less t han 360.
A B C
I nt er sect ing lines 6. Complet e angle : I t is an angle whose measur e
is 360.
Two having a common point ar e called int er sect ing
lines. Bisector of an angle
H er e, line AB and CD int er sect at a point O. A r ay OP is said t o be t he bisect or of AOB if
The point common t o t wo given lines is called t heir AOB = BOP
point of int er sect ion.
B
A D
P

O
A
C B O
Concur r ent lines
1
Thr ee or mor e lines ar e said t o be concur r ent if t hey   AOP =  BOP =  AOB
2
meet at t he same point .
Complement ar y angles
l
Two angles ar e said t o be complement ar y, if sum of
t h ei r m easu r e i s 90  an d each an gl e i s cal l ed
m o complement of t he ot her s.
Supplement ar y angle
n Two angles ar e said t o be supplement ar y, if sum of
Par allel lines t hei r measur es i s 180  and each angl e i s cal l ed
Two lines l and m in a plane ar e said t o be par allel, if supplement of t he ot her s.
t hey have no common poi nt and we wr i t e l  m . The Adjacent angles
distance between two par allel ines aways r emains same. Two angles having t he same ver t ex and a common
PLAN E ar m ar e said t o be adjancent , if t her e non-common
A plane is a sur face such t hat ever y point of t he lines ar ms ar e opposit e side of t he common ar m.
joining any t wo point s on it , lies on it . H er e,  AOC and  COB ar e adjacent angles.
AN GLE
Two r ays having a common init ial point is called an a A
angle.
B C

B
O A O
14.2 Geometry
Angle of linear pair T RAN SV ERSAL
Two adjacent angle ar e said t o for m a linear pair of A st r aight line t hat cut s t wo or mor e st r aight lines at
angles, if t her e non-common ar ms ar e t wo opposit e differ ent point s is called a t r ansver sal .
r ays. Angles formed when a transversal cuts two lines
L et AB and CD be t wo lines, cut by a t r ansver sal l,
C t hen following angles ar e for med :
l
A 1 2
B
A O B 4 3

H er e,  AOC and  BOC for m a linear pair of angles.

V ert ical opposit e angle
 
I f t wo lines AB and CD int er sect at a point ‘O’, t hen
pai r s of angl e for med by t hem i s cal l ed ver t i cally
opposite angles.
D B
O ( 3, 6) and ( 4, 5)
A C
H er e,  AOD and  BOC ;  DOB and  AOC ar e
ver t ically opposit e angle.
(i ) I f a r ay st ands on a line, t hen sum of t he adjacent
angle, so for m is equal t o t he r ight angles.
(ii ) I f two lines inter sct each-other , then t he ver tically
opposit e angles so for med ar e equal.
5 6
8 7
C D
(i ) Pair s of cor r esponding angles :
( 1,  5) and ( 4,  8) ; ( 2,  6); ( 3, 7)
(ii ) Pair s of alt er nat e int er ior angles :
( 3, 6) and ( 3, 5)
(iii ) Pair s of consecut ive int er ior angles :
(iv) The angles labelled 1, 2, 7, 8 ar e called ext er ior
angles.
(v) The angles labelled 3, 4, 5, 6 ar e called int er ior
angles.
Cor r esponding Angles Axiom
(i ) I f a t r ansver sal cut s t wo par allel lines t hen each
pair of cor r esponding angles ar e equal.
(ii ) I f a t r ansver sal cut s t wo lines, making a pair of
cor r esponding angles equal , t hen t he l i nes ar e
par allel.

SOLVED EXAM PLES

1. In the given figure, three lines AB, CD and EF intersect 2. I f AB  CD EF as shown in t he given figur e,
in a common point, for ming angles as shown. I f find  CEF.
 – 50  – 90, and  – , find the value of  A B
66

F D E
L F
36

C D
 Solution : Refer r ing figur e,
A   B
BLE =  ABL = 66
 
  CL E = 180 – 66 = 144
C x =  L CE + CL E = 36
E = 144 = 150
3. I f AB and CD ar e par allel st r aight lines in t he
Solution : Given  =  – 50,  = – 90,  =  given figur e, t hen find  RSD.
Since  +  +  +  +  = 360 P

 50 + 90 +  + 50 + 90 +  = 360 R 2 x B

A
 280 + 2 = 360
 2 = 80 C
3 x
D
  = 40 S
Q
 Geometry 14.3
Solution :  CSR +  SRA = 180 2z  3z  4 z
 = 180
  CSR +  BRP = 180 12
9z
 3x  + 2x  = 180  = 180
12
 5x = 180 180  12
 z= = 240
 x = 36 9
  RSD = 2x  = 72 8. I f t he gi ven fi gur e, st r ai ght l i nes AB and CD
int er sect at O. I f magnit ude of  is for t imes t hat
4. I f an angle and it s complement ar e x  and x of , find 
r espect ively, t hen find angle x .
C B
Sol ut i on : Si n ce t h e an gl es x an d x ar e 
complement ar y, t her efor e 
O
x  x = 90 ....(i )
 x = 90 – x A D
 x = (90 – x )2 Solution : Given :  = 4
= (90)2 + x 2 – 180x Fr om t he figur e, it is clear t hat  +  = 180
 x – 181 x + 8100 = 0
2

   = 180
181  (181) 2  4  8100 4
 x = 5
2   = 180
181  32761  32400 4
=   = 180
2 4
181  19   = 180   144
=  100,81 5
2 T RI AN GL ES
Since, x = 100 does not sat isfy (i ),
A plane figur e bounded by thr ee line segments is called
Ther efor e x = 81
a triangle. A tr iangle has basically six par ts, three sides
5. I f differ ence of t wo supplement ar y angles is 50, and t hr ee angles.
find smaller angle.
The sum of t he t hr ee angles of a t r iangle is 180
Solution : I f x and y supplement ar y angles, t hen
Perimeter of a Triangle. Sum of t he lengt hs of t hr ee
x + y = 180
sides of a t r iangle is called per imet er of a t r iangle.
and x – y = 50 ...(i )
E xt er i or Angl es of a T r i angl e. L et A B C be a
Solving equat ions (i ) and (ii ), we get t r iangle, whose ar e sides BC is pr oduced t o D. Then,
x = 115, y = 65 ...(ii )  BCD is called an ext er ior angle of a t r iangle.
6. I n t he given figur e, AB and CD ar e par allel and A
PQ is per pendicular t o L M . I f  BNM = 50, find
 PQD.
M
N 50
A B
Q B C D
C D
 ABC and  BAC are called its nterior opposite angles.
L P
M edians. The line segment which joins midpoint of
Solut ion :  DQN =  BNM = 50
t he side wit h t he opposit e ver t ex is called median of
  PQD =  PQN – DQN the triangle.
= 90 – 50 = 40 A
7. Find value of z in (degr ees), in t he given figur e
F E

B D C
Her e, AD, BE and CF ar e medians of the tr iangle ABC.
Solution : Fr om t he figur e, Cent r oid. The poi nt of i nt er sect i on of al l t he t hr ee
z z z medians of a t r iangle is called cent r oid of t he t r iangle.
  = 180 I n the above figur e, G is the centr oid of the tr iangle ABC.
6 4 3
 14.4 Geometry
Altitudes. The lengt h of per pendicular dr awn fr om
t he opposit e ver t ex t o t he cor r esponding side is called
alt itudes of t he t r iangle.
A sides and included angle ar e cor r espondingly
R equal.
Q
O angles and one side ar e cor r esponding equal.
B P C (iv) R– H – S : Two r ight angled tr iangled t r iangles
H er e, AP, BQ and CR ar e alt i t udes of t he t r iangle
cor r sponding t o base BC, CA and AB.
Or t hocent r e.
The point of int er sect ion of all t he t hr ee alt it udes of a
t r iangle is called or t hocent r e of t he t r iangle.
I ncent r e.
The point of int er sect ion of t he int er nal bisect or s of
the angles of a tr iangle is called incentre of the triangle
H er e I is t he incent r e of  ABC.
A
I
B D C
L et I D  BC.
Then, a cir cle wit h cent r e I and r adius I O is calledf b
incir cle of t he ABC.
Circumcent re of a t riangle.
The point of int er sect ion of t he Per pendicular bisect or s
of t he sides of a t r iangle is called cir cumcent r e of t he
t r iangles.
A of t he sides cont aining t he angle.
O (iv) I f ar eas of t wo similar t r iangles ar e equal,
B C
H er e ‘O’ is t he cir cumcent r e  ABC.
Then, a cir cle wit h cent r e ‘O’ and r adius equal t o OA =
OB = OC is called cir cumcir cle of  ABC.s
N ot e: (i ) I f a side of a t r iangle is pr oduced, t hen
ext er ior angle so for med is equal t o sum
of t he t wo int er ior opposit e angle.
(ii ) Any ext er ior angle of a tr iangle is gr eater
t han eit her of the int er ior opposite angle.
Congruence of Triangle. Two t r iangles ar e said t o
be congr uent if and only if one of t hem can be made t o
super pose on t he ot her , so as t o cover it exact ly. Thus,
congr uent t r iangles ar e exact ly ident ical.
Ther e ar e Var ious cr it er ia for t he t wo t r iangles t o be
congr uent :
(i ) S– A– S : Two t r iangles ar e congr uent if t wo
(ii ) A– S– A : Two t r iangles ar e congr uent if t wo
(iii ) S– S– S : Two t r iangles ar e congr uent if all the
t hr ee sides ar e cor r espondingly equal.
ar e congr uent if hypotenuse and one side ar e
cor r espondingly equal.
SI M I L AR T RI AN GL ES
Two t r iangles ar e siad t o be similar t o each-ot her , if
(i ) t heir cor r esponding angles ar e equal ; and
(ii ) t heir cor r esponding sides ar e pr opor t ional.
Charact er ist ic Pr oper t y of Similar it y
(i ) A– A– A– Si mi l ar i t y : I f t wo t r i angl es ar e
equiangular , t hen t he t r iangles ar e similar .
(ii ) S– S– S– Similar it y : if cor r esponding sides of
t wo t r iangles ar e pr opor t ional, t hen t hey ar e
similar .
(iii ) S– A– S – Similar it y : I f in t wo t r iangles, one
pair of cor r esponding sides ar e pr opor t ional
and t he included angles ar e equa, t hen t he
t wo t r iangles ar e similar .
Result s on Similar T riangle
(i ) I f a l ine is dr awn par allel t o one side of a
tr iangle inter secting the other two sides, t hen
it divides t hese sides in t he same r at io. I t s
conver se is also t r ue.
(ii ) I nt er nal bi sect or of an angle of a t r iangl e
divides the opposite side inter nally in the ratio
(iii ) Rat io of t he ar eas of t wo similar t r iangles is
equal t o t he r at io of t he squar es of any t wo
cor r esponding sides.
t hen t r iangles ar e congr uent , i.e. equal and
similar t r iangles ar e congr uent .
Pyt hagor as’ T heor em.
I n a r ight -angled tr iangle, squar e of t he hypot enuse is
equal t o sum of t he squar es of t he ot her t wo sides.
B
A C
For a given r ight angled t r iangle ABC, wher e
 B = 90
AB + BC2 = AC2
2
 Geometry 14.5

SOLVED EXAM PLES

1. I n two similar tr iangles  ABC and DEF, DE = 3cm, I f s be t he side of the maximum squar e, t hen
EF = 5 cm, DF = 4 cm and BC = 20 cm, then find length 1 1
of AB. s2  ( x  s) s  ( x  s) s = 800
2 2
A  s2 = x s – s2 = 800
D  x s = 800

3 800
4  s =  20 m
40
E F B C H ence, lengt h of t he diagonal of t he squar e
5 20
Solution : Fr om similar t r iangles ABC and DEF
= 20 2 m
AB DE 4. Per imeter of a t r iangle is 100 m and its sides ar e
=
BC EF in t he r at io 1 : 2 : 2. Find ar ea of t he tr iangle (in
m 2).
AB 3 Solution : L et t he sides be x , 2x and 2x .
 =
20 5 Then x + 2x + 2x = 100
3  20  x = 20
 AB =  12 cm.
5 H ence sides ar e 2, 40 and 40 and
2. I f a t r aingle and a r ect angle have equal ar eas and s = 50 ( 2s = a + b + c)
equal al t i t u de, fi nd r el at i on bet ween base of Ar ea of t he t r iangle
r ect angle and base of t r iangle.
= s(s  a) (s  b) (s  c)
Solution : L et h be t e common height of t r iangle
and r ect angle. = 50(50  20) (50  40) (50  40)
I f a and b be r espect ively t he bases of t r iangle and
2
r ect angle, t hen = 50  30  10  10 = 100 15 cm
1 5. Find ar ea of an equilat er al t r iangle of side x.
By hypot hesis, ah = b  h
2
1 Solution : AD = AB 2  BD 2
 a =b
2
a = 2b x2
 = x2 
3. Area of an isosceles right-angled tr iangle is 800 sq. 4
metr es. The greatest possible squar e has been cut
out from it. Find length of the diagonal of this square. 3
= x
Solution : L et x be t he base and side of isosceles 2
ABC. A
By hypot hesis,
1 .
x x = 800 x x
2
 x2 = 1600 h
x
 x = 40 m 2

C B D C
x

1
 Ar ea of ABC = . BC. AD
x 2

90 1 x 3
= . x.
A B 2 2
s y

3 2
 H ypot enuse, BC = 2 x  40 2 m = x
4
14.6 Geometry
6. I n t he gi ven fi gur e,  ABC i s an equi l at er al 8.  PQR and L M N ar e similar. I f 3 PQ = L M and
t r i angl e. O i s t he poi nt of i nt er sect i on of t he M N = 9 cm, find QR.
medians. I f AB = 6 cm. Find OB. L
P
A

M
Q R M N
Solution : Fr om similar Ds PQR and L M N
O LM MN
=
PQ QR
B C 3PQ 9
 =
Solution : Gi ven AB = 6 cm, AM = 3 cm PQ QR
3 9
 BM = 62  32  =
1 QR
= 3 3 cm and 9
 QR =  3 cm
3
2
OB =  BM  2 3 cm QU AD RI L AT E RAL
3
A plane figur e enclosed by four line segment is called
7. An isosceles right triangle has an area of 200 sq. a quadrilateral.
cm. Find area of a square dr awn on its hypotenuse. PARAL L E L OGRAM
Solut ion : L et AB = BC = a A quadr ilat er al having opposite sides par allel is called
 Ar ea of  ABC a parallelogram.
A I n a par allelogram
(i ) opposit e sides ar e equal.
(ii ) opposit e angles ar e equal.
a (iii ) t he t wo diagonals of a par allelogr am bisect
a 2
each-ot her .
90 RECT AN GL E
B a C A par allelogr am each of whose angles is 90, is called
a r eact angle. Diagonals of a r ect angle ar e equal, and
1 2 it s conver se is also t r ue.
= a  200
2 SQU ARE
 a2 = 400 A r ect angle having all sides equal is called a squar e.
Ar ea of squar e on AC Diagonals of a squar e and bisect at r ight angle.
RH OM BU S
= 2 a 2 a a par allelogr am having all sides equal but diagonals
= 2. a2 = 800 sq.cm. ar e not equal is called rhombus. Diagonals of a rhombus
bisect at r ight angle

SOLVED EXAM PLES

1. Find side of a r hombus whose diagnals ar e 16 cm 2. Find number of sides of a r egular polygon each of
and 12 cm r espect ively. whose angles measures 156
Solution : Given : d1 = 16 cm, 6 cm d2 = 12 cm Solut i on : Sum of t he i nt er i or angl es of an
1 n -sided r egular polygon = (2n – 4)  90
 Side of r hombus = d12  d22
2  (2n – 4)  90 = 156  n
1  180n – 360 = 156 n
= 16 2  122
2  180n – 156n = 360
1 1
= 400 =  20 360
2 2  n =  15
 10 cm 24
 Geometry 14.7
3. O is t he point of int er section of the diagonals AC D C
and BD of a r hombus ABCD, P, Q, R ar e point s
on OC, OB and OA r espectively such t hat OP = 1 M
unit , OQ = 2 unit s and OR = 4 unit s. Find angle 0
PQR . 27

D C
P A B
1
1 1
0 =  70  27   70  27
2 2
R 1 Q
= 1890 cm 2
6. The ar ea of a t r apezium is 275 cm 2. I f it s par allel
A B
isdes ar e in t he r at io 2 : 3 and t he per pendicular
dist ance bet ween t hem is 5 cm, find smaller of
Solution : Fr om  OPQ,
t he par allel sides.
PQ2 = 12 + 22
Solution : L et t he par allel sides be 2x and 3x ,
=5 t hen
Fr om  OQR, OR2 = 22 + 42 ar ea of t r apezium = 275 cm 2
= 20
 PQ2 + QR2 = 5 + 20 1
 (2 x  3 x)  5 = 275
= 25 = PR2 2
 PQR = 90 2  275
 x=  22 cm
4. The ar ea of a r hombus is 120 cm 2. I f one of it s 25
diagonals is of lengt h 10 cm, find lengt h of one of
Smaller of t he par allel sides = 2x = 44 cm
it s sides.
7. I f each angle of a polygon is 165, find number of
D C sides of t he polygon.
Solution : Ext er ior angle = 180 – 165 = 15
0
360
5  Number of sides =
Ext erior angle
12
A 360
B
=  24
15
1
Solution : Ar ea of a r hombus = pr oduct of it s 8. ABCD i s t r apezi um wi t h AB par al l el t o DC.
2 I f AB = 10 cm, AD = BC = 4 cm and DAB =
diagonals.
CBA = 60, find lengt h of CD.
1
 120 =
 10  2nd diagonal C
2 D

 2nd diagonal = 24 cm
4 4
Fr om t he figur e,

AB = 122  52 60 60

A x P Q B
= 169  13
5. One diagonal of a par al lel ogr am is 70 cm and AP
per pendicular diatance of this diagonal fr om either Solution: Fr om D ADP, = cos 60
AD
of t he out l yi ng ver t i ces i s 27cm. Fi nd ar ea of
par allelogr am (in cm 2). x 1
Solution : Given :  x = 
4 2
AC = 70 cm and BM = 27 cm  x =2
 Ar ea of par allelogr am ABCD  CD = AB – 2x
= Ar ea opf ABC + Ar ea of  ACD = 10 – 4 = 6
14.8 Geometry
LOCU S
The pat h t r aced out by a moving point under some
geometrical conditions is called its locus. The plur al
fr om of locus is called loci .
e.g. A Acir cle wit h r adius or is t he locus of a point
which moves is such a way t hat it s dist ance fr om t he
fixed point O is always equal t o r .
r chord
Properties :
1. The locus of a point , equaidist ant fr om t he given
fixed point s, is t he per pendicular bisect or of t he
line segment joining t he given point s.
2. T h e l ocu s of a poi n t equ i di st an t f r om t w o
int er sect ing lines is t he pair of lines beisect ing t he
angles for med by t he given lines.
CON CU RREN T LI N ES
I f t hr ee or mor e lines pass t hr ough t he same point
t hen t hey ar e said t o be concur r ent and t he common
point is called point of concur r ency of t he given lines.
T heor ems.
1. T h e an gl e bi sect or s of a gi ven t r i an gl e ar e
concur r ent .
2. The per pendi cul ar bi sect or s of t he si des of a
t r iangle ar e concur r ent .
3. The alt it udes of a t r iangle ar e concur r ent .
CI RCL E S
A cir cle is a set of all t hose point s in plane t hat ar e at
a given const ant dist ance fr om a given fixed point in
t he plane.
r A
The fixed point is called centr e and t he given constant
dist ance is called r adius of t he cir cle.
H er e OA = r
Concentric circle : Cir cles having t he same cent r e
but wit h differ ent r adii ar e called concent r ic cir cle.
A B
P I f four points lie on a cir cle, t hey ar e said to be concylic.
Arc of a circle : A cont inuous piece of a cir cle is called
an ar c of a cir cle.
H er e, ar c AB = l = ar c
Chord of a circle : A line segment joining t wo point s
on a cir cle is called chor d of t he cir cle.
A B
When a chor d passes t hr ough t he cent r e of t he cir cle,
it is called diamet er of t he cir cle.
Segment of circle : The chor d AB divide t he cir cle
in t wo par t s. Each par t of t he cir cle is called segment
of t he cir cle. The segment cont aining t he minor ar c is
cal l ed m on or segm en t w h er eas t h e segm en t
cont aining t he major ar c is called major segment of
t he cir cle.
Congruence of circle : Two ci r cl es ar e sai d t o be
congr uent if eit her of t hem can be supper posed on t he
ot her so as t o cover it exact ly. This is possible only
when t he r adii of t he t wo cir cles ar e equal.
M ajor
segment
M inor
segment
Sector of a circle : A sect or is t hat r egion of a cir cular
disc C (o, r ) which lies bet ween as ar c and t he t wo
r adii joining t he ext r emit ies of t he ar c and t he cent r e.
Central angle : L et (O, r ) be any cir cle. Then, any
angle wit h vr t ex ‘O’ is called cent r al angle of a cir cle.
Tangent to a circle : A line t hat int er sect s t he cir cle
in exact ly one point is called a t angent t o cir cle.
Sect or
A B
The point wher e t he t angent int er sect s t he cir cle is
called point of cont act .
Secant : A line which intersects circle in two distinct points
is called secant of the circles.
N ormal : A line per pendi cular t o a t angent at t he
point of cont act is called nor mal t o a cir cle.
Cyclic quadr ilat er al.
I f all t he four ver t ices of a quadr ilat er al lie on a cir cle,
such a quadr ilat r al is called a cyclic quadr ilat er al.
 Geometry 14.9
Alternate segment : Segment opposit e t o t he angle 5. Equal chor ds of congr uent cir cles ar e equidist ant
for med by t he chor d of a cir cle wit h t he t angent at a fr om t he cor r esponding cent r es. I t s conver se is
point is called alt er nat e segment for t hat angle. also t r ue.
6. The angle subt ended by an ar c of a cir cle is t wice
B the angle subtended by it at any point of the alternate
A segment of t he cir cle wit h r espect t o t he ar c.
7. Any t wo angles in t he same segment of a cir cle
ar e equal.
C 8. An angl e i n a semi ci r cl e i s a r i ght angl e. I t s
conver se is also t r ue.
P A T 9. The sum of either pair of opposite angles of a cyclic
quadr ilat er al is 180.
I n t he given figur e, PAT is a t angent t o t he cir cle and
AB i s a chor d, whi ch di vi des t he ci r cl e i nt o t wo TAN GEN TS TO A CI RCLE
segment s namely ACB and BDA, called t he alt er nat e T heor em.
segments. 1. A t angent at any point of a cir cle is per pendicular
Fr o  BAT, t he alt er nat e segment is BPA. t o t he r adius t he point of cont act . I t s conver se is
Fr o  BAP, t he alt er nat e segment is ACB. also t r ue.
2. The length of two tangents dr awn fr om an exter nal
Theorem : point t o a cir cle ar e equal.
1. I f t wo ar cs of a cir cle ar e congr uent , t hen t heir 3. I t t wo chor ds of a cir cle int er sect inside or out side
cor r esponding chor ds ar e equal. t he cir cle when pr oduced, t he r ect angle for med
2. I f t w o ch or ds of a ci r cl e ar e equ al , t h en by t he t wo segment s of one chor d is equal in ar ea
cor r esponding ar cs ar e congr uent . t o t he r ect angle for med by t he t wo segment s of
3. The per pendicular fr om t he cent r e of a cir cle on a anot her chor d.
chor d bisect t he chor d. I t s conver se is also t r ue. 4. I t t wo ci r cl es t ouch each ot her i nt er nal l y or
4. Ther e is one and only one cir cle passng t hr ough ext er nally, t he point of cont act lies on t he l ine
t hr ee non-collinear point s. t hr ough t he cent r e.

SOLVED EXAM PLES

1. I f O is t he cent r e of a cir cle of r adius R and OA 2. I n a cir cle of r adius 7 cm, ar e subt ends an angle of
and OB ar e 2 r adii of t he cir cle, such t hat t he 180° at t he cent r e° Find ar ea of t he sect or.
angle AOB is  is in r adians, find ar ea of the bigger Solution : Requir ed ar ea of t he sect or
segment of t he cir cle cm off by t he chor d AB.
Solution : Ar ea of smaller segment OACB = 1  108   7 2
2 180
=
R 2
 R sin
  FG
R cos 
  IJ FG IJ 1 108 22
2

2 2 H 
2 2 K H K = 
2 180 7
 77

R 2   = 46.2 cm 2
=  R 2 cos sin
2 2 2 3. Find ar ea of the shaded por tion in the given figur e,
2 2 wher e t he ar cs ar e quadr ant s of a cir cle.
R  R
=  sin 
2 2 Solution : Requir ed ar ea
Ar ea of bigger segment = Area of square – 4  ar ea of one sect or

ADB = R 2
LM R   R sin OP
2 2 = 14  14  4 
1
4
  72
MN 2 2 PQ 1 22
= 196  4   77
R2 4 7
= 2    sin  = 196 – 154 = 42 m 2
2
14.10 Geometry
4. I n t he given figur e, PQ is t angent A. BC is t he Fr om t he given figur e,
diamet er. I f ABC = 42, find  PAB. x2 + x2 = r 2
 2x2 = r 2 ...(ii )
A Q
P  side of t he squar e = 2x

r2
42° = 2  2 r  10 2 cm.
B 2
O
7. Find ar ea of the shaded por tion in the given figur e
 22 
x  7  .
 
Sol ut ion : AP i s t angent t o t he ci r cl e at A. A B
Ther efor e OA and AP ar e pr ependicular t o each
ot her.
m 7c
OAP = 90 m
7c

Again OA = OB
  OAB =  OBA = 42
 PAB = PAO – BAO C D
= 90– 42 = 48 Solution : Fr om t he figur e, it is clear t hat AB =
5. I f lengt h of t he t angent fr om t he or igin t o t he 14 cm and ABCD is a squar e. Also 2 semi-cir cles
cir cle x 2 + y 2 – 26x + K = 0 is 5, find K . make a cir cle of r adius 7 cm.
Solution : Given cir cle is,  Ar ea of shaded por t i on = Ar ea of squar e
(x – 13)2 + y 2 = 169 – K ABCD – Ar ea of cir cle of r adius 7 cm.
 Cent r e C is (13, 0) and = 14  14    7 2
T
22
= 14  14   72
7
C
O (13,0) = 196  154  43 cm 2

8. A cir cle A has a r adius of 3 cm, two cir cles B and C

have a r adius each equal t o t he diamet er of cir cle
radius = 169  K A. Find r adius of a cir cle D which has an ar ea
equal t o t he t ot al ar ea of A, B and C.
Given : OT = 5, CT = 169  K
Solution : Given : r adius of cir cle A = 3 cm, t hus
Fr om OCT, OC = OT + CT 2 2 2
diamet er of A = 6 cm
 132 = 52 + 169 – K Also, r adius of cir cle B = r adius of cir cle C = 6 cm.
6. I f ar ea of t he given cir cle is 100  squar e cm, find I f r is t he r adius of cir cle D, t hen
side of t he squar e inscr ibed in t he cir cle.
Solution : I f r is t he r adius of t he ci r cle, t hen  32   . 6 2   . 6 2 = r2
ar ea of t he cir cle =  r 2  100  r 2 = 81
 r = 9 cm.
9. I f st r aight line y = x + C is a t angent t o t he cir cle
x 2 + y 2 = 1, find C.
Solut ion : L engt h of per pendi cul ar fr om t he
cent r e (0, 0) on x – y + c = 0 must be equal t o t he
r r adius of t he cir cle.
00C
x  =±1
1 1
 r 2 = 100 ...(i )
 C =  2
 r = 10
 Geometry 14.11

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 12. I n t he following figur e, find ADC.
1. The cir cumcentr e of a tr iangle is always the point
of int er sect ion of t he
(a) medians
(b) per pendicular s bisect or s
(c) alt it ude bisect or
(d) per pendicular s dr opped fr om t he ver t ices on (a) 55 (b) 27.5 (c) 60 (d) 30
t he opposit e sides of t he t r iangle
13. Two isosceles tr iangles have equal ver tical angles
2. The Qut ab M inar cast s a shadow 150 m long at and t heir ar eas ar e in t he r at io 9 : 16. The r at io
t he same t i me when t he Vi kas M i nar cast s a of t heir cor r esponding height s is
shadow of 120 m long on the gr ound. I f the height
(a) 3 : 4 (b) 4 : 3 (c) 2 : 1 (d) 1 : 2
of t he Vikas M inar is 80 m, t hen t he height of
t he Qut ab M inar is 14. A 25 m long ladder is placed against a ver t ical
wall inside a r oom such that the foot of t heladder
(a) 180 m (b) 100 m (c) 150 m (d) 120 m
is 7 m fr om t he foot of t he wall. I f t he t op of t he
3. The number of t angent s t hat can be dr awn t o ladder slides 4 m downwor ds, t hen t he foot of
t wo non-int er sect ing cir cles is t he ladder will slide by
(a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 1 (a) 2 m (b) 4 m (c) 8 m (d) 16 m
4. An angle is equal t o 1/3 r d of it s supplement . 15. The ar ea of a fi eld i n t he shape of a t r apezi um
Find it s measur e measur es 1440 m. The per pendi cular dist ance
(a) 60 (b) 80 (c) 90 (d) 45 bet ween i t s par all el si des i s 24 m. I f t he r at i o of
5. A man goes 10 m due east and t hen 24 m due t he par al lel sides is 5 : 3, t he lengt h of t he longer
nor t h. Find t he dist ance fr om t he st ar t ing point . par allel side is
(a) 26 m (b) 24 m (c) 28 m (d) 30 m (a) 45 m (b) 60 m (c) 75 m (d) 120 m
6. The sum of t he int er ior angles of a polygon is LEVEL-1
1620. The number of sides of t he polygon ar e
1. Suppose it is 3 o’clock. After 20 minutes the angle
(a) 9 (b) 11 (c) 15 (d) 12 between the smaller and bigger hands will be
7. H ow many sides a r egular polygon has wit h it s (a) 20 (b) 30 (c) 110 (d) 120
int er ior angle eight t imes it s ext er ior angle ?
2. The r adius of t he cir cumcir cle of an equilat er al
(a) 16 (b) 24 (c) 18 (d) 20 t r iangle of side 12 cm is
5 4
8. I f is t he measur e of each int er ior angle of a (a) 3 cm (b) 4 3 cm
6 3
r egular convex polygon, t hen it must be a
(a) octagon (b) hexagon 4
(c) 4 2 cm (d) 2 cm
(c) dodecagon (d) pentagon 3
3. I f t he per imet er of an isosceles r ight t r iangle is
9. I n a qu adr i l at er al A B CD ,  B = 90  an d
AD 2 = AB 2 + BC2 + CD 2, t hen ACD is equal t o e6  3 2 j m, t hen t he ar ea of t he t r iangle is
(a) 90 (b) 60
(c) 30 (d) none of t hese (a) 4.5 m 2 (b) 5.4 m 2 (c) 9 m 2 (d) 81 m 2
10. I n a t r i an gl e A B C,  A = x  ,  B = y  an d 4. I f t wo diamet er s of a cir cle int er sect each ot her
C = (y + 20). I f 4x – y = 10, t hen t he t r iangle is at r ight angles, t hen the quadr ilat er al for med by
joining t heir end point s is a
(a) Right-angled
(a) Rhombus (b) Rectangle
(b) Obtuse-angled
(c) Squar e (d) Par allelogr am
(c) Equilateral
5. Of all t he chor ds of a cir cle passing t hr ough a
(d) None of t hese
given point in it , t he smallest is t hat which
11. The per imet er s of t wo similar t r iangle ABC and
(a) is t r isect ed at t he point
PQR ar e 36 cm an d 24 cm r espect i vel y. I f
PQ = 10 cm, t hen t he lengt h of AB is (b) is bisect ed at t he point
(a) 16 m (b) 12 m (c) 14 m (d) 15 m (c) passes t hr ough t he cent r e
(d) none of t hese
14.12 Geometry
6. I n a t r i angl e ABC, t he l engt hs of t he si des 12. I f P and Q ar e t he mid point s of t he sides CA and
AB, AC and BC ar e 3, 5 and 6 cm r espect ively. I f CB r espect ively of a t r iangle ABC, r ight -angled
a point D on BC is dr awn such t hat t he line AD at C. Then t he value of 4 (AQ2 + BP2) is equal t o
bisect s t he angle A int er nally, t hen what is t he (a) 4 BC2 (b) 5 AB 2
lengt h of BD ? (c) 2 AC2 (d) 2 BC2
(a) 2 cm (b) 2.25 cm (c) 2.5 cm (d) 3 cm 13. I f one of t he diagonals of a r hombus is equal t o
7. Wit h t he ver t ices of a ABC as cent r es, t hr ee it s side, t hen diagonals of t he r hombus ar e in
cir cles ar e descr ibed each t ouching t he other t wo t he r at io
ext er nally. I f t he sides of t he t r iangle ar e 4, 6
(a) 3 : 1 (b) 2 : 1
and 8 cm r espect ively, t hen t he sum of t he r adii
of t he t hr ee cir cles equals (c) 3 : 1 (d) 2 : 1
(a) 10 (b) 14 (c) 12 (d) 9 14. I f t he sides of a r ight t r ingle ar e x , x + 1 and
x – 1, t hen t he hypot enuse is
8. I n t he figur e given below, O is t he cent r e of t he
cir cle. I f OBC = 37, t he BAC is equal t o (a) 5 (b) 4
(c) 1 (d) 0
A 15. ABCD is a squar e, F is mid point of AB and E is a
point on BC such t hat BE is one-t hir d of BC.
I f ar ea of FBE = 108 m 2, then the length of AC is

O (a) 63 m (b) 36
2 m
B C
(c) 63 2 m (d) 72 2 m
LEVEL-2
(a) 74 (b) 106 (c) 53 (d) 37
1. Two cir cles touch each other inter nally. Their radii
9. I f, in t he following figur e, PA = 8 cm, PD = 4 cm, are 2 cm and 3 cm. The biggest chor d of the outer
CD = 3 cm, t hen AB is equal t o cir cle which is outside the inner cir cle is of length
(a) 2 2 cm (b) 3 2 m
(c) 2 3 cm (d) 4 2 m
2. The pr oduct of t he lengt hs of t hr ee si des of a
triangle is 196 cm and the radius of its circumcircle
is 2.5 cm. The ar ea of the tr iangle is
(a) 39.2 cm 2 (b) 19.6 cm 2
(a) 3.0 cm (b) 3.5 cm (c) 4.0 cm (d) 4.5 cm
(c) 122.5 cm 2
(d) 61.25 cm 2
10. Two cir cles of unit r adius t ouch each ot her and
each of t hem t ouches int er nally a cir cle of r adius 3. I n t he figur e below, if t he per imet er of ABC is
t wo, as shown in t he following figur e. The r adius p, t hen t he per imet er of t he r egular hexagon is
of t he cir cle which t ouches all t he t hr ee cir cles is 3p
(a) B
2
2p
(b)
3
3p A C
(c)
2
2p
(d)
3
4. The ar ea of a r hombus is 2016 sq cm and it s side
3 is 65 cm. The lengt hs of t he diagonals (in cm)
(a) 5 (b)
2 r espect ively ar e
2 (a) 125, 35
(c) (d) none of t hese
3 (b) 126, 32
11. The t wo sides of a r ight t r iangle cont aining t he (c) 132, 26
r ight angle measur e 3 cm and 4 cm. The r adius (d) 135, 25
of t he incir cle of t he t r iangle is
(a) 3.5 cm (b) 1.75 cm
(c) 1 cm (d) 0.875 cm
 Geometry 14.13
5. Two cir cles with r adii ‘a’ and ‘b’ r espectively touch 8. I n t h e gi v en d i agr a m , t w o ci r cl es p ass
each ot her ext er nally. L et ‘c’ be t he r adius of a t h r ou gh each ot h er ’s cen t r e. I f t h e r adi u s of
cir cle t hat t ouches t hese t wo cir cles as well as a each ci r cl e i s 2, t h en wh at i s t h e per i m et er
common t angent t o t he t wo cir cles. Then of t h e r egi on m ar k ed B ?
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) –  (b) – 
a b c b a c
1 1 1
(c)   (d) None of t hese
a b c
6. A r hombus OABC is dr awn inside a cir cle whose
cent r e is at O in such a way t hat t he ver t ices A,
B and C of t he r hombus ar e on t he cir cle. I f t he FG 8 IJ 
ar ea of t he r hombus is 32 3 m 2, t hen r adius of (a) H 3K
t he cir cle is
FG 4 IJ 
(a) 64 m
(c) 32 m
(b) 8 m
(d) 46 m
(b) H 5K
(c) 4
7. The sides of a t r iangle ar e 6 cm, 11 cm and 15
cm. The r adius of it s incir cle is FG 5 IJ 
5 2
(d) H 3K
(a) cm (b) 3 2 cm
4
4 2
(c) 6 2 cm (d) cm
5

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (a)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 4. L et t he angle be x .
1. Ci r cu m cen t r e of a t r i an gl e i s t h e poi n t of 1
intersection of per pendicular bisector s of its sides.  x= × (180 – x ) ;
3
2. L et height of Qut ab M inar be x met r es H ence x = 45
150 x 5.
 =
120 80
150  80
 x= = 100
120 26 24
T1
3.

10
6. Sum of t he int er ior angles of a polygon of n sides

T2 = (2n – 4) 
T3 2
T4
H ence 4 t angent s can be dr awn.
14.14 Geometry

  Also, AC = CD
 (2n – 4)  = 1620  55
2 180  CAD = ADC = = 27.5
 n– 2=9 2
 n = 11 13. Given t r iangles ar e congr uent .
7. L et n be t he number of sides of t he polygon. Area of I st t riangle h12
 I nt er ior angle = 8  Ext er ior angle  = 2 ,
Area of I I nd t riangle h2
(2n – 4) 
 h12 9
2 = 8  2  2
=
 h2 16
n n
 n – 2 = 16 h1 3
 =
 n = 18 h2 4
B
5 14. AB = 25
8. = 150.
6  BC = 24 B
Ext er ior angle = 30  B C = 20
360 A B  = 25
 Number of sides =
Ext er ior angle  A C = 15
A
360  A A = 8 m A 7 C
= = 12.
30 15. Ar ea of t r apezium
9. A D
1
= (sum of par allel sides) × height
2
1
= (5x + 3x ) × 24 = 1440.
2
90
Solving, we get x = 15
B C and lengt h of longer side = 5 × 15 = 75.
AD2 = AB 2 + BC2 + CD 2
LEVEL-2
= AC2 + CD 2
1. Degr ees at 3 : 20
 ACD = 90
1
10. x + y + (y + 20) = 180 = 5 min dist ance – (5 min) dist ance
3
 x + 2y = 160 (i ) = 30 – 10 = 20 degr ees.
and 4x – y = 10 (ii ) 2. Ci r cu m cen t r e of a t r i an gl e i s t h e poi n t of
Solving (i ) and (ii ) we get int er sect ion of t he r ight bisect or s of it s sides.
P
 y = 70, x = 20 QM
 sin 60 =
Hence the angles of the triangle ar e 20, 70, 90 QC 60°
C
Thus, t he t r iangle is r ight angled. 3 6
 = 60°
11. A P 2 QC Q 6 M 6 R

62
10  QC = = 4 3 cm
3

3. Per imet er = (6 + 3 2 ) m
B C Q R

AB 36 i .e. x+x+ 2x = 6+3 2

 =
PQ 24  2x + 2x = 6+3 2
3
 AB = 
3 2+ 2 
2 63 2
 x= 
3 2 2 2+ 2
PQ =  10 = 15
2 =3
12. AB = BC
110 m
 BAC = BCA = = 55 2x
xm
2
 ACD = 125
xm
 Geometry 14.15
 Requir ed ar ea of t r iangle CC1 = 1, OC1 = r + 1
1 1 OC = AC – AO = CD – AO,
=  x  x = x2
2 2 [AC and CD ar e r adius of t he bigger cir cle]
1  OC = 2 – r
=  (3) = 4.5 m 2
2

2  OC12 = CC12 + OC2

6. A  (r + 1)2 = 12 + (2 – r )2
 r 2 + 2r + 1 = 1 + 4 – 4r + r 2
 6r = 4
3 5
4 2
 r = =
6 3
B C
D 6 11. I f incir cle of a tr iangle ABC touches BC at D,then
 Divide BC = 6 in t he r at io 3 : 5 BD – CD  = AB – AC
3 9 I n our case, AC = 5, AB = 3
Thus BD = 6 = = 2.25 cm
35 4
A

7. r1
A
r1 5
3E O
r2 r3
B r2 r3 C
B D 4 C

AB = r 1 + r 2 = 4  AC – AB = 2
BC = r 2 + r 3 = 6  CD – BD = 2
CA = r 3 + r 1 = 8 I n our case, BC = 4
 2(r 1 + r 2 + r 3) = 4 + 6 +8  BD + DC = 4 and – BD + DC = 2
 r1 + r2 + r3 = 9  CD = 3
8. OBC = 37  BD = 1 = OE
OB = OC = r adius = Radius of t he incir cle
 OCB = OBC = 37 12. A
 BOC = 180 – (37 + 37) = 106
1 1
N ow, BAC = BOC = 106 = 53
2 2 P

9. Fr om t he given figur e,
PC  PD = PA  PB 90
B C
 (4 + 3)  4 = 8  PB Q
AQ2 = AC2 + QC2
28
 PB = = 3.5 cm BP2 = BC2 + CP2
8
AQ + BP2 = (AC2 + BC2) + (QC2 + CP2)
2
 AB = AP – BP = 8 – 3.5
= AB 2 + PQ2
= 4.5 cm.
10. A F1 I L 1
2
O
= AB G ABJ , M PQ  AB P
H2 K N
2

r
O
2 Q
r r
r 5
1 = AB2
1
1
1 1 1 4
D c1 c2 B
 4(AQ2 + BP2) = 5AB 2
C
13. Ar ea of a r hombus
1
= (pr oduct of t heir diagnonals)
2
14.16 Geometry
1 = (36)2 + (36)2
= xy ...(i )
2 = 2 (36)2
Again, Ar ea of a r hombus
 AC = 36 2 m
= 2  Ar ea of equilat er al t r iangle ABD
A LEVEL-1
x x 1. A

y 3
B D 2 2
x
O
C
1 O 2
x x
2 2
C
B
3 2
= 2 x AB is t he chor d of t he out er cir cle t ouching t he
4
inner cir cle.
3 2 2. I f a, b, c ar e t hr ee sides of a t r iangle and R is
= x ...(ii )
2 r adius of it s cir cumcir cle, t hen
Fr om (i ) and (ii ), we have  = Ar ea of t he t r iangle
1 3 2 abc 196
xy = x = =
2 2 4R 4  2.5
y 3 = 19.6 cm 2
 = 3. L et a be t he side of t he r egular hexagon
x 1
L et ED  AC
 y:x = 3 :1
C
14. L et (x + 1) be t he hypot enuse
E

30° D
1
x+ x–1 60°
A B

x p
 (x +1) = x 2 + (x – 1)2
2  AD = = CD
6
 x + 2x + 1 = x 2 + x 2 – 2x + 1
2
AD
 x 2 – 4x = 0 Fr om ADE, = cos 30
AE
 x (x – 4) = 0
p
 x = 4, as x  0 3
 6 =
 H ypot enuse = 4 + 1 = 5 a 2
15. D 6k C 2p
 6a =
3
2p
 Per imet er of r egular hexagon =
6k E
3
1
4. Ar ea =  (Pr oduct of t he diagonals) = 2016
2k 2
1
A F 3k B  (2x  2y ) = 2016
2
L et t he side of t he squar e be 6K
1
  3K  2K = 108 65 65
2 y
 K =6 x x
 Side of t he squar e = 36m
y
65
 AC2 = CD 2 + DC2 65
 Geometry 14.17
 xy = 1008  4y2 = y 2 + x 2
Also x + y 2 = 652 = 4225
2
 x2 = 3y2
 (x – y )2 = x 2 + y 2 – 2xy
 x= 3y ...(i )
= 4225 – 2016 = 2209
Also ar ea of t he ODC
 x – y = 47 ...(i )
Now (x + y )2 = (x – y )2 + 2xy = 6241 1
  Ar ea of t he r hombus OABC
 x + y = 79 ...(ii ) 4
Solving (i ) and (ii ) we get 1 1
 xy =  32 3 , [Given]
 x = 63, y = 16 2 4
Thus, diagonals ar e 126 and 32.
 xy = 16 3 ...(ii )
2 2
5. PR = M C = AC  AM Fr om (i ) and (ii ), we have
= (a  c) 2  (a  c) 2 = 2 ac y = 4, x = 4 3
90  Radius of t he cir cle = 2y = 8
90 Q
R
P 7. I ncent r e of a t r iangle is t he point of int er sect ion
aM
C N b of t he bisect or s of it s angles.
a b
I f r is r adius of t he incir cle, t hen
A B

r =
s
Similar ly QR = 2 bc wher e  = ar ea
s = semi-per imet er of t he t r iangle ABC.
N ow, PQ = PR + RQ
H er e, 2s = 6 + 11 + 15 = 32
= 2 ac + 2 bc ...(i )  s = 16
Dr aw PN par allel t o AB
 PN = AB = a + b,
QN = BQ – BN = b – a 6 11
 PQ2 = PN 2 – QN 2
= (a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab

 PQ = 2 ab ...(ii ) 15
Fr om (i ) and (ii ), we have
= 16(16 – 6)(16 – 11)(16 – 15)
2 ac + 2 bc = 2 ab
= 16  10  5  1 = 20 2
Dividing it by 2 abc , we get
20 2 5 2
1 1 1  r = = cm
+ = 16 4
b a c
8. PQ = 2 (Radius of t he cir cle)
6. A
B PX = PY = QX = QY = 2
x
y (Being r adii of cir cles)
y D x X
O C

 O
P Q
L et AC = 2x , OB = 2y B
A C
 Radius = OC = 2y = OB
Fr om  ODC, Y

OC2 = OD 2 + CD 2
14.18 Geometry
H ence PYQX is a r hombus.
 Thus PO = 1 = OQ
[  Diagonal of a r hombus bisect each ot her ]
OP 1
cos  = =
PX 2
  = 60
 XPY = 120
Cir cumfer ence  120
Ar c XQY =
360
2r 2  2 4
= = =
3 3 3
4
Similar ly, Ar c XPY =
3
8
 Requir ed per imet er =
3

 15
CHAPTER Mensuration

TWO DI M EN SI ON
Rectangle and Squar es
Ar ea of a t r iangle = b gb
s s– a s– b s– c gb g
Per imet er of a r ect angle = 2 (lengt h + br eadt h) wher e a, b, c ar e t he sides of a t r iangle while
Per imet er of a squar e = 4  lengt h 1
s= (a + b + c) or semi per imet er..
Ar ea of a r ect angle = (lengt h  br eadt h) 2
2 A
Ar ea of a squar e= l (As in square, length = breadth)
N ote : Ar ea is expr essed in squar e unit s
M easurements of area in the M etric System.
100 squar e millimet r es = 1 squar e cent imet r e
100 squar e cent imet r es = 1 squar e decimet r e
B D C
100 squar e decimet r es = 1 squar e met r e
100 squar e met r es = 1 squar e decamet r e A t r iangle whose all t he t hr ee sides ar e equal is called
100 squar e decamet r es = 1 squar e hect amet r e an equilat eral t riangle.
100 squar e hect amet r es = 1 squar e kilomet r e I n an equilat er al t r iangle ABC, a = b = c.
N ote : One squar e decamet er which is equal t o 100 3a
squar e met er s is called an acre.  s =
2
One squar e hectameter which is equal to 10000 squar e
met er s is called a hect ar e. 3a 1 1 1 3 2
 ar ea =  a a a = a
‘5 square meters’ is quit e a differ ent t hing fr om ‘5 2 2 2 2 4
met ers square’.
3 2
‘5 squar e met er ’ r epr esent a ar ea which cont ains one 2 a 3
2 Area 4
squar e met er 5 t i mes wher eas ‘5 met er s squar e’ and H eight = = = a
Base a 2
denot es t he ar ea of a squar e whose side is 5 met er s
long and cont ains 5  5 or 25 squar e met er s. PARAL L E L OGRAM
Diagonal of a Rectangle. Ar ea of a par allelogr am = Base  H eight
A D L et CDEF be a r eact angle on t he same base DC and of
t he same height FC. Then since par allelogr ams on
AC = AB 2  BC2 t he same base and of t he same height ar e equal in
ar ea.

B C
Diagonal of a Square.

AC = AB 2
A D

B Par alellogr am ABCD = Rect angle CDEF

C
= CD  FC
T RI AN GL E
= Base  H eight
1 1
Ar ea of a t r iangle=
Base  H eight =  BC  AD H ence t he ar ea of a par al l el ogr am i s equal t o t he
2 2
wher e AD must be a per pendicular t o BC. pr oduct of it s base and height .
 15.2 Mensuration
RH OM BU S = ADE + Rect . ABFE + BFC
A r hombus is a par allelogr am all of whose sides ar e 1 1
equal. I n a r hombus t he diagonals bisect each ot her = DE . AE + AE . EF + BF . FC
2 2
at r ight angles.
(BF = AE)
A B
1
= AE [DE + 2EF + FC] (EF = A(B)
2
O 1
= AE [DE + EF + FC + AB]
2
1
= AE [DC + AB]
2
C D
1
AB = BD = CD = DA, = H eight  sum of par allel sides
2
and AO = OC, BO = OD H ence ar ea of a t r apenzium is equal t o t he pr oduct
BOA = 1 r t . angle of half t he sum of par allel sides and height .
Ar ea of r hombus ABCD = 2 ar ea of BCD REGU LAR POLYGON
= 4 ar ea of BOA Regular polygon is a n sided enclosed figur e wher e all
t he sides ar e equal.
1
=4× BO × OA 3 3a 2
2 Ar ea of a hexagon = ;
2
BC AD 1
=2×
2

2
=
2
BC × AD Ar ea of oct agon = 2a2 e j
2 1

H ence t he ar ea of a r hombus i s equal t o hal f t he Ar ea of Regular polygon of n sides having given lengt h
pr oduct of it s diagonals. of one side and r adius of cir cumscir bed cir cle
T RAPE ZI U M n 2
= a R –
FG a IJ 2

A t r apezium is four -sided figur e having a pair of

opposit e sides par allel. Thus ABCD is a t r apezium
2 H 2K
in which AB DC wher e R is r adius of cir cumscr ibed cir cle, a lengt h of
one side, and n number of sides
Dr aw AE and BF per pendicular s fr om A and B t o DC
CI RCL E
Area of a trapezium ABCD 2
Ar ea of a cir cle= r
A B
Cir cumfer ence of cir cle = 2r
Si nce ar c i s t he par t of a ci r cumfer ence, t her efor e

lengt h of an ar c =  2r
360
Since, segment is t he par t of ar ea, t her efor e

ar ea of a segment =  r 2
D E F C 360

SOLVED E XAM PLES

1. Find t he diagonal of a r ect angle whose sides ar e Solution : Ar ea of cour t yar d= 30  16½ sq.
12 met er s and 5 met er s. m = 495 sq. met er s
Ar ea of each paving st one= 2½  2 sq. m
Solution : L engt h of t he diagonal = 12 2  5 2
Ar ea of each paving st one= 2½  2 sq. m
=  Number of st ones r equir ed= 495 5 = 99
169
3. A hall r oom, 39 m 10 cm long and 35 m 70 cm
= 13 met er s.
br oad, is to be paved with equal squar e tiles. Find
2. H ow many paving st ones, each measur ing 2½ t he l ar gest t i le which wil l exact ly fit and t he
met er s by 2 met er s, ar e r equi r ed t o pave a number r equir ed.
r ect angular cour t yar d 30 met er s long and 16½
Solution : 39 m 10 cm = 3910 cm; 35 m 70 cm = 3570
met er s br oad ?
G.C.M . of 3910 and 3570 = 170
 Mensuration 15.3
H ence, si de of t he l ar gest squar e t i l e i s 1 m H ence we must find t wo number s whose pr oduct
70 cm is 540 and differ ence (37 – 30) or 7.
Now, if t wo number s be a and b, t hen
3910  3570 2 2
 Number of t iles = = 483 cm (a + b) = (a – b) + 4ab
170  170
= 49 + 4  540 = 2209
4. Find t he widt h of a r oller which t r aver ses 128
 a + b = 47.
km while cut t ing 6.4 hect ar es of gr ass.
But a– b =7
Solut ion : 128 km = 128000 m.
Solving, we get a = 27, b = 20
6.4 hect ar es = 6.4  10000 sq. m.
I magining t he gr ass ar ea t o be 128000 m long, 37 – 27
 Requir ed width = m =5m
and as wide as t he r oller, we have 2
6.4  10000 1 7. The per imet er of a r hombus is 146 cm and one of
Widt h r equir ed= m = m = 50 cm it s diagonals is 55 cm. Find t he ot her diagonal
128000 2
and t he ar ea of t he r hombus.
5. An oblong piece of gr ound measur es 19 met er s
Solution : L et ABCD be t he r hombus in which
2.5 dm by 12 met er s 5 dm. Fr om t he cent r e of
AC = 55 cm.
each side a pat h 2 met er s wide goes acr oss t o t he
D C
centr e of the opposite side. Find the cost of paving
these paths at the r ate of Rs 12.32 P per sq. meter.
Solution : Area of the path AB = 19¼  2 sq. meters
Ar ea of t he pat h CD = 12½  2 sq. met er s
O
Ar ea of t he common por t ion = 2  2 sq. met er s
C

A B
A B
146 55
Then AB = = 36.5 cm and AO = = 27.5 cm
4 2
D
Area of be paved = (19¼  2 + 12½ v 2 - 2  2) sq. meters
 BO = b36.5g – b27.5g
2 2
cm = 24 cm
= (19¼ + 12½ – 2)  2 H ence,ot her diagonal BD = 48 cm
119 1
= sq. met er s Ar ea of t he r hombus = . AC . BD
2 2
119 1
 Cost = `  12.32 =  55  48 sq. cm
2 2
= ` 733.04 = ` 733.4 P = 1320 sq. cm.
6. A mar gi nal wal k al l - r ound t he i nsi de of a 8. Find ar ea of t he t r apezium whose par allel sides
r ect angular space 37 m by 30 m ocupies 570 sq. ar e 6 cm and 10 cm long and the distance between
m. Find t he widt h of t he walk. t hem is 4 cm
Solution : Area of inner rectangle = (37  30 – 570) 1
Solut ion : Area = height  (sum of parallel sides)
= 540 sq. m. 2
A lit t le r eflect ion will show t hat t he differ ence 1
=  4  [6 + 10] sq. cm
bet ween si des of t he i nner r ect angl e must be 2
equal t o di ffer ence bet ween si des of t he out er = 32 sq. cm.
r ect angle. 9. Find ar ea of t he a r egular hexagon whose side
measur es 9 cm.

3 3a 2
Solut ion : Ar ea of a r egular hexagon =
2
her e, a = 9 cm
3 3a 2 3 3  81
 Area= =  210.4 sq. cm.
2 2
 15.4 Mensuration
10. Find t o t he near est met er, t he side of a r egular Right ci r cul ar cylinder i s a sol i d descr i bed by t he
oct agonal enclosur e whose ar ea is 1 hect ar e. r evolut ion of a r ect angle about one of it s sides or we
can say a pr ism wit h t he infinit e sides on t he base.
Solution : Area of a regular octagon = 2(1+ 2 ) a2
Volume of a cylinder = area of the base  height = r 2 h
 2(1+ 2 ) a2 = 1 hect ar e Cur ved sur face= cir cumfer ence  height = 2r h
Tot al sur face ar ea of a cylinder = 2r h + r 2
= 2 r (r + h)
PYRAM I D AN D CON E
Pyr amid is a solid whose sides ar e t r iangle, having a
common ver t ex and whose base is plane r ect ilinear
fi gur e. A pyr ami d i s cal l ed t et r ahedr on, squar e
pyr amid, pentagonal pyr amid, hexagonal pyramid etc.
10000 accor di n g t o i t s base bei n g a t r i an gl e, squ ar e,
 a2 = = 2071 sq. m
e
2 1 2 j pent agon, hexagon et c. r espect ively.
 a = 46 met er s (apr r ox)
TH REE DI M EN SI ON S
Anyt hing which occupies space is called a solid or a
three dimensional figure
e.g., cube, cuboid, cylinder, cone, pr ism, spher e et c.
CU BE AN D CU BOI D 1
Volume of a Pyr amid =  base  height (Base means
A solid figur e wit h six faces all of which ar e r ect angle 3
ar ea of t he base)
is known as cuboid while a figur e with all the six faces,
Ri ght ci r cul ar cone i s a sol i d gener at ed by t he
squar e, is called cube.
r evolut ion of a r ight angled t r iangle about one of t he
sides cont aining t he r ight angle as axis.

--P-
S
h

-R-
Volume of a cuboid = L  B  H (Length  Breadth  Height)
1
Volume of a cube= L 3 wher e all t he sides ar e equal. Volume of a cone =  area of base  perpendicular height
3
Sur face ar ea of a cuboid = 2 (L B + BH + H L ) 1
= r 2 h
Sur face ar ea of a cube = 6 L 2 3
Cur ved sur face= r l
Diagonal of a cuboid = L 2  B 2  H 2
wher e, l = slant height = H 2  R2
Diagonal of a cube = 3 L
Tot al sur face ar ea= r (r + l )
PRI SM AN D CYLI N DER
SPH E RE
Right pr ism is a solid bounded by plane faces of which
t wo ar e congr uent par allel figur es and t he ot her s ar e A spher e is a solid bounded by one sur face and is such
r ect angles. that all str aight lines dr awn fr om a cer tain point within
t he solid t o t he bounding sur face ar e equal. Spher e
can be hollow as well as solid.
e.g. t ennis ball is a hollow spher e while Cr icket ball is
a solid spher e.

Volume of a r ight pr ism = Ar ea of t he base  H eight 4

L at er al sur face of a r ight pr ism = Per imet er of t he Volume of a spher e = r 3
3
base  H eight Sur face ar ea of a spher e = 4r 2
 Mensuration 15.5

SOLVED E XAM PLES

1 6. A ci st er n con t ai n i n g 8000 l i t r es m easu r es
1. A rectangular tank measuring internally 37 meters exter nally 3 m 3 dm by 2 m 6 dm by 1m 1 dm, t he
3
in length, 12 meters in breadth and 8 meters in depth, sides being 5 cm t hick. Find t he t hickness of t he
is full of water. Find the weight of water in metr ic bot t om, supposi ng one cubi c met er t o cont ain
tons, given that one cubic meter of water weighs 1000 lit r es.
1000 kilogr ams. Solution : Volume of t he cist er n = 8000  1000
Solution: Volume of water = 8 cub. m.
1 I nt er nal lengt h = 3 m dm – 2  5 cm = 3 m 2 dm
= 37  12  8 cub. meters
3 I nter nal br eadth = 2 m 6 dm – 2  5cm = 2 m 5 dm
112 8
Weight of wat er =  12  8  1000  I nt er nal height = m=1m
3 3.2  2.5
= 3584000 kg = 3584 metric tons But ext er nal height = 1m 1 dm
2. A br ick measur es 20 cm by 10 cm by 7½ cm.H ow  Thickness of bot t om = 1m 1dm – 1 m = 1dm
many br icks will be r equir ed for a wall 25 m long, 7. The base of a pr ism is a t r iangle of which t he
2 m high and ¾ m t hick? sides ar e 17 cm, 25 cm and 28 cm r espect ively.
3 The volume of t he pr ism is 4200 cubic cm. What
Solution: Volume of wall = 25  2  cub. meters is t he height ? Find it s lat er al ar ea also.
4
20 10 15 Solution: L et t he sides be a = 17 cm, b =25 cm,
Volume of one br ick =   cub. m c = 28 cm
100 100 200
3 ab c 17  25  28
= cub. m Then, s = = = 35 cm
2000 2 2
 Requir ed number of br icks s – a = (35– 17)cm = 18 cm.
FG
= 25  2 
IJ
3 3
= 25000 s – b = (35– 25) cm = 10 cm
H K
4

2000 s – c = (35– 28)cm = 7 cm
3.
3
The sur face of a cube is 30 sq. met er s. Find
8
Ar ea of a t r iangle = b gb
s s– a s– b s– cgb g
it s volume.
3 243 H ence ar ea of t he base = 35  18  10  7
Solution : 6 (edge)2 = 30 = sq. met er s = 210 sq. cm.
8 8
4200
243 1 81 H eight of t he pr ism = cm = 20 cm.
 (edge)2=  = sq. met er s 210
8 6 16
L at er al ar ea = per imet er of t he base  height
81 9
 edge= met er s = met er s = (17 + 25+ 28)  20 sq. cm = 1400 sq.cm
16 4
8. A hollow cylindr ical t ube open at bot h ends is
9 9 9 25 made of ir on 2cm t hick. I f t he ext er nal diamet er
Volume =   = 11 cub. met er s
4 4 4 64 be 50 cm and t he lengt h of t he t ube be 140 cm.,
4. The annual r ainfall at a place is 43 cm. Find t he find t he number of cubic cm of ir on in it .
weight in metr ic t onnes of t he annual r ain falling Solut ion :H eight = 140 cm
t her e on a hect ar e of land, t aking t he weight of
Ext er nal diamet er = 50 cm
wat er t o be 1 met r ic t onne t o t he cubic met er.
 Ext er nal r adius, OB = 25 cm
Solution: Ar ea of land = 10000 sq. m
10000  43
Volume of r ainfall = = 4300 cub. m
100
 Weight of wat er = 4300  1 = 4300 m tonnes O A B
5. A cubic met er of gold is ext ended by hammer ing
so as t o cover an ar ea of 6 hect aes. Find t he
t hickness of t he gold in decimals of cm, cor r ect Also, int er nal r adius, OA = OB – AB
t o t he fir st t wo significant figur es. = (25 – 2) cm = 23 cm
Solut ion :1 cub. m = 1000000 cub. cm I t is easy t o see t hat volume of ir on will be found
6 hect ar es= 6  10000  10000 sq. cm by subt r act ing volume of t he cylinder of r adius
1000000 OA fr om volume t he cylinder of r adius OB.
 Thickness of gold =
6  10000  10000 22 22
1 Volume of ir on =  25  25  140 –  23
= = .0017 cm. 7 7
600  23  140 = 42240 cub. cm.
15.6 Mensuration

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 11. The diamet er of a gar den r oller is 1.4 m and it is
1. The lengt h of t he longest r od t hat can be placed 2 m l ong. H ow much ar ea wi l l i t cover i n 5
in a r oom which is 12 m long, 9 m br oad and 8 m FG
r evolut ions ? use  
22 IJ
high is H 7 K
(a) 27 m (b) 19 m (c) 17 m (d) 13 m (a) 40 m 2 (b) 44 m 2 (c) 48 m 2 (d) 36 m 2
2. A cir cular well is dug t o a dept h of 14 met r es 12. The number of r evolut ions made by a wheel of
wit h a diamet er of 2 met r es. What is t he volume diamet er 56 cm in cover ing a dist ance of 1.1 km
 22  22 
of t he ear t h dug out ?  Use   
is  Use  
 7  7 

(a) 32 cubic met r es (b) 36 cubic met r es
(a) 31.25 (b) 56.25
(c) 40 cubic met r es (d) 44 cubic met r es
(c) 625 (d) 62.5
3. The per imet er of one face of a cube is 20 cm. I t s
volume must be 13. A bicycle wheel makes 5000 r evolutions in moving
11 km. Find diamet er of t he wheel.
(a) 8000 cm 3 (b) 1000 cm 3
(a) 55 cm (b) 60 cm
(c) 125 cm 3 (d) 400 cm 3
(c) 65 cm (d) 70 cm
4. The cur ved sur face of a r ight cir cular cone of
height 15 cm and base diamet er 16 cm is 14. The perimeter of a r ectangular field is 52 m. I f
the length of the field is 2m more than thrice the
(a) 120 cm 2 (b) 60 cm 2
breadth, then what is the breadth of the field?
(c) 136 cm 2 (d) 68 cm 2
(a) 6.5 m (b) 6.25 m
5. The volume of a cube is V. The t ot al lengt h of it s
(c) 13 m (d) 6 m
edges is
1 1 1
(a) 6V1/3 (b) 8 V (c) 12 V 2/3 (d) 12 V 1/3 15. The sides of a tr iangle ar e in the r atio of : : .
2 3 4
6. The cr oss-sect ion of a canal is in t he for m of a I f t he per imet er is 52 cm, t hen t he lengt h of t he
t r apezium. I f canal t op is 10 m wide, t he bot t om smallest side is
is 6 m wide and ar ea of t he cr oss sect ion is 72 m 2,
(a) 9 cm (b) 10 cm (c) 11 cm (d) 12 cm
t hen dept h of t he canal is
(a) 10 m (b) 7 m (c) 6 m (d) 9 m LEVEL-1
7. A hor se is t et her ed t o one cor ner of a r ect angular 1. The ar ea of four walls of a r oom is 120 m 2. The
gr assy field 40 m by 24 m wit h a r ope 14 m long. lengt h is t wice t he br eadt h. I f t he height of t he
Over how much ar ea of t he field can it gr aze ? r oom is 4 m, find ar ea of t he floor.
(a) 154 m 2 (b) 308 m 2 (a) 48 m 2 (b) 49 m 2 (c) 50 m 2 (d) 52 m 2
(c) 150 m 2 (d) None of t hese 2. A wir e is looped in t he for m of a cir cle of r adius
28cm. I t is r e-bent into a squar e for m. Deter mine
8. The sides of a r ect angular field ar e in t he r at io
lengt h of t he side of t he squar e.
3 : 4 wit h it s ar ea as 7500 sq. m. The cost of
fencing t he field @25-paise per met er is (a) 44 cm (b) 45 cm (c) 46 cm (d) 48 cm
(a) ` 87.50 (b) ` 86.50 3. A cir cular gr assy plot of land, 42 m in diamet er,
has a pat h 3.5 m wide r unning r ound it on t he
(c) ` 67.50 (d) ` 55.50
out side. Find t he cost gr avelling t he pat h at ` 4
9. A t r ack i s i n t he for m of a r i ng whose i nner per squar e met r e.
ci r cu m f er en ce i s 352 m an d t h e ou t er
(a) ` 2002 (b) ` 2003
cir cumfer ence is 396 m. The width of the tr ack is
(c) ` 2004 (d) ` 2000
(a) 44 m (b) 14 m (c) 22 m (d) 7 m
4. A r ect angul ar t ank measur i ng 5 m × 4.5 m
10. A st eel wir e bent in t he for m of a squar e of ar ea × 2.1 m is dug at the centr e of the field measur ing
121 cm 2. I f t he same wir e is bent in t he for m of a 13.5 m × 2.5 m. The ear th dig out is spr ead evenly
cir cle, t hen t he ar ea of t he cir cle is over t he r emai ni ng por t i on of t he fi el d. H ow
(a) 130 cm 2 (b) 136 cm 2 much is t he level of t he field r aised?
(c) 154 cm 2 (d) none of t hese (a) 4.0 m (b) 4.1 m
(c) 4.2 m (d) 4.3 m
 Mensuration 15.7
5. H ow many met r es of cl ot h 5 m wi de wi l l be 14. The l engt h of a r oom i s doubl e t he br eat h. The
r equir ed t o make a conical t ent , t he r adius of cost of col our i ng t he cei l i ng at ` 25 per sq m i s
whose base is 7 m and whose height is 25 m? ` 5,000 and t he cost of pai nt i ng t he four wal l s
(Take  = 22/7) at ` 240 per sq m i s ` 64,800. Fi nd t he hei ght
(a) 108 m (b) 110 m (c) 112 m (d) 115 m of t he r oom.
(a) 4.5 m (b) 4 m (c) 3.5 m (d) 5 m
6. A met all ic sheet i s of r ect angular shape wi t h
di mensions 48 × 36 cm. Fr om each one of it s 15. The t r unk of a t r ee is a r ight cylinder 1.5 m in
cor ner s, a squar e of 8 cm is cut off. An open box r adius and 10 m high. The volume of t he t imber
is made of t he r emaining sheet . Find volume of which r emains when t he t r unk is t r immed just
t he box. en ou gh t o r edu ce i t t o a r ect an gu l ar
par allelopiped on a squar e base is
(a) 5110 cm 3 (b) 5130 cm 3
(a) 44 m 3 (b) 46 m 3
(c) 5120 cm 3
(d) 5140 cm 3
(c) 45 m 3 (d) 47 m 3
7. A room 5 m 8 m is to be carpeted leaving a margin
of 10 cm for m each wall. I f cost of t he car pet is LEVEL-2
` 18 per m 2, t hen cost of car pet ing t he r oom will 1. A hemispher ical bowl is filled t o t he br im wit h a
be bev er age. T h e con t en t s of t h e bow l ar e
(a) ` 702.60 (b) ` 691.80 tr ansfer r ed into a cylindr ical vessel whose r adius
(c) ` 682.46 (d) ` 673.92 is 50% mor e t han it s height . I f t he diamet er is
same for bot h t he bowl and t he cyli nder , t he
8. A cir cle r oad r uns ar ound a cir cular gar den. I f
volume of t he bever age in t he cylindr ical vessel,
differ ence bet ween cir cumfer ence of t he out er
as a per cen t age of t h e v ol u m e i n t h e
cir cle and t he inner cir cle is 44 m, t hen widt h of
hemispher ical bowl, is
t he r oad is
(a) 4 m (b) 7 m (c) 3,5 m (d) 7,5 m 2
(a) 66 %
9. A gar den is 24 m long and 14 m wide. Ther e is a 3
pat h 1 m wide out side t he gar den along it s sides.
I f t he pat h i s t o be const r uct ed wi t h squar e 1
(b) 78 %
mar ble t iles 20 cm 20 cm, t he number of t iles 2
r equir ed t o cover t he pat h is (c) 100%
(a) 1800 (b) 200 (c) 2000 (d) 2150 (d) mor e t han 100%
10. A lawn is in t he for m of an isosceles t r iangle. 2. I n t he accompanyi ng fi gur e, AB is one of t he
The cost of t ur fing it came t o ` 1200 at `4 per diamet er s of t he cir cle and OC is per pendicular
m 2. I f t he base is 40 m long, t he lengt h of each
side is t o it t hr ough t he cent r e O. I f AC is 7 2 cm,
(a) 120m (b) 25 m t hen what is t he ar ea of t he cir cle in sq. cm.?
C
(c) 7.5 m (d) None of t hese
11. The r at io of t he r at e of flow of wat er in pipes
var ies inver sely as t he squar e of t he r adius of A B
O
t he pipes. What is t he r at io of t he r at es of flow in
t wo pipes of diamet er s 2 cm and 4 cm ?
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1 (c) 1 : 8 (d) 4 : 1 (a) 24.5 (b) 49 (c) 98 (d) 154
12. A cir cle and a r ect angle have the same per imeter. 3. A wir e is in t he for m of a cir cle of r adius 35 cm.
The sides of t he r ect angle ar e 18 cm and 26 cm. I f it is bent int o t he shape of a r hombus t hen
What is t he ar ea of t he cir cle? what is t he side of t he r hombus?
(a) 88 cm 2 (b) 154 cm 2 (a) 32 cm (b) 70 cm
(c) 1250 cm 2
(d) 616 cm 2 (c) 55 cm (d) 17 cm
13. A r ect angular lawn 80 met r es by 60 met r es has 4. A per son wishes t o make a 100 sqm r ect angular
t wo r oads each 10 met r es wide r unning in t he gar den. Since he has only 30 m bar bed wir e for
middle of it , one par allel t o t he lengt h and t he fencing, he fences only t hr ee sides let t i ng t he
ot her par allel t o t he br eadt h. Find t he cost of house wall act as t he four t h side. The widt h of
gr avelling t hem at ` 30 per squar e met r e. t he gar den is
(a) ` 39,000 (b) ` 3, 900 (a) 10 m (b) 5 m
(c) ` 3,600 (d) ` 36,000 (c) 50 m (d) 100 m
15.8 Mensuration
5. The weight of a solid cone having diamet er 14cm 10. A plot of land in t he for m of a r ect angle has a
and ver t ical height 51 cm is ......, if t he mat er ial dimension 240 m × 180 m. A dr ainlet 10 m wide
of solid cone weighs 10 gr ams per cube cm. is dug all ar ound it (one the outside) and the earth
(a) 16.18 kg (b) 17.25 kg dug out is evenly spr ead over the plot, incr easing
(c) 26.18 kg (d) 71.40 kg i t s sur face l evel by 25 cm. The dept h of t he
dr ainlet is
6. I n a speci al r aci n g even t , t h e per son wh o
en cl osed t h e m axi m u m ar ea wou l d be t h e (a) 1.225 m (b) 1.229 m
wi nner and would get ` 100 for ever y squar e (c) 1.227 m (d) 1.223 m
met r e of ar ea cover ed by him/her. Johnson, who 11. A squar e and an equilat er al t r iangle have t he
su ccessf u l l y com pl et ed t h e r ace an d w as same per imet er. I f t he diagonal of t he squar e is
t h e ev en t u al w i n n er , en cl osed t h e ar ea 12 2 cm, t hen t he ar ea of t he t r iangle is
shown in figur e below. What is t he pr ize money
won ? (a) 24 3 cm 2 (b) 24 2 cm 2
(N ot e: ar c f r om C t o D m ak es a com pl et e (c) 64 3 cm 2 (d) 32 3 cm 2
semi-cir cle).
AB = 3m, BC = 10m, CD = BE = 2m. 12. Semi -ci r cul ar l awns ar e at t ached t o bot h t he
edges of a r ect an gu l ar f i el d m easu r i n g
C B A 42 m 35m. The ar ea of t he t ot al field is
(a) 3818.5 m 2 (b) 8318 m 2
(c) 5813 m 2
(d) 1358m 2
D E
13. What is t he ar ea of t he inner equilat er al t r iangle
(a) ` 2914 (b) ` 2457 if t he side of t he out er most squar e is ‘a’ ? (ABCD
(c) ` 2614 (d) ` 2500 is a squar e)
7. ABCD is a four -sided figur e wit h AB par allel t o 3 3a 2
CD and AD par allel t o BC. ADE is r ight angle. I f (a) A
32
t he per imet er of ABE is 6 cm, t hen t he ar ea of
t he figur e ABCD is 3 3a 2
(b) B D
A B 64
5 3a 2
(c)
32 C
2
3a
D C (d)
E 64
14. An edge of a cube measur es 10 cm. I f t he lar gest
(a) 2 3 sq. cm. possible cone is cut out of t his cube, t hen volume
(b) 4 3 sq. cm. of t he cone is
(a) 260 cm 3 (b) 260.9 cm 3
(c) 3 sq. cm.
(c) 261.9 cm 3
(d) 262.7 cm 3
(d) none of t hese
15. I n t he f i gur e, A BCD i s a squ ar e wi t h si de
8. I t is r equir ed to fix a pipe such t hat wat er flowing
10. BFD is an ar c of a cir cle wit h cent r e C. BGD
t hr ough it at a speed of 7 met r es per minut e fills
is an ar c of a cir cle wit h cent r e A. What is t he
a tank of capacity 440 cubic metr es in 10 minutes.
ar ea of t he shaded r egion ?
The inner r adius of t he pipe should be
(a) 2 m (b) 2 m
1
(c) 1/2 m (d) m
2
9. Wat er flows out t hr ough a cir cular pipe whose
int er nal diamet er is 2 cm, at t he r at e of 6 met r es
per second int o a cylindr ical t ank, t he r adius of
whose base is 60 cm. By how much will be level
of wat er r ise in 30 minut es? (a) 100 – 50  (b) 100 – 25 
(a) 2 m (b) 4 m (c) 50 – 100 (d) 25  – 100
(c) 3 m (d) 5 m
 Mensuration 15.9

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (d)
LEVEL-1
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (c)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 14 m
1. L engt h of t he longest r od 7.
14 m
= Diagonal of t he r oom
24m
= 12 2  9 2  8 2
= 289 = 17 40m

2. Requir ed volume  Requir ed ar ea = shaded ar ea

= Volume of r ight cir cle cylinder
1
= r 2h = (14)2
4
22
=  1  14 = 44 cubic met r es 1 22
7    14  14 = 154 m 2
4 7
3. Volume of cube = (Side of t he cube)3
9. Widt h of cir cular t r ack = r 1 – r 2
F 20I
= G J
3
2r1  2r2 396  352
H4K = (5)3 = 125 cm 3 =
2
=
2
= 7m

4. H er e, h = 15 cm, r = 8 cm
10. Side of a squar e = 121 = 11 cm
 Slant height , l = h r 2 2 =
15  8 2 2 = 17  Per imet er of cir cle = 4  11 = 44 cm
 2r = 44
 Cur ved sur face of t he cone
wher e r is r adius of t he cir cle
=  r l = 8  17 = 136 cm 2
22
5. Ther e ar e 12 edges in t he cube  2  r = 44
7
Given : Vol ume = V  r = 7 cm
Each edge = V1/3  Ar ea of t he cir cle = r 2
Tot al lengt h of t he edges = 12 V 1/3 22
6. L et h t he height of t he t r apezium = (7)2 = 154 cm 2
7
H ence ar ea of cr oss-sect ion of t he channel in t he 11. Gar den r oller is in t he for m of a cylinder whose
for m of t r apezium r adius is 0.7 m and height is 2 m.
1  Ar ea cover ed in 5 r evolut ions
= (10 + 6)  h = 72 = 5  2r h
2
 8h = 72 22
= 5  2   0.7  2
 h = 9m 7
= 44 m 2

1.1  1000  100

12. Number of r evolut ions = = 625
22
2  28
7
15.10 Mensuration
13. Cir cumfer ence of t he wheel 7. Ar ea of car pet = 7.8m × 4.8m = 37.44m 2
11000 met res Cost of Car pet = ` 18 × 37. 44 = ` 673.92
= 2r =
5000 H ence opt ion (d) is cor r ect .
11
 r =
10
11 7 7 0.1m 0.1m
 r =  = met r e
10 22 20 CARPET

7
=  100 = 35 cm 0.1m
20
Diamet er of t he wheel = 70 cm.
8. 2(R1 – R2) = 44
14. Given, 2x + 2y = 52 (i )
or R1 – R2 = 7m
and x = 3y + 2 (ii )
Solving (i ) and (ii ) we get
x = 20, y = 6
1 1 1 R1
15. : : 6a : 4a : 3a
2 3 4
R2
 13a = 52
a = 4,
smallest side = 3a = 12.
LEVEL-1 9. Ar ea of pat h = (26 × 16) – (24 × 14) = 80m 2
1. Using t he for mula, we get Ar ea of t ile = 0.2 × 0.2m 2
2 × 4 (2b + b) = 120 ar ea of pat h
 Number of t iles =
 b=5 ar ea of one t ile
 l = 10 = 2000 t iles
Ar ea = 50
2. Given : R = 28
Cir cumfer ence = 2(28) = 176 1m 1m

176
Side of t he squar e = = 44 1m
4
3. Radius = 21
Requir ed ar ea = (24.52 – 212) = 500.5 10.
Cost = 500.5 × 4 = 2002
h
4. Ar ea of field – Area of tank = 13.5 × 2.5 – 5 × 4.5
= 11.25 40 m
Volume of t ank = 41.25
1
ar ea of t r iangle = bh
47.25 2
 H eight r aised = = 4.2
11.25 1 120
  40  h = h = 15 m
5. Given : l = 25 2 4
cur ved sur face = r l side = 202  152 = 625 = 25m
= × 7 × 25 = 550 m 2. 11. Rat io of t wo pipes ar e 1 cm and 2 cm squar es of
550 t he Rat io of t he t wo pipes ar e 1 cm and 4 cm.
 L engt h of t he clot h = = 110.  Rat es of flow of t he t wo pipes ar e in t he r at io
5
6. Dimensions of t he box : 1
1: , i.e. 4 : 1.
lengt h = 48 – 16 = 32 4
widt h = 36 – 16 = 20 12. Per imet er of t he r ect angle = 2(18 + 26) = 88
and height = 8 = 2r .
 Volume = 32 × 20 × 8 = 5120
 Mensuration 15.11
H ence r = 14. 5. Volume of t he solid cone
Ar ea of t he cir cle = × 142 = 616. 1
13. Cost = Ar ea  r at e = (7)2 51
3
= [(80  10 + 60  10 ) – (10  10]  30
1 22
= 39000. =  49  51 = 2618 cm 3
3 7
14. L et t he dimensions of t he r oom be 2x and x .
 Weight of t he solid cone
5000 = (2618  10) gm.
Ar ea of ceiling = 2x  x = = 200,
25 26180
= kg = 26.18 kg
 x = 10. 1000
 Ar ea of 4 walls = 2(l h + bh) = 2 (20h + 10h)

6. Ar ea of t he semi-cir cle = = 1.571 sq. m.
64800 2
= = 270.
240 1
Solving, we get h = 4.5 m Ar ea of t he t r iangle =  AB  BE
2
15. 2x2 = 32,
1
9 = 3  2 = 3 sq. m.
 x2 = 2
2
Ar ea of t he r ect angle = 10  2 = 20 sq. m.
9
 V = lbh = × 10 = 45  Tot al ar ea cover ed = 24.571 sq. m.
2
 Pr ize money won by t he per son
LEVEL-2 = 24.571  100 = ` 2457
2 8. Volume of t he pipe in one minut e
1.Volume of hemispher e = × × r 3
3 440
2 = r 2 (7) =
Volume of cylinder = × r 2 × r 10
3
 r = 2
Since t he t wo ar e equal, t he per cent age is 100%.
9. Volume of wat er in t he t ank = (60)2 × x
2. L et OA = OC = r adius = r
wher e, x = level of t he wat er
 OA 2 + OC2 = AC2
2 Wat er r eleased by pipe in 30 minut es
 e j
r2 + r2 = 7 2 = × (1)2 × 600 × 30 × 60
 2r 2 = 2  49 Equat ing t he t wo and solving, we get
 r =7  (60)2  x =   600  30  60
22  x = 300 cm = 3 m
 Ar ea of t he cir cle = r 2 =  49 = 154 cm 2
7 10. Volume of t he ear t h t aken out
3. Cir cumfer ence of t he cir cle = 2r = Volume of t he ear t h on plot
22  [{260 × 200} – {240 × 180}] × x
=2  35 = 200 cm
7
= Per imet er of t he r hombus 1
= 240 × 180 ×
4
220
 Side of t he r hombus = = 55 cm Solving, we get x = 1.227.
4
4. L et widt h of t he gar den be x met r es 11. L et x be t he side of t he squar e.
100 2
 L engt h of t he gar den =
x
 e
x 2 + x 2 = 12 2 j
100  x = 12
 + x + x = 30 Now, per imet er of t he equilat er al t r iangle
x
 x 2 – 15x + 50 = 0 = per imet er of t he squar e
 x = 10, x = 5 = 4x = 48 cm
x = 10 is omitted, because in that case, the gar den  Side of t he equilat er al t r iangle
will become squar e which is cont r ar y t o what is
48
given = = 16 cm
3
 Widt h of t he gar den = 5 met r es
15.12 Mensuration
 Ar ea of equilat er al t r iangle Dr aw per pendicular fr om cent r e t o one side of
t r iangle.
3
= (16)2 = 64 3 cm 2 l 2
4 si de 2
t hen cos30= =
12. Ar ea B = Ar ea D Radius a 2 2
Ar ea C = Ar ea E 3 l 3a
= 2 2  l=
2 2a 2 2
B
3 2 3 3a2
42  ar ea of t r iangle = l =
4 32
E 35 A C
14. H eight of t he cone = 10 cm
10
D Radius of t he base = cm = 5 cm
2
 Tot al ar ea of t he field H ence volume of t he lar gest possible cone cut
out of t his cube
= Ar ea of A + 2  Ar ea of B + 2  Ar ea of C
1 22
1 1 35 FG IJ 2
= 
3 7
 (5)2  10 = 261.9 cm 3
= 42  35 + 2   (21)2 + 2  
2 2 2 H K 15. Ar ea of t he por t ion DFBC
= 1470 + 1386 + 962.5 1
=  (10)2 = 25
= 3818.5 m 2 4
1
13. A  Ar ea of BCD =  10  10 = 50
G 2
 Ar ea of t he por t ion DFBOD
B D = Ar ea of t he por t ion DFBC – Ar ea of BCD
30°
E F
= 25 – 50
 Ar ea of t he por t ion DFBGD
C
= 2 Ar ea of t he por t ion DFBOD
L engt h of out er squar e = a = 2(25 – 50) = 50 – 100
a 
 L engt h of inner squar e =
2
a
 Radius of cir cle =
2 2


 1
CHAPTER Alphabetical and Number Series
I n ver bal ser i es, wor ds, l et t er s or di gi t s ar e given in a specific sequence/or der and we have fi nd out next
wor d, let t er or di git t o compl et e t he gi ven ser ies.
Number s or alphabet ical let t er s, ar e gener all y cal led t er ms of t he ser ies. These t er ms follow a cer t ain
pat t er n t hr oughout . I n t he quest i ons we have t o ident ify last one or t wo t er ms t o cont inue t he ser ies or t o
fi nd a mi ssing t er m i n bet ween gi ven t er ms t o cont inue t he sequence foll owed in t he quest ion. Ther e i s no
set pat t er n and each quest ion may foll ow a di ffer ent pat t er n or sequent i al ar r angement of l et t er s or
di gi t s, whi ch have t o det ect using common sense and r easoni ng abil it y.
TYPES OF SERI ES COM PL ET I ON QU ESTI ON S.
M ainly t her e ar e following four t ypes of ver bal ser ies complet ion quest ions :
1. AL PH ABET SERI ES.
I n t hi s ser i es, given alphabet s foll ow a par t i cul ar sequence or or der. We have t o det ect t he pat t er n fr om
t he given alphabet s and fi nd mi ssing alphabet or t he next al phabet t o cont i nue t he pat t er n.
 Ther e ar e no set r ules.
 Ther e can be omi ssi on of alphabet s i n an or der.
 Al phabet s may al so be omit t ed i n an incr easing/decr easi ng or der, which may be di r ect incr ease or
decr ease.
 Ther e can also be alt er nat e or der.
 Ther e may also be alt er nat e sequences
 Ther e may be sever al ot her pat t er ns in t he let t er ser ies.
 To t ack le l et t er ser i es quest ions, var y posit i on of t he al phabet and i t s posi t ion number in bot h
for war d and backwar d sequences.
 I n solving t hese quest ions pat t er n of t he alphabet ser ies should be not ed.

Patt erns of L ett ers

I t shows var iat ion based on following :
( i ) Dist ances bet ween Alphabet s and Repet it ion of let t ers.
To cont inue the series aft er Z, we again begin wit h A. I n ot her words, t he sequence is kept
in a circular order.
 On r eaching Z, t he ser ies r est ar t s fr om A and on r eaching A, it r est ar t s fr om Z.
Alphabet s in N atural series
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
     
1st 5th 10th 15th 20th 25th
Alphabet s in Reverse series
Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A
     
1st 5th 10th 15t h 20th 25th
( ii ) Posit ion of Alphabet s.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A26 B25 C24 D 23 E 22 F 21 G20 H 19 I 18
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
J17 K 16 L 15 M 14 N 13 O12 P11 Q10 R9
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
S8 T7 U6 V5 W4 X3 Y2 Z1 .
1.2 Alphabetical and Number Series

N ote : I n m x n ; m = posit ion fr om left , n = posit ion fr om r ight .

m + n = 27
Some Skipping Pat t er ns
(i ) Regular Order : N umber of alphabets skipped r emai ns t he same.
Example. A , D , G , J , ?
Ans. M
(ii ) I ncreasing Order : Each t ime t he number of alphabet s ski pped incr eases in a gi ven pat t er n.
Example. A C F J O ?
Ans. U
H er e, each t ime number of let t er s sk ipped i ncr eases by one.
(iii ) Decreasing Order : Each t ime t he number of let t er s sk ipped decr eases i n a given pat t er n.
Example. A G L P S ?
Ans. U
H er e number of l et t er s ski pped decr eases by one each t ime, i.e., fi r st 5, t hen 4, t hen 3, and so on.
(iv) I nterlinked Series : I n t his t wo or mor e differ ent ser i es ar e at t ached t oget her. These differ ent
ser i es foll ow t heir own di ffer ent r ules.
Example. A D F J M R ?
Ans. V
H er e, t her e ar e t wo i nt er linked ser ies.
E xamples
1. Which of t he given opt i ons will complet e t he given ser i es ?
BDFH J?
Solution : The ser ies follows t he pat t er n of moving t he let t er s t wo st eps for war d.
B D F H J L

+2 +2 +2 +2 +2

2. A Z B Y C ?
Solution : Ther e ar e t wo alt er nat e ser ies.
+1 +1

A Z B Y C X

–1 –1
Ser ies I : A B C (consecut ive let t er s in nat ur al ser ies)
Ser ies I I : Z Y X (consecut ive iet t er s in r ever se ser ies)

3. I f each consonant in t he wor d ‘EXPL ORATI ON’ is r eplaced by t he pr evious alphabet and each vowel is
r eplaced by t he alphabet following it of t he english alphabet ic ser ies and t hen t he or der of t he alphabet s
t hus, for med is r ever sed, which of t he following will be t he sevent h fr om t he r ight ?
Solut ion : E X P L O R A T I O N
          
F W O K P Q B S J P M
New for mat ion = F W O K P Q B S J P M
On r ever sing = M P J S B Q P K O W F
H ence, sevent h let t er for m t he r ight end = B

2. L ET TER SERI ES.
This t ype of quest i ons usuall y consi st of a ser i es
of small let t er s whi ch follow a cer t ain pat t er n.
H owever, some l et t er s ar e mi ssi ng fr om t he
ser i es. Then t hese mi ssing l et t er s ar e given in a
pr oper sequence as one of t he alt er nat i ves.
Example. aab... aaa.... boa....
(a) baa (b) abb ( c )
bab (d) aab
(e) bbb
Ans. (a)
M et hod :
 Fir st blank space should be filled in by ‘b', so
t hat we have t wo a's followed by t wo b's.
 Second blank space should be filled in eit her
by ‘a', so t hat we have four a's followed by t wo
b's, or by ‘b' so t hat we have t hr ee a's followed
by t hr ee b's.
 L ast space must be filled in by ‘a'.
 Thus, we have t wo possible answer s : ‘baa'
and ‘bba'.
But, only ‘baa' appear s in t he alt er natives. So,
t he answer is (a).
 I n case, we had bot h t he possible answer s in
t he alt er nat ives, we would have chosen t he
one t hat for ms a mor e pr omi nent pat t er n,
which is aabb/ aaabbb/aa. Thus, our answer
would have been “ bba” .
3. N U M BER SERI ES.
I n t he number ser i es, some number s ar e
ar r anged i n a par t icul ar sequence. Al l t he
number s for m a ser ies and change in a cer tain
or der. Somet imes, one or mor e number s ar e
wr ongl y put in t he number ser i es. We ar e
r equ i r ed t o obser ve t h e t r en d i n w h i ch
number s change in t he ser ies and find out
which number /number s misfit int o t he ser ies
t hat number /number s is odd number of t he
ser i es.
I n number ser ies, set of given number s in a
series are r elated to one another in a par ticular
pat t er n or manner.
Relationship bet ween number s may be
(i ) consecut ive odd/even number
(ii ) consecut ive pr ime number s
(iii ) squar es/cubes of some number s wi t h/
without var iat ion of addit ion or subtr action of
some number s
(iv) su m /pr odu ct /di f f er en ce of pr ecedi n g
number (s)
Alphabetical and Number Series 1.3
(v) addi t i on /su bt r act i on /m u l t i pl i cat i on /
division by some number
(vi ) m an y m or e com bi n at i on s of abov e
r elationships
Rules :
1. Difference between consecutive numbers
(i ) is same.
(ii ) ar e in ar it hmet ic pr ogr ession (A.P).
(iii ) is a per fect squar e.
(iv) ar e mult iples of a number.
(v) ar e pr ime number s.
(vi ) is a per fect cube.
(vii )ar e in geomet r ic pr ogr ession (G.P.)
2. Rat io between each consecutive number
(i ) is same.
(ii ) is in ar it hmet ic pr ogr ession (A.P)
(iii ) is per fect squar e number.
(iv) is t he mult iple of a number.
(v) is a pr ime number.
(vi ) is a per fect cube number.
(vii )ar e in geomet r ic pr ogr ession (GP.)
Types of N umber Series
( i ) Pure Series.
I n this type of number ser ies, the number
i t sel f obeys cer t ai n or der so t hat t he
char act er of t he ser ies can be found out .
Number may be : Per fect squar e ; Per fect
cube, Pr ime, and combinat ion :
( ii ) Difference series.
I n t his t ype of number ser ies change in
or der for t he di ffer ence bet ween each
consecutive number of t he ser ies is found
out .
( iii ) Rat io ser ies.
I n t his t ype of number ser ies change in
or der f or t h e r at i os bet w een each
consecutive number of t he ser ies is found
out .
( iv) M ixed series.
I n t his t ype of number ser ies number s
obeyi ng var ious or der s of t wo or mor e
di ffer ent t ypes of ser i es ar e ar r anged
alt er nat ely in a single number ser ies.
Some I mport ant Pat t er ns
 a, a ± d, a ± 2d, a ± 3d, ........
 a, ak, ak 2, ak 3, ........
a a
 a, , a , 3 , ........
k k 2
k
1.4 Alphabetical and Number Series

 (a)n , (a ± d)n , (a ± 2d)n , (a ± 3d)n ........ 3. Find missing number in t he ser ies given below.
 an + k, (a + 1)n + k, (a + 2)n + k , ........ 49, 16, 36, 9, ?
 an + k, (an + k )n + k , [(an + k )n + k ] n + k , ........ Solution : I n t his ser ies, fir st set compr ises of
 1n, 1n + 2n, 1n + 2n + 3n, 1n + 2n + 3n + 4n, ........ squar es of odd number s in descending or der and
 Ser ies of pr ime number s i.e. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, second set compr ises of squar es of even number s
17, 19, 23 et c. in ascending or der.
2
7 5
3
3
2

E xamples
1. Which number will complet e t he given ser ies ?
2, 4, 6, 8, ? 49 16 25 36 9 64
Solution : Series is made of numbers which are
multiples of 2. Difference between two consecutive 2 2
numbers is 2. 42 6 8
2 4 6 8 10 Ser ies I : 49, 25, 9 (squar es of 7, 5, 3)
2 Ser ies I I : 16, 36, 64 (squar es of 4, 6, 8)
3
4 4. M I XED SERI ES.
5 This t ype of ser ies consist s of bot h number and
OR let t er s.
2 4 6 8 10
5. CORRESPON DEN CE SERI ES.
+2 +2 +2 +2 This t ype of ser ies consist s of t hr ee sequences
2. Which number will complet e t he ser ies ? wi t h t hr ee di ffer ent element s (usual l y capit al
let t er s, digit s and small let t er s). On t he basis of
12, 72, 432, ?
t he similar it y in positions in t he t hr ee sequences,
Solution : Number s ar e mult iplied by 6 t o obt ain
a capi t al l et t er i s found t o cor r espond wi t h a
t he next number :
unique digit and a unique small let t er, whenever
2 12 72 432 2592 i t occur s. We ar e r equi r ed t o t r ace out t hi s
cor r esponden ce an d accor di n gl y ch oose t h e
6 6 6 6
element s t o be filled in at t he desir ed places.
Given ser ies may also compr ise of t wo alt er nat e
ser ies mer ged as one.

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 5. AZ, BY, CX, DW, .......
(a) EU (b) EV
Direction (Q. 1 - 23). Find t he missing let t er s.
(c) EW (d) FW
1. A, B, D, G, .....
(a) L (b) M 6. DF, GJ, K M , NQ, RT, .....
(c) J (d) K (a) WV (b) UX
(c) XZ (d) YZ
2. A, D, H , M , S .....
(a) U (b) V 7. ABZ, BCY, CDX, DEW, ......
(c) Y (d) Z (a) EFV (b) FEV
(c) DEF (d) DEV
3. X, U, R, O, L , .....
(a) I (b) J 8. NEQ, M GO, L I M , K K K , .....
(c) K (d) L (a) PRI (b) YAM
(c) AAJ (d) JMI
4. R, M , ....., F, D, C
(a) F (b) G 9. AYD, BVF, DRH , ....., K GL
(c) H (d) I (a) FMI (b) GMJ
(c) H L K (d) GLJ
 Alphabetical and Number Series 1.5
10. A, CD, GH I , ......, UVWXY 8. b __ b __ bb ____ bbb __ bb __ b
(a) LM NO (b) MNO (a) bbbbba
(c) NOPQ (d) MNOP (b) bbaaab
11. DCBA, WXYZ, H GFE, STUV, L K JI , ..... (c) ababab
(a) OPQR (b) MNOP (d) aabaab
(c) NOPQ (d) ONML
9. a __ bc __ c __ abb __ bca __
12. shg, r if, qje, pkd, ..... (a) cccbc
(a) ole (b) olc (b) cbbac
(c) nmc (d) nlb (c) accba
13. ab __ ba __ b.a __ (d) abbba
Directions (Q. 10- 15).
(a) bab (b) aba
Find t he missing number s.
(c) bbb (d) abb
10. 18, 21, 24, 27, .....
14. abaa __ aab __ a __ a (a) 32 (b) 30
(a) abb (b) aba (c) 31 (d) 29
(c) bab (d) aab 11. 885, 870, 855, 840, ......
15. aa __ b __ abb ____ bb (a) 835 (b) 855
(a) abaa (b) bbaa (c) 825 (d) 815

(c) baaa (d) baba 12. 3, 9, 27, 81, ......

LEVEL-1 (a) 243 (b) 324
(c) 342 (d) 432
1. a __ ab __ baa __ bb __
13. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ......
(a) baba (b) abab
(a) 35 (b) 36
(c) aabb (d) bbaa
(c) 38 (d) 34
2. abc __ bc __ c __ 14. 216, 221, 231, 246, 266, ......
(a) acbbab (b) aabbca (a) 289 (b) 271
(c) aabacb (d) aababc (c) 281 (d) 291

3. aabc ____ bca __ b __ a __ bc 15. 11, 16, 23, 32, 43, .....
(a) aabca (b) aacba (a) 56 (b) 55
(c) aaaca (d) abaac (c) 57 (d) 54
LEVEL-2
4. a __ abbb __ ccccd __ ddccc __ bb __ ba
(a) abcda (b) abdbc 1. 1, 6, 15, 28, 45, ......
(a) 56 (b) 66
(c) abdcb (d) abcad
(c) 57 (d) 63
5. adb __ ac __ da __ cddcb __ dbc __ cbda
2. 64, 144, 256, 400, .....
(a) bccba (b) cbbaa (a) 529 (b) 484
(c) ccbba (d) bbcad (c) 676 (d) 576
6. b __ abbc __ bbca __ bcabb __ ab 3. 2, 5, 10, 17, ......
(a) acaa (b) acba (a) 21 (b) 26
(c) cabc (d) cacc (c) 27 (d) 29
4. 2, 10, 30, 68, .....
7. ac __ cab __ baca __ aba __ acac
(a) 130 (b) 140
(a) aacb (b) acbc (c) 142 (d) 138
(c) babb (d) bcbb
1.6 Alphabetical and Number Series
5. 31, 35, 43, 59, 91, ...... 11. Q – 49, P – 36, O – 25, N – 16, .....
(a) 135 (b) 145 (a) N – 9 (b) M – 9
(c) 155 (d) 165 (c) L – 9 (d) K – 9
6. F – 1, G – 3, J – 5, O – 8, ...... 12. B2D, E3H , I 4M , ......
(a) W – 3 (b) L – 14 (a) N5R (b) N5S
(c) U – 10 (d) Z – 26 (c) N5Q (d) N5T
7. D – 4, G – 7, I – 9, M – 13, ...... 13. A1E, F4J , K 9O, .......
(a) P – 14 (b) O – 15 (a) Q4U (b) W1X
(c) Q – 16 (d) M – 17 (c) P16T (d) T2V
8. B – 3, D – 6, F – 9, H – 12, ...... 14. C4X, F9U, I 16R, .....
(a) L – 14 (b) M – 13 (a) K25P (b) L25P
(c) J – 15 (d) I – 9 (c) L 25O (d) L27P
9. 3F, 6G, 111, 18L , ...... 15. A3B, C7D, E11F, G15H , .....
(a) 21O (b) 25N (a) I20J (b) I19K
(c) 27P (d) 27Q (c) J19K (d) I19J
10. C3, H 8, O15, ......
(a) X24 (b) I 35
(c) T 26 (d) J 35

AN SWE RS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (d)
E XPL AN AT I ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 5. Pat t er n is 1AZ1, 2BY 2, 3CX 3, 4DW 4, 5EV 5, .....
 M issing let t er = EV.
1 1 2 4 7
1. Pat t er n is A, A + 1, B + 2, D + 3, G +4,..... 6. Pat t er n is
 M issing let t er = K . 4
D 6F, 7G 10J, 11K 13
M , 14N 17
Q, 18R 20T, 21U 24
X,...
2. Pat t er n is  M issing let t er = UX.
1 1 4
A, A + 3, D + 4, H + 5, 8 13
M + 6, 19
S + 7, ...... 7. Pat t er n is
1
 M issing let t er = Z. A 2B Z1, 2B 3C Y 2, 3C 4D X 3, 4D 5E W 4, 5E 6F V 5,....
 M issing let t er = EFV.
3. Pat t er n is
24 8. Pat t er n is 14N 5E 17
Q, 13M 7G 15O , 12L 9I 13M ,
X, 24X – 3, 21U – 3, 18R – 3, 15O – 3, 12L – 3, ...... 11 11 11
K K K , 10J 13M 9I , ....
 M issing let t er = I .
 M issing let t er = JM I .
4. Pat t er n is 9. Pat t er n is
18 18 13 9 6 4 1
R, R – 5, M – 4, I – 3, F – 2, D – 1, ..... AY 2 4D, 2BV 5 6F, 4DR9 8H , 7GM 14 10J, 11K G20 12L ,...
 M issing let t er = I .  M issing let t er s = GM J.

10. Pat t er n is 1A,3C4D, 7G8H 9I , 13M 14N 15O16P,
21 22 23 24 25
U V W X Y, ......
 M issing let t er = M NOP.
11. Pat t er n is
4
D 3C2B 1A, W 4X 3Y 2Z1, 8H 7G6F 5E, S8T 7U 6V 5,
12 11 10 9
L K J I ,O12P11Q10R9, ......
 M issing let t er = OPQR.
12. Pat t er n is
s88h 7g, r 99i 6f, q1010j 5e, p1111k 4d, o1212l 3c, .......
 M issing let t er = olc.
13. Pat t er n i s ab/ab/ab/ab/ab.
14. Pat t er n i s aba/aba/aba/aba.
15. Pat t er n i s aa/bb/aa/bb/aa/bb.
LEVEL-1
1. Pat t er n i s aaa/bbb/aaa/bbb.
2. Pat t er n i s abc/abc/abc/abc.
3. Pat t er n i s aa/bc/aa/bc/aa/bc/aa/bc.
4. pat t er n is
aaa/bbbb/cccc/dddd/cccc/bbbb/a
5. Pat t er n is
adbc/acbd/abcd/dcba/dbca/ebda
H er e let t er s ar e equidist ant fr om t he begining
and t he end of ser ies ar e t he same.
6. Pat t er n i s bcab/bcab/bcab/bacb/bcab.
7. Pat t er n i s com bi n at i on of t w o ser i es
acac and abab
acac/abab/acac/abab/acac
8. Pat t er n i s babb/bbab/bbba/bbbb.
Thus, in each sequence, a moves one step for war d
and b t akes it s place and finally in t he four t h
sequence, it is eliminat ed.
9. Pat t er n i s aa/b/cccc/a/bbbb/c/aa.
10. Pat t er n is a, a + d, a + 2d, .......
i.e. 18, 18 + 3, 21 + 3, 24 + 3, ......
 M issing number = 27 + 3 = 30.
11. Pat t er n is a, a – d, a – 2d, .....
 M issing number = 840 – 15 = 825.
12. Pat t er n is 3, 3  3, 9  3, 27  3, .......
 M issing number = 81  3 = 243.
Alphabetical and Number Series 1.7
13. Pat t er n is 12, 22, 32, 42, 52, .....
 M issing number = 62 = 36.
14. Pat t er n is + 5, + 10, + 15, + 20, ....
 M issing number = 266 + 25 = 291.
15. Pat t er n is + 5, + 7, + 9, + 11, ....
 M issing number = 43 + 13 = 56.
LEVEL-2
1. Pat t er n is + 5, + 9, ......, + 21, + 25
 M issing number = 45 + 21 = 66.
2. Pat t er n is 82, 122, 162, 202, .....
 M issing number = (20 + 4)2 = 576.
3. Pat t er n is 12 + 1, 22 + 1, 32 + 1, 42 + 1, .....
 M issing number = 52 + 1 = 26.
4. Pat t er n is 13 + 1, 23 + 2, 33 + 3, 43 + 4, .....
 M issing number = 53 + 5 = 130.
5. Pat t er n is + 4, + 8, + 16, + 32, ....
i.e. + 22, + 23, + 24, + 25, .....
 M issing number = 91 + 26 = 91 + 64 = 155.
6. Pat t er n var ies as
6
F – 1, 6 + 1G – 3, 7 + 3J – 5, 10 + 5O – 8, 15 + 8W
i.e. numer als r epr esent t he places which var ies.
7. I n t he given ser ies, all t he alphabet s wit h t heir
positions.
8. Pat t er n i s com bi n at i on of t w o ser i es
2 4 6 8
B, D, F, H ,10J, ...... and 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, .......
9. Pat t er n is combinat ion of t wo ser ies
3, 6, 11, 18, 27, ..... and 6F,7G,9I ,12L ,16P, ......
 M issing t er m = 27 P.
10. L et t er s wit h t heir posit ions.
11. Pat t er n var ies as
Q, P, O, N, M , ........
and 49, 36, 25, 16, 9, 4, ......
12. Numer al indicat es t he places bet ween let t er s.
13. Pat t er n is combinat ion of t wo ser ies
1 5
A E, 6F 10J, 11K 15O, 16P20T, ......
and 1, 4, 9,16, ......
14. Pat t er n is combinat ion of t wo ser ies
3
CX 3, 6FU 6, 9I R9, 12L O12, ... and 4, 9, 16, 25, ...
15. Pat t er n is
A3B, C7D, E11F, G15H , I 19J, K 23L , ....
 2
CHAPTER Analogy

‘Analogy ' means ‘cor r espondence'.

I n quest ions based on analogy, a par t icular r elat ionship is given and anot her similar r elat ionship has t o be
ident ified fr om t he given alt er nat ives.
I n Analogy, r elat ionship bet ween t wo given wor ds is est ablished and t hen applied t o ot her wor ds. The t ype
of r elationship may ver y, so while at tempt ing such questions fir st st ep is t o identify the type of r elationship.
Analogy deals wit h t he cor r espondence of a par t icular r elat ion. I n t his chapt er we have given a r elat ion
and have t o choose t he similar r elat ion wit h given choices. Such pr oblems can be expr essed eit her simply
or in r at io-pr opor t ion for m.
KI N DS OF RELATI ON SH I PS WI TH EXAM PLES
1. I nst rument and M easurement
 Ther momet er : Temper at ur e
(Ther momet er is an inst r ument used t o measur e t emper at ur e).
 Bar omet er : Pr essur e  Anemomet er : Wind vane
 Odomet er : Speed  Scale : L engt h
 Balance : M ass  Sphygmomanomet er : Blood Pr essur e
 Rain Gauge : Rain  H ygr omet er : H umidit y
 Ammet er : Cur r ent  Scr ew Gauge : Thickness
 Seismogr aph : Ear t hquakes  Taseomet er : St r ains
2. Quant it y and U nit
 M ass : K ilogr am (K ilogr am is unit of mass).  L engt h : M et r e
 For ce : Newt on  Ener gy : Joule
 Resist ance : Ohm  Volume : L it r e
 Angle : Radians  Time : Seconds
 Pot ent ial : Volt  Wor k : Joule
 Cur r ent : Amper e  L uminosit y : Candela
 Pr essur e : Pascal  Ar ea : H ect ar e
 Temper at ur e : Degr ees  Power : Wat t
 Conduct ivit y : M ho  M agnet ic field : Oer st ed
3. I ndividual and Gr oup
 Soldier s : Ar my (Gr oup of soldier s is called ar my).  Cat t le : H er d
 Flower s : Bouquet  Gr apes : Bunch
 Singer : Chor us  Ar t ist : Tr oupe
 Fish : Shoal  Sheep : Flock
 Rider s : Cavalcade  Bees : Swar m
 M an : Cr owd  Sailor s : Cr ew
 Nomads : H or de
2.2 Analogy
4. Animal and Young one
 Cow : Calf (Calf is young one of cow)  H or se : Pony
 Cat : K it t en  Sheep : L amb
 But t er fly : Cat er pillar  I nsect : L ar va
 Dog : Puppy  H en : Chicken
 L ion : Cub  Duck : Duckling
 M an : Child

5. M ale and Female

 H or se : M ar e (M ar e is female hor se).  Dog : Bit ch
 St ag : Doe  Son : Daught er
 L ion : L ioness  Sor cer er : Sor cer ess
 Dr one : Bee  Gent leman : L ady
 Nephew : Niece  Tiger : Tigr ess
6. I ndividual and Class
 M onkey : M ammal  M an : M ammal
(M onkey belongs t o class of mammal).  Ost r ich : Bir d
 Snake : Rept ile  But t er fly : I nsect
 Whale : M ammal  Rat : Rodent
 L izar d : Rept ile

7. I ndividual and D welling Place

 Dog : K ennel (Dog lives in a kennel).  Bee : Apiar y
 Cat t le : Shed  L ion : Den
 Poult r y : Far m  M onk : M onast er y
 Fish : Aquar ium  Bir ds : Aviar y
 H or se : St able

8. St udy and Topic

 Or nit hology : Bir ds  Seismology : Ear t hquakes
(Or nit hology is st udy of bir ds).  Bot any : Plant s
 Onomat ology : Names  Occult ism : Super nat ur al
 Et hnology : H uman Races  Ont ology : Realit y
 H er pet ology : Amphibians  Pat hology : Diseases
 Ast r ology : Fut ur e  Ant hr opology : M an
 Palaeogr aphy : Wr it ings  I cht hyology : Fishes
 Semant ics : L anguage  Nephr ology : K idney
 Concology : Shells  H aemat ology : Blood
 Cr aniology : Skull  M ycology : Fungi
 Ent omology : I nsect s  Zoology : Animals
9. Tool and Act ion
 Needle : Sew (Needle is used for sewing).  K nife : Cut
 Swor d : Slaught er  M at t ock : Dig
 Filt er : Pur ify  St eer ing : Dr ive
 Pen : Wr it e  Spanner : Gr ip
 Spoon : Feed  M icr oscope : M agnify
 Gun : Shoot  Shovel : Scoop
 Chisel : Car ve  Oar : Row
 Axe : Gr ind  Auger : Bor e
 Spade : Dig
 Analogy 2.3
10. Worker and Working Place
 Chef : K it chen (Chef wor ks in a kit chen).  Far mer : Field
 War r ior : Bat t lefield  Engineer : Sit e
 Sailor : Ship  Pilot : Cockpit
 Beaut ician : Par lour  Ar t ist : Theat r e
 Act or : St age  M echanic : Gar age
 L awyer : Cour t  Scient ist : L abor at or y
 Teacher : School  Doct or : H ospit al
 Cler k : Office  Ser vant : H ouse
 Dr iver : Cabin  Gr ocer : Shop
 Paint er : Galler y  Wait er : Rest aur ant
 Wor ker : Fact or y  Umpir e : Pit ch
 Gambler : Casino
11.Wor ker and Tool
 War r ior : Swor d  Car pent er : Saw
(Swor d is t ool used by a war r ior ).  Woodcut t er : Axe
 Tailor : Needle  L abour er : Spade
 Soldier : Gun  Sculpt or : Chisel
 Chef : K nife  Doct or : St et hoscope
 Far mer : Plough  Aut hor : Pen
12. Wor ker and Pr oduct
 M ason : Wall (M ason builds a wall).  Far mer : Cr op
 Teacher : Educat ion  H unt er : Pr ey
 Chef : Food  Car pent er : Fur nit ur e
 Judge : Just ice  Aut hor : Book
 Chor eogr apher : Ballet  Goldsmit h : Or nament s
 Pr oducer : Film  But cher : M eat
 Ar chit ect : Design  Cobbler : Shoes
 Tailor : Clot hes  Poet : Poem
 Dr amat ist : Play
13. Product and Raw M at er ial
 Pr ism : Glass (Pr ism is made of glass).  But t er : M ilk
 Clot h : Fibr e  Wall : Br ick
 Road : Asphalt  Fur nit ur e : Wood
 Book : Paper  Shoes : L eat her
 Sack : Jut e  Pullover : Wool
 Omelet t e : Egg  M et al : Or e
 Jeweller y : Gold  Rubber : L at ex
 L inen : Flax  Jagger y : Sugar cane
 Oil : Seed  Wine : Gr apes
 Paper : Pulp  Fabr ic : Yar n
14. Part and Whole Relat ionship
 Pen : Nib (Nib is a par t of a pen).  Pencil : L ead
 H ouse : K it chen  Fan : Blade
 Class : St udent  Room : Window
 Aer oplane : Cockpit  Book : Chapt er
2.4 Analogy
15. Wor d and I nt ensit y
 Anger : Rage (Rage is of higher int ensit y t han Anger ).  Wish : Desir e
 K indle : Bur n  Sink : Dr own
 Quar r el : War  Er r or : Blunder
 Famous : Renowned  Unhappy : Sad
 Refuse : Deny

16. Wor d and Synonym

 Abode : Dwelling (Abode means almost same as Dwelling).  Blend : M ix
 Ban : Pr ohibit ion  Assign : Allot
 Vacant : Empt y  Abduct : K idnap
 Dear t h : Scar cit y  Dissipat e : Squander
 Sedat e : Calm  Br im : Edge
 H ouse : H ome  Solicit : Request
 Pr esage : Pr edict  H aught y : Pr oud
 Flaw : Defect  Fier ce : Violent
 Fallacy : I llusion  Subst it ut e : Replace
 M end : Repair  Alight : Descend
 Pr esume : Assume

17. Word and Ant onym

 At t ack : Defend (Defend means opposit e of At t ack).  Advance : Ret r eat
 Cr uel : K ind  Best : Wor st
 Fr esh : St ale  I gnor e : Not ice
 I nit ial : Final  Condense : Expand
 Chaos : Peace  Cr eat e : Dest r oy
 Gr adual : Abr upt  Sink : Float
 Robust : Weak  Gent le : H ar sh
 Deep : Shallow  Cor dial : H ost ile
 Affir m : Deny  M our n : Rejoice
 L et har gy : Aler t ness

2. Choosing Analogous Pair

I n t his t ype of quest ions, a pair of wor ds is given, followed by four pair s of wor ds as alt er nat ives and we
ar e r equir ed t o choose t he pair in which wor ds bear t he same r elat ionship t o each ot her as t he wor ds of
t he given pair bear.
Example. Sink : Float : : ?
(a) Br im : Edge
(b) M end : Repair
(c) Gent le : H ar sh
(d) Flow : defect
(e) Solicit : Request
Ans. (b)
Just as Sink is ant onym of float , so also gent le is opposit e of har sh.
Example. Gossip : Exagger at ion
(a) Gir l : Sist er (b) Dish : Food
(c) Climb : Tr ek (d) Smoke : Fir e
Ans. (d)
Fir e expr esses a height ened magnit ude of smoke just as exagger at ion does of gossip.
3. Simple Analogy
I t is the r elationship between words in these type of questions is easily per ceptible from general experiences
 Analogy 2.5

of day-t o-day life and discer nible fr om t he given for m, pat t er n or combinat ions, yet aspir ing candidat es
would appr eciat e t he fact t hat t he pr esent day life has become much mor e complex t han it was ever
befor e. Wit h development of Science and Technology and incr ease in compet it ion, life is t hr owing bigger
and higher chal lenges. One shoul d have adequat e k nowl edge and i nfor mat ion t o deal wi t h mor e
complicat ed combinations.
Example. M ouse is r elat ed t o M onit or as ...?... is r elat ed t o canvas.
(a) Cat (b) Br ush (c) UPS (d) Paint er
Ans. (b)
M ouse put s t he cur sor wher e t he comput er oper at or want s t o t ype. The br ush is put wher e t he paint er
want s t o wor k on a canvas.
4. Analogy of Words and Expression
I n t his t ype of quest ions, a gr oup of t hr ee wor ds is given, followed by four ot her wor ds as alt er nat ives.
The candidat e is r equir ed t o choose t he alt er nat ive, which is similar t o t he given t hr ee wor ds.
Example. Sit ar : Guit ar : Tanpur a
(a) Tr umpet (b) Violin
(c) H ar monium (d) Mridanga
(e) Flut e
Ans. (b)
Sit ar, Guit ar and Tanpur a ar e all st r ing inst r ument s. Violin is also a st r ing inst r ument .
5. D et ect ing Analogies
I n t his t ype of quest ions, it is r equir ed t o t r ace out hidden analogy or common char act er ist ic among t he
given wor ds or t o choose t he wor d which possesses same char act er ist ic as t he given wor d.
Example. Judo : K ar at e : Taekwando
(a) They ar e names of mar t ial ar t s.
(b) They can be per for med by obese per sons.
(c) They ar e per for med on st age.
(d) They ar e impor t ant it ems of Asian Games.
(e) They have or igin in K er ala
Ans. (a)
Judo, K ar at e and Taekwando ar e mar t ial ar t s and (a) is most suit able descr ipt ion for all t he t hr ee.
Example : Java : Or acle : Cobol
(a) They ar e t he names of Gr eek alphabet s.
(b) They ar e Comput er languages.
(c) They ar e t he names of islands.
(d) They all ar e M ult i-Nat ional Companies (M NC’s)
The r ight opt ion is (b) as it cor r ect ly expr esses t he analogy bet ween t he given wor ds.
6. T hr ee word Analogy
I n t his t ype of quest ions, a gr oup of t hr ee int er -r elat ed wor ds is given and we ar e r equir ed t o t r ace out
t he r elat ionship among t hese t hr ee wor ds and choose anot her gr oup wit h similar analogy, fr om among
t he alt er nat ives pr ovided.
Example. Pen : Pencil : I nk
(a) Or ange : Banana : Juice (b) Table : Chair : Wood
(c) Cow : M ilk : Cur d (d) Fish : Shar k : Wat er
(e) Car : Engine : Cir cle
Ans. (a)
Pen cont ai ns ink and pencil belongs t o t he same cat egor y as pen i.e. st at ioner y. Similar ly, or ange
cont ains juice and banana belongs t o t he same cat egor y as or ange, i.e. fr uit s.
2.6 Analogy

Example : Comput er : Floppy : I nfor mat ion (6) Combinat ions of any mat hemat ical cal-
(a) Camer a : Film : Pict ur e culat ions given above can apply t o t he
(b) DVD : CD : M usic r elat ionship between two given number s.
(c) Book : Chapt er : K nowledge Types of Quest ions.
(d) Pen : Riffle : Essay. I t includes t wo t ypes of quest ions :
Ans. Floppy contains I nformation and is used 1. Choosing a similar ly r elat ed pair as t he
in a Comput er, Similar ly, CD cont ains music given number pair on t he basis of r elat ion
and is used in t he DVD. H ence (b) bear s a bet ween t he number s in each pair.
simil ar anal ogy as t he wor ds gi ven i n t he Example. 582 : 194 :: 258 : ?
question. Other opt ions ar e slight ly differ ent.
(a) 82
I n (a), film cont ains t he Pict ur e but is not (b)
used again in t he Camer a. I t is used only t he 86
fir st t ime when it is blank . I n (c) Chapt er
(c) 92
cont ains knowledge but is not separ at e fr om
(d)
t he book as Floppy is fr om a Comput er. I n
58
(d),Riffle is used in a ball point Pen but does
not cont ain Essay as such. Ans. (b)

7. Double Analogy Just as 582 is r elat ed t o 194 as 582 is 3

t imes 194, in t he same way 258 is 3 t imes
I n t wo wor ds indicat ed by I and I I ar e left out
t he 86.
in each pair. Ther e ar e four alt er nat ives for
eit her of t hem, mar ked (A), (B), (C), (D) for I Example. Find appr opr iate number for the
and (P), (Q), (R), (S) for I I One of t hese opt ions four t h place
in each set bear s a r elat ionship wit h t he given 25 : 81 : : 36 : ?
wor d in such a way t hat t her e is an analogy Solut ion.
bet ween pai r s. The combi nat i on of r i ght r 25 : 81 :: 36 : 121
opt ions is indi cat ed by (a), (b), (c), (d ). The    
answer is to be indicated by ticking one of these 52 92 62 112
f ou r com bi n at i on s. A cl ose st u dy of t h e
fol l owing exer ci se woul d mak e t he concept H ence appr opr iat e number will be 121.
mor e clear. 2.Choosing a number similar t o a gr oup of
8. N umber analogy number s on t he basis of cer t ain common
I n number analogy t he r elat ionship bet ween pr oper t ies t hat t hey possess.
given number s is det ect ed and t hen applied Example. Which number belongs t o given
t o t he second par t t o find missing number s. set of number s?
This r elat ionship bet ween number s can be 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23......
based on following pat t er ns: (a) 15
(1) Number can be odd/even/ pr ime number s (b)
(2) Number s can be mult iples of some num- 9
ber (c) 21
(3) Number s can be squar es/ cubes of differ - (d)
ent number 29
(4) Some number s can be added t o /sub- (e) 27
t r act ed fr om/mult iplied t o/ divided int o Ans. (d)
t he fir st number t o get t he second num- Given set of number s belong t o t he pr ime
ber number s. I n t he given opt ion, only pr ime
(5) Second number can be t he sum/pr oduct / number is 29.
differ ence of t he dight is of fir st number
 Analogy 2.7

PRACTI CE1EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S Choose appr opr iat e wor ds fr om four choice given .
I n each of t he following quest ions t he t wo wor ds given 11. M ir r or is t o Reflect ion as Wat er is t o
on one si de of doubl e col on i .e., :: bear a cer t ai n (a) Conduction (b) Disper sion
r elat ionship. The ot her side shows an incomplet e pair (c) I mmer sion (d) Refr act ion
mar ked by a mi ssing wor d whi ch bear s a si mi lar
r elat ionship wit h t he given wor d. Find t he missing 12. L ife is t o Deat h as H ope is t o
wor d out of t he given opt ions (a) (b) (c) or (d). (a) Sad (b) Despair
1. H ill : M ount ain :: ? : Pain (c) Pain (d) Cry
(a) Dist r ess (b) Discomfor t 13. Black is t o Coal as H ar d is t o :
(c) Headache (d) Fear (a) Rock (b) Br ick
(c) Board (d) St one
2. Raipur : Chhat isgar h :: ? : Ut t ar anchal
(a) Nainital (b) Ranchi 14. Taj M ahal is t o L ove as Jallianwala Bagh is t o
(c) Dehr adun (d) Bhopal (a) Amr itsar (b) Mar tyr dom
(c) War (d) Punjab
3. Eye : Cat ar act :: ? : H epat it is
15. Eye is t o Tear as M out h is t o
(a) L iver (b) Pancr eas
(a) Teet h (b) Tongue
(c) St omach (d) Lungs (c) Lips (d) Saliva
4. Sculpt or : St at ue :: ? : Poem LEVEL-1
(a) Paint er (b) Wr it er 1. K ings is t o H ist or y as Rocks is t o
(c) Singer (d) Poet (a) Geomet r y (b) Cutler y
(c) Chemist r y (d) Geogr aphy
5. Reading : K nowledge :: ? : Exper ience
(a) Job (b) Wor king 2. Gr apes is t o Wine as Wheat is t o
(c) Tr aveller (d) Tr aining (a) Flake (b) Barley
I n each of the following questions, the two words given (c) Bread (d) Cake
in t he salut ar y pair expr ess an explicit or implicit 3. Cub is t o Tiger as Fawn is t o
relationship with each other. This is followed by four (a) Stag (b) M onkey
pairs of words marked (a), (b), (c) and (d). The two words (c) Ass (d) Sheep
in one of these pair s bear s a r elationship similar to the 4. Wat er is t o Ocean as Snow is t o
words in t he main pair. Choose that analogous pair.
(a) Peaks (b) Hail
6. Boxing : Rink (c) Glacier (d) Mountain
(a) Badmint on : H all (b) Cr icket : Pit ch 5. Writer is to Reader as Producer is to
(c) Swimming : Wat er (d) Cr icket : Gr ound (a) Seller (b) Consumer
7. H aemoglobin : Blood (c) Cr eator (d) Cont r actor
(a) Chlor ophyll : L eaf (b) Chlor oplasm : Cell Fir st t wo wor ds ar e r elat ed in a par t icular manner.
(c) M icr ot in : Lymph (d) Bile : H or mone Select t he wor d fr om given choices which is r elat ed t o
t hir d one in same manner.
8. H ot : St eaming
6. Assumpt ion : L ogic :: Guess : ?
(a) Wat er : Flood (b) Cold : Chilly
(a) Estimation (b) Analysis
(c) Clot h : Dr ess (d) Dr y : Famine
(c) Basis (d) Study
9. M onolit h : Rock 7. Or chest r a : Conduct or :: Team : ?
(a) Cont inent : Ocean (b) Tor : L ea (a) Captain (b) Senior member
(c) Gr ain : Sand (d) Cat ar act : Wat er fall (c) Manager (d) Coach
10. Theft : Confess 8. Judges : Bench :: Teacher s : ?
(a) Fault : Admit (b) Fight : Abet (a) School (b) College
(c) M ist ake : Agr ee (d) H ar m : Do (c) Team (d) Faculty
 2.8 Analogy
9. Solidify : I ce :: L iquefy : ? containing three words. Only one of these options bears
(a) Vapour (b) Wat er an analogy similar to the main words. Find t he cor r ect
(c) St eam (d) M er cur y option.
10. St ar : St ellar :: L ight : ? 4. St ar : Const ellat ion : Galaxy
(a) Lightening (b) Lighting (a) Flower : Gar land : Bouquet
(c) L ighten (d) Lightning. (b) M oon : Sat ellit e : Eclipse
11. Speech : Sight : : Dumb : ? (c) Sun : Ear t h : Venus
(a) Eyes (b) Mouth (d) Clot h : Design : Dr ess .
(c) Tongue (d) Blind 5. M obile : Call : M essage
12. Tast e : Tongue : : L ight : ? (a) FAX : Paper : Confir mat ion
(a) Film (b) Camer a (b) Pencil : Wr it e : Dr awing
(c) Eye (d) Brain (c) Calculat or : Abacus : Number s
13. Red For t : Delhi : : Taj M ahal : ? (d) Camer a : Pict ur e : L ense.
(a) Agra (b) Kanpur 6. Count r y : St at e : Capit al
(c) Haryana (d) Punjab (a) Shop : Cust omer : Seller
14.Pigeon : Peace : : Whit e Flag : ? (b) Cit y : Colony : Flat
(a) Victor y (b) Sur r ender (c) H ospit al : Pat ient : M edicine
(c) Peace (d) L iber t y (d) Office : Cabin : Boss.
15. Pear l : Necklace : : Flower : ? 7. Fact or y : M anager : Wor ker
(a) Gar den (b) Bouquet (a) School : Teacher : St udent
(c) Pet al (d) Plant (b) H ouse : Owner : Ser vant
LEVEL-2 (c) M ar ket : M all : Agent
Given below ar e t hr ee wor ds in each quest ion which (d) Cour t : Case : L awyer.
ar e analogous t o one anot her in some way. Det ect t he Directions : H er e t wo wor ds indicat ed by I & I I have
analogy under lying t hem by choosing t he r ight opt ion been left out for which four alternat ive choices is given
out of (a), (b), (c) and (d) : for each. Read wit h t he cor r ect wor ds t her e is some
1. K elvin : Celcius : Fahr enheit r elat ionship bet ween t he t wo wor ds t o t he left of t he
sign:: and same r elat ionship exist s bet ween t he t wo
(a) They ar e t ypes of t her mo-met er.
wor ds t o t he r ight of ::. The cor r ect combinat ion is
(b) They ar e SI unit s of t emper at ur e. given as (a), (b), (c) & (d). Find t he cor rect combinat ion
(c) They ar e scales of t emper -at ur e. in each case.
(d) They are used to measure body temperatur e. 8. I : Wheat :: Br ick : I I
2. Sahar a : M odiluft : I ndian Air lines I . (A) Weed (B) Field
(a) They r epr esent joint vent ur es in air lines. (C) Bread (D) Fanner
(b) They all r un on losses. I I . (P) Building (Q) Mason
(c) They ar e local Air lines. (R) Clay (S) Kiln
(d) They ar e air lines cont r olled by St at e Govt . (a) AS (b) BR
3. Palace : Thr one : Empir e (c) CQ (d) DP
(a) They ar e inher it ed by t he king. 9. I : Night :: Sun : I I
(b) They ar e a bone of cont ent ion. I . (A) Birds (B) Fight

(c) They ar e places cont r olled by t he king. (C) Star s (D) Dawn
I I . (P) Dusk (Q) N oon
(d) People aim t o possess t hem.
(R) Bright (S) Day
I n each of the following questions three words are given
which ar e int er-connect ed in some way. Below t hem, (a) AP (b) CD
four opt ions mar ked (a), (b), (c) and (d) ar e given, each (c) BQ (d) CP
 Analogy 2.9
10. I : Squar e :: Ar c : I I Choose appr opr iat e number for four t h place.
I . (A) L i ne (B) Diagonal 12. 582 : 194 : : 2.58 : ?
(C) Rectangle (D) Per imet er (a) 82 (b) 86
I I . (P) Chord (Q) Cir cle (c) 92 (d) 58
(R) Diamet er (S) Cir cumfer ena 13. 108 : 27 : : 776 : ?
(a) BR (b) CP (a) 162 (b) 194
(c) DS (d) AQ (c) 137 (d) 147
11. I : Disease :: Psychiat r ist : I I 14. 36 : 18 : : 72 : ?
I . (A) Charlatan (B) Sur geon (a) 164 (b) 134
(C) Paediatrician (D) Doct or (c) 94 (d) 14
I I . (P) Maladjustment 15. 36 : 64 : : 81 : ?
(Q) Tr ut h (a) 25 (b) 16
(R) Medicine
(c) 121 (d) 49
(S) Cur e
(a) BD (b) CQ
(c) AQ (d) DP

AN SWE RS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (d)
LEVEL-1
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (b)
LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (c)

E XPL AN AT I ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 10. Fault is admit t ed just as t heft is confessed.
1. Second is t he lar ger for m of t he fir st . 11. I n wat er light r ay r efr act s.
2. Fir st is t he capit al of t he second which is a st at e. 12. Ant onyms of hope is despair.
3. Second is a disease affect ing the fir st which is an 13. Rock is har d.
or gan. 14. Mar tyr dom.
4. Second is a cr eat ion of t he fir st . 15. M out h pr oduced Saliva.
5. Fir st br ings t he second. LEVEL-1
6. Boxing is played in a r ink while cr icket is played 1. Geogr aphy.
in a gr ound.
2. Second is made of fr om fir st .
7. H aem ogl obi n gi v es t h e bl ood r ed col ou r , 3. Fir st is young one of t he second.
chlor ophyll gives t he leaf gr een colour.
4. Glacier.
8. St eaming is ext r emely hot as chilly is ext r emely
5. Pr oducer pr oduce for t he consumer.
cold.
6. Guess is made on Est imat ion as Assumpt ion is
9. A cat ar act is a lar ge wat er fall just as monolit h is made on logic.
a lar ge r ock.
7. Second leads t he fir st .
2.10 Analogy
8. Second is a collect ion of t he fir st . 6. Fir st cont ains t he Second and Second cont ains
9. Second is pr oduced by the fir st which is a pr ocess. t he Thir d.
10. Second is adject ive t o t he fir st . 7. Owner cont r ols t he H ouse as well as t he Ser vant
just as t he M anager does t he Fact or y and t he
11. A Dumb who cannot speak wher e blind cannot
Wor k er.
see i.e. sight pr oblem.
8. Second is used t o make fir st .
12. As t ast e is r elat ed t o t ongue, light is t o eye.
9. Fir st is found is second.
13. Taj M ahal is in Agr a.
11. Fir st deals wit h second.
14. Whit e Flag is sign of sur r ender.
12. 258  3 = 86.
15. Flower s put in bouguet .
13. 776  4 = 194.
LEVEL-2
14. Second number i s pr oduct of digit of t he fi r st
4. A col l ect i on of t he fi r st mak es t he second. A
collect ion of second makes t he t hir d. number

5. Fir st can be used for bot h t he Second and t he 15. (9 + 2)2 = 121.
Thir d. 
 3
CHAPTER Odd One Out
‘Classificat ion' means ar r angement of given it ems on t he basis of some common char act er. I n t his t est , a gr oup
of cer t ain it ems ar e given, out of which some ar e similar in some manner and one is differ ent fr om t he r est .
We ar e r equir ed t o choose t his one it em which does not fit int o t he given gr oup.
TYPES OF CLASSI FI CATI ON QU ESTI ON S.
1. ODD ON E OU T-WORDS.
I n t his t ype of quest ions, four (or five) wor ds ar e given out of which one is dissimilar t o t he ot her s and
st udent s have t o find t hat odd one fr om t he given set .
Example. Choose t he wor d which is least like t he ot her wor ds in t he gr oup.
I. (a) Chair (b) Cupboard (c) Table (d) Paper weight
Ans. (b)
H er e, all except paper weight ar e fur nit ur es.
II. (a) H at (b) Bag (c) Pur se (d) Basket
Ans (a)
H at is used on head so odd one out is H at .
I I I . (a) T (b) Z (c) Q (d ) H
Ans. (c)
Q is 17t h let t er of t he alphabet and all t hr ee opt ions ar e on even places wher e 17 is an odd number.
2. ODD ON E OU T-WORD GROU P OR PAI R OF WORDS
Classificat ion of gr oup of wor ds, let t er s or number s is not much differ ent fr om single wor ds, let t er s or
number s. H er e, we have t o obser ve t he t ype of r elat ion bet ween t wo r elat ed wor ds and find out t he pair
which does not follow t he r elat ionship pat t er n of t he ot her gr oups. The r elat ed wor ds can be opposi t e or
ident ical in meaning or nat ur e, or can var y in t heir degr ees of r epr esent at ion or can be r hyming wor ds.
Example. Choose t he odd pair of wor ds.
(a) L oom : Clot h (b) Table : Dr awer
(c) Book : Page (d) Car : Wheel
Ans. (a)
I n all ot her pair s, second is par t of t he fir st .

3. CH OOSI N G ODD N U M ERAL

I n t his t ype of quest ions, cer t ain number s ar e given, out of which all except one ar e alike in some manner
while one is differ ent and t his number is t o be chosen as t he answer.
Example. Choose t he number which is differ ent fr om ot her s in t he gr oup.
(a) 49 (b) 64 (c) 121 (d) 156
Ans. (d)
Each of t he number s except 156 is complet e squar e.
4. ODD ON E OU T-N U M ERAL PAI R/GROU P
I n this type of classification, differ ent number s ar e given as options. These number s have some commonness;
except one which is t he odd one. One has t o ident ify t he similar it y and t hen find t he odd one out as answer
opt ion. The number can be odd/even/ consecut ive pr ime number s, mult iple of some number, single squar e
or cubes of differ ent number s, plus/minus of some ot her number or combinat ions of any mat hemat ical
calculation.
Example. Choose t he numer al pair /gr oup which is differ ent fr om ot her s.
(a) 83 – 75 (b) 58 – 50 (c) 49 – 42 (d) 25 – 17
3.2 Odd One Out
Ans. (c)
I n each of t he pair s fir st number is eight mor e t han t he second.

5. ODD ON E OU T-LETTER GROU P

I n t his t ype of quest ions, usually five gr oups of let t er s ar e given. Four of t hem ar e similar t o each ot her in
some manner while one is differ ent and we have t o find it as t he answer.
Example. Choose t he gr oup of let t er s which is differ ent fr om ot her s.
(a) SU (b) PN (c) I K (d) BD
Ans. (b)
All ot her s ar e t wo alt er nat e let t er s.

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 15. (a) Car — Engine (b) Ticket— Tr ain
Directions (Q. 1 – 10). Find out t he odd one fr om (c) I nk— Pen (d) St amp— Lett er
given four wor ds. LEVEL-1
1. (a) Book (b) Paper Directions (Q. 1-3). Choose t he odd pair of wor ds.
(c) Pencil (d) Pen
1. (a) MeetingChairman (b) Tomat oPot at o
2. (a) Star (b) Sun
(c) Ar my Gener al (d) CracheI nfant
(c) M oon (d) Univer se
2. (a) MangoFr uit (b) Boy Gir l
3. (a) Pineapple (b) Or ange
(c) Shir t Dr ess (d) TableFur nit ur e
(c) Malta (d) Banana
3. (a) GoodBett er (b) TepidHot
4. (a) Kidney (b) H ear t
(c) Eye (d) Lung (c) Gainr Pr ofit (d) Whisper Shout
Directions. (Q. 4-13). I n each of the following questions,
5. (a) Engineer (b) Blacksmith there are four options. The numbers, in these options,
(c) Car penter (d) Bar ber are alike in certain manner. Only one number does not fit
6. (a) Newt on (b) Faraday in. Choose the one which is different from t he r est .
(c) Mar coni (d) Beethovan 4. (a) 64 (b) 96
7. (a) I nch (b) Foot (c) 121 (d) 144
(c) Yard (d) Quar t 5. (a) 9 (b) 7
8. (a) Comput er (b) Televisi on (c) 12 (d) 18
(c) Radio (d) X-ray 6. (a) 43 (b) 53
9. (a) Dollar (b) Fr anc (c) 63 (d) 73
(c) Pound (d) Ounce 7. (a) 3730 (b) 6820
10. (a) Panipat (b) Haldighati (c) 5568 (d) 4604
(c) Plassey (d) Sarnath 8. (a) 24 (b) 90
Directions (Q. 11-15). Choose t he odd pair of wor ds. (c) 54 (d) 36

11. (a) Light— Heavy (b) Broad— Wide 9. (a) 3215 (b) 9309
(c) Big— Lar ge (d) Tiny— Small (c) 4721 (d) 2850

12. (a) M ot her — Father (b) Sister — Br ot her 10. (a) 7654 (b) 4567
(c) Mast er — Ser vant (d) Uncle— Nephew (c) 9876 (d) 4321

13. (a) Oil— Lamp (b) Water — Tap 11. (a) 1472 (b) 3848
(c) 2683 (d) 4210
(c) Power — M achine (d) Oxygen— Life
12. (a) 325 (b) 207
14. (a) Knife— Dagger (b) Pist ol— Gun
(c) 711 (d) 423
(c) Car— Bus (d) Engine— Tr ain
 Odd One Out 3.3
13. (a) 1365 (b) 5713 Directions. (Q. 8-12). Choose t he gr oup of let t er s
(c) 3175 (d) 7531 which is differ ent fr om ot her s.
LEVEL-2 8. (a) SU (b) PN
Directions. (Q. 1-7). I n each of the following questions, (c) IK (d) BD
there are four options. The numbers, in these options,
ar e alike in cer t ain manner. Only one number does 9. (a) H GF (b) XWV
not fit in. Choose t he one which is differ ent fr om t he (c) NM L (d) OPQ
r est .
10. (a) PSVX (b) JMPS
1. (a) 13 – 21 (b) 15 – 23 (c) ORUX (d) CFI L
(c) 16 – 24 (d) 19 – 27
11. (a) TRQPS (b) KJHMF
2. (a) 12 – 144 (b) 13 – 156 (c) FCGDE (d) KHGJI
(c) 15 – 180 (d) 16 – 176
12. (a) JMG (b) PSM
3. (a) 13 – 31 (b) 45 – 54
(c) WZT (d) EIB
(c) 16 – 61 (d) 71 – 88
Directions. (Q.13– 15). Ther e ar e four wor ds wit h t he
4. (a) 6 – 16 (b) 7 – 19 let t er s jumbled up. Thr ee of t hem ar e alike. Find t he
(c) 10 – 27 (d) 11 – 31 odd one out .
13. (a) NI TK (b) TI K
5. (a) 95 – 82 (b) 69 – 56
(c) TI H (d) I TS
(c) 55 – 42 (d) 48 – 34
14. (a) LI TYAQU (b) TI TYUANQ
6. (a) 67 – 19 (b) 71 – 11
(c) TEAUBY (d) TEDUCAED
(c) 41 – 19 (d) 61 – 15
15. (a) FI WE (b) FLAMEE
7. (a) 3 – 5 (b) 5 – 3
(c) BUSHDNA (d) OMAWN
(c) 6 – 2 (d) 7 – 3

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (a)
LEVEL-1
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (c)
EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 7. Ot her s ar e t he unit of measur ing dist ances.

1. Ot her s ar e st at ionar y it ems. 8. Ot her s ar e elect r onic devices.

2. Ot her s for m a par t of t he univer se. 9. Ot her s ar e cur r encies.

3. Ot her s ar e juicy fr uit s. 10. Ot her s ar e famous bat t le field.

4. Ot her s pr esent in body in pair. 11. Ot her s ar e synonyms.

5. Ot her s want r aw mat er ials t o wor k. 12. Ot her s have familiar r elat ion.

6. Ot her s ar e sci ent i st wher e Beet hovan was a 13. Fir st par t of pair ar e necessit ies of second.
musician.
3.4 Odd One Out
14. Others are of the same purpose but different in size. 6. Ot her pair s ar e of odd and pr ime number s.
15. I n ot her s second par t of t he pair holds fir st par t . 7. Sum of t wo number s is 8.
LEVEL-1 8. Ot her s ar e t wo alt er nat e let t er s.
1. Ot her pair s second is t he head of fir st . 9. Ot her s ar e in r ever se or der.
2. I n ot her pair s second is t he class t o which fir st 10. I n ot her gr oups, each l et t er m oves 3 st eps
belongs. for war d.
3. Ot her s ar e differ ent in degr ees of compar ison 11. Ot her gr oup consist s of five consecut ive let t er s
t hough having same meaning. but not in or der.
4. Ot her s ar e complet e squar es. 12. I n other s, places between the alphabets ar e same.
5. Ot her s ar e divisible by 3. 13. Wr it ing in t he meaningful way we get
6. Ot her s ar e pr ime number s. (a) KNI T
(b) KI T
7. Ot her s have t wo digit s same.
(c) HI T
8. Ot her s have sum of bot h t he digit s .
(d) SI T
9. I n ot her s no digit is r epeat ed.
So, odd one out is K I T.
10. I n ot her gr oups number is in descending or der.
14. Rear r anging let t er of t he given wor ds, we get
11. I n all ot her t er ms digit 4 is used.
(a) Quality (b) Quantity
12. Rest all ar e divisible by 3. (c) Beauty (d) Educated
13. I n all the r est numbers, the sum of first and four th All thr ee options except (b) ar e used for explaining
digits and sum of second, thir d digit is 8. t he per son.
LEVEL-2 15. Rear r anging let t er s of t he given wor ds, we get
1. Ot her s pair s cont ain odd number s. (a) WI FE
(b) FEMALE
2. Ot her s pair s cont ain a number and it s pr oduct
wit h 12. (c) HUSBAND
(d) WOMAN
3. Ot her s for med by t he int er change of number s.
So, odd one out is H usband.
4. Ot her pair s ar e copr imes.

5. Rest all pair s have differ ence of 13.
 4
CHAPTER Coding Decoding

A CODE is a ‘syst em of signals'. Ther efor e, coding is a met hod of t r ansmit t ing a message bet ween t he
sender and t he r eceiver wit hout a t hir d per son knowing it .
Coding and Decoding test is set up to judge t he candidat e's ability to decipher t he r ule that codes a par t icular
wor d/ message and br eak t he code t o decipher t he message.

TYPES OF CODI N G DECODI N G QU ESTI ON S

This t ype of quest ion involves following :
1. L et t er Coding
2. Number Coding
3. Substitution
4. M ixed lett er Coding
5. M ixed number Coding
6. Decipher ing individual let t er codes by Analysis
7. Gr oup Coding
8. Decoding

1. LETTER CODI N G.
I n t hese quest ions, r eal alphabet s in a wor d ar e r eplaced by cer t ain ot her alphabet s accor ding t o a
specific r ule t o for m it s code and we ar e r equir ed t o det ect t he common r ule and answer t he quest ions
accor dingly.
L et t er coding is a secr et ive language used t o change r epr esent at ion of t he act ual t er m/wor d/value.
Coded language can be fr amed by following :
(i ) M oving let t er s one or mor e st eps for war d or backwar d
(ii ) Subst it ut ing number s for let t er s and vice-ver sa
(iii ) Wr it ing let t er s of t he given wor d in r ever se or der in par t of in whole
(iv) Replacing let t er s in t heir nat ur al ser ies by t he same posit ioned let t er in t heir r ever se ser ies.

Alphabet s in N atural series

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
     
1st 5th 10th 15th 20th 25th

Alphabet s in Reverse series

Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A
     
1st 5th 10th 15th 20th 25th
 4.2 Coding Decoding
E xamples
1. I f FACE is coded as GBDF; t hen how BADE will be coded?
Solution : Wor d is coded by moving t he let t er s one st ep for war d.
F A C E G B D F Similarly, B A D E C B E F
+1 +1
+1 +1
+1 +1
+1 +1

2. I f TAP is coded as SZO, t hen how is FREEZE coded?

Solution : Each let t er in t he wor d TAP is moved one st ep backwar d t o obt ain t he cor r esponding let t er of
t he code.

Thus, in FREEZE, F will be coded as E, R as Q, E as D and Z as Y. So, t he code becomes EQDDYD.

E xamples.
1. I f DEL H I is coded as FGNJK , how is M ADRAS coded ?
Sol ut i on: 4 5 12 8 9
D E L H I M A D R A S

+2 +2 | | | | | |

6 7 14 10 11      

F G N J K O C F T C U

2. I f BH OPAL is wr it t en as EERM DI , how is POWDER wr it t en ?

Sol ut i on:
2 8 15 16 1 12 16 15 23 4 5 18
B H O P A L P O W D E R
+3 – 3 +3 – 3 +3 – 3 +3 – 3 +3 – 3 +3 – 3
E E R M D I
5 5 18 13 4 9 S L Z A H O

3 I f AH M EDABAD is wr it t en as ASM VDZBZD, how is ASSASSI NATI ON coded ?

Sol ut i on:
1 8 13 5 4 1 2 1 4
A H M E D A B A D
 (+)  (+)  (+)  (+) 
A S M V D Z B Z D
1 19 13 22 4 26 2 26 4
   
27 27 27 27
 Coding Decoding 4.3

I t follows t hat , alt er nat e let t er ar e coded as follows :

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A

So ; A S S A S S I N A T I O N
            
            
A H S Z S H I M A G I L N  AH SZSH I M AGI L N

4. I f ZXV st ands for ACE; what will YZW st and for ?

Solution : Letter s of the wor d ACE ar e decipher ed by decoding ZXV.The letter ar e decoded by substituting
t heir r epr esent ed let t er s in t he nat ur al or der. (i.e., ‘Z’ is 1st in t he r ever se ser ies and ‘A’ is 1st in nat ur al
ser ies)
Z X V  let t er s in r ever se ser ies
A C E  let t er s is nat ur al ser ies
  
1st 3rd 5th  posit ion of let t er s

2. N U M BER CODI N G.
I n t he t ype of coding, digits and it s coded let t er s or vice ver sa ar e alr eady given. We have t o find out answer
t o t he given quest ion t allying t he given code.

Examples
1. I f CH I NA is wr it t en as 38126 and NEPAL is 25769, how is PL AI NE is coded ?

Solution : Clear ly Alphabet s ar e coded as shown :

C H I N A E P L
3 8 1 2 6 5 7 9
H ence, PL AI NE is coded as 796125.
2. I f RESULT is coded as 798206, t hen how L ET will be coded ?
Solution : L et t er s ar e coded by number s, and t o code t he given wor d, select r espect ive coded number s.
R E S U L T  let t er s
7 9 8 2 0 6  code
So, code for L ET will be
L E T  let t er s
0 9 6  code
3. I f Y = 50 and BAT = 46, t hen GOA = ?
Solution : Y = 50, and BAT = 46
I n t he given code, A = 2, B = 4, C = 6 . . . . . T = 40, ...... Y = 50, Z = 52
 GOA = 14 + 30 + 2 = 46
4. I n t he cor r ect ly wor ked out mult iplicat ion pr oblem at t he below, each let t er r epr esent a differ ent digit s.
What is t he value of B ?
A A
A B
— — — —
B B
A A C
— — — —
A 3 B
4.4 Coding Decoding
Solution : B+C =B:C=0 wor d ar e picked up. The common code wor d will
AA ×B = BB mean t hat wor d. Pr oceeding similar ly by picking
up all possible combinat ions of t wo, t he ent ir e
 (10 A + A ) B = 10 B + B message can be analysed.
AB = B , A = 1 Example. I f ‘tee see pee' means ‘Dr ink fr uit juice',
B+A =3 ‘see kee lee' means ‘Juice is sweet ' and ‘fee r ee
 B + 1 = 3,  B=2 mee' means ‘H e is int elligent ', which wor d in t hat
11 language means ‘sweet ' ?
12 Solut ions : I n fi r st and second st at ement s,
— — common wor d is ‘Juice' and common code wor d
22 is ‘see'. So, ‘see' means ‘Juice'. I n second and thir d
110 statements, common wor d is ‘is' and common code
— — i s ‘l ee'. So, ‘l ee' means ‘i s'. Thu s, i n second
132 st at ement , r emaining wor d ‘sweet ' i s coded as
5. I n a cer t ain code language 24685 is wr itten as ‘k ee'.
33776. How is 35791 wr itten in that code ? Example. I n a cer t ain language "t a ki" means
Solutions. L et t er s ar e coded as follows : "come her e"; "po r ui mo" means "ver y far
2 4 6 8 5 away"; and "r ui t a ju" means "far fr om her e".
+1 – 1 +1 – 1 +1 Which find t he wor ds st and for wor d "far "?
3 3 7 7 6 Sol ut i on : Obser ve t h e f ol l owi n g coded
So, 3 5 7 9 1 sentences :
ta ki 
+1 – 1 +1 – 1 +1 come her e
4 4 8 8 2 po r ui mo 
ver y far away
6. I n a cer t ain code ‘256’ means ‘you ar e good’ ; r ui ta ju 
‘637’ means ‘we ar e bad’ and ‘358’ means ‘good far fr om her e
and bad’. Which of t he fol l owi ng r epr esent s H er e wor d ‘far ' i s r epeat ed i n 2nd and 3r d
‘and’ in t hat code ? sent ences and so t he code is ‘r ui’.
Solutions : Given :
‘You ar e good’  ‘256’ ...( i ) 5. M I XED N U M BER CODI N G.
I n this type of questions, a few gr oups of number s
‘We ar e bad’  ‘637’ ...(ii )
each coding a cer t ain shor t message, ar e given.
and ‘Good and bad’  ‘358’ ...(iii )
T h r ou gh a com par i son of t h e gi ven coded
Fr om equations (i ) and (iii ), ‘good’ is coded as ‘5’. messages, taking two at a time, we ar e is r equir ed
Fr om equations (ii ) and (iii ), ‘bad’ is coded as ‘3’. t o find t he number code for each wor d and t hen
Fr om equat ion (iii ), ‘and’ is coded as ‘8’. for mulat e t he code for t he message given.
Example. I n a cer t ain code, ‘786' means ‘st udy
3. SU BSTI TU TI ON .
very har d', ‘958' means ‘hard work pays' and ‘645'
I n t his t ype of quest ions, some par t icular object s
means ‘st udy and wor k '. Which of t he following
are assigned code names. Then a question is asked is t he code for ‘ver y ' ?
t hat is t o be answer ed in t he code language.
Solut ions : I n fi r st and second st at ement s,
Example. I f cook is called but ler , but ler is called common wor d is ‘har d'and common code digit is
manager, manager is called t eacher, t eacher is ‘8’. So, ‘8' means ‘har d’.
called cler k and cler k is called pr incipal, who will In the first and third statements, common word is
t each in a class ? ‘study' and the common code digit is ‘6'. So, ‘6' means
Solutions : A ‘t eacher ' t eaches in a class and as ‘study'.
given ‘t eacher ' is called ‘cler k'. So, a ‘cler k' will Thus, in t he fir st st at ement , ‘7' means ‘ver y'.
t each in t he class. 6. D E CI P H E RI N G I N D I V I D U AL L E T T E R
4. M I X E D L E T T E R CO D I N G (SE N T E N CE CODES BY AN ALYSI S.
CODI N G). I n t his t ype of quest ions, cer t ain sample wor ds
I n t his t ype of quest ions, t hr ee or four complet e ar e gi ven al ong wi t h t hei r codes. We ar e i s
messages ar e given in t he coded language and r equir ed to decipher individual codes for different
the code for a par t icular wor d is asked. To analyse lett er s by compar ing, taking two wor ds at a t ime,
such codes, any t wo messages bear ing a common and then answer the given questions accor dingly.
 Coding Decoding 4.5
Example. I n a cer t ain coding syst em ETTPI st ands for APPL E. What is t he code for DEL H I ?
Solutions : Each let t er of Apple moves + 4 st eps, so r equir ed code for DEL H I is H I PL M .
7. GROU P CODI N G.
I n this type of coding, capital letters A to Z are coded by sing the small letters a to z. With the help of the coding
pattern, we have to find the right code from the columns which is equivalent to the group of capital letters.

8. DECODI N G
I t is t he r ever se of coding. H er e code needs t o be decipher ed wit h t he help of given wor ds.
Each let t er in a wor d ar e r eplaced by cer t ain ot her alphabet s accor ding t o a specific r ule.

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S (ii ) I f t h e f i r st l et t er i s a vowel an d t h e l ast a
consonant , t he codes for t he fir st and t he last ar e
1. I f TAP is coded as SZO, t hen how is FREEZE
t o be int er changed.
coded?
(iii ) I f no vowel is pr esent in t he gr oup of let t er s, t he
(a) EQDFYG (b) ESDFYF second and t he fift h let t er s ar e t o be coded as .
(c) GQFDYF (d) EQDDYD 6. BARNIS
2. I n a cer t ain code, SI K KI M is wr it t en as TH L JJL . (a) 9 2 # % 4 (b) 9 2 4 # %
H ow is TRAI NI NG wr it t en in t hat code ? (c) 9 2 # % 9 (d) None of t hese
(a) SQBHOHOH (b) UQBHOHOF 7. DMBNIA
(c) UQBJOHHO (d) UQBJOHOH (a) 6 @9 % # 2 (b) 2 @9 % # 6
3. I n a cer t ai n code, M EN TI ON , i s wr i t t en as (c) 2 @9 % # 2 (d) 2 9 % # 2
L N EI TN O. H ow i s PATTERN wr i t t en i n t hat 8. IJBRLG
code? (a) # 8 9 £ S (b) # 8 9 £ #
(a) APTTREM (b) PTAETNR (c) S 8 9 £ # (d) S 8 9£ S
(c) OTAETNR (d) OTAETRN 9. BKGQJN
4. I n a cer t ain code, FORGE is wr it t en as FPTJI . (a) 9 S 7 % (b) 9 S 7 %
H ow is CUL PRI T wr it t en in t hat code ? (c) 9 1 S 7 8 % (d) % 1 S 7 8 9
(a) CSJNPGR (b) CVMQSTU 10. EGAKRL
(c) CVNSVNZ (d) CXOSULW (a) # £ S 2 1  (b) £S213
5. I n a cer t ai n code, T RI PPL E i s w r i t t en as (c) £ S 2 1 # (d) #£S21#
SQH OOK D. H ow is DI SPOSE is wr it t en in t hat 11. I f PAI NT is coded as 74128 and EXCEL is coded
code ? as 93596, t hen how would you encode ACCEPT?
(a) CHRONRD (b) DSOESPI (a) 455978 (b) 547978
(c) ESJTPTF (d) ESOPSI D (c) 554978 (d) 735961
Directions (Q. 6-10) : 12. I f D = 4 and COVER = 63 t hen BASI S = ?
I n each of t hese quest ions a gr oup of let t er s is given (a) 49 (b) 50
fol l owed by four combi nat i ons of number /symbol (c) 54 (d) 55
number ed (a), (b), (c) and (d). L et t er s ar e t o be coded
13. I f DEL H I is coded as 73541 and CAL CUTTA as
as per t he scheme and condit ions given below. You
82589662, how can CAL I CUT be coded ?
have t o find out the serial number of the combinat ion,
which r epr esent s t he let t er gr oup. Ser ial number of (a) 5279431 (b) 5978213
t hat combinat ion is your answer. (c) 8251896 (d) 8543691
L et t er s : Q M S I N G D K A L P R B J E 14. I f ROSE is coded as 6821, CHAI R is coded as 73456
Number : 7 @ 4 # % $ 6 1 2 £ 59 83 and PREACH is coded as 961473, what will be
t he code for SEARCH ?
/Symbol
Condit ions : (a) 246173 (b) 214673
(i ) I f the first letter is a consonant and the last a vowel, (c) 214763 (d) 216473
bot h ar e to be coded as the code of t he vowel.
4.6 Coding Decoding
15. I f t he let t er s in PRABA ar e coded as 27596 and 9. I f ‘TV is called Radio’, ‘Radio is called Aer oplane’,
T H I L A K ar e coded as 368451, h ow can ‘Aer oplane i s call ed H el icopt er ’, ‘H el icopt er is
BH ARATH I be coded ? called Bus’, ‘Bus is called Bike’, ‘Bike is called
(a) 37536689 (b) 57686535 Wat er ’, ‘Wat er i s cal l ed Fr og’, ‘Fr og i s cal l ed
(c) 96575368 (d) 96855368 Tom at o’, ‘Tom at o i s cal l ed F u r n i t u r e’ an d
‘Fur nitur e is called Cigar ett e’, t hen what Tomato
LEVEL-1 sauce made up of ?
1. I f ENGLAND is written as 1234526 and FRANCE (a) Wat er (b) Fur nit ur e
is wr it t en as 785291, how is GREECE coded ? (c) Fr og (d) None of t hese
(a) 381171 (b) 381191
D ir ect ions :
(c) 832252 (d) 835545
I n the following questions study the coded patterns
2. I f SH ARP is coded as 58034 and PUSH as 4658
and select the right option from given alternatives.
t han RUSH is coded as
10. I n a cer t ain code ‘415’ means ‘milk is hot ’; ‘18’
(a) 3568 (b) 3658
means ‘hot soup’ and ‘895’ means ‘soup is tasty’.
(c) 3685 (d) 3583 What number will indicat e t he wor d ‘t ast y’ ?
3. I n a cer t ain code GARI M A is wr it t en as 725432 (a) 3 (b) 6
and TI NA as 6482. H ow is M ARTI NA wr it t en in
(c) 7 (d) 9
t hat code ?
(a) 3256482 (b) 3265842 11. I n a cer t ain code language :
‘dugo hui mul zo’ stands for ‘wor k is ver y har d’;
(c) 3645862 (d) 3658426
‘hui dugo ba ki’ stands for ‘Bingo is ver y smar t’;
4. If PALAM could be given the code number 43, what
code number can be given to SANTACRUZ ? ‘nano mul dugo’ st ands for ‘Cake is har d’,
‘mul ki qu’ st ands for ‘Smar t and har d’.
(a) 75 (b) 85
Which of the following wor ds st and for ‘Bingo’?
(c) 120 (d) 123
(a) jalu (b) dugo
5. I f Z = 52 and ACT = 48, t hen BAT is equal t o
(c) ki (d) ba
(a) 39 (b) 41
12. I f in a cer tain language ‘mu mit es’ means ‘who
(c) 44 (d) 46
is she’ and ‘elb mu es’ means ‘wher e is she’,
6. I f ‘light ’ is called ‘mor ning’, ‘mor ning’ is called t hen what i s t he code for ‘wher e’ i n t hi s
‘dar k ’, ‘dar k ’ i s cal l ed ‘ni ght ’, ‘ni ght ’ i s cal l ed language ?
‘sunshine’ and ‘sunshine’ is called ‘dusk’, when (a) es (b) elb
do we sleep ? (c) mu (d) mit
(a) Dusk (b) Dar k
13. I n a cer t ain code language
(c) Night (d) Sunshine
‘r oi ja kyo t wa’ means ‘M oody is wr iting letter s’
7. I n a cer t ain language, ‘pok ju ja t wa’ means ‘Woody is wr it ing car ds’,
(i ) ‘sun shines br ight ly’ is wr it t en as ‘ba lo sul’ ‘t r n kyo pos un’ means ‘They ar e wr it ing
(ii ) ‘houses ar e br ightly lit’ as ‘kado ulo ar i ba’ and essays’,
(iii ) ‘light comes fr om sun’ as ‘dopi kup lo nor ’. and ‘r oi r us pok’ means ‘let t er s and car ds’.
What wor ds ar e wr it t en for sun and ‘br ight ly’ ? What is t he code wor d for ‘M oody’ ?
(a) lo, ba (b) balo (a) ja (b) twa
(c) sul, lo (d) ba, sul (c) r oi (d) k yo

8. I f whit e is called blue, blue is called r ed, r ed is 14. I n a cer t ain code
call ed yel l ow, yell ow is cal led gr een, gr een i s ‘gr i chr i’ means ‘br and new’,
called black, black is called violet and violet is ‘gyp t woh’ means ‘ver y old’,
called or ange, t hen what would be t he colour of
gr i bur t woh’ means ‘old and new’ and
human blood ?
‘chr i deh gyp’ means ‘old br and car ’.
(a) Red (b) Gr een
What is t he code wor d for ‘new car ’ ?
(c) Yel low (d) Violet
(a) chr i gr i (b) gr i deh
(c) deh gyp (d) t woh deh
 Coding Decoding 4.7

LEVEL-2 9. In a certain code, ‘467’ means ‘Leaves are green’ ; ‘485’

means ‘green is good’ and ‘639’ means ‘they are
1. I n a cer t ain code, ‘247’ means ‘spr ead r ed carpet ’; playing’. Which digit stands for ‘leaves’ in that code ?
‘236’ means ‘dust one car pet ’ and ‘234’ means ‘one (a) 4 (b) 6
red carpet ’. Which digit in that code means ‘dust ’? (c) 7 (d) 3
(a) 2 (b) 3
10. I n a cer t ai n code l anguage ‘851’ means ‘good
(c) 5 (d) 6
sweet fr uit ’ ; ‘783’ means ‘good r ed r ose’ and ‘341’
2. I n a cer t ai n code ‘975’ means ‘Thr ow away means ‘r ose and fr uit .’ Which of t he following
gar bage’; ‘528’ means ‘Give away smoking’ and digit s st ands for ‘sweet ’ in t hat language ?
‘213’ means ‘Smoking is har mful ’. Which digit in (a) 8 (b) 5
t hat code means ‘Give’ ? (c) 1 (d) 3
(a) 5 (b) 8
11. I n a cer t ain code language, ‘479’ means ‘fr uit is
(c) 2 (d) 3 sweet ’ ; ‘248’ means ‘ver y sweet voice’ and ‘637’
3. I n a cer t ain code language, 134 means ‘Good and means ‘eat fr uit daily ’. Which digit st ands for ‘is’
Tast y ’ , 478 means ‘see good pict ur es’ and 729 in t hat code ?
means ‘pictures are faint ’. Which of t he following (a) 7 (b) 9
numer ical symbols st ands for ‘see’ ? (c) 4 (d) can’t det er mined.
(a) 1 (b) 2 D ir ect ion : Below ar e given let t ers A t o Z. Under
(c) 7 (d) 8 each capit al let t er a small let t er is wr it t en which
is t o be used as a code for t he capit al let t er.
Directions (Q. 4 – 7) : A B C D E F G H I
Read t he following infor mat ion car efully and answer p t x q v y r z e
these questions. J K L M N O P Q R
I n a cer t ain coding syst em, 816321 means n a s g c j l u m
‘The br own dog fr ight ened t he cat ’, S T U V W X Y Z
64851 means ‘The fr ight ened cat r an away’ o w k d i b h f
7621 means ‘The cat was br own’ I n each of t he following quest ions, a gr oup of six
capit al let t er s is given and it s code equivalent is
341 means ‘The dog r an’ given in one of t he columns (a), (b), (c) or (d). Your
4. What is t he code for ‘t he dog was fr ight ened’ ? cor r ect answer is (a), (b), (c) or (d) accor ding t o
t he code equivalent of the gr oup of let t er s is found
(a) 8263 (b) 8731
in it .
(c) 5438 (d) None of t hese
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. What is t he code for ‘fr ight ened’ ? muvgt o zcuysm wlhxct ribgpq
(a) 2 (b) 6 xfwlmd r sqwui zcyums mvquot
gwdnje qvlmzi xfdwlm dgjtlq
(c) 3 (d) 8
muqvot dgtjql rigbqp r qswui
6. What is t he code for ‘away’ ? qwjvr x muvqt o r sqiwu wlhzbt
(a) 5 (b) 7 whlcxt gwndej qwjr vx zcsmuy
(c) 6 (d) 1 12. CZVTPR
13. DEPRHW
7. What is t he code for ‘br own’ ?
14. GWXMAD
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 8 15. RQEMBS

8. I n a code language, 256 means “ You ar e good” ,

637 means “ We ar e bad” , 358 means “ Good and
bad” . Then, what is t he code of ‘and’ ?
(a) 8 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 5
4.8 Coding Decoding

AN SWE RS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (a) 1 2. (b) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (b)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (a)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. T A P F R E E Z E
– 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 –1 –1 –1 –1 –1
S Z O E Q D D Y D  EQDDYD

2. S I K K I M T R A I N I N G

+1– 1 +1 – 1 +1 – 1  +1  – 1  +1  – 1  +1  – 1  +1  – 1

T H L J J L U Q B H O H O F
3. M EN TI ON P AT TE RN
– 1 – 1
L N E I T NO O TA ET NR

4. F O R G E C U L P R I T

 +1 +2 +3 +4  +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
F P T J I C V N S V N Z
5. T R I P P L E D I S P O S E
– 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1
S Q H O O K D C H R O N R D
6. 9 2 * %# 4
7. Condit ion (i ) is applicable
8. Condit ion (ii ) is applicable
9. Condition (iii ) is applicable
10. Condit ion (ii ) is applicable
11. P A I N T E X C E L
7 4 1 2 8 9 3 5 9 6
ACCEPT = 455978
12. D = 4
COVER = 63
 3 + 15 + 22 + 5 + 18 = 63.
C = 3, O = 15, V = 22, E = 5 and R = 18,
BASI S = 2 + 1 + 19 + 9 + 19 = 50
 Coding Decoding 4.9
13. Alphabet s ar e coded as follows : From 3rd code and its sentence neither number
D E L H I C A U T ‘9’ is r epeat ed nor t he wor d ‘t ast y’.
7 3 5 4 1 8 2 9 6 11. Code Sent ence
CAL I CUT  8251896. dugo hui mul zo Wor k is ver y har d
14. Alphabet s ar e coded as follows : hui dugo ba ki Bingo is very smart
R O S E C H A I P nano mul dugo Cake is har d
6 8 2 1 7 3 4 5 9 mul ki qu Smar t and har d
SEARCH 214673. Fr om 2nd code and it s sent ence, neit her ‘ba’
15. Alphabet s ar e coded as follows : nor ‘Bingo’ is r epeat ed.
P R A B T H I L K 12. Code Sent ence
2 7 5 9 3 6 8 4 1 mu mit es who is she
BH ARATH I  96575368. elb mu es wher e is she
LEVEL-1 Code words ‘mu’ and ‘es’ ar e repeated in 2nd
1. Alphabet s ar e coded as follows : sentence. Only code left is ‘elb’which means ‘where’.
E N G L A D F R C 13. Code Sent ence
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r oi ja kyo t wa Moody is writing letters
GREECE  381191. pok ju ja t wa Woody is wr iting car ds
2. Alphabet s ar e coded as follows : t r n kyo pos un They are writing essays
S H A R P U r oi r us pok let t er s and car ds
5 8 0 3 4 6 ‘M oody’ is in 1st sent ence only. Code wor ds
RUSH  3658. ‘Ja’ and ‘twa’ ar e r epeat ed in 2nd sent ence and
3. Alphabet s ar e coded as follows : ‘k yo’ i n 3r d sent ence. Onl y code wor d ‘r oi ’
G A R I M T N r emains which st ands for ‘M oody’.
7 2 5 4 3 6 8 14. Code Sent ence
MARTI NA  3256482. gr i chr i br and new
4. L et t er s ar e coded as follows : gyp t woh ver y old
A =1, L = 12, M = 13, gr i bur t woh old and new
P = 16 chr i deh gyp old br and car
H ence, A =1, B = 2, C = 3 ...... Wor d ‘new’ is pr esent in 1st and 3r d sent ence
Z = 26 and so t he code ‘gr i’. Wor d ‘car ’ is only in t he
PAL AM =16 + 1 + 12 + 1 + 13 4t h sent ence and code ‘deh’ is not r epeat ed in
= 43 any ot her sent ence.
So, SANTACRUZ = 19 + 1 + 14 + 20 + 1 LEVEL-2
+ 3 + 18 + 21 + 26 = 123 1. H er e 2, 3 and 4 ar e r ecur r ing, so 6 must be dust .
5. L et t er s ar e coded as follows : 2. Same as above
A = 2, C = 6, T = 40, Z = 52 3. By compar ing, we get
So, A = 2, B = 4, C = 6 ...... Z = 52
4 = good, 7 = pict ur es, 8 = see
ACT = 2 + 6 + 40 = 48
So, 8 st ands for see.
BAT = 4 + 2 + 40  46.
4. I n t he pr oblem ‘t he’ is common; so ‘t he’  1.
6. I n t he quest ion, night is called sunshine and we I n 1st and 4t h sent ence, dog is common,
sl eep at n i gh t , t h er ef or e cor r ect an swer i s so dog  3
sunshine.
Similar ly r an  4, cat  6 was  7 br own  2
7. By compar ing all the given sentences, we get sun-
lo and br ightly-ba. away  5 and fr ight ened  8
10. Code Sent ence So, code for ‘t he dog was fr ight ened’ is 8731.
415 M ilk is hot 5. Code for fr ight ened is 8.
18 H ot soup 6. Code for away is 5.
895 Soup is t ast y 7. Code for br own is 2.
4.10 Coding Decoding
8. ar e = 6, 5 = good, 2 = you, 11. Given : ‘Fr uit is sweet ’  ‘479’ ...(i )
bad = 3, 7 = we, 8 = and ‘Ver y sweet voice’  ‘248’ ...(ii )
9. Given : ‘L eaves ar e gr een’ ‘467’ ...(i ) ‘Eat fr uit daily’  ‘637’ ...(iii )
‘Gr een is good’  ‘485’ ...(ii ) Fr om equations (i ) and (ii )
‘They ar e playing’  ‘639’ ...(iii ) ‘sweet’ is coded as ‘4’.
Fr om equat ions (i ) and (iii ), From equations (i ) and (iii ),
‘ar e’ is coded as ‘6’ ‘fruit’ is coded as ‘7’.
Fr om equat ions (i ) and (ii ), Fr om equat ion (i ),
‘gr een’ is coded as‘4’ ‘is’ is coded as ‘9’.
Fr om equat ion (i ), 
‘L eaves’ is coded as ‘7’.
10. Given : ‘good sweet fr uit ’  ‘851’ ...(i )
‘good r ed r ose’  ‘783’ ...(ii )
‘Rose and fr uit ’  ‘341’ ...(iii )
Fr om equations (i ) and (ii ),
‘good’ is coded as ‘8’.
Fr om equations (i ) and (iii ),
‘fruit’ is coded as ‘1’.
Fr om equat ion (i ),
‘Sweet ’ is coded as ‘5’.
 5
CHAPTER Blood Relations
Blood-r elat ion pr oblems ar ises t hr ough t he par t icular r elat ions among family member s. I n gener al, t he
pr oblems cont ain t hr ee st ages of family. I t explains t hr ough a st at ement and we have t o analyse t he
r elat ion bet ween t hem.
 To solve such pr oblems, we st ar t fr om gr and father or mother and classify into thr ee stages, we r epresent
t he male member by and female by . I n case of siblings we use — (dash) bet ween t hem.
Example. I n t he family of A, B, C, D, E and F . Ther e ar e t wo mar r ied couple. D is t he gr and mot her of
A and mot her of B . C is t he wife of B and mot her of F . F is gr and daught er of E and A is br ot her of F .
What is C t o A ?
Solution : We st ar t fr om D as follows :

— — — — — — — — — —

— — — — — — — — — —

i.e. C is t he mot her of A .

 Some pr oblems ar e also based on r elat ionships bet ween imaginar y people. Sever al st at ement s ar e
given which may confuse a per son and at t imes may also appear cont r adict or y and false. The point is t o
look at each par t of a given st at ement car efully, dr aw a diagr am or t able based on t he st at ement (s) and
ar r ive at a conclusion.
Example. ‘A’s fat her -in-law and B’s fat her is t he husband of B’s mot her. H ow is A r elat ed t o B?’
Solution : They ar e husband and wife.
Example. ‘Point ing t o a lady in t he phot ogr aph Punkuj said, “ She is t he daught er of my gr andfat her ’s
only son.” H ow is she r elat ed t o Punkuj ?
Solution : She is his sist er.

SOM E I M PORTAN T BLOOD RELATI ON S.

 M ot her 's or fat her 's son — Br ot her
 M ot her 's or fat her 's daught er — Sister
 M ot her 's or fat her 's br ot her — Uncle
 M ot her 's or fat her 's sist er — Aunt
 M ot her 's or fat her 's fat her — Gr and fat her
 M ot her 's or fat her 's mot her — Gr and mot her
 Son's wife — Daughter -in-Law
 Daughter 's husband — Son-in-Law
 H usband's or wife's sist er — Sister -in-Law
 H usband's or wife's br ot her — Br ot her -in-Law
 Br ot her 's son — Nephew
 Br ot her 's daught er — N i ece
 Uncle or aunt 's son or daught er — Cousin
5.2 Blood Relations
 Sist er 's husband — Br ot her -in-Law
 Br ot her 's wife — Sister -in-Law
 Gr andson's or Gr and daught er 's daught er — Gr eat gr and daught er
Some I mpor t ant I nfor mat ion for Blood-r elat ion t est .
 M ot her 's sist er - M at er nal aunt
 Fat her 's sist er - Aunt
 Son of mot her or fat her - Br ot her
 Daught er of mot her or fat her - Sist er
 Son of br ot her - Nephew
 Daught er of br ot her - Niece
 Wife of elder br ot her - Sist er -in-law
 H usband of daught er - Son-in-law
 Wife of son - Daught er -in-law
 Sist er of wife - Sist er -in-law
 Br ot her of wife - Br ot her -in-law
 Fat her of fat her -Gr andfat her
 Fat her of mot her - M at er nal gr andfat her
 M ot her of fat her - Gr andmot her
 M ot her of mot her - M at er nal gr andmot her
 Br ot her of fat her -Uncle
 Br ot her of mot her - M at er nal uncle
 Son of fat her 's br ot her - Cousin
 Son of fat her 's sist er - Cousin
 Son of M ot her 's br ot her - Cousin
 Son of M ot her 's sist er - Cousin
 Son of M at er nal gr andfat her - M at er nal uncle
 The only daught er of M at er nal gr andfat her - M ot her
 Wife of mot her 's br ot her or wife or M at er nal gr and fat her 's son - M at er nal aunt
 The only son of gr andfat her - Fat her
 M ot her of wife - M ot her -in-law
 Fat her of wife - Fat her -in-law
 The only daught er of Fat her -in-law or M ot her -in-law - Wife
 H usband of sist er - Br ot her -in-law
 Son of sist er or br ot her -in-law - Nephew
 Daught er of sist er or br ot her -in-law - Niece
 Son of daught er or son-in-law - Gr and son
 Daught er of daught er or son-in-law - Gr anddaught er
 Son of Son or daught er -in-law - Gr andson
 Daught er of son or daught er -in-law - Gr anddaught er
 Only daught er -in-law of Gr andfat her - Mot her
 Only daught er -in-law of fat her - Wife
 H usband of daught er -in-law - Son
 Blood Relations 5.3
TYPES OF BLOOD RELATI ON QU ESTI ON S.
1. D ecipher ing jumbled up D escr ipt ions
I n t his t ype of quest ions, a r ound-about descr ipt ion is given in t he for m of cer t ain small r elat ionships
and dir ect r elat ionship bet ween t he per sons concer ned is t o be decipher ed.
Example. Point ing t o a phot ogr aph, a man said, “ I have no br ot her or sist er but t hat man's fat her is
my fat her 's son.” Whose phot ogr aph was it ?
Solution : Since t he man has no br ot her, his fat her 's son is he himself. So, t he man who is t alking is
t he fat her of t he man in t he phot ogr aph or t he man in t he phot ogr aph is his son.
2. Relat ion Puzzle
I n t his t ype, mut ual blood r elat ions or ot her infor mat ions of mor e t han t wo per sons ar e ment ioned
and infor mat ion about any t wo is ment ioned.
E xample. A and B ar e brother s. C and D are sister s. A’s son is D's br other. How is B related to C.
Solution : B is t he br ot her of A; A's son is D's br ot her. This means D is t he daught er of A. Since C and
D ar e sist er s, C is also t he daught er of A. So, B is t he uncle of C.
3. Coded Relat ions
I n such quest ions, r elat ionships ar e r epr esent ed by cer t ain codes or symbols such as +, – , , ,* ,  et c.
Then r elat ionships bet ween cer t ain per sons, given in t he for m of t hese codes, ar e t o be analysed.
E xample.
1. I f A + B means A is t he sist er of B; A – B means A is t he br ot her of B; A  B means A is the daughter
of B, which of t he following shows t he r elat ion t hat E is t he mat er nal uncle of D?
Solution : E is the maternal uncle of D means D is the daughter of the sister (say F) of E i.e. D  F + E.
2. I f A + B means - ‘A is t he mot her of B'. A B mean - ‘A is t he br ot her of B', A  B means-
‘A is t he son of B' and A – B means - ‘A is t he sist er of B' t hen which of t he following means - ‘C is
t he sist er of D' ?
(a) D – C
(b) D  P – C
(c) C – P  D
(d) P + D  C
Ans. (c)
(a) D – C means D is t he sist er of C
Fr om figur e, D is t he sist er of C but it is not necessar y t hat C is t he
sister of D. C may also be br other of D. H ence, opt ion (a) is nor cor r ect .

(b) D  P – C
(1) D  P means D is t he son of P
(2) P – C means P is t he sist er of C
I f C is supposed t o be a male, t hen he will be t he mat er nal
uncle of D and if C is supposed t o a female t hen she will t he
mat er nal aunt of D. H ence, opt ion (b) is not cor r ect .

(c) C – P  D
(1) C – P means C is t he sist er of P
(2) P  D means P is t he br ot her of D
Fr om Figur e, if P is br ot her of D, t hen eit her D will be a male
or a female. I f D is a male, t hen C is t he sist er of D and if D is
a femal e t hen also C is t he sist er of D. H ence opt ion (c) is
cor r ect .
5.4 Blood Relations

(d) P + D  C
(1) P  D means P is t he mot her of D.
(2) D  C means D is t he br ot her of C.
Fr om figur e, D is t he br ot her of C, so C may be a male or
female. H ence, opt ion (d) is not cor r ect .

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S LEVEL-1
1. A’s mot her is the only daught er of B’s father. How
is B’s husband r elat ed t o A ? 1. A is B’s wife and C is A’s sister. D is the father of C,
while E is D’s son. What is the r elat ion of E to B ?
(a) Uncle (b) Br ot her
(a) Br ot her (b) Br other-in-law
(c) Fat her (d) Grandfather
(c) Cousin (d) Father-in-law
2. A is br ot her of B. B is t he son of C. D is C’s fat her
t hen what is A of D ? 2. Point ing t o a phot ogr aph, a man said, “ I have no
(a) Br ot her (b) Son br ot her or si st er but t hat man’s fat her i s my
fat her ’s son” . Whose phot ogr aph was it ?
(c) Gr andson (d) Grandfather
(a) H is son’s (b) H is fat her ’s
3. A is t he fat her of C and D is son of B. E is br ot her
(c) H is nephew’s (d) H is own
of A. I f C is sist er of D, how is B r elat ed t o E ?
(a) Br ot her (b) Sister 3. K is t he br ot her of X, Z is t he son of X, P, t he
daughter of K , is mar r ied to N, G and X ar e sister s
(c) Br other-in-law (d) Sister-in-law
to one another. Then state how is G r elated to Z ?
4. A and B ar e br ot her s. C and D ar e sist er s. A’s son (a) Sister (b) Aunt
is D’s br ot her. H ow is B r elat ed t o C ? (c) M other (d) Mother-in-law
(a) Fat her (b) Br ot her
4. A is mot her of B and C. I f D is husband of C, t hen
(c) Grandfather (d) Uncle
what is A for D ?
5. A woman int r oduces a man as t he son of t he
(a) Aunty
br ot her of her mot her. H ow is t he man r elat ed t o
t he woman ? (b) M other
(a) Nephew (b) Uncle (c) Sister
(c) Son (d) Cousin (d) Mother-in-law
6. A man said t o a lady, “ Your mot her ’s husband’s 5. I f F is br ot her of A, C is daught er of A, K is sist er
sist er is my aunt ” . H ow is t hat lady r elat ed t o of F and J is br other of C, then who is uncle of J ?
t hat man ? (a) F (b) C
(a) Daught er (c) K (d) A
(b) Gr and-daughter
6. K al yan i i s m ot h er -i n -l aw of Veen a, wh o i s
(c) M other
si st er -i n-l aw of Ashok . Dheer aj i s f at her of
(d) Sister Sundeep, t he onl y br ot her of Ashok . H ow i s
7. I f X is br ot her of t he son of Y’s son, how i s X K alyani r elat ed t o Ashok ?
r elat ed t o Y ? (a) Mother-in-law (b) Aunt
(a) Son (c) M other (d) Wife
(b) Br ot her
7. Pointing to M anju in the photogr aph, Rajesh said,
(c) Cousin
“ She is t he daught er of my gr andfat her ’s only
(d) Grand-son
son” . H ow is M anju r elat ed t o Rajesh ?
8. I f B says t hat his mot her is t he only daught er of (a) Sister
A’s mot her, how is A r elat ed t o B ?
(b) Br other-in-law
(a) Son (b) Grand-father
(c) Uncle (d) Br ot her (c) Son
(d) M other
 Blood Relations 5.5

LEVEL-2 5. Which of t he following is gr oup of br ot her s ?

(a) ABD (b) ABF
Direction (Q. 1-5) :
(c) BDF (d) BFC
Fr om t h e gi ven st at emen t s sol ve t he fol l owi ng
quest ions : 6. I ntr oducing a man, a woman said, “ His wife is t he
(1) I n a family, t her e is six member s A, B, C, D, E only daught er of my mot her ” . H ow is t he woman
and F. r elat ed t o t he man ?
(2) C is sist er of F. (a) Sister-in-law (b) Wife
(3) B is t he br ot her of E’s husband. (c) Mother-in-law (d) Aunt
(4) D is t he fat her of A and gr andfat her of F. 7. I f A’s mot her is B’s mot her ’s daught er t hen how
(5) Ther e ar e t wo fat her s, t hr ee br ot her s and a is B’s mot her r elat ed t o A.
mot her in t he family. (a) M other (b) Aunt
1. H ow F is r elat ed t o E ? (c) N i ece (d) Gr andmot her
(a) Daught er (b) Husband 8. Ther e ar e t hr ee women in t he family. I f t wo of
(c) Son (d) Uncle t hem ar e mot her s and t wo ar e daught er s t hen
how is t he youngest r elat ed t o t he eldest ?
2. Who is E’s husband ?
(a) Daught er (b) M other
(a) A (b) B
(c) Gr and-daughter (d) Gr and-mother
(c) C (d) F
9. Point ing t o a boy a woman says, “ H is fat her is
3. Who is t he mot her ?
fat her -i n-l aw of t hat per son whose fat her i s
(a) A (b) B father-in-law of mine” . Then how boy is r elat ed
(c) D (d) E t o t he woman ?
4. H ow m any m al e m ember s ar e t h er e i n t h e (a) Son (b) Br ot her
gr oup ? (c) Son-in-law (d) Br other-in-law
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (b)

E XPL AN AT I ON S

OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 2.

— — — — — — — — — —
1. — — B’s fat her C
— — — — — — — — — —
— — — — — — — — — —
–
— — B’s husband
i.e. A is gr andson of D.
— — — — — — — — — —
A 3. –
— — — — — — — — — —
i.e. B’s husband is fat her of A.
5.6 Blood Relations

3. –
— — — — — — — —
i.e. B is sist er -in-law of E.

4. – i.e. G is aunt of Z.
— — — — — — — — — —
– – 4.

i.e. B is uncle of C. — — — — — — — —

B–
5. –
— — — — — — — — — — i.e. A is mot her -in-law of D.

5. – – A
i.e. M an is cousin of woman. — — — — — — — —

6. – –
— — — — — — — — — — i.e. F is t he uncle of J.

i.e. L ady is sist er of M an. 6.

7. Y — — — — — — — —
— — — — — —
–
— — Y’s son
— — — — — — — — — — i.e. K alyani is mot her of Ashok.
– son 7. Ragesh’s gr andfat her
i.e. X is gr andson of Y. — — — — — —

8. A’s mot her

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
– B’s mot her
— — — — — — — — — — — — Rajesh
B i.e. M anju is sist er of Rajesh.
i.e. A is uncle of B. LEVEL-2
LEVEL-1 (1 – 5).

1.
— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

– – –

i.e. E is br ot her -in-law of B. — — — — — — — — —

–
2.
— — — — — — 6.
— — — — — —
— — — — — —

i.e. Woman is wife of M an.

i.e. F shows t he phot ogr aph of his son M .

 Blood Relations 5.7

7. B’s mot her 9.

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
–
— — — — — — — — — i.e. Boy is br ot her of woman.
A

i.e. B’s mot her is gr andmot her t o A.
8.
— — — —

— — — —

i.e. Youngest is gr anddaught er of t he eldest .

 6
CHAPTER Direction Sense Test

I n t his t ype of t est , t he quest ions consist of a sor t of dir ect ion puzzle. A successive follow-up of dir ect ions is
for mulat ed and we ar e r equir ed t o ascer t ain final dir ect ion or t he dist ance bet ween t wo point s. The t est is
meant t o judge abilit y t o t r ace and follow cor r ect ly and sense t he dir ect ion cor r ect ly.
N 0 30 45 60 90
NW
NE 1 1 3
si n 0 1
45° 45° 2 2 2
45° 45°
W E 3 1 1
cos 1 0
2 2 2
1
SW SE t an 0 1 3 
3
S

Above figur e shows four main dir ect ions :

Nor t h N, Sout h S, East E, West W
Four car dinal dir ect ions :
Nor t h East (NE), Nor t h West (NW), Sout h East (SE), Sout h West (SW)
Pyt hagor as T heor em
This t heor em is applicable only in r ight angle t r iangles, in which one angle is of 90.
AC2 = AB 2 + BC2
wher e, AC is H ypot enuse A

AB is Per pendicular (H eight )

BC is Base
Shor t cut M et hod
1. I f 2 opposit e t ur ns ar e coming t oget her, t hey will cancel each ot her.
e.g. left , r ight and r ight , left . B C

2. I f similar t ur ns ar e coming t oget her t hey will be opposit e t o t he ear lier dir ect ion.
e.g. if a per son is going in Nor t h and t aking t wo left t ur ns it means now he is moving in opposit e of
Nor t h i.e. Sout h.
3. St ar t fr om eit her left side or r ight side.
4. Two opposit e t ur ns will make no change.

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
1. I go 10 m t o t he east , t hen I t ur n left and go 5 m, 2. A boy walks a while facing t owar ds t he sun he
I t ur n left again and go 10 m and t hen again I t ur ns t o his r ight and cont inues t o walk. L at er,
t ur n left and go 10 m. I n which dir ect ion am I he t ur ns left and finally, t ur ning t o his r ight , he
fr om t he st ar t ing point ? st ops. Which dir ect ion is he facing now ?
(a) Nor t h (a) Nor t h
(b) South (b) South
(c) East (c) East
(d) West (d) West
6.2 Direction Sense Test

3. A man tr avels 7 kms towar ds East, then he tur ns 7. A is 40 m Sout h-West of B, C is 40 m Sout h-East
left and travels 8 kms, again he turns left and travels of B t hen, C is in which dir ect ion of A ?
10 kms. Finally, he turns left and travels 2 kms. (a) South
I n which direction is he from his star ting point? (b) West
(a) Nor t h-West (c) East
(b) West (d) Nor th-East
(c) East
8. A man st ar t ed wal k i ng posi t i oni ng hi s back
(d) Nor th-East
t owar ds t he sun. Aft er somet ime, he t ur ned left ,
4. Ravi dr ove 6 km t owar ds East . H e t hen t ur ned then turned r ight and then towar ds the left again.
r ight and dr ove 10 km. H e again t ur ned t o his I n which dir ect ion is he going now ?
r ight and dr ove 6 km. H e t hen t ur ned t o his left (a) Nor t h or Sout h
and dr ove 15 km. At what dist ance is he fr om (b) East or West
t he st ar t ing point and in which dir ect ion ?
(c) Nor t h or West
(a) 25 km, Sout h
(d) Sout h or West
(b) 21 km, Sout h
(c) 15 km, Sout h 9. P, Q, R and S ar e playing a game of car r om. P, R
and S, Q ar e par t ner s. S is t o t he r ight of R who
(d) 21 km, Nor t h
is facing West . Then, Q is facing
5. I f Sou t h -E ast becom es N or t h , N or t h -E ast (a) South
becomes West and so on, what will West ecome ? (b) East
(a) Nor th-East (c) West
(b) South-East (d) Nor t h
(c) Nor t h-West
10. A man went 10 kms t owar ds Sout h. Then t ur ned
(d) South-West
East and cover ed 10 kms and tur ned to t he r ight .
6. A man is facing Nor t h-west . H e t ur ns 90.in t he Again aft er 10 kms he t ur ned t o left and cover ed
cl ock w i se di r ect i on an d t h en 135  i n t h e 10 kms t o r each t he dest inat ion. H ow far and in
ant iclockwise dir ect i on. Whi ch di r ect i on i s he which dir ect ion is he t o his st ar t ing point ?
facing now ?
(a) 20 2 km, Sout h-East
(a) West
(b) Nor t h (b) 20 2 km, Nor t h-East
(c) South
(c) 20 2 m, Sout h-East
(d) East
(d) 20 km, Sout h-East

AN SWE RS
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6 (a) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (a)
 Direction Sense Test 6.3

E XPL AN AT I ON S

1. 10 5.

Starting
point 10
10

End point

2. Finishing
point

6.

Starting
point

3.
10 kms
2 kms

8 kms

Finishing point
7.
Starting point
7 kms

4. Starting 6km
point

10km

6km

8. I n M or ni ng I n Eveni ng
15km t owar ds nort h

Finishing
point
t owar ds sout h
6.4 Direction Sense Test

S 10.
9.

P R

Requir ed distance = ( 20)2  ( 20)2

= 20 2 km
Q

 7
CHAPTER Venn Diagrams
This t ype of quest ions aim at analysing abilit y t o r elat e a cer t ain given gr oup of it ems and illust r at e it
diagr amatically.
I . LOGI CAL DI AGRAM S
I n t his type a few t ypes of Venn diagr ams with t heir implicat ions made clear. L et a gr oup of t hr ee it ems ar e
given.
1. I f items evidently belong t o t hr ee differ ent gr oups, then
Venn diagr am r epr esent ing it would be as shown below.
e.g. Doct or s, Engineer s, L awyer s
These t hr ee it ems bear no r elat ionship t o each ot her.
So, t hey ar e r epr esented by 3 disjoint figur es as shown.
2. I f one item belongs to t he class of the second and second
belongs t o t he class of t hir d, t hen r epr esent at ion is in
t he for m of t hr ee concent r ic cir cles, as shown below.
e.g. Seconds, M inut es, H our s
Seconds ar e a par t of minut es and minut es ar e a par t of
hour s. So, Venn diagr am would be as shown in the figur e
with cir cle A representing Seconds, circle B r epr esenting
M inut es and cir cle C r epr esent ing H our s.

3. I f t wo separ at e it ems belong t o t he class of t he t hir d,

t hey ar e r epr esent ed by t wo disjoint cir cles inside a
bigger cir cle as shown below
e.g. Table, Chair, Fur nitur e
Table and chair ar e separ at e it ems but bot h ar e it ems
of fur nit ur e. So, t hey would be r epr esent ed as in t he
f i gur e wi t h ci r cl e A r epr esent i n g Tabl e, ci r cl e B
r epr esenting Chair and cir cle C r epr esenting Fur nitur e.

4. I f t wo separ at e t hings having somet hing common belongs t o t he class of t hir d, t hey ar e r epr esent ed by
t wo joint figur es inside one bigger figur e is shown below.

5. I f t wo set s A and B ar e par t ly r elat ed and t hir d is differ ent .

 7.2 Venn Diagrams
6. I f A is par t ly r elat ed t o B and B is par t ly r elat ed t o C.

7. I f A, B and C par t ly r elat ed t o each ot her.

I n t his t ype of quest ions, gener ally a Venn diagr am is given.

8. I f A belongs t o B and bot h of t hem is par t ly r elat ed t o C.

2.VEN N DI AGRAM S
Each geomet r ical figur e in t he diagr am r epr esent s a cer t ain class. The candidat e is r equir ed t o st udy and
analyse t he figur e car efully and t hen answer cer t ain quest ions r egar ding t he given dat a.
Example. I n t he following diagr am, squar e r epr esent s gir ls, t he cir cle st ands for t all per sons, t he t r iangle
is for t ennis player s and t he r ect angle st ands for t he swimmer s.

On t he basis of t he above diagr am, answer t he following quest ions :

1. Which let t er r epr esent s t all gir ls who ar e swimmer s but don't play t ennis ?
Solutions : Tall gir ls, who ar e swimmer s ar e r epr esent ed by t he r egion common t o t he squar e,
cir cle and t he r ect angle i.e., G and H . But , accor ding t o t he given condit ions, t he gir ls shouldn't be
t ennis player s. So, r equir ed r egion should not be a par t of t he t r iangle i.e., H should be excluded.
Thus, r egion r epr esent ing t he per sons sat isfying given condit ions is G.

2. Which let t er r epr esent s gir ls who ar e swimmer s, play t ennis but ar e not t all?
Solutions : Gir ls who ar e swimmer s and play t ennis ar e r epr esent ed by t he r egion common t o t he
squar e, t r iangle and r ect angle L e., H . But , it is given t hat t he gir ls shouldn't be t all. So, r equir ed
r egion should not be a par t of t he cir cle. Since H is a par t of t he cir cle.
 Venn Diagrams 7.3

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S (xv) Cancer, Aids, Disease.

1. Choose t he diagr ams which r epr esent boy, gir l The diagr ams ar e
and a dog. (a)

(b)
(a)

(c)
(b)

(d)
(c)

(e)

(d)
Directions (Q. 4-9) : Each it em is r epr esent ed by a
cir cle. M at ch t he r ight par t s on t he basis of t he
r elat ionship among t he wor ds given in each of t hese
2. The venn di agr am whi ch r epr esent s St at e, quest ions.
Count r y and Blanket is

(a)

(b)
4. Wat er : At mospher e : H ydr ogen
(a) A (b) B
(c)
(c) D (d) E
5. Shir t : Collar : Pocket
(d)
(a) E (b) D
3. Choose the most suitable diagr am for given items. (c) A (d) B
(i ) Dog, cat , animal. 6. English : L at in : Gr eek
(ii ) Sist er, mot her, women. (a) A (b) F
(iii ) Town, st at e, count r y. (c) C (d) D
(iv) Rhombous, Quadr ilat er als, Polygons.
7. Week : Day : Year
(v) English, H indi, L anguage.
(a) F (b) E
(vi ) Women, mot her, widows.
(c) C (d) A
(vii ) Flower s, clot hes, whit e.
(viii ) Kadamkuan, Pat na, Bihar. 8. Fr ame : M odel : Paint ing
(ix) Diesel, pet r ol, fuel. (a) A (b) B
(x) Dogs, cat s, pet s. (c) E (d) F
(xi ) Table, st udy r oom, house. 9. Cit y : Childr en : St at e
(xii ) H ockey, Foot ball, Games. (a) F (b) E
(xiii ) Tennis fans, Cr icket player s, St udent s. (c) D (d) C
(xiv) Boy, st udent , cr icket er.
7.4 Venn Diagrams

LEVEL-1 6. I n t he fol lowi ng di agr am, t r i angle st ands for

Directions (Q. 1-5) : I n t he diagr am given below,
cir cle r epr esent s pr ofessor s in a M edical college,
t r i angl e st ands f or Su r gi cal Speci al i st s whi l e
r ectangle represent s t he M edical Specialist s :
‘Bihar i', squar e st ands for ‘English', and cir cle
st ands for ‘Sanskr it '. Find how many ‘Bihar is'
ar e such who r ead English as well as Sanskr it ?

1. Pr ofessor s who ar e also sur gical specialist s ar e

r epr esent ed by (a) 3
(a) Y (b) l,3,7
(b) C (c) 3,4,5
(c) D (d) 1,3,8
(d) X LEVEL-2
2. Su r gi cal speci al i st s w h o ar e al so m edi cal Directions (Q. 1-8) : St aff employed in a UNESCO
specialist s but no pr ofessor s ar e r epr esent ed by office in Par is ar e r epr esent ed by four int er sect ing
(a) X circles as in the given diagram. Each circle represents
people who can r ead and wr it e english, Fr ench,
(b) Y
Spanish and Russian. St r engt h of people in each
(c) Z cir cle is also shown alongside.
(d) B St udy t he diagr am t o answer t hese quest ions.
3. Col l ege pr ocessor s w h o ar e al so m edi cal
specialist s ar e r epr esent ed by
(a) Y
(b) X
(c) Z
(d) A

4. ‘B’ r epr esent s

(a) Pr ofessor s who ar e not medical specialist s
(b) Pr ofessor s who ar e not sur gical specialist s
(c) Pr ofessor s who ar e neither medical specialists
nor sur gical specialist s
(d) Medical specialists who ar e neither pr ofessor s
nor sur gical specialist s 1. People who can r ead and wr it e English, Fr ench
and Spanish ar e r epr esent ed by
5. ‘C’ r epr esent s
(a) A (b) D
(a) Pr ofessor s
(c) K (d) F
(b) Medical Specialists
2. Peopl e who can r ead and wr i t e al l t he four
(c) Sur gical Specialists
languages can be r epr esent ed by
(d) M edical and Sur gical Specialist s (a) J (b) M
(c) L (d) K
 Venn Diagrams 7.5

3. People who can r ead and wr it e all t he languages 7. H ow many people know only Spanish ?
except Spanish ar e r epr esent ed by (a) 10 (b) 20
(a) K (b) G (c) 40 (d) 60
(c) B (d) I 8. H ow many people can r ead and wr it e any one
language except Fr ench ?
4. Peopl e who cannot r ead and wr i t e Russi an,
(a) 100 (b) 160
English and Fr ench ar e r epr esent ed by
(c) 140 (d) 120
(a) L (b) J
(c) H (d) E 9. I n t h e f ol l ow i n g di agr am , par al l el ogr am
r epr esent s women, t r i angl e r epr esent s sub-
5. People who cannot r ead and wr it e Spanish and
i n spect or s of pol i ce an d ci r cl e r epr esen t s
Fr ench but ar e conver sant wi t h Engl i sh and
gr aduat es. Whi ch number ed ar ea r epr esent s
Russian ar e r epr esent ed by
women gr aduat e sub-inspect or s of police ?
(a) B (b) J
(c) M (d) K
6. Which of t he following languages is known by
t he maxi mum number of peopl e as per t he
diagr am ?
(a) Spanish only (b) Fr ench only
(c) English only (d) Russian only (a) 5 (b) 3
(c) 8 (d) 13

AN SWE RS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (c)
3. (i ) (e),(ii ) (e), (iii ) (c), (iv) (c), (v) (e), (vi ) (d), (vii ) (a), (viii ) (c), (ix) (e), (x) (e), (xi ) (c), (xii ) (e),
(xiii ) (b), (xiv) (b), (xv) (e)
4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (a)
LEVEL-1
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c ) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
(iii)
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. All t he t hr ee ar e fr om differ ent gr oups.

2. St at e belongs t o t he count r y wher e blanket is

fr om differ ent gr oup.

3. (i )

(ii)
(iv)
7.6 Venn Diagrams
(v)
(xiv)

(vi)

(xv)

(vii)

4. At mospher e cont ains bot h H ydr ogen and Oxy-

(viii) gen.
5. Shir t has bot h Collar and Pocket .
6. English, Gr eek and Latin ar e differ ent languages.

7. Year cont ains week, Week cont ains day.

8. Painting is fr amed in a fr ame while model is used

for paint ing.
(ix)
9. Childr en line in a cit y and cit y is a past of st at e.
LEVEL-1
1. Rect an gl e r epr esen t s ar ea f or t h e medi cal
(x) specialist s wher eas t r iangle r epr esent s sur gical
specialist s and cir cle r epr esent s pr ofessor s in a
medical college. Thus ar ea wher e pr ofessor s who
ar e al so sur gi cal speci al i st s but not medi cal
(xi) specialist s is r epr esent ed by D.

2. Su r gi cal speci al i st s w h o ar e al so m edi cal

specialist s but not pr ofessor s is common ar ea of
t r iangle and r ect angle and not cir cle which is
r epr esent ed by Z.

(xii) 3. Col l ege pr of essor s w h o ar e al so m edi cal

speci al i st s i s t he common ar ea of ci r cl e and
r ect angle r epr esent ed by X.

4. B r epr esent medical specialist s who ar e neit her

pr ofessor s nor sur gical specialist s.

5. C r epr esent only sur gical specialist s.

(xiii) 6. Since t he number of Bihar is who r ead English

and Sanskr it bot h, will be the number which will
be enclosed by t r iangle, squar e and cir cle and
such number is 3.
LEVEL-2
1. I n t his gr oup, we consider common ar ea of t he
t r ee cir cles one r epr esent ing t hose people who
 Venn Diagrams 7.7

can r ead and wr it e English, second Fr ench and 6. Given : A = 40

t hir d Spanish. This is shown by t he let t er K in C = 2 A = 80
t he diagr am. I t r epr esent s t hose people who can
r ead and wr it e Fr ench, English and Spanish. 1
E= A = 20
2
2. Thi s ar ea i s common t o al l four ci r cl es and
r epr esent ed by M . G = 2 E = 40 = A
So, maximum number of people used English.
3. I n t his gr oup we consider common ar ea of t he
t hr ee cir cles except Spanish so subr act ing t he 7. Fr om t he diagr am only spanish language is used
cir cle of Spanish fr om r est of t hr ee cir cles. We by t he people who belongs t o E and E = 20
get t he ar ea of peopl e who speak s al l t hr ee 8. Number of people who can r ead and wr it e any
languages except spanish is I . one language except fr ench
4. Peopl e who cannot r ead and wr i t e Russi an. = A+C+E
English and Fr ench ar e r epr esent ed by E. = 40 + 80 + 20
5. B is common ar ea of t hese people who can r ead = 140
and wr it e spanish and Fr ench. 9. The r equir ed r egion is t he one common t o t he
par allelogr am, t r iangle and cir cle i.e. 3.


 8
CHAPTER
I nt r oduct i on
I t helps t o t hink of deduct i ve r easoni ng in t er ms of
syll ogi sms.
A syl l ogi sm i s a deduct i ve ar gument r el at i ng t wo
pr emises and a conclusion, all of which ar e quant ified
pr opositions, i.e. pr opositions joining concepts by using
wor ds such as 'some' and 'all '.
Deduct i ve l ogi c i s used t o der i ve concl usi ons fr om
pr emi ses wher e t he t r ut h of t he concl usi on must
al ways be cont ai ned i n t he t r ut h of t he pr emi ses.
L ear ning Object ives
 To under st and t he st r uct ur e of an ar gument .
 To i dent i fy ar gument s involvi ng deduct ive and
induct ive r easoning.
L et u s st ar t by f i r st u n der st an di n g t er m s l i k e
ar gument , pr emise and conclusion.
A r gu m en t — A n ‘ar gu m en t expr esses a si n gl e
compr ehensive act of t hought which gives judgement
and is suppor t ed by t wo st at ement s. So it consist s of
t hr ee pr oposit ions.
I t is divided int o t wo par t s: Pr emises and Conclusion
Pr emises — Two pr oposit ion which suppor t t he t hir d
pr oposit ion giving judgement ar e called ‘Pr emises’.
Conclusion — The t hir d pr oposi t i on whi ch gives a
judgement and is suppor t ed by t wo pr emises is called
a ‘Conclusion’.
L et ’s consider an ar gument .
1. All st udent s ar e wise.
2. Ravi is a st udent .
3. Ravi is wise.
H er e obviously pr oposit ions 1 and 2 ar e t he pr emises
and t he pr oposit ion 3 which follows fr om t he fir st t wo
pr oposit ions, is called t he conclusion.
D educt ive and I nduct ive L ogic
Consider t he following example.
1. All mammals have lungs.
2. Cow is a mammal.
3. Cow has lungs.
I r r espect ive of any ot her char act er ist ics of a cow, i.e.
it gives milk, it is whit e, et c., t he conclusion t hat a
cow has lungs holds good, if (1) and (2) ar e t r ue.
Syllogism
T his is deduct ive logic.
Some char act er ist ics of deduct ive logic:
• I t i s a vali d ar gument .
• Not hing can fur t her st r engt hen t hi s ar gument ,
i.e. no st at ement can mak e t he conclusion mor e
valid.
• Anot her way of l ook ing at deduct i ve logi c i s t hat
when a ‘specific’ conclusi on is der i ved fr om a set
of gener al st at ement s, t hen it is deduct ive logic.
I n t he pr evious example, if we alt er t he sequence of
sent ences, i.e.
1. Cow is a mammal.
2. Cow has lungs.
3. All mammals have lungs.
The conclusion t hat all mammals have lungs is not
necessar ily valid. However, it is not necessar ily invalid.
Ther e is a pr obabilit y of t his conclusion being t r ue.
T his is induct ive logic.
Some char act er ist ics of induct ive logic.
• The conclusion cannot be said t o be eit her t ot ally
invalid or valid.
• Addit ion of cer t ain ot her pr emises may make t he
conclusion eit her mor e valid or invalid.
• Anot her way of looking at induct ive logic is t hat
when a ‘gener al’ conclusion is der ived fr om a set
of specific st at ement s, t hen it is induct ive logic.
D educt ive L ogic:
T h e pr em i ses i n dedu ct i v e l ogi c can be ei t h er
affir mat ive or negat ive and can also be univer sal or
par t i cul ar. Thus we have basi cal l y four t ypes of
pr emises as summar ized below
Affirmative N egative
U niver sal All P ar e Q No P is Q
Par t icul ar Some P ar e Q Some P ar e not Q
Let us under stand each of these four statement in their
en t i r et y …
All P are Q
This st at ement means t hat t her e is no P which is not
a Q. For t hose who under st and t he language of set s, it
means t hat P is a sub-set of Q.
On e of t h e m ost com m on m i st ak es m ade i n
 8.2 Syllogism

int er pr et ing t his stat ement is t hat t her e ar e cer t ain Q I n fact , t her e ar e FOUR possible venn diagr ams for
which ar e not P. This is false r easoning. I t is just a t his st at ement .
possibilit y t hat t her e ar e cer t ain Q t hat ar e not P but
we cannot be sur e of it . I t is quit e possible t hat t he Q P
P Q
ent ir e set of P and Q over lap wit h each ot her.
Similar ly we also cannot conclude t hat ‘All Q ar e P’ as
t her e is a possibilit y of some Q not being P
Thus t her e ar e t wo possible venn diagr ams for t his P,Q
st at ement :

Q P Q
P=Q P

Some P are not Q

Again her e all t hat we know t hat t her e is at least one
P which is not a Q.
N o P is Q Please not e t he ‘at least ’. I t is quit e possible t hat no P
Thi s st at ement i s t he si mpl est and has j ust one may be a Q. Thus t he conclusion t hat “ some P ar e Q’
int er pr et at ion i.e. t he t wo set s of P and Q ar e disjoint cannot follow t his st at ement .
or do not over lap. To summar ize:
Correct Commonly made
conclusion wrong conclusion
Q All P ar e Q Some Q ar e P All Q ar e P No P is
P Q No Q is P — —
Some P ar e Q Some Q ar e P Some P ar e not Q
Some P ar e — — Some P ar e Q
not Q Some Q ar e not P
Thus we can conclude t hat no P is a Q and also t hat no Now let s move on t o find t he infer ences dr awn fr om
Q is a P. t wo such st at ement s. I deally we will t r y t o eliminat e
t he use of venn di agr ams and t r y t o deci pher t he
Some P are Q
conclusions ver bally. St r ive har d t o visualize t he venn
The meaning of t his st at ement is t hat t her e is at least diagram if r equir ed and not to draw it as venn diagrams
one P which is a Q. ar e not hing but cr ut ches and unnecessar ily t ake t ime.
Thus we can also conclude fr om t his st at ement t hat
St r at egy t o Solve Syllogisms
‘some Q ar e P’ because ther e is at least one entity which
1. St ar t by wor king backwar ds, i.e. fr om t he given
is bot h a P and Q.
choices.
This st at ement is most pr one t o be misunder st ood.
2. Always t ake t he given pr emises t o be t r ue. Do
One of t he most common misunder st andings of t his
not use gener al knowledge her e. Tr ees may not
st at ement is t he conclusion ‘Some P ar e not Q’. Please
be blues and r eds may not be blacks, but t he idea
not e ‘Some P ar e Q’ does not mean ‘Some P ar e not
i s t o fi nd t he l ogi cal connect i on bet ween t he
Q’. Under st and it this way : the facult y of a class knows
pr emises and select t he conclusion. Do not let t he
t wo individuals of t he class per sonally and know t hat
pr emise dist r act you int o gener al knowledge and
t hey ar e int elligent . Thus he is r ight in saying ‘some
vice ver sa.
student s of t his class ar e int elligent ’. At t he same t ime
3. Eliminat e choices wher e a st at ement negat es a
all t he st udent may also be int elligent , it is just t hat
he does not know t hem well. The facult y when he says pr evious st at ement .
t hat some st udent s of t his class ar e int elligent is just 4. Pr act ice enough quest ions, so t hat you don’t need
r efer r ing t o t hose t wo individuals. The facult y is not t o dr aw Venn di agr ams. Avoi d dr awi ng Venn
making a r emar k on t he ot her s. The ot her s may also di agr ams dur i ng t he exam, as t her e i s a t i me
be int elligent . constr aint except in case you wish to validat e your
answer and of cour se, if t ime allows.
 Syllogism 8.3

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 12.Statements:
Directions for questions 1 to 10: You ar e r equir ed t o Some t ins ar e pens.
choose fr om among t he given four diagr ams — (a), Some pens ar e r ods.
(b), (c) and (d) — t he diagr am t hat best illust r at es a Conclusions:
r elat ionship among t he t hr ee given classes i n t he
I . No r od is t in.
questions.
I I . Some t ins ar e r ods.
13.Statements:
(a) (b) Some sabr es ar e bombs.
K ey is a sabr e.
Conclusions:
(c) (d) I . Some bombs ar e sabr es.
I I . Some keys ar e bombs.
14.Statements:
1. Eat ables, M eat , Venison
All lenses ar e hor ns.
2. Cr iminals, Thieves, M ur der er s
No hor n is colour ful.
3. Bachelor s, Doct or s, H usbands
Conclusions:
4. Food, Spaghet t i, Oven
I . Some lenses ar e colour ful.
5. Food, Rice, Belt
I I . No lens is colour ful.
6. Bever ages, L iquor, Juice
15.Statements:
7. M at t er, Solid, Gas
All flir t s ar e smar t .
8. Chair, Table, Fur nit ur e
All smar t ar e r ot t en.
9. Cut ler y, Spoon, Chair
Conclusions:
10. Cr oissant s, Baked eat ables, Br own br ead
I . All r ot t en ar e flir t s.
Directions for questions 11 to 15: I n each quest ion,
t wo st at ement s ar e fol l owed by t wo concl usi ons, I I . All smar t s ar e flir t s.
I and I I . You have t o t ake t he given t wo st at ement s LEVEL-1
t o be t r ue even if t hey seem t o be at var iance wit h Directions for questions 1 to 15: I n each quest ion,
commonly known facts. Read the conclusions and then t wo st at ement s ar e fol l owed by t wo concl usi ons,
decide which of the given conclusions logically follows I and I I . You have t o t ake t he given t wo st at ement s
f r om t h e t w o gi v en st at em en t s, di sr egar di n g t o be t r ue even if t hey seem t o be at var iance wit h
commonly known fact s. commonly known facts. Read the conclusions and then
M ark t he answer decide which of the given conclusions logically follows
(a) if only conclusion I follows f r om t h e t w o gi v en st at em en t s, di sr egar di n g
(b) if only conclusion I I follows commonly known fact s.

(c) if bot h I and I I follow M ark t he answer

(d) if neit her I nor I I follows (a) if only conclusion I follows

11. St at ement s: (b) if only conclusion I I follows

Some clouds ar e t hunder. (c) if bot h I and I I follow

All clouds ar e r ain. (d) if neit her I nor I I follows

Concl usions: 1. St at ement s:

I . Those clouds which ar e not t hunder, ar e also All cot s ar e t ablet s.

r ain. Some chimps ar e t ablet s.
I I . Those clouds which ar e not t hunder, ar e not Concl usions:
necessar ily r ain. I . Some cot s ar e chimps.
I I . Some chimps ar e cot s.
8.4 Syllogism

2. Statements: 9. Statements:
All willows ar e net t les. All gr eat scient ist s ar e college dr opout s.
Some t r ees ar e willows. Some cr iminals ar e college dr opout s.
Conclusions: Conclusions:
I . Some t r ees ar e net t les. I . Some cr iminals ar e gr eat scient ist s.
I I . Some t r ees ar e not net t les. I I . All gr eat scient ist s ar e cr iminals.
3. Statements: 10.Statements:
Some dolls blink. Sampr as is a good spor t sman.
All dolls bur ble. Spor t smen ar e st r ong.
Conclusions: Conclusions:
I . Those dolls which do not blink, also bur ble. I . All st r ong per sons ar e spor t smen.
I I . T h ose dol l s w h i ch do n ot bl i n k , don ’t I I . Sampr as is st r ong.
necessar ily bur ble. 11. Statements:
4. St at ement s: All of my classmat es ar e int elligent .
Some fools ar e int elligent . Ravinder is not int elligent .
Some fools ar e gr eat . Conclusions:
Concl usions: I . Ravinder is not my classmat e.
I . Some int elligent ar e gr eat . I I . Ravinder needs t o shar pen up his br ains.
I I . All gr eat ar e int elligent . 12. Statements:
5. St at ement s: All hippopot ami have skin.
Some pumpkins ar e fat . Rojo is a hippopot amus.
Some fat ar e pur ple. Conclusions:
Concl usions: I . Rojo has skin.
I . Some fat ar e pur ple and pumpkins. I I . Animals other t han hippopotamus do not have
I I . Some pur ple ar e pumpkins. ski n.
6. St at ement s: 13. St at ement s:
Some bosses ar e punct ual. Some sunglasses ar e blue.
Some punct ual ar e genial. Ray-Ban is a sunglass.
Concl usions: Concl usions:
I . No genial is a boss. I . Some blue ar e sunglasses.
I I . Some bosses ar e genial. I I . Some Ray-Bans ar e blue.
7. St at ement s: 14. St at ement s:
Some sea-men ar e foolish. Some men ar e br oad-minded.
Some sea-men ar e illit er at e. Br oad-minded people ar e educated.
Concl usions: Concl usions:
I . All illit er at e ar e foolish. I . All educat ed people ar e br oad-minded.
I I . No sea-men ar e foolish. I I . Some men ar e educat ed.
8. St at ement : 15. St at ement s:
All boys ar e her oes. Some pious people ar e pr iest s.
Sandy is a her o. Joseph is a pr iest .
Concl usions: Concl usions:
I . Sandy is a boy. I . Some pr iest s ar e pious.
I I . All her oes ar e boys. I I . Joseph is pious.
 Syllogism 8.5

LEVEL-2 4. Statements:
Direct ions for quest ions 1 t o 15: I n each of t he 1. Some whit es ar e Canadians.
following quest ions, t hr ee st at ement s 1, 2 and 3 ar e 2. Some Amer icans ar e whit es.
followed by four conclusions I , I I , I I I , I V. You have t o 3. No Amer ican is a black.
t ake t he given st at ement s t o be t r ue even if t hey
Conclusions:
appear t o be at var iance wit h commonly known facts,
and t hen decide which of t he conclusions logically I . Some Canadians ar e Amer icans.
f ol l ow(s) f r om t h e gi ven st at em en t s. F or each I I . Some whit es ar e blacks.
quest ion, mar k t he answer choice t hat you t hink is I I I . Some blacks ar e not Canadians.
cor r ect .
IV. Some whit es ar e not blacks.
1. St at ement s:
(a) I and I V follow (b) I I and I I I follow
1. All bibs ar e r ed.
(c) Only I I I follows (d) Only I V follows
2. All r ed ar e flower s.
5. Statements:
3. No flower s ar e t ablet s.
1. All knot s ar e t ight .
Concl usions:
I . Some flower s ar e bibs. 2. No collar is t ight .
I I . No t ablet s ar e bibs. 3. Some bush-shir t s ar e knot s.
I I I . Some r ed ar e bibs. Conclusions:
IV. Some t ablet s ar e r ed. I . Some bush-shir t s ar e collar s.
(a) I , I I and I I I follow I I . Some bush-shir t s ar e t ight .
(b) I I , I I I and I V follow I I I . Some collar s ar e not bush-shir t s.
(c) Only I and I I follow IV. Some bush-shir t s ar e not collar s.
(d) Only I and I I I follow (a) Only I I and I I I follow
2. St at ement s: (b) Only I I and I V follow
1. Some books ar e bibs. (c) Bot h I & I V follows
2. All biscuit s ar e pencils. (d) Only I V follows
3. No bibs ar e biscuit s. 6. Statements:
Concl usions: 1. All cr ooked ar e spades.
I . Some books ar e not biscuit s. 2. All big ar e jaded.
I I . Some bibs ar e not pencils.
3. Some big ar e cr ooked.
I I I . Some books ar e not pencils.
Conclusions:
IV. Some pencils ar e not bibs.
I . Some jaded ar e cr ooked.
(a) I and I V follow (b) I I and I V follow
I I . Some spades ar e cr ooked.
(c) I and I I I follow (d) I I and I I I follow
I I I . Some cr ooked ar e jaded.
3. St at ement s:
IV. Some spades ar e big.
1. All big ar e novels.
2. Some novels ar e willows. (a) I , I I and I I I follow
3. No willows is pencil. (b) I I , I I I and I V follow
Concl usions: (c) I , I I I and I V follow
I . Some willow ar e big. (d) All follow
I I . Some novels ar e pencils. 7. Statements:
I I I . No willow is big. 1. Some people ar e nice.
IV. Some novels ar e not pencils. 2. Some for eigner s ar e people.
(a) I and eit her I I or I V follow 3. No for eigner is a Canadian.
(b) I , I I I and I V follow Conclusions:
(c) I , I I and I I I follow I . Some for eigner s ar e nice.
(d) Only I V follows I I . Some people ar e Canadians.
I I I . Some for eigner s ar e not nice.
8.6 Syllogism
IV. Some people ar e not Canadians.
(a) Bot h I I and I I I follow
(b) Bot h I I I and I V follow
(c) Bot h I V and I follow
(d) Only I V follows
8. Statements:
1. All goat s ar e boxes.
2. Some goat s ar e flower s.
3. No chocolat e is box.
Conclusions:
I . Some flower s ar e chocolat es.
I I . No goat s ar e chocolat es.
I I I . Some flower s ar e boxes.
IV. Some flower s ar e not chocolat es.
(a) I I , I I I and I V follow
(b) I , I I I and I V follow
(c) Only I I and I I I follow
(d) Only I I I follows
9. Statements:
1. Some I ndians ar e not Amer icans.
2. All Amer icans ar e Asians.
3. Some Asians ar e Amer icans.
Conclusions:
I . Some I ndians ar e not Asians.
I I . All Amer icans ar e not I ndians.
I I I . All Amer icans ar e I ndians.
IV. Some Amer icans ar e I ndians.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only I I follows
(c) Only I I I follows
(d) None follows
10. Statements:
1. Some candies ar e paper s.
2. All paper s ar e vanillas.
3. Some vanillas ar e t r ams.
Conclusions:
I . Some candies ar e t r ams.
I I . Some paper s ar e t r ams.
I I I . Some t r ams ar e paper s.
IV. Some vanillas ar e candies.
(a) Only I I and I I I follow
(b) I and I V follow
(c) Only I V follows
(d) I I , I I I and I V follow
11. Statements:
1. No foods ar e mangoes.
2. No or anges ar e pot at oes.
3. All mangoes ar e or anges.
Conclusions:
I . Some foods ar e not or anges.
I I . Some or anges ar e not foods.
I I I . No mangoes ar e pot at oes.
IV. Some or anges ar e foods.
(a) Only I I I and I follow
(b) Only I I and I V follow
(c) Only I and I I follow
(d) Only I I and I I I follow
12. Statements:
1. Some cot s ar e docks.
2. All cot s ar e clocks.
3. No fr ock is clock.
Conclusions:
I . No fr ock is a dock.
I I . No fr ock is a cot .
I I I . Some docks ar e not fr ocks.
IV. Some docks ar e fr ocks.
(a) Bot h I I I and I V follow
(b) Bot h I and I I follow
(c) Bot h I I and I I I follow
(d) I , I I and I I I follow
13. Statements:
1. Some t umbler s ar e capsules.
2. No capsule is a medicine.
3. All medicines ar e syr ups.
Conclusions:
I . Some t umbler s ar e not medicines.
I I . No medicine is a t umbler.
I I I . Some syr ups ar e capsules.
IV. Some syr ups ar e not capsules.
(a) I , I I and I I I follow
(b) I , I I I and I V follow
(c) I I , I I I and I V follow
(d) I and I V follow
14. Statements:
1. All coat s ar e paint s.
2. No paint s ar e shir t s.
3. Some shir t s ar e vest s.
Conclusions:
I . Some vest s ar e shir t s.
I I . Some coat s ar e shir t s.
 Syllogism 8.7
I I I . No coat is a shir t . 15. Statements:
IV. Some vest s ar e not coat s. 1. All chimps ar e monkeys.
(a) I , I I and I I I follow 2. No monkeys ar e mammals.
(b) I and I V follow 3. Some hor ses ar e mammals.
(c) I and I I I follow Conclusions:
(d) I , I I I and I V follow I . Some hor ses ar e not chimps.
I I . Some hor ses ar e not monkeys.
I I I . Some monkeys ar e not chimps.
IV. No chimp is a mammal.
(a) I , I I I and I V follow
(b) I I , I I I and I V follow
(c) I I and I V follow
(d) I , I I and I V follow

AN SWE RS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (d)
LEVEL-1
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S

OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S S

13.
11. S B K1
R1 B
T T
C C K3
R2 K2

Fr om t he above venn diagr am we conclude only I

Hence, clouds which ar e not thunder ar e also r ain. follows.
12. T P 14. H H
C
L L
T
P
R2

H ence, no lens is colour ful.

R1

Some r ods may or may not be t i ns. Some t ins

may or may not be r ods. H ence, none of t he
conclusions definit ely follows.
 8.8 Syllogism

R 6. G2
S
15. F
B P B
S P
F

H ence, all flir t s ar e r ot t en. G1

LEVEL-1 Some genial may or may not be bosses.

I2
1. Ch2 T 7.
T S F S
F
Co Co

Ch1
I1
H ence, some chimps may or may not be cot s.
Some illit er at e may or may not be foolish.
2. N N

T2
8. H H

W S1
W
B
B
T1 S2

Fr om t he above venn diagr am we can conclude

t hat some t r ees ar e definit ely net t les
None of t he conclusions follow.
.
C2
3. Bu2 9. D
D
Bl Bl Bu1 S S
D
D

C1

All dolls, whet her t hey blink or not , bur ble. None of t he conclusions follows.
4. 10. Sp
F I Sp St
F I

Sa Sa

G2

G1 Thus, we can conclude t hat Sampr as is st r ong.

Some int elligent may or may not be gr eat . H ence, 11. I I

neit her conclusion I nor I I follows.

Pur2 R
5. Pum CM
CM
Fat
Pum
Fat H ence, Ravinder is definit ely not my classmat e.

Pur1

Some pur ple may or may not be pumpkins.

 Syllogism 8.9

12. S S
3. I.
P2
H H N W2
B
II.
Rojo
III.
P1
IV.
W1
H ence, we can definit ely concludes t hat Raj has
ski n.
SG
H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer.
13. B B
SG RB1
RB2 4.
B1 I.

II.
A1 W C
H ence, some blue ar e sunglasses. III.

IV.
B2
M A2
B M E1 E2
B

H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer.

14. 5.
C3
T I.
C1 K II.
H ence, some men ar e educat ed.
III.
Pi Pr Pi Pr
C2
IV.
BS
J1
15.
J2
H ence, opt ion (b) is t he cor r ect answer.
6. J
Joseph may or may not be pious. H ence, onl y
S I.
conclusion I follows.
II.
LEVEL-2 C B
III.

1. F I.
IV.
R
II.
B T H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer.
III.
7.
IV. C1
C2 I.

H ence, opt ion (a) is t he cor r ect answer. II.

P N
III.
F2
2.
I. IV.
Bo Bi II. F1

III.
P1 H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer.
Bis2 Bis1 IV.
P2
8. C2 I.
F
II.
H ence, opt ion (a) is t he cor r ect answer. B G
III.
C1
IV.

H ence, opt ion (a) is t he cor r ect answer.

8.10 Syllogism

9. I1 I. 13.
As S1
I4 M1
II.
Am
III. I.
I2 T
IV. C
II.
I3
III.

H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer. M2

IV.
S2
10.
V I.
Only conclusions I and I V follow. The set of ‘syr ups’
T2 C P II. which ar e ‘medicines’ ar e definit ely not ‘capsules’.
III. H ence, opt ion (d) is cor r ect .
14.
T1 IV.
I.
V
S
II.
H ence, opt ion (c) is t he cor r ect answer. P
III.
11. O C
F1 I. IV.

M II.

III.
H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer.
15.
IV. I.
F2 P H1 Ma
II.

H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer. III.

Ch
I. H2
12. ClK IV.
II. Mon
C D F1
III. H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer.
F2 IV. 
H ence, opt ion (c) is t he cor r ect answer.
 9
CHAPTER Statement Conclusion
PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
D ir ect i ons for quest ions 1 t o 10: Each of t he
following quest ions consist s of statements followed by
two conclusions. Read the given statements car efully
and ident ify which of the conclusions dir ectly follow.
M ark your answer as:
(a) if only conclusion I follows
(b) if only conclusion I I follows
(c) if bot h conclusions I and I I follow
(d) if neit her conclusion I nor I I follows
1. St at ement s:
Shei l a i s an M BA. Some M BAs speci al i ze i n
I nfor mat ion Syst ems M anagement .
Concl usi on:
I . Shei l a speci al i zed i n I nfor mat i on Syst ems
Management .
I I . Not all MBAs specialize in I nfor mation System
Management .
2. St at ement s:
Asphalt is ver y har d. Oil is of t he same densit y as
asphalt.
Concl usi on:
I . Oil is ver y har d.
I I . The density of asphalt and oil can be measur ed.
3. St at ement s:
Mur der is a mor al offence. You have committed a
mor al offence.
Concl usi on:
I . You ar e a mur der er.
I I . M ur der er s ar e immor al.
4. St at ement s:
Ear t h i s a par t of our sol ar syst em. Our solar
syst em is par t of t he milky way galaxy.
Concl usi on:
I . Ear t h is par t of t he milky way galaxy.
I I . M ilky way galaxy is in t he solar syst em.
5. St at ement s:
Wat ching cr icket is one of t he major r ecr eat ional
act ivit ies in I ndia. H e has gone for r ecr eat ion.
Concl usi on:
I . H e has gone t o wat ch cr icket .
I I . Cr icket is somet imes played for pleasur e in
I ndia.
6. St at ement s:
For t he past 10 year s people of K ashmir have lost
t heir peace of mind because of fear of t er r or ist
at t ack. M y uncle who is r esiding in K ashmir has
also lost his peace of mind.
Concl usi on:
I . M y uncle may be fear ing a t er r or ist at t ack.
I I . People staying in Kashmir can not lead a peace-
ful life.
7. St at ement s:
Sachin owns a Fer r ar i. Some Fer r ar is have left -
hand dr ive.
Concl usi on:
I . Sachin had bought a Fer r ar i for himself.
I I . Sachin’s car may have a left -hand dr ive.
8. St at ement s:
The r eason for t he upsur ge in t he incidence of
car di ac di sease among young pr ofessi onal s i s
occu pat i on al st r ess. M r . Si n gh , a y ou n g
pr ofessional r ecently succumbed t o car diac ar r est.
Concl usi on:
I . M r. Si ngh's deat h was due t o occupat i onal
st r ess.
I I . A l ot of y ou n g pr of essi on al s ar e f aci n g
occupat ional st r ess now days.
9. St at ement s:
CET for ms can be pr ocur ed eit her by paying cash
or by submit t ing a DD. M any people pr efer cash.
She has pr ocur ed a CET for m.
Concl usi on:
I . She submit t ed a DD for t he CET for m.
I I . Pu r ch asi n g t h e f or m by m ak i n g cash
payment i s mor e conveni ent t han payi ng
t hr ough a DD.
9.2 Statement Conclusion
10. St at ement s:
Polar bear s do not have fur on t hem. Animal X
doesn’t have fur on it .
Concl usi on:
I . Animal X is fr om t he poles.
I I . Polar bear ’s skin is t hick enough t o pr ot ect it
fr om cold.
Directions for questions 11 to 15: I n t he following
quest ions, one/t wo st at ement s ar e followed by t wo
concl u si on s 1 and 2. You h ave t o con si der t h e
st at ement s t o be t r ue, even i f t hey seem t o be at
var iance fr om commonly known fact s. You have t o
decide which of t he given conclusions, if any, follow
fr om t he given st at ement s.
M ark your answer as:
(a) if neit her conclusion 1 nor conclusion 2 follows
(b) if bot h conclusions 1 and 2 follow
(c) if only conclusion 1 follows
(d) if only conclusion 2 follows
11. St at ement s:
1. Alexander visit ed Egypt .
2. Cleopat r a was t he queen of Egypt .
Concl usions:
1. Alexander met Cleopat r a.
2. Egypt was a monar chy.
12. St at ement s:
1. I ndia is a democr at ic count r y.
2. Pakist an is a democr at ic count r y.
Concl usions:
1. I ndia and Pakist an ar e bot h democr at ic.
2. I ndia and Pakist an ar e neighbor s.
13. St at ement s:
1. Cr icket is played wit h r ed balls.
2. Snooker uses many r ed balls.
Concl usions:
1. Snooker can be played wit h cr icket balls.
2. Cr icket can be played wit h snooker balls.
14. St at ement s:
1. M any people ar e r ich and educat ed.
2. M any educat ed people ar e poor.
Concl usions:
1. Rich people ar e educat ed.
2. Poor people ar e educat ed.
15. St at ement :
The gover nment pr ovides subsidies t o help r ich
people.
Concl usions:
1. Rich people need help.
2. Rich people get subsidies.
LEVEL-1
Directions for questions 1 to 10: I n t he following
quest ions, one/t wo st at ement s ar e followed by t wo
concl u si on s 1 and 2. You h ave t o con si der t h e
st at ement s t o be t r ue, even i f t hey seem t o be at
var iance fr om commonly known fact s. You have t o
decide which of t he given conclusions, if any, follow
fr om t he given st at ement s.
M ark your answer as:
(a) if neit her conclusion 1 nor conclusion 2 follows
(b) if bot h conclusions 1 and 2 follow
(c) if only conclusion 1 follows
(d) if only conclusion 2 follows
1. St at ement s:
1. The company r epor t ed l osses i n t he fi r st
quar t er.
2. The company has been pr ofit able in t he past .
Concl usions:
1. The company will make a pr ofit in t he second
quar t er.
2. The company is going to be bought by a bigger
company.
2. St at ement s:
1. A flag has many color s.
2. I ndia’s flag has 4 color s, including whit e.
Concl usions:
1. I ndia may not be a nat ion.
2. I ndia has t o be a nat ion.
3. St at ement s:
1. Rich people have lot s of fr ee t ime.
2. Rich people buy many car s.
Concl usions:
1. H aving many car s saves t ime.
2. M any r ich people pur chase car s.
4. St at ement s:
1. Air t r avel is mor e expensive t han t r ain t r avel.
2. Tr ain t r avel t akes less t ime t han air t r avel.
Concl usions:
1. To save t ime, one should use t r ain t r avel.
2. To save money, one should use t r ain t r avel.
5. St at ement s:
1. At hlet es like David exer cise for mor e t han a
quar t er of ever y day.
2. For anyone t o become an at hlet e, t hey must
do mor e t han 6 hour s of exer cise ever yday.
Concl usions:
1. D av i d ex er ci ses f or m or e t h an 6 h ou r s
ever yday.
2. Anyone can be an at hlet e.

6. St at ement s:
1. Wat ches ar e used t o keep t r ack of t ime.
2. Clocks ar e made all over t he wor ld t o keep
t r ack of t ime.
Concl usions:
1. Cl ock s and wat ches ar e subst it ut es of each
ot her.
2. Wat ches ar e made all over t he wor ld.
7. St at ement s:
1. The gover nment holds exams t o select people
for var ious post s lying vacant .
2. Many people give these exams t o get their fir st
jobs.
Concl usions:
1. Ther e ar e many post s t hat need t o be filled.
2. M any people ar e unemployed.
8. St at ement s:
1. Nor t h K or ea and Sout h K or ea ar e separ at ed
by wat er.
2. They t hr eat en war on each ot her.
Concl usions:
1. Nor t h K or ea and Sout h K or ea ar e islands.
2. They ar e fight ing over who get s t o keep t he
wat er bet ween t hem.
9. St at ement s:
1. T h e I n t er n et i s a web of i nt er con n ect ed
comput er s.
2. All comput er s have input and out put devices.
Concl usions:
1. The I nt er net is an out put device.
2. A single comput er cannot make an I nt er net .
10. St at ement s:
1. Wat er is necessar y for life t o sur vive.
2. Food is necessar y for life t o sur vive.
Concl usions:
1. Wat er and food ar e life.
2. L ife cannot sur vive wit hout wat er and food.
Directions for questions 11 to 15: I n t he following
quest ions, t wo st at ement s ar e given, followed by t wo
concl u si on s I and I I . You h ave t o consi der t he
st at ement s t o be t r ue even i f t hey seem t o be at
var iance fr om commonly known fact s. You have t o
decide which of t he given conclusions, if any, follow
fr om t he given st at ement s.
11. St at ement s:
1. Due t o cont aminat ion of wat er, lar ge number
of people wer e admit t ed t o hospit als.
Statement Conclusion 9.3
2. The sympt oms wer e of Typhoid.
Concl usions:
I . Cont aminat ion of wat er may lead t o Typhoid.
I I . Typhoid is a cont agious disease.
(a) Only conclusion I is t r ue
(b) Only conclusion I I is t r ue
(c) Bot h conclusions I and I I ar e t r ue
(d) Bot h conclusions I and I I ar e false
12. St at ement s:
1. 60% of t he gover nment empl oyees went on
st r i ke.
2. M r. Gopal is a gover nment employee.
Concl usions:
I . M r. Gopal went on st r ike.
I I . M r. Gopal did not par t icipat e in t he st r ike.
(a) Only conclusion I follows
(b) Only conclusions I I follows
(c) Bot h conclusions I and I I follow
(d) Eit her conclusion I or I I follows
13. St at ement s:
1. Temple is a place of wor ship.
2. Chur ch is also a place of wor ship.
Concl usions:
I . H indus and Chr ist ians use t he same place for
wor ship.
I I . All chur ches ar e t emples.
(a) Neit her conclusion I nor I I follows
(b) Bot h conclusions I and I I follows
(c) Only conclusion I follows
(d) Only conclusion I I follows
14. St at ement s:
1. I ndia is becoming indust r ialised.
2. Pol l u t i on i s a pr obl em associ at ed w i t h
industr alisat ion.
Conclusi ons
I . Pollut ed nat ions ar e indust r ialised.
I I . I ndia may become pollut ed.
(a) All ar e appr opr iat e
(b) Only I is appr opr iate
(c) Only I I is appr opriate
(d) None is appr opr iate
15. St at ement s:
1. H appiness der ived fr om ext er nal mat er ials is
moment ar y.
2. Ever lasting happiness has to come fr om within.
9.4 Statement Conclusion
Concl usions:
I . Nobody can exper ience happiness fr om outside.
I I . H appi ness exper i enced fr om ci nema i s not
last ing.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only I I follows
(c) Neit her I nor I I follows
(d) Bot h I and I I follow
LEVEL-2
D ir ect i ons for quest ions 1 t o 10: Each of t he
following quest ions consist of st at ement s followed by
t wo conclusions. Read t he given st at ements car efully
and ident ify which of t he conclusions dir ect ly follow.
M ark your answer as:
(a) if only conclusion I follows
(b) if only conclusion I I follows
(c) if bot h conclusions I and I I follow
(d) if neit her conclusion I nor I I follows
1. St at ement s:
The Pl anni ng Commi ssi on i s opposed t o t he
pr oposal . I t feel s t hat t he cost of subsi di zi ng
helicopt er oper at ions will be exor bit ant .
Concl usions:
I . T h e Pl an n i n g Com m i ssi on w an t s t h e
gover nment t o spend less on it self.
I I . H elicopt er oper at ions must be subsidized.
2. St at ement s:
The population below the pover t y line is computed
on the basis of minimum daily calor ie r equir ement
of food and act ual consumpt i on. For t y-ei ght
per cent of I ndi a's popul at i on l i ves bel ow t he
pover t y line.
Concl usions:
I . For t y-eight per cent of t he people in I ndia do
not get t he r equir ed calor ies of food.
I I . Pover t y is I ndia's biggest pr oblem.
3. St at ement s:
The policy of liber alisation will make the rich richer
and t he poor poor er. The dispar it y bet ween t he
r ich and t he poor will widen.
Concl usions:
I . L iber alisat ion is not good for I ndia.
I I . The r ich believe in liber alisat ion.
4. St at ement s:
Nat ional int egr at ion cannot be achieved because
t her e ar e cont r ast s bet ween t he r ich and t he poor
and differ ent r eligious gr oups.
Concl usions:
I . Cont r ast s hinder int egr at ion.
I I . Nat ional int egr at ion is essent ial for I ndia.
5. St at ement s:
A simple DNA t est can pr edict whet her someone
is mor e likely t o lose weight on a low fat or a low
car bohydr ate diet, say US resear chers. Their study
looked at how well people wit h differ ent genes
far ed on differ ent weight loss diet s.
Concl usions:
I . Peopl e’s bodi es r eact t o cer t ai n nut r i ent s
differ ent ly and t his is r elat ed t o t heir genet ic
makeup.
I I . A bet t er u n der st an di n g of on e’s gen et i c
makeup helps in charting out one’s diet patter n
t o lose weight .
6. St at ement s:
Ther e ar e glar ing inequalit ies bet ween man and
man. Laws can ensur e an or der ed society but only
har d wor k wi l l hel p us t o achi eve t he soci al
object ive of economic goals.
Concl usions:
I . On l y h ar d w or k can r em ov e econ om i c
inequalities.
I I . Economi c equal i t y i s mor e i mpor t ant t han
discipline.
7. St at ement s:
The deadlock per sist ed for t he four t h consecut ive
day despite hectic efforts. Then, a meeting between
t he Pr ime M inist er and t he far mer s' leader s was
ar r anged.
Concl usions:
I . The M eet ing wit h t he Pr ime M inist er ended
t he deadlock.
I I . The meet ing bet ween t he Pr ime M inist er and
t he far mer s' leader was t he r esult of t he hectic
effor t .
8. St at ement s:
Beaut y is God’s gift and ever yt hing and ever yone
has beaut y, but not ever yone ident ifies it .
Concl usions:
I . Some people ident ify beaut y.
I I . Beaut y is ubiquit ous.
9. St at ement s:
The funct ion of science is t o supply r eliable and
r elevant infor mation to the society. I ts infor mation
i s r el i abl e due t o i t s el abor at e t ech ni que of
ver ificat ion and also because such infor mat ion is
capable of sur viving for cent ur ies.
 Statement Conclusion 9.5

Concl usions: 13. St at ement :

I . Scient ific infor mat ion is beyond t he scope of
r evision.
I I . Scient ific infor mat ion is ver ifiable.
10. St at ement :
The human or ganism gr ows and develops thr ough
st imulat ion and act ion.
Concl usions:
I . I n er t hu m an or gan i sm can not gr ow an d
develop.
I I . H uman or ganisms do not r eact t o st imulat ion
and act ion.
11. ‘All beggar s ar e poor.’
I f t he above st at ement i s t r ue, whi ch of t he
following conclusions can be dr awn?
(a) All t hose who ar e poor ar e beggar s.
(b) I f A is r ich, t hen A is not a beggar
(c) I f A is not r ich, t hen A is not a beggar.
(d) I f A is a beggar, t hen A is not r ich.
12. St at ement :
No childr en ar e vot er s.
Concl usions:
I . All adult s ar e vot er s.
I I . No vot er s ar e childr en.
(a) Only conclusion I follows
(b) Only conclusion I I follows
(c) Bot h conclusions I and I I follow
(d) Neit her conclusion I nor I I follows
M inist er s ar r ived at t he public funct ion in t heir
car s.
Concl usions:
I . All minist er s ar e r ich
I I . M inist er s have car s.
I I I . M inist er s came t o t he public funct ion.
(a) Only I I and I I I ar e implicit in t he st at ement .
(b) Only I is implicit in t he st at ement
(c) Only I and I I ar e implicit in t he st at ement
(d) Only I I I and I ar e implicit in t he st at ement .
14. St at ement :
Philant hr opes wit h t heir human compassion and
zeal t o help t he needy have cont r ibut ed t o human
welfar e in ever y societ y.
Concl usions:
I . Rich per sons ar e philant hr opes
I I . Poor people cannot act as philant hr opes.
(a) Only I is implicit in t he st at ement .
(b) Bot h I and I I ar e implicit
(c) Neit her I nor I I is implicit .
(d) Only I I is implicit .
15. Fer t ilizer consumpt ion in I ndia in 1984-85 was
8.21 MT. By 1990 it was 13.75 M T and by 2000 it is
expected to r each 16 MT. What is your conclusion?
(a) Fer t ilizer consumpt ion is st eady.
(b) T h er e i s a st eady decr ease i n f er t i l i zer
consumpt ion.
(c) Fer t i l i zer consumpt i on does not show any
t r end.
(d) Ther e i s a st eady i ncr ease i n s fer t i l i zer
consumpt ion.

AN SWE RS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (a)
LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (b)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (d)
9.6 Statement Conclusion
EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. None of t he conclusions follow as ‘some’ may mean
al l and t he given st at ement does not gi ve any
cl ar i t y on t he same. Shei l a may or may not
specialize in I nfor mat ion Syst em M anagement .
H ence, opt ion (d) is cor r ect .
2. Conclusion I is incor r ect because t he r eason for
asphalt being har d is not known. I t could be t he
pr esence of fact or s like asphalt ’s composit ion, it s
t ext ur e et c. t hat make it har d. So, even if oil and
asphalt ar e of t he same densit y, oil may not be as
har d as asphalt. Only conclusion I I follows because
t he st at ement clear ly indicat es t hat oil and as-
phalt ar e of t he same densit y and such a st at e-
ment can only be made aft er measur ing t he den-
sit y of t hese t wo subst ances.
3. None of t he concl usions is t r ue. Commit t i ng a
single act of moral offence cannot account for being
cal l ed i mmor al . So concl usi on I I i s i ncor r ect .
Conclusion I does not follow because mur der is
one of t he immor al act s but may not be t he only
immor al act .
4. Only conclusion I follows as ‘ear t h’ is a subset of
‘sol ar syst em’ whi ch i s a subset of ‘mi l ky way
galaxy’. Conclusion I I is incor r ect as ‘solar system’
is a subset of ‘milky way galaxy’ and not vice ver sa.
5. None of t he conclusion follows. Conclusion I is
incor r ect because wat ching cr icket is one of t he
r ecr eational activities but not the only recreational
act ivit y. H e may or may not be wat ching cr icket .
Conclusion I I is incor r ect because in I ndia, cr icket
is watched for pleasu re and not played for pleasure.
6. Only conclusion I follows as it t alks of a possibility
(may). Conclusion I I is incor r ect because the given
statement s r efer to a specified t ime fr ame (over
the past ten years) but conclusion II makes a general
statement which cannot be definitely concluded.
7. Conclusion I is incor r ect because if Sachin owns a
Fer r ar i, it does not necessar ily mean t hat he had
bought one. H e could have got it as a pr esent fr om
his fat her. Only conclusion I I follows as it t alks
about a possibilit y. Since some Fer r ar is have left -
hand dr i ve, i t i s qui t e possi bl e t hat Sachi n’s
Fer r ar i is also left -hand dr ive.
8. Conclusion I does not follow because occupational
st r ess is one of t he r easons for car diac ar r est but
not the only r eason for it. Conclusion I I is incor r ect
because though ther e is an incr ease in the number
of young pr ofessionals affected by car diac diseases,
but it cannot be definit ely said t hat a lot of t hem
have been pr ey t o occupat ional st r ess. The t er m
‘lot ’ cannot be defined as we do not have number s
her e.
9. Conclusion I is incor r ect because t he st at ement s
clear ly say t hat t her e ar e t wo ways of pr ocur ing
t he for m, so she could have chosen eit her of t he
two. Conclusion I I is incorr ect as people may prefer
cash because it is safer or fast er or cheaper.
10. N one of t he concl usi ons fol l ow. I i s i ncor r ect
because t her e could be anot her var iet y of animal
which doesn’t have fur t oo. So, we cannot say that
animal X is fr om t he poles. I I is out of scope as
not hing has been said about polar bear ’s skin.
11. Only conclusion 2 follows, since a queen r eigns
over a monar chy.
12. Onl y concl usi on 1 fol l ows, si nce geogr aphi cal
pr oximit y is not ment ioned.
13. Bot h conclusions 1 and 2 follow, since t her e is no
di ffer en ce bet ween r ed bal l s as used i n t he
st at ement s.
14. Neit her conclusion follows, since not all r ich or
poor people may be educat ed.
15. Neit her of t he conclusions follow. Conclusion 1 is
incor r ect because if gover nment helps someone,
i t does not i mply t hat t hat someone definit el y
needs help. Conclusion 2 is incor r ect because we
cannot say t hat all r ich people get subsidies.
LEVEL-1
1. Neit her conclusion follows, since we don’t know
t he second quar t er r esult s or any plans of bigger
companies.
2. Only conclusion 1 follows, since it is not mentioned
t hat ever yt hing wit h a flag must be a nat ion.
3. Ther e is no r elat ion bet ween car s and t ime in t he
st at em en t s. So con cl u si on 1 i s i n cor r ect .
Con cl u si on 2 does n ot f ol l ow becau se t h e
st at ement mer ely says t hat r ich people pur chase
‘m an y’ car s. Bu t wh et her a few r i ch peopl e
pur chase many car s or many r ich people buy many
car s is not hint ed at .
4. Bot h conclusi ons fol low, si nce accor di ng t o t he
st at ement s, air t r avel is mor e expensive as well
as slower.
5. Only conclusion 1 follows because quar ter of a day
m ean s m or e t h an 6 h ou r s. Con cl u si on 2 i s
incor r ect because not hi ng has been ment i oned
about who all can become an at hlet e.
6. N one of t he concl usi ons fol l ow. 1 i s i ncor r ect
because though a watch and a clock serve the same
pr imar y pur pose but a wat ch can be used on t he
move while a clock is st at ionar y. So, t hey cannot

be used int er changeably. 2 is incor r ect because
nothing has been said about pr oduction of watches.
7. None of the conclusions follow as nothing has been
ment ioned about t he number of post s t hat ar e
vacant and about t he number of people who ar e
unemployed. So ‘many post s’ in conclusion 1 and
‘many people’ in conclusion 2 cannot be deduced
fr om t he given st at ement s.
8. Neit her conclusion follows, since separ at ion fr om
each ot her by wat er is not t ant amount t o being
an island. Also, t he r eason for war t hr eat s is not
given.
9. Only concl usion 2 follows, since I nt er net must
have inter connected comput er s, or mor e t han one
comput er at least . A comput er having input and
output devices does not make the I nter net become
an input or out put device.
10. Only conclusion 2 follows fr om t he st at ement s,
since bot h food and wat er ar e given as necessar y
for sur vival of life.
11. Conclusion I is cor rect as it talks about a possibility.
Conclusion I I is out of scope.
12. M r. Gopal may or may not par t icipat e in st r ike.
So, bot h conclusions ar e possible and one of t hem
must be t r ue.
13. Templ e and Chur ch may or may not over l ap.
Further, no infor mation is given about Hindus and/
or Chr ist ians. Thus, neit her conclusion follows.
14. Conclusion I I t alks about a ‘possibilit y’ of I ndian
becoming pollut ed due t o indust r ializat ion and
hence is cor r ect . Conclusion I cannot be dr awn as
not hi ng has been ment i oned about pol l u t ed
nat ions.
15. Onl y concl usi on I I fol l ows because happi ness
exper ienced fr om cinema cannot be cat egor ized
as happiness coming fr om wit hin one’s soul and
st at em en t 1 cl ear l y st at es t h at ever l ast i n g
happiness comes fr om wit hin.
LEVEL-2
1. I is neither stated nor implied. So, I does not follow.
I I cont r adict s t he idea of planning commission.
So, I I does not follow.
2. We cannot infer fr om the passage whether pover ty
is I ndia’s biggest pr oblem or not . Only conclusion
I follows.
3. The st at ement s do not say anyt hing about I ndia.
H ence, I is negat ed. I I t alks about t he beliefs of
t he r ich and is beyond t he scope of t he ar gument .
Statement Conclusion 9.7
4. The st at ement implies t hat t he wide gap between
the r ich and the poor hinder s national integr ation.
So, I can be concluded. The st at ement does not
make any ment ion of I ndia, so I I is beyond t he
scope of t he ar gument .
5. I t ’s st at ed t hat a DNA t est can pr edict whet her
someone is mor e likely t o lose weight on a low fat
or l ow car bohydr at e di et . Thi s means t hat a
per son’s genet ic makeup det er mines how his/her
body r eact s to cer tain nutr ients and t his may play
a r ole in char t ing out one’s diet pat t er n. H ence,
conclusions I & I I follow.
6. When t he ar gument t alks about inequalit ies, it
does not specify t hat it is mentioning the economic
or t he social ones. We have no clar it y about t he
social object ives of economic goals. Thus I is quit e
f ar f et ch ed an d can n ot be con cl u ded. I I i s
ir r elevant .
7. Neither of the conclusions follow because one does
not know if t he meet ing ended t he deadlock and
whet her it was t he r esult of t he hect ic effor t .
8. ‘Ubiquit ous’ means pr esent ever ywher e. So, I I
definitely follows as t he main st at ement says t hat
“Beauty is God’s gift and ever yt hing and ever yone
has beaut y.” Not ever yone includes the possibilit y
t hat no one ident ifies it . H ence, I does not follow.
9. Only I I follows. I is vague as t he ‘scope of r evision’
cannot be deduced.
10. Both conclusions are incor r ect as nothing has been
said about iner t human or ganisms and about t he
condit ions in which t hey r eact .
11. I f A is a beggar, t hen A is not r ich.
12. The gi ven st at ement i s U ni ver sal N egat i ve.
Conclusion I I is Conver se of it .
13. The use of t er m ‘All’ in t he conclusion I makes it
invalid. We know t hat , definit e conclusion cannot
be dr awn fr om gener al st at ement . M i ni st er s
ar r ived at t he public funct ion in t heir car s. Thus,
mi ni st er s have car s and t hey at t ended publ i c
funct ion. Ther efor e, only I I and I I I ar e implicit in
t he st at ement .
14. Any per son can be philant hr ope whether he is r ich
or poor.
15. The given dat a indicat es t hat t her e is a st eady
incr ease of fer t ilizer consumpt ion.

 10
CHAPTER Statement Assumption
PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
Direct ions for questions 1 t o 15: I n each quest i on
bel ow i s gi v en a st at em en t f ol l ow ed by t w o
assu m pt i on s/i n f er en ces n u m ber ed I an d I I . A n
assumption is something supposed or taken for granted
and an infer ence i s somet hing whi ch can be di r ect ly
infer r ed fr om t he given fact s. You have t o consider
t h e st at em en t an d t h e f ol l ow i n g assu m pt i on s/
infer ences and decide which of t hose is/ar e implicit in
t he st at ement . Give answer :
(a) if only I is i mpl icit
(b) if onl y I I is impl icit
(c) if eit her I or I I is impl icit
(d) if neit her I nor I I is i mpl icit
(e) if bot h I and I I ar e impl icit
1. St at ement : 'Do not ent er -avoi d t he r i sk of
get t ing i nfect ed wi t h t he ABC disease'- wr i t t en
out side t he quar ant ine war d no. 2 (meant only
for ABC disease) of a hospi t al.
Assumpt ions :
I . Di sease ABC is cont agi ous.
I I . Al l t he pat i ent s i n war d no. 2 suffer fr om
disease ABC.
2. St at ement : I n cit y Z, peopl e pr efer t o buy Car X
inst ead of Car Y as Car X has Ger man t echnology
which i s ver y advanced.
Assumpt ions :
I . Car s wit h Ger man t echnology ar e per ceived
t o be bet t er t han ot her car s i n cit y Z.
I I . Had German technology been pr esent in Car Y
also, its sales would have cr ossed car X's sales.
3. Statement : Railway does not pr ovide concession
t o an y on e for t r avel l i ng t o cer t ai n hol i day
dest inat ions.
Assumpt ions :
I . Rail way ser vices ar e avail abl e for t r avel li ng
t o t hese holiday dest inat i ons.
I I . Rai l way s pr ovi des con cessi on t o cer t ai n
per sons for t r avel l i ng t o pl aces ot her t han
t hese hol iday dest inat i ons.
4. St at ement : "Tr avel l er s wi t h a t i ck et for t he
second cl ass i f found t r avel li ng in t he fi r st class
compar t ments would be penalized" - Not ice in the
compar t ment s of a t r ai n.
Assumpt ions :
I . Tr avel ler s wi t h a t i cket for t he fi r st class ar e
al so not al lowed t o t r avel i n t he second class
compar t ment s.
I I . I nspect i ons ar e car r i ed out i n t he t r ai n t o
check t he t ick et s.
5. St at ement : The pr ices of pet r ol and di esel have
r emained unchanged only in N iger i a since t he
past t hr ee year s.
Assumpt ions :
I . Pet r ol an d -di esel pr i ces h av e ch an ged
el sewher e i n t he wor l d dur i ng t hese t hr ee
year s.
I I . Befor e t hi s t hr ee year s per i od, pet r ol and
di esel wer e avai lable at a pr ice differ ent fr om
t he pr esent r at es.
6. St at ement : I f par ki ng space i s not availabl e in
offi ce, par k your vehicl es in t he mall and wal k t o
t he office.
Assumpt ions :
I . The mal l is at a walkabl e dist ance fr om t he
office.
I I . The office does not allow vi sit or s' vehi cles in
it s pr emi ses.
7. St at ement : Far mer s must immediat ely swit ch
ov er t o or gan i c f er t i l i zer s f r om ch em i cal
fer t il izer s for bet t er yi el d.
Assumpt ions :
I . Al l t he far mer s use onl y chemi cal fer t il izer s.
I I . Or ganic fer tilizer s ar e r eadily available t o t he
far mer s.
10.2 Statement Assumption
8. St at ement : An adver t i sement by bank X-'Our
int er est r at es for educat i on loans ar e l ower t han
any ot her bank '.
Assumpt ions :
I . Some ot her bank s al so pr ovi de educat i on
loans.
I I . I nt er est r at es char ged on educat ion loans ar e
di ffer ent for di ffer ent bank s.
9. St at ement : For any ki nd of pr oblem wit h your
mobile phone, cont act our help desk immediately.
Assumpt ions :
I . H el p desk h as a sol u t i on t o al l k i nds of
pr oblems r elated to mobile phones or will guide
accor dingly.
I I . Unless t he pr oblem is r epor t ed immediat el y,
it cannot be sol ved.
10. St at ement : U se ou r m edi ci n e t o f i gh t t h e
pr oblem of obesit y.
Assumpt ions :
I . Ot her sl i mming medi ci nes avail abl e i n t he
mar k et do not r educe wei ght .
I I . Obesi t y can n ot be con t r ol l ed w i t h ou t
medi ci nes.
11. St at ement : The number of people l iving bel ow
pover t y l ine i n ur ban ar eas has i ncr eased since
last year.
Assumpt ions :
I . People li vi ng in r ur al ar eas ar e not bel ow t he
pover t y l ine.
I I . A si mi lar sur vey was conduct ed l ast year.
12. Statement : Tr avelling by t r ains r ather t han cabs
is mor e convenient and economical in Par i s.
Assumpt ions :
I . Par i s is an expensive cit y.
I I . Tr ai n ser vi ces ar e r easonabl y good in Par i s.
13. St at ement : A gover nment adver t i sement i n
public int er est -For a child's bet t er ment al healt h,
admi t him/ her t o a school onl y aft er fi ve year s of
age.
Assumpt ions :
I . A chil d cannot l ear n befor e he/she t ur ns five.
I I . Some school admi t chi l dr en who ar e below
fi ve year s of age.
14. St atement : Alt hough he has done M BA t hr ough
a cor r espondence cour se, he i s as smar t as a
per son fr om coll ege X.
Assumpt ions :
I . St udent s fr om col lege X ar e k nown for t heir
smar t ness.
I I . St u den t s sh ou l d do M B A t h r ou gh
cor r espondence i n or der t o become smar t .
15. St at ement : Conveyance faci l i t y pr ovi ded by
or gani sat ion hel ps empl oyees r epor t t o wor k on
t ime.
Assumpt ions :
I . The conveyance faci lit y which i s pr ovide by
t he or ganisat i on al ways r eaches on t ime.
I I . I t i s not possible t o r epor t t o wor k on t i me
unless conveyance facili t y is pr ovided by t he
or ganisat ion.
LEVEL-1
Direct ions for questions 1 t o 15: I n each quest i on
bel ow i s gi v en a st at em en t f ol l ow ed by t w o
assu m pt i on s/i n f er en ces n u m ber ed I an d I I . A n
assumption is something supposed or taken for granted
and an infer ence i s somet hing whi ch can be di r ect ly
infer r ed fr om t he given fact s. You have t o consider
t h e st at em en t an d t h e f ol l ow i n g assu m pt i on s/
infer ences and decide which of t hose is/ar e implicit in
t he st at ement . Give answer :
(a) if only I is i mpl icit
(b) if onl y I I is impl icit
(c) if eit her I or I I is impl icit
(d) if neit her I nor I I is i mpl icit
(e) if bot h I and I I ar e impl icit
1. St at ement : A ver y lar ge number of people st ood
in t he queue for buying t ickets for t he one-day
inter national cr icket match scheduled to be played
in the cit y on the next day.
Assumpt ions :
I . No ot her one-day int er nat ional cr ick et mat ch
may be pl ayed i n t he ci t y for t he next si x
mont hs.
I I . M ajor i t y of t hose who st ood in t he queue may
be abl e t o get t i ck et f or t h e on e-day
int er nat i onal cr ick et mat ch.
2. St at ement : The hi ghway poli ce aut hor it y put
up lar ge boar ds at r egular inter vals indicating t he
speed l imit and danger s of over -speedi ng on t he
highways.
Assumpt ions :
I . M ost of t h e m ot or i st s m ay dr i v e t h ei r
v eh i cl es w i t h i n t h e speed l i m i t on t h e
highways.
I I . M ot or i st s gener all y i gnor e such caut ions and
over -speed on t he highways.

3. St at ement : The empl oyees' associ at i on ur ged
its member s to stay away fr om the annual function
as many of t heir demands wer e not met by t he
management .
Assumpt ions :
I . M ajor i t y of t he member s of t he associat i on
may not at t end t he funct ion.
I I . The management may cancel t he annual
funct ion.
4. St at ement : The sar panch of t he vi llage call ed a
meet ing of all t he heads of t he famil ies t o discuss
t he pr obl em of acut e shor t age of dr i nk ing wat er
in t he vi ll age.
Assumpt ions :
I . The sar panch had ear lier called such meetings
t o discuss about var i ous pr obl ems.
I I . M ost of t he heads of famil ies may at t end t he
meet ing call ed by t he sar panch.
5. St at ement : The muni ci pal cor por at ion advised
all t he people l i vi ng in t he shant i es along t he
beaches t o move t o higher places dur ing monsoon.
Assumpt ions :
I . M any people li vi ng in t he shant ies may l eave
t he ci t y and r elocat e t hemsel ves elsewher e
in t he st at e.
I I . M ajor it y of t he peopl e l iving i n t he shant i es
al ong t he beach may t r y t o r elocat e t o hi gher
pl aces dur i ng monsoon.
6. St at ement : T h e l ar gest dom est i c ai r l i n es
corpor ation has announced new summer schedules
in which mor e number of flight s in tr unk r outes
ar e int r oduced.
Assumpt ions :
I . Mor e number of passenger s may tr avel by this
ai r l ines cor por at i on dur i ng summer mont hs
in t r unk r out es.
I I . Ot her air li nes companies may al so i ncr ease
t he number of fl ight s i n all t he sect or s.
7. St at ement : The Chai r man of t he company
decided to hold a gr and funct ion to celebr ate silver
jubi lee dur i ng t he next weekend and invit ed a
lar ge number of guest s.
Assumpt ions :
I . The company offi ci als may be abl e t o make
al l t he necessar y pr epar at ions for t he si lver
cel ebr at i on.
I I . Major ity of the guests invited by the Chair man
may at t end t he funct ion.
Statement Assumption 10.3
8. Statement : The lar gest computer manufactur ing
company slashed the pr ices of most of t he deskt op
model s by about 15 per cent wi t h i mmedi at e
effect .
Assumpt ions :
I . The company may incur heavy losses due t o
r educt i on i n pr i ces of t he desk t op.
I I . The sal es of desk t op manufact ur ed by t he
company i ncr ease subst ant i al ly in t he near
futur e.
9. St atement : The school aut hor i t y decided t o r ent
out t he school pr emi ses dur i ng weekends and
hol i days for or gani zi n g var i ous funct i ons t o
augment i t s r esour ces t o meet t he gr owing needs
of t he school.
Assumpt ions :
I . The par ents of the school students may pr ot est
agai nst t he deci sion of t he school aut hor it y.
I I . Ther e may not be enough demand for hi r i ng
t he school pr emi ses for or ganizing funct i ons.
10. St at ement : The local civic body has ur ged all
t he r esident s t o volunt ar i ly r educe consumpt i on
of pot abl e wat er by about 30 per cent t o t ide over
t he wat er cr i si s.
Assumpt ions :
I . M any r esi dent s may r educe consumpt ion of
pot able wat er.
I I . M any act i vist s may wel come t he civic body's
move and spr ead awar eness among r esident s.
11. St at ement : The dr iver of t he huge t r uck pull ed
t he emer gency br ak es t o avoi d hi t t i ng t he aut o
r ick shaw whi ch suddenl y came i n fr ont of t he
t r uck.
Assumpt ions :
I . The aut o r ickshaw dr iver may be abl e t o st eer
hi s vehicle away fr om t he oncomi ng t r uck.
I I . The t r uck dr iver may be able t o st op t he t r uck
befor e it hi t s t he aut o r i ckshaw.
12. St at ement : The doct or war ned t he pat i ent
agai nst any fur t her consumpt ion of alcohol, i f he
desi r ed t o get cur ed fr om t he ai lment and li ve a
longer l ife.
Assumpt ions :
I . The pat ient may follow t he doct or 's advice and
st op consumi ng alcohol.
I I . The doct or may be abl e t o cur e t he pat ient
f r om t h e ai l m en t , i f t h e pat i en t st ops
consumi ng alcohol.
10.4 Statement Assumption
13. Statement : The Chair man of t he company ur ged
al l t he empl oyees t o r efr ain fr om maki ng long
per sonal calls dur i ng wor k ing hour s in or der t o
boost pr oduct i vit y.
Assumpt ions :
I . M aj or i t y of t h e em pl oyees m ay r espon d
posi t i vel y t o t he Chair man's appeal.
I I . M ost of t he empl oyees may cont i nue t o make
long per sonal call s dur ing wor ki ng hour s.
14. St at ement : The local cul t ur al club decided t o
or gani se a musi cal event t o r ai se money t he
const r uct ion of t he club bui lding.
Assumpt ions :
I . The local r esi dent s may not all ow t he club t o
or ganise t he musi cal event in t he local it y.
I I . The money collected by or ganizing the musical
event may be subst ant ial enough for t he cl ub
t o st ar t const r uct ion.
15. St at ement : The t r affi c pol ice depar t ment has
put huge not ice boar ds at al l t he major junct ions
of t he ci t y war ning dr i ver s t o r efr ain fr om usi ng
cell phones whil e dr ivi ng or else t heir li cences
wi ll be i mpounded.
Assumpt ions :
I . The dr i ver s of t he vehi cles may i gnor e t he
war ning and cont inue using cell phones while
dr iving.
I I . The t r affic poli ce depar t ment may be abl e t o
nab most of t he offender s and i mpound t heir
l i cences.
LEVEL-2
D irect ions for quest ions 1 t o 10: Each quest i on
below has a st at ement foll owed by t hr ee assumpt ions
number ed I , I I and I I I . An assumpt ion is somet hi ng
supposed or t aken for gr ant ed. You have t o consider
t he st at ement and t he assumpt i ons and decide whi ch
of t he assumpt ions is i mplicit i n t he st at ement . Then
deci de which of t he answer s (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) is
t he cor r ect answer.
1. St at ement : "The r et ur n of count r y X as a ful l-
f l ed ged m em ber of t h e Com m on w eal t h i s
dependent on t he 'cr edibility' of t he election which
w i l l be i n pr ocess n ex t y ear ." - H ead of
Commonwealt h Obser ver s' Gr oup (COG).
Assumpt ions :
I . The 'cr edibil it y' of t he elect ion pr ocess can be
measur ed in t angible t er ms.
I I . The el ect i on pr ocess i n count r y X al ways
r emai ns a mat t er of debat e for t he wor l d
communi t y.
I I I . The wor ld communit y has a common desi r e
t o r est or e democr acy and i t s et hi cs al l over
t he wor l d.
(a) Al l I , I I and I I (b) None
(c) Onl y I (d) Only I I
(e) None of t hese
2. St a t em en t : " T h e I n di an M et eor ol ogi cal
Depar t ment has pr oposed t o hold a br ainst or ming
session of weat her exper t s next mont h t o t r y and
st udy t he causes for t he fai l ur e of t he j ust -
concl uded summer monsoon i n t he count r y."-
Spok esper son of I n di an M et eor ol ogi cal
Depar t ment .
Assumpt ions :
I . The behaviour of t he just -concluded monsoon
was int r igui ng.
I I . Thor ough scient i fi c i nvest igat ion i s lik el y t o
r eveal t he causes of monsoon's fail ur e.
I I I . Br ainst or mi ng sessions or gani sed in t he past
didn't pr ove fr uit ful.
(a) Al l I , I I and I I I (b) None
(c) Only I I (d) Only I and I I
(e) None of t hese
3. St at ement : "Why ar e you look ing sad? Did you
not get bonus t his year too''? - M r. X said t o M r. Y.
Assumpt ions :
I . M r. X is t he wel l-wisher of M r. Y.
I I . The expr ession of sadness on one's face is a
si gn of one's financial cr unch.
I I I . I f one get s bonus, one does not r emai n sad.
(a) All (b) Only I
(c) Only I and I I (d) Only I I and I I I
(e) None of t hese
4. St at ement : "A non-Br ahmi n well-ver sed wi t h
r i t uals could be appoint ed as a pujar i as wel l" -
r uli ng of t he Supr eme Cour t (SC).
Assumpt ions :
I . B r ah m i n s, don 't h av e a m on opol y ov er
per for ming puja in a t empl e.
I I . M er e el igi bil i t y for a post i s enough t o l ay
cl ai m t o candidat ur e for t he post .
I I I . People wi ll comply wi t h t he ver di ct gi ven by
t he SC.
(a) All I , I I and I I I (b) Only I and I I
(c) Only I I and I I I (d) Onl y I and I I I
(e) None of t hese

5. Statement : "Ever y successful per son who claims
t o have come fr om a village has achieved success
aft er he or she left t he village." - A leader of par t y
X.
Assumpt ions :
I . The aver age I ndian village is a place with little
capit al, l ow t echnol ogy and l i mi t ed mar ket
access.
I I . Oppor tunity for gr owth is mor e in metr o cities.
I I I . Oppor tunities for gr owth are scarce in villages.
(a) All I , I I and I I I (b) Only I and I I I
(c) Only I I and I I I (d) Only I and I I
(e) None of t hese
6. Statements : "Today I am rejecting your proposal
to play a cr icket match against your team because
of the absence of Mr. Z but tomor r ow I am ready to
play against your team at any cost." - Mr. X says to
Mr. Y.
Assumpt ions :
I . M r. Z wil l be avail able t omor r ow.
I I . M at ch wil l be pl ayed t omor r ow i r r espect i ve
of avai labi lit y of M r. Z.
I I I . M r. Y wi ll be r eady t o pl ay a mat ch against
M r. X t omor r ow.
(a) All I , I I and I I I (b) Eit her I or I I and I I I
(c) Only I I and I I I (d) Onl y I and I I I
(e) None of t hese
7. Stat ement : "An ast er oi d whi ch bur ned up i n
t h e ear t h 's at m osph er e i n J u n e cou l d h ave
t r igger ed a mi st ak en nucl ear war bet ween I ndia
and Pakist an had it det onat ed over Sout h Asia." -
St at ement of M r X i n a r epor t i n The N ew Yor k
Ti mes.
Assumpt ions :
I . I ndia and Pakist an ar e equipped wit h nuclear
weapons.
I I . N ei t h er I n di a n or Pak i st an h ad t h e
sophisticated sensor s that could deter mine the
differ ence between a natur al NEO (near -ear th
object ) i mpact and a nuclear det onat ion.
I I I . I ndia and Pakist an have no good r elat ionship
wi t h each ot her.
(a) Only I
(b) Only I and I I
(c) Only I I and I I I
(d) Onl y I and I I I
(e) All I , I I and I I I
Statement Assumption 10.5
8. Statement : "A cour t can convict an accused solely
on t he basi s of a dyi ng decl ar at ion but such a
decl ar at i on should be fr ee fr om any doubt and
t h e vi ct i m mak i ng t he st at ement sh oul d be
ment all y fit ." - Supr eme Cour t .
Assumpt ions :
I . One who i s not ment al l y fi t al ways mak es
st at ement s unt r ust wor t hy i n nat ur e.
I I . Declar ation made by t he dying per son is likely
t o be t r ue.
I I I . I t i s possi bl e t o di st i n gu i sh w h et h er a
decl ar at i on is doubt ful or not .
(a) Only I (b) Only I and I I
(c) Only I I and I I I (d) Only I I I
(e) None of t hese
9. St at ement : "The 'X' st at e cabi net endor sed our
pr oposal t o st agger shoppi ng t i mi ng by allowi ng
mar k et s t o r emai n open t il l 10 PM t o mak e it
mor e dynami c." - A leader of t r ader s.
Assumpt ions :
I . I f i t i s t ak en wel l by t r ader s, t h e st at e
gover nment will per manently alter the closing
t i me for all pr ominent mar ket s in t he cit y.
I I . Ther e is a need t o boost commer cial act i vi t i es
in t he cit y.
I I I . K eeping t he mar k et open t ill l at e i s lik el y t o
enhance sales as well as mak e shopping mor e
convenient for people with late wor king hour s.
(a) Only I (b) Only I and I I
(c) Only I I and I I I (d) Onl y I and I I I
(e) None of t hese
10. St at ement : The hi gh cour t of st at e 'X' has
di r ect ed t he st at e gover nment 'X' t o i ssue a
not i fi cat ion mak ing speed gover nor s compul sor y
for al l four -wheel er s i n t he cit y t o check high-
speed dr iving.
Assumpt ions :
I . Speed gover nor s wil l put an end t o accident s.
I I . Speed gover nor s wi l l hel p i n r educi ng t he
possibili t i es of r oad acci dent s.
I I I . H i gh speed of vehicles on t he r oad causes
accident s.
(a) Only I
(b) Only I and I I
(c) Only I I and I I I
(d) Onl y I and I I I
(e) None of t hese
10.6 Statement Assumption

Directions for questions 11 to 15: I n each quest i on
below is given a statement followed by two assumptions
number ed I and I I . An assumpt i on i s somet hi ng
supposed or t aken for gr ant ed. You have t o consider
t he st at ement and t he fol l owi ng assumpt i ons and
deci de whi ch of t he assumpt i ons i s i mpli ci t i n t he
st at ement . Gi ve answer :
(a) if onl y Assumpt i on I is impl icit
(b) if only Assumpt ion I I is i mpl icit
(c) if eit her Assumption I or Assumpt ion I I is implicit
(d) i f nei t her Assumpt i on I nor Assumpt i on I I i s
implicit
(e) if bot h Assumpt i ons I and I I ar e impl icit
11. St at ement : A l eading uni ver si t y has begun a
pr actice of displaying r esult s only on t he I nter net
r at her t han on t he main not ice boar ds.
Assumpt ions :
I . Al l t he st udent s enr olled wit h t he uni ver si t y
have access t o I nt er net at home.
I I . M ost of t he st udent s r efer r ed t o t he r esul t s
di splayed on bot h t he int er net as well as t he
not i ce boar ds ear l ier.
12. St at ement : I n or der t o r epleni sh t he nut r i ent s
in t he soil , i t is impor t ant t o gr ow differ ent t ypes
of cr ops ever y alt er nat e season.
Assumpt ions :
I . A cr op can never be gr own for t he second t ime
in t he same fi el d.
I I . I f a differ ent cr op i s gr own i n t he successi ve
season , n o addi t i on al n u t r i en t s su ch as
fer t ili zer s ar e r equir ed t o be added t o t he soil.
13. St at ement : I f far mer s wai t t o i mpr ove t hei r
yiel d, t hey must use or ganic fer t ili zer s i n place of
chemical fer t i lizer s.
Assumpt ions :
I . Chemical fer t i lizer s have cer t ain ill effect s on
health.
I I . Chemical fer t i lizer s do not pr oduce as much
yi el d as t he or gani c fer t i lizer s.
14. St at ement : St or e eat ables in t he deep fr eeze in
or der t o pr eser ve t hese for a l ong t ime.
Assumpt ions :
I . Food mater ial r emains eat able even aft er deep
fr eezing for a l ong t ime.
I I . I t i s not possible t o st or e any eat abl e at r oom
t emper at ur e even for a shor t er per iod of t ime.
15. St at ement : A l eading NGO decided t o open a
li br ar y cont ai ni ng book s and newspaper s of all
major publi sher s in a r emot e vi ll age.
Assumpt ions :
I . All ot her near by villages alr eady have similar
li br ar ies.
I I . Ther e i s adequat e number of l it er at e people
in t he vi ll age.

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (e) 2. (a) 3. (e) 4. (b) 5. (e) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (e) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (d)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (e) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (e) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (e) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (e) 6. (c) 7. (e) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (d)
11
CHAPTER Mathematical Puzzles
PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 6. In the following question find the missing number.
1. Find the missing number: 4 6 8
4 3 11 9 15 6 5 7 9
3 4 ?
17 38 65
(a) 5 (b) 6
144 9801 ? (c) 7 (d) 10
(a) 2250 (b) 8100 7. In the following question find the missing number:
(c) 11036 (d) 1216 2 1 3
2. Find the missing number: 3 4 2
5 10 ?
48 12 64 16 ? 15 25 50 100
25 5 81 9 49 7 (a) 12 (b) 15
(a) 75 (b) 60 (c) 18 (d) 20
(c) 30 (d) 90 8. In the following question find the missing number:
3. Find the missing number: 17 23 25
6 8 18
12 6 5 3 2 ?
34 92 150
27 20 18 16 13 12 10 ? 11
(a) 1 (b) 3
13 9 4
(c) 5 (d) 6
(a) 9 (b) 12 Directions for questions 9 and 10: Some equations are
(c) 8 (d) 13 solved on the basis of certain system. Find
4. Find the missing number: out the correct answer for the unsolved equation on that
basis.
27 9 35 7 36 4 9. 3 1 ?
8 4 5
2 3 4 5 7 9
853 471 593

1 2 ? (a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 0
(a) 3 (b) 4
10. 3 5 6
(c) 5 (d) 6
4 8 2
5. Select the missing number from the given responses. 7 4 8
426 643 ?
6 9 4 8 5 8 (a) 554 (b) 693
6 8 ? (c) 184 (d) 717
15 12 16 12 14 11
11. If 92 + 53 = 72 and 31 + 33 = 20, then 52 + 91 = ?
(a) 12 (b) 10 (a) 38 (b) 143
(c) 8 (d) 6 (c) 39 (d) 75
11.2 Mathematical Puzzles
12. If 37 + 17 = 20 and 68 + 42 = 26, then 96 + 63 = ? 6. In the following question, select the number which
(a) 74 (b) 159 can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from
the given alternatives.
(c) 33 (d) 62
13. If 53 + 21 = 73 and 45 + 32 = 106, then 29 + 63 = ? 3 10 6 186
(a) 150 (b) 49 9 5 3 138
(c) 202 (d) 178 5 7 1 36
14. 5 × 2 × 7 = 752, 4 × 7 × 3 = 347,1 × 4 × 9 = ? 3 2 5 ?
(a) 914 (b) 441
(a) 35 (b) 42
(c) 419 (d) 941
(c) 45 (d) 95
15. If 83 ÷ 42 = 5, 63 ÷ 21 = 6, then 56 ÷ 23 = ?
7. In the following question, select the number which
(a) 11 (b) 6 can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from
(c) 9 (d) 17 the given alternatives.
LEVEL-1
2 5 7 10 8 11
1. If 52 ÷ 24 = 1, and 83 ÷ 45 = 2, then 41 ÷ 33 = ?
14 9 19 14 20 ?
(a) 1 (b) 0
(a) 14 (b) 15
(c) –1 (d) 2
(c) 17 (d) 19
2. In the following question, select the number which
can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from 8. If 6 @ 4 @ 7 = 101 and 2 @ 5 @ 11 = 150, then what
the given alternatives. is the value of A in A @ 8 @ 9 = 289?
(a) 5 (b) 8
3 4 2 (c) 12 (d) 17
2 31 1 2 145 6 1 ? 7 9. In the following question, select the number which
5 3 5 can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from
the given alternatives.
(a) 43 (b) 49
20 72 90 110 56 ?
(c) 59 (d) 71
2 3 6 3 7 4 1 7 4
3. If 3 @ 3 * 3 = 3 and 48 @ 4 * 3 = 36, then 91 @ 13
*2=? (a) 112 (b) 144
(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 156 (d) 186
(c) 10 (d) 14 10. In the following question, select the number which
4. In the following question, select the number which can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from
can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from the given alternatives.
the given alternatives.
3 2 625
12 13 156 5 3 4096
14 ? 154 4 2 ?
15 13 195
(a) 216 (b) 1024
(a) 11 (b) 16 (c) 1296 (d) 2024
(c) 21 (d) 31 11. In the following question, select the number which
5. If (3)2 @ 1 * 7 = 98 and (4)2 @ 2 * 16 = 178, then (5)2 can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from
@3*9=? the given alternatives.
(a) 218 3 2 1 2 2 1
(b) 262 5 4 7 6 3 11
(c) 253 1 7 4 2 1 ?
(d) 259 (a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 8
 Mathematical Puzzles 11.3
12. If 9 * 2 * 5 = 23 and 1 * 4 * 8 = 29, then 1 * 6 * 3 = ? 4. Find the missing number.
(a) 19 (b) 21 2 7 9
7 3 4
(c) 31 (d) 39
9 8 ?
13. In the following question, select the number which 126 168 216
can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from (a) 8 (b) 3
the given alternatives.
(c) 6 (d) 36
9 6 8 2 7 3 5. Find the missing number.

18 27 75
41 60 19
117 68 ? 45 45 ?
(a) 20 (b) 30
(a) 48 (b) 52
(c) 15 (d) 35
(c) 55 (d) 58
6. Find the missing number.
14. In the following question, select the number which
can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from 52 55 63 69
the given alternatives.
2 4 1 49 79 57 ?
5 3 5 (a) 117 (b) 120
7 5 6 (c) 107 (d) 110
39 17 ? 7. Find the missing number shown by the question mark
(a) 11 (b) 31 (?) in the center of the third figure.
(c) 32 (d) 37 22 11 19 9 20 10

11 7 ?
LEVEL-2
1. Find the missing number. 13 13 4 7 12 14
(a) 8 (b) 10
7 12 22
(c) 12 (d) 14
6 45 4 5 93 4 11 99 ? 8. Which of the following number can replace the
question mark in the figure given below?
5 7 3
(a) 3 (b) 33
(c) 22 (d) 9

2. Find the missing number.

2 5 3 (a) 3 (b) 9
3 30 1 4 46 1 6 ? 2 (c) 1 (d) 2
9. Find the missing number.
4 2 8
(a) 111 (b) 113
(c) 36 (d) 288 25 16
49 9
3. Find the missing number.
27 ?
64 125
1 2 2 3
 576 ?
3 4 4 5
(a) 7 (b) 343
(a) 14400 (b) 15600
(c) 216 (d) 6
(c) 23040 (d) 17400
11.4 Mathematical Puzzles
10. Find the missing letters. 13. Find the missing number:
C 12 13 27 24 27 ?
D
A C E ? I
?
G
25 51 64
(a) F, G (b) F, F (a) 35 (b) 36
(c) G, H (d) H, F (c) 37 (d) 38
11. Find the missing number: 14. Find the missing number:

5 3 2 7 6 7 45 20 40
63 41 ?
8 9 5 25 27 35 60 30 40 25 ? 35
6 3 8
30 30 30
(a) 82 (b) 83
(a) 36 (b) 33
(c) 86 (d) 26
(c) 45 (d) 60
12. Find the missing number:
15. Find the missing number:
7 4 9 3 8 5 46 22 69 42 79 38
19 ? 28
9 6 12
(a) 27
(b) 21 24 27 ?
(c) 28 (a) 40 (b) 41
(d) 17 (c) 31 (d) 51

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (d)

11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (b)

LEVEL-1
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (b)

LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (b)
 Mathematical Puzzles 11.5

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 9. 3 8 5 8 5 3
2
1. 4 × 3 = 12 and (12) = 144
11 × 9 = 99 and (99)2 = 9801
15 × 6 = 90 and (90)2 = 8100 1 4 7 4 7 1

2. 12 × 4 = 48
25  5
? 5 9 5 9 3
16 × 4 = 64
81  9

Similarly,  ? = 3.
15 × 4 = 60 10. In column 1,
49  7 (3 + 1) (4  2) (7 – 1) = 426.
3. (27 + 18) – (12 + 13) In column 2,
 45 – 25 = 20 (5 + 1) (8  2) (4 – 1) = 643.
(16 + 12) – (6 + 9) Similarly, in column 3,
 28 – 15 = 13 (6 + 1) (2  2) (8 – 1) = 717.
(10 + 11) – (5 + 4) 11. Expression 92 + 53 = 72  9 – 2 = 7 and 5 – 3 = 2
 21 – 9 = 12 Expression 31 + 33 = 20  3 – 1 = 2 and 3 – 3 = 0.
4. 27 = 9 × (2 + 1)  52 + 91 = (5 – 2) = 3 and (9 – 1) = 8  38.
35 = 7 × (3 + 2)
12. Expression 37 + 17 = 20  3 – 1 = 2 and 7 – 7 = 0.
36 = 4 × (4 + 5)
Expression 68 + 42 = 26  6 – 4 = 2 and 8 – 2 = 6.
5. First figure
 96 + 63 = (9 – 6) = 3 and (6 – 3) = 3  33.
12 – 6 = 6;
13. Expression 53 + 21 = 73  (5 + 3)2 + (2 + 1)2 = 82 +
15 – 9 = 6
32
Second figure
= 73.
12 – 4 = 8;
Expression 45 + 32 = 106
16 – 8 = 8
Third figure  (4 + 5)2 + (3 + 2)2 = 92 + 52 = 106.
11 – 5 = 6;  29 + 63
14 – 8 = 6  (2 + 9)2 + (6 + 3)2 = 112 + 92 = 202.
6. In column 1, 4 × 5 – 3 = 17 14. 5 × 2 × 7 = 7 5 2
In column 2, 6 × 7 – 4 = 38
 In column 3, 8 × 9 – ? = 65
 ? = 7. 4 × 7 × 3 = 3 4 7
7. In column 1, (2 + 3) × 5 = 25
In column 2, (1 + 4) × 10 = 50
 In column 3, (3 + 2) × ? = 100 1 × 4 × 9 = 9 1 4
 ? = 20. Similarly,
8. In column 1, 17 × 6  3 = 34
In column 2, 23 × 8  2 = 92 15. 83 ÷ 42 = 5 (8 – 4) + (3 – 2) = 4 + 1 = 5.
 In column 3, 25 × 18  ? = 150 63 ÷ 21 = 6 (6 – 2) + (3 – 1) = 4 + 2 = 6.
 ? = 3. Similarly, 56 ÷ 23 (5 – 2) + (6 – 3) = 3 + 3 = 6.
11.6 Mathematical Puzzles

LEVEL-1 8. {(5)2 + (4)2} – {(3)2 + (2)2}

= (25 + 16) – (9 + 4) = 41 – 13 = 28
1. 52 ÷ 24 = 1  (5 – 2) + (2 – 4) = 3 – 2 = 1
Similarly, {(8)2 + (4)2} – {(8)2 + (x)2} = 12 (Let x = ?)
83 ÷ 45 = 2  (8 – 4) + (3 – 5) = 4 – 2 = 2
 (64 + 16) – (64 + x2) = 12  x2 = 4  x = 2.
Similarly, 41 ÷ 33  (4 – 3) + (1 – 3) = 1 – 2 = – 1.
9. Corresponding sector have square and cubes of a
LEVEL-2 number.
1. We have 52 = 25, 53 = 125 and 32 = 9, 33 = 27
7 × 5 + (6 + 4) = 45 42 = 16, 43 = 64 and 72 = 49, 73 = 343.
12 × 7 + (5 + 4) = 93
10. A C E G I
Similarly, 22 × 3 + (11 + x) = 99
 x = 22. +2 +2 +2 +2
2. We have C D E F G
12 + 22 + 32 + 42 = 30
12 + 22 + 42 + 52 = 46 +1 +1 +1 +1

Similarly, 22 + 82 + 62 + 32 = 113. 11. Take the sum of the products of the upper and lower
3. 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24 numbers respectively to get the central number.
24 × 24 = 576 5 × 3 = 15 and 6 × 8 = 48
2 × 3 × 5 × 4 = 120 15 + 48 = 63
120 × 120 = 14400. 2 × 7 = 14 and 3 × 9 = 27
4. Column  1
14 + 27 = 41
2 × 7 × 9 = 126 Therefore,
Column  2 6 × 7 = 42 and 8 × 5 = 40
7 × 3 × 8 = 168
42 + 40 = 82
Column  3
 9 × 4 × 6 = 216 12. 7 × 4 = 28; 19 + 9 = 28.
Hence, 6 should replace the ‘question mark’. 8 × 5 = 40; 28 + 12 = 14
5. The sum of the numbers in a row is equal to 120. 9 × 3 = 27; 27 – 6 = 21
i.e. 18 + 27 + 75 = 45 + 75 = 120 13. 12 + 13 = 25
41 + 60 + 19 = 79 + 41 = 120 27 + 24 = 51
Similarly, 45 + 45 + 30 = 120  ? = 64 – 27 = 37
Hence, 30 should replace the question mark. 14. 25 + 45 + 35 + 30 = 135
6. Difference of the numbers in the bottom row is 135
 27
10 times the difference of the number in the upper 5
row.
60 + 20 + 40 + 30 = 150
 ? – 57 = 10(69 – 63) = 10 × 6
150
 ? = 57 + 60 = 117  30
5
Hence, 117 should replace the question mark.
25 + 40 + 35 + 65 = 165
7. In each figure, sum of the numbers at the right hand
side vertices of the square is subtracted from the 165
 33
sum of the numbers at the left hand side vertices of 5

the square to get the number in the center. 15. 24 + 22 = 46

Therefore, the required number is 27 + 42 = 69
(20 + 12) – (10 + 14) = 8.  ? = 79 – 38 = 41

12
CHAPTER
CU BES
To t est t he abilit y of t he candidat es t o t hink about
3-dimensional figur es, quest ions ar e oft en asked on
t he cube. Two t ypes of quest ions ar e gener ally asked
on t he cube.
1. Var ious faces of the cube having differ ent number s
(usually 1 t o 6) on each face ar e shown side by
si de. The candi dat e i s t hen ask ed t o fi nd t he
number s on some of t he hidden faces. Somet imes
some objects or geomet r ical figur es may be dr awn
on t he faces of t he cube.
e.g. These ar e t he faces of a cube :
6 5 4 1
1 4 3 6 5 6 2 4
Q. Which number appear s on t he face opposit e t o
t he face wit h number 6 in t he cube ?
A. 2. As 1, 4, 3 & 5 ar e neighbour s of 6, only 2 is
t he one opposit e t o it .
2. The faces of a given cube ar e paint ed, eit her in
t he same colour or in differ ent colour s. The cube
is t hen cut int o smaller cubes and one has t o find
out the number of cubes with different specifications.
H er e, one should r emember t hat t he number of
cubes of side 1 unit t hat can be obt ained when a
cube of side L unit s is cut , is L 3 = L L  L . One
has t o visualise t he colour s on t he faces of t he
smaller cubes as t he lar ger cube is cut .
e.g. Given a cube of side 3cm. Opposit e faces of
t he cube ar e paint ed r ed, gr een and blue, each a
differ ent colour. The cube is cut into smaller cubes
of side 1 cm each. Find t he number of cubes wit h
(i ) 3 faces paint ed;
(ii ) one face paint ed; and
(iii ) no face paint ed.
Cubes and Dice
Tot al number of smaller cubes = 3  3  3 = 27
(i ) So, as t he cube has eight cor ner s, only 8 small
cubes will have 3 faces paint ed.
(ii ) The cubes in t he middle of each side will have
one face paint ed. As t her e ar e 6 sides, so t her e
ar e 6 such cubes.
(iii ) Only t he cube in t he exact middle shall have
no side paint ed so, t he answer is 1.
I f a cube of dimension n  n  n is paint ed on all six
suface, t hen smaller cubes for med will have
 Tot al numebr of cubes = n 3
 Tot al numebr of cubes paint ed on t hr ee sides = 8
 Cubes paint ed on t wo sides = (n – 2)  4  3
 Cubes paint ed on single side = (n – 2)2  6
 Cubes paint ed on no sides = (n – 2)3.
Case I . When n = 3
Int he above figur e
 Tot al number of cubes = n 3 = 33 = 27
 Tot al number of cubes paint ed on t hr ee sides = 8
 Tot al number of cubes paint ed t wo sides
= (n – 2)  4  3
= (3 – 2)  4  3 = 12
 Cubes paint ed on single side
= (n – 2)2  6 = (3 – 2)2  6 = 6
 Cubes paint ed on no sides = (n – 2)3
 (3 – 2)3 = 1.
Case I I . When n = 4

Red

Green
12.2 Cubes and Dice
In t he above figur e
1. Tot al number of cubes = n 3 = 43 = 64
2. Tot al number of cubes paint ed on t hr ee sides = 8
3. Tot al number of cubes paint ed on t wo sides
= (n – 2)  4  3 = (4 – 2)  4  3 = 24
4. Tot al numebr of cubes paint ed on single side
= (n – 2)2 6 = (4 – 2)2 6 = 24
5. Cubes paint ed on no sides.
= (n – 2)3 = (4 – 2)3 = 8.
Case I I I . When n = 5
DI CE S
Dices ar e cubi cal st r uct ur es in which number s or
point s fr om 1 t o 6 ar e mar ked on sides. Pr oblems
based on dices ar e ver y simple in nat ur e.
Nor mally t her e ar e t wo cases:
1. Sum of number s on opposit e sides is seven.
Nat ur ally t he faces opposit e t o each ot her will be
1– 6
2– 5
3– 4
2. When t hr ee differ ent posit ions of dice is given.
I n such cases, fir st of all we will det er mine t he
face which is not adjacent t o t he given number.
That number will naturally be the number s marked
on opposit e face.
Example. 1 A dice wit h it s face number ed 1 t o 6,
is shown in t hr ee differ ent posit ions x , y and z.

In t he above figur e
1. Tot al number of cubes = n 3 = 53 = 125
2. Tot al number of cubes paint ed on t hr ee sides = 8
3. Cubes paint ed on t wo sides = ( n – 2)  4  3
Find opposit e faces.
= (5 – 2)  4  3 = 36
Sol ut ions. Faces adjacent t o 6 ar e
4. Cubes paint ed on single side = (n – 2)2 6
= (5 – 3)2 6 = 56
5. Cubes paint ed on no sides. = (n – 2)3 = (5 – 2)3 =
n=3 n=4 n=5 n=6
num ber of
1. 3 27 64 125 216
cubes = n Nat ur ally 1 will be mar ked opposit e t o 6.
Thr ee si des Faces adjacent t o 4, ar e
pai nt ed cubes
2. 8 8 8 8
=8

Two si des
3. pai nt ed cubes 12 24 36 48
= (n – 2)  4  3 Nat ur ally 2 will be mar ked opposit e t o 4.
Si ngl e sides Thus opposit e faces ar e
4. pai nt ed cubes 6 24 54 96 6– 1
2
= (n – 2)  6
4– 2
No si de 3– 5
5. pai nt ed cubes 1 8 27 64
= (n – 2)3
 Cubes and Dice 12.3

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
Directions (Q. 1 – 5): A cube is colour ed r ed on Directions (Q. 9 – 10) : Six sides of a cube are coloured
one face, green on the opposite face, yellow on another with different colours. Yellow is opposite white and
face and blue on a face adjacent t o t he yellow face. blue is between red and green. One side is black.
The ot her t wo faces ar e left uncolour ed. I t is t hen 9. Which colour is opposit e blue ?
cut int o 125 smaller cubes of equal size.
(a) r ed (b) black
Answer t he following quest ions based on t he above
statement. (c) gr een (d) None of t hese
1. H ow many cubes ar e uncolour ed on all t he faces? 10. Which colour does not t ouch r ed side ?
(a) 27 (b) 36 (a) gr een (b) yellow
(c) 48 (d) 64 (c) whit e (d) blue
2. H ow many cubes ar e colour ed blue on one face, Directions (Q. 11– 12) : A cube paint ed blue on all
r ed or gr een on anot her face and have four the faces is cut into 125 cubes of equal size. Now answer
uncolour ed faces ? t he following quest ions :
(a) 8 (b) 12 11. H ow many cubes ar e not paint ed on any face ?
(c) 16 (d) 23 (a) 8 (b) 16
3. H ow many cubes ar e colour ed r ed on one face, (c) 27 (d) 54
and have t he r emaining faces uncolour ed? 12. H ow many cubes ar e paint ed on one face only ?
(a) 8 (b) 10
(a) 8 (b) 16
(c) 12 (d) 16
(c) 36 (d) 54
4. H ow many cubes have at least one gr een face ?
D i r ect i on s ( Q . 13– 17) : St u dy t h e f ol l ow i n g
(a) 4 (b) 5 infor mat ion and answer t he quest ions given below:
(c) 16 (d) 25 (i ) A r ectangular wooden block is having lenght 6 cm,
5. How many cubes have at least two colour ed faces ? br eadt h 4 cm and height 1 cm.
(a) 23 (b) 21 (ii ) Bot h sides having dimensi on 4 cm × 1 cm ar e
(c) 20 (d) 19 paint ed wit h black colour.
6. Two posit ions of a dice ar e shown below. I f 1 is at (iii )Both sides having dimension 6 cm × 1 cm ar e painted
t he bot t om which number will be on t he t op ? in r ed colour.
(a) 4 (iv) Both sides with dimension 6 cm × 4 cm ar e painted
(b) 3 in gr een colour.
(c) 2 (v) The block is cut int o six equal pair s of 1 cm each
(d) 5 (fr om 6 cm side) and int o 4 equal par t s of 1 cm
each (fr om 4 cm side).
7. I f the cube is tur ned twice to t he r ight , which will
be t he hidden number s? 13. How many cubes will have all thr ee colour s black,
gr een and r ed each at least on one side?
(a) 1, 2, 5
5 (a) 6 (b) 12
(b) 3, 4, 6 3
2 (c) 10 (d) None of t hese
(c) 1, 2, 6 1
14. H ow many cubes will be for med ?
(d) 2, 3, 5
(a) 6 (b) 12
8. Twent y-seven cubes ar e ar r anged in a block as
sh ow n bel ow. H ow m an y cu bes w i l l be (c) 16 (d) 24 of t hese
sur r ounded by ot her cubes on all sides ? 15. I f cubes having only “black as well as gr een” colour
ar e r emoved t hen how many cubes will r emain?
(a) 4 (b) 8
(c) 12 (d) None of t hese
16. H ow many cubes will have t wo sides wit h gr een
colour and r emaining 4 sides wit hout any colour ?
(a) 3 (b) 1 (a) 12 (b) 10
(c) 9 (d) 6 (c) 8 (d) 4
12.4 Cubes and Dice
17. H ow many cubes will have 4 colour ed sides and 2 19. I f dices I , I I I and I V have odd number of dot s
sides wit hout colour ? at t heir t op faces, what would be t he t ot al
(a) 8 (b) 4 number of dot s?
(c) 16 (d) 10 (a) 15 (b) 18
(c) 21 (d) 17
Directions (Q. 18– 22) : Six dices wit h t heir t op faces
erased have been given. The opposite faces of the dices 20. I f even number ed dices have odd number of
have dot s which add up t o t hir t een. Wor k out t he dot s at t heir t op faces, what would be t he t ot al
number of dot s on t he t op faces, accor ding t o t he number of dot s?
quest ion spot your answer fr om amongst t he given (a) 19 (b) 18
alternatives. (c) 17 (d) 16
21. I f dices I , I I and I I I have odd number of dot s
on their upper faces and dices I V, V and VI have
even number of dots on their bottom faces, then
what would be the difference in the total numbers
of t op face dot s bet ween t hese t wo set s?
18. I f t he odd number ed dices have even number of (a) 8 (b) 4
dot s at t heir bottom faces, what would be the total (c) 0 (d) 1
number of dot s? 22. I f dices I I , V and VI have even number of dot s
(a) 20 at t heir bot t om faces, what would be t he t ot al
(b) 22 number of dot s?
(c) 24 (a) 18 (b) 20
(d) 18 (c) 16 (d) 24

AN SWERS
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (d) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (a)


13
CHAPTER Analytical Reasoning
PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 7. In a row of girls facing North, Rajni is 10th to the left
of Paro, who is 21st from the right end. If Meera,
1. In a row of students, Ajay is 12th from the left and
who is 17th from the left end, is fourth to the right of
Vijay is 17th from the right. When Ajay and Vijay
Rajni, how many girls are there in the row?
interchange their positions Vijay becomes 27th from
the right. How many students are there between Vijay (a) 37 (b) 43
and Ajay? (c) 44 (d) Data inadequate
(a) 9 (b) 12 8. Students line up in a queue in which Ashwani stands
(c) 7 (d) 10 fifteenth from the left and Sandeep is seventh from
the right. If they interchange their places, Sandeep
2. Modi is fourteenth from the right end in a row of 40
would be fifteenth from the right. How many students
boys. What is his position from the left end?
are there in the queue?
(a) 25th (b) 27th
(a) 21 (b) 22
(c) 24th (d) 26th
(c) 29 (d) None of these
3. In a row of boys, Jayati is seventh from the start and 9. In a row of children, Hardipak is eleventh from the left
a eleventh from the end. In another row of boys, and Manoj is seventeenth from the right. When they
Bharat is tenth from the start and twelfth from the interchange their places, Hardipak will be thirteenth
end. How many boys are there in both the rows from the left. Which of the following will be the new
together? position of Manoj from the right?
(a) 36 (b) 37 (a) Eleventh (b) Twenty-first
(c) 39 (d) None of these (c) Nineteenth (d) Twenty-ninth
4. Seema is 8 ranks ahead of Sajan, who ranks twenty- 10. Neeta is taller than Sania. Neelima is taller than
sixth in a class of 42. What is Seema’s rank from Neeta. Nitika is taller than Neelima. Mehak is the
the last? tallest of all. If they stand according to their height,
(a) 9th (b) 24th who will be in the middle?
(c) 25th (d) 34th (a) Neeta (b) Neelima
5. In a class, among the passed students, Amita is (c) Sania (d) Nitika
twenty-second from the top and Ramnik, who is 5 11. In a team of five players, Vani is older than Rani. Sita
ranks below Amita, is thirty-fourth from the bottom. is younger than Vani but older than Rani. Nita is
All the students from the class have appeared for younger than Mary and Rani. Rani is older than
the exam. If the ratio of the students who passed in Mary. Whose age is middle of all the five in this team?
the exam to those who failed is 4 : 1 in that class,
how many students are there in the class? (a) Vani (b) Rani
(c) Sita (d) Mary
(a) 60 (b) 75
12. Five persons – R, S, T, U and V – are in a queue
(c) 90 (d) Data inadequate
facing a reservation counter. Immediately behind S
6. In a queue, Sameer is ninth from the back. Wasim’s is U. T is standing between R and V. In between R
place is eighth from the front. Neetesh is standing and U, no one is there. Then, where is S standing in
between the two. What could be the minimum the queue?
number of boys standing in the queue?
(a) First (b) Second
(a) 8 (b) 10
(c) Last (d) Last but one
(c) 12 (d) 14
13.2 Analytical Reasoning
13. In a row of girls, Kamla is 9th from the left and Veena 6. In a classroom, there are 5 rows, and 5 children – A,
is 16th from the right. If they interchange their B, C, D and E – are seated one behind the other in 5
positions. Kamla becomes 25th from the left. How separate rows as follows:
many girls are there in the row? A is sitting behind C, but in front of B.
(a) 34 (b) 36 C is sitting behind E. D is sitting in front of E.
(c) 40 (d) 41 The order in which they are sitting from the first row
14. In a class of boys Rajan got the 11th rank and he to the last is
was 31st from the bottom of the list of boys passed. (a) DECAB (b) BACED
Three boys did not take the examination and one
(c) ACBDE (d) ABEDC
failed. What is the total strength of the class?
7. Suresh is 7 ranks ahead of Ashok in the class of 39
(a) 32 (b) 42
students. If Ashok’s rank is 17th from the last, what
(c) 45 (d) 46 is Suresh’s rank from the start?
15. B is twice as old as A but twice younger than F. C is (a) 16th (b) 23rd
half the age of A but is twice older than D. Who is
(c) 24th (d) 15th
the second oldest?
8. Of the six members of a panel sitting in a row, X is to
(a) B (b) F
the left of Q but on the right of P. Y is on the right of
(c) D (d) C Q but is on the left of Z, Z is to the left of R. Find the
LEVEL-1 members who are at the extreme ends?
1. Ramesh ranks 13th in a class of 33 students. There (a) QZ (b) XZ
are 5 students below Suresh rankwise. How many (c) PR (d) QY
students are there between Ramesh and Suresh? 9. A goldsmith has five rings. Each having a different
(a) 12 (b) 14 weight.
(c) 15 (d) 16 Ring D weighing twice as much as Ring E.
2. In a row of trees, a tree is 7th from the left end and Ring E weighing four and one-half times as much as
14th from the right end. How many trees are there in Ring F.
the row? Ring F weighing half as much as Ring G.
(a) 18 (b) 19 Ring G weighing half as much as Ring H.
(c) 20 (d) 21 Ring H weighing less than Ring D but more than
3. Five girls – M, N, O, P and Q – are standing in a row. Ring F.
P is on the right of Q, N is on the left of Q, but N is Which of the following represents the descending
on the right of M, P is on the left of O. Who is standing order of weights of the rings?
on the extreme right end?
(a) D, E, G, H, F (b) D, E, F, H, G
(a) Q (b) N
(c) E, G, H, D, F (d) D, E, H, G, F
(c) O (d) P
10. Five athletes – A, B, C, D and E – participated in a race.
4. Sita is elder than Swapna. Lavanya is elder than
 B finished before 3 athletes exactly.
Swapna but younger than Sita. Suvarna is younger
than both Hari and Swapna, Swapna is elder than  C and A finished neither 1st nor 5th.
Hari. Who is the youngest?  D did not finish at last.
(a) Sita (b) Lavanya  C finished before A.
(c) Suvarna (d) Hari Who came third?
5. In a row of boys, Srinath is 7th from the left and (a) A (b) C
Venkat is 12th from the right. If they interchange their (c) D (d) E
positions, Srinath becomes 22nd from the left. How
11. Rahul is taller than Saurav, Sachin is taller than Rahul
many boys are there in the row?
and Dhoni is taller than Kaif but shorter than Saurav.
(a) 19 Who is the tallest?
(b) 31 (a) Sachin (b) Rahul
(c) 33 (c) Dhoni (d) Saurav
(d) 34 (e) Kaif
 Analytical Reasoning 13.3
12. Five friends – Ravi, Suhail, Mayur, Aakash and 3. Among five boys, Amit is shorter than Mandar.
Krishna – participated in a race. Aakash finished the Prashant is taller than Vinod but shorter than Amit.
race before Krishna and after Suhail. Ravi finished Mandar is shorter than Pankaj. Who is the tallest in
the race before Suhail and Mayur. Who won the race? the group?
(a) Suhail (b) Aakash (a) Prashant (b) Amit
(c) Ravi (d) krishna (c) Vinod (d) Pankaj
(e) Mayur (e) Mandar
13. Five books are lying in a pile. E is lying on A, C is 4. In a class, Vasu is ranked 16th from the top and 15th
lying under B, A is lying above B, and D is lying from the bottom of a list. How many students are
under C. Which book is lying at the bottom? there in the class?
(a) A (b) B (a) 29 (b) 31
(c) C (d) D (c) 30 (d) 32
(e) None of these (e) 28
14. There are seven flights – A, B, C, D, E, F and G. A 5. Five persons - Keshav, Mahesh, Sameer, Ravi and
lands after F. C lands before G and after B. D lands Piyush– are sitting in a row facing North. Piyush is
after E and before B. E lands after A. Which flight on right side of Keshav and Mahesh. Ravi is to the
landed at last? right side of Sameer. Only Ravi is sitting between
(a) B (b) C Keshav and Sameer. Which of the following pairs
could be sitting at the extreme ends?
(c) A (d) G
(a) Sameer and Piyush (b) Ravi and Mahesh
(e) None of these
(c) Sameer and Mahesh (d) Ravi and Keshav
15. There are five persons – P, Q, R, S and T – sitting in
a row facing North. Q is sitting to the left of S and to (e) Ravi and Piyush
the right of R. No two persons among R, Q and T are 6. In a row of five, A is next to B. E is on right side of A,
sitting adjacent to each other. Who is sitting at the and D is to the immediately left of A. C and E do not
extreme ends of the row? sit together. Who is E’s neighbour?
(a) P and R (b) P and Q (a) A (b) B
(c) Q and S (d) R and T (c) C (d) D
(e) None of these (e) Cannot be determined
LEVEL-2 7. B is heavier than D, who is heavier than A. E is heavier
than C but lighter than D. Who is the lightest?
1. There were 6 friends – A, B, C, D, E and F.
(a) A (b) C
• B is heavier than only E.
(c) E (d) D
• F is heavier than 4 friends exactly.
(e) Cannot be determined
• A or C is not heaviest.
Directions for questions 8 and 9: Answer the questions
• A is heavier than C.
on the basis of the information given below.
Who is 4th heaviest?
I. There are five friends – Alok, Jayesh, Bhagat, Subodh
(a) A (b) C and Pramod.
(c) F (d) D II. They are standing in a row facing South.
(e) None of these III. Jayesh is to the immediate right of Alok.
2. In the following colour sequence, R stands for Red, IV. Pramod is between Bhagat and Subodh.
Y for Yellow, G for Green, B for Blue and W for White.
V. Subodh is between Jayesh and Pramod.
If the sequence is continued, then which colour will
come next? 8. Who is at the extreme left end?
BBRBRWBRWGBRWGYBBRBRWB (a) Alok
RW (b) Bhagat
(a) Red (b) Blue (c) Subodh
(c) Green (d) Yellow (d) Jayesh
(e) White (e) Data insufficient
13.4 Analytical Reasoning
9. Who is in the middle? 13. There are five persons – Aman, Baman, Chaman,
(a) Bhagat (b) Jayesh Raman and Saman. Each of them is of a different
weight and height. Aman is the tallest but not the
(c) Pramod (d) Subodh
heaviest. Saman, who is the lightest, is taller than
(e) Alok exactly two persons. Chaman, who is shorter than
10. Six friends A, B, C, D, E and F are sitting in a row at least two persons, is not the second lightest.
facing East. Only ‘C’ is between ‘A’ and ‘E’, ‘B’ is Raman is the shortest as well as the heaviest. If
just to the right of ‘E’ but left of ‘D’. ‘F’ is not at the Aman is the third heaviest, who is the second
right end. Who are to the right of ‘E’? heaviest among them?
(a) A and B (b) A and D (a) Chaman (b) Raman
(c) B and D (d) D and E (c) Baman (d) Aman
11. Six persons – F, G, H, K, L and M – are of different 14. Five girls are sitting in a row. Sudha is sitting next to
heights. F, G and H are males, while K, L and M are Padma. Krishna is sitting next to Rama who is sitting
females. G is taller than F, who is taller than exactly on the extreme left. Tapti is sitting on the extreme
two persons. K is taller than H, who is taller than right. No body is sitting between Padma and Krishna.
only one female. M is taller than L but smaller than Who is sitting in the middle?
G. The tallest person is not a female. (a) Krishna (b) Padma
Who is the smallest female? (c) Sudha (d) Tapti
(a) K (b) M 15. Five policemen are standing in a row facing south.
(c) L (d) Cannot be determined Shekhar is to the immediate right of Dhanush. Bala
12. Five books—A, B, C, D and E—are placed on a table is between Basha and Dhanush. David is at the
one above another. B is placed below C, A is placed extreme right end of the row. Who is standing in the
above E, D is placed below B and E is placed above middle of the row?
C. Which of the following books touches the table? (a) Bala (b) Basha
(a) B (b) D (c) Shekhar (d) Dhanush
(c) A (d) E

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (a)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (d)
LEVEL-2
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (e) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. From right end
(i) Vijay’s present position: 27th
(ii) Vijay’s former position: 17th
Now, total number of students between Ajay and
Vijay = 27 – 17 – 1 = 9.
2. Modi’s position from the left end = 40 + 1 – 14 = 27th.
3. Clearly, total number of boys in both the rows
= (Number of boys in Jayati’s row)
+ (Number of boys in Bharat’s row)
= (6 + 1 + 10) + (9 + 1 + 11) = 17 + 21 = 38.
4. Sajan rank 26th and Seema is 8 ranks ahead of
Sajan. So, Seema ranks 18th. Number of students
behind Seema in rank = (42 – 18) = 24.
So, Seema ranks 25th from the last.
 Analytical Reasoning 13.5
5. Amita is 22nd from the top and Ramnik is 5 ranks 14. Rajan’s rank in the class = 11th
below Amita. So, Ramnik is 27th from the top. Also, Also, Rajan’s rank in the class from bottom = 31st
Ramnik is 34th from the bottom.
 Number of boys passed = 41
Number of students passed = (26 + 1 + 33) = 60
Total number of boys = 41 + 31 + 1 = 45.
Total number of students in the class = 60 + 15 = 75.
15. B = 2A
6. Minimum number of students will be possible in the
F = 2B = 4A
following case.
A
Sameer Neetesh Wasim A = 2C  C 
2
  C A
C  2D  D  
2 4
9 8
The correct order is F > B > A > C > D.
 
Hence, the second oldest is B.
6 7
LEVEL-1
Thus, in the above case, total number of students
1. Ramesh’s rank in the class = 13th
= 9 + 6 – 1 = 14.
Total number of student = 33
7. Here, Rajni’s position from the right end = 21 + 10
 Suresh’s rank in the class = 33 – 5 = 28th
= 31st
 Number of student between Ramesh and Suresh
Meera’s position from the right end = 31 – 4 = 27th
= 28 – (13 + 1) = 14.
Meera’s position from the left end = 17th (given)
2. A tree’s rank from the left = 7th and that of from
Thus, the total number of persons in the row
right= 14th.
= 27 + 17 – 1 = 43.
 Total number of trees = 14 + 7 – 1 = 20.
8. Sandeep’s new position is 15th from the right as
3. The given standing position is
well as from the left end of the row.
Left  M N Q P O  Right
Number of students in the queue = (14 + 1 + 14) = 29.
4. The order of eldest to youngest is given below.
9. Manoj’s earlier position from the right end = 17th
Sita > Lavanya > Swapna > Hari > Suvarna.
Manoj’s earlier position from the left end = 13th
Total number of persons in the row = 17 + 13 – 1 = 29 5. 7th 22nd
Srinath Venkat
Manoj’s new position from the right
= 29 + 1 – 11= 19th. 12th

10. On the basis of the given information, we get Total number of boys in the row = 22 + 12 – 1 = 33.
Mehak > Nitika > Neelima > Neeta > Sania 6. From the given information the order is DECAB.
Obviously, Neelima will occupy the middle position. 7. Ashok's rank from last = 17th
11. Vani > Rani  Suresh's rank from last = 17 + 7 = 24th
Vani > Sita > Rani  Suresh's rank from the start = 39 – 24 + 1 = 16th.
Mary, Rani > Nita. 8. The given information can be shown as:
Rani > Mary P X Q Y Z R
 Vani > Sita > Rani > Mary > Nita. 9. Let weight of the ring D be x gm.
12.  Reservation counter.. x
 Weight of E = 2 gm.
S U R T V
x 2 x
13. Kamal’s position from left = 9th Weight of F = 2  9  9 gm.
Veena’s position from right = 16th 2x
Weight of G = 9 gm.
After interchanging their positions,
4x
Kamal’s position from left = 25th Weight of H = 9 gm.
So, that Kamal’s position from right = 16th Weight of D > Weight of H > Weight of F.
 Total number of girls = (25 + 16) – 1 = 40. Descending order of weight of the rings
D > E > H > G > F.
13.6 Analytical Reasoning
10. Order of athletes to finish race is D, B, C, A and E. Hence, Sameer and Piyush could be sitting at the
Hence, C will come 3rd. extreme ends.
11. The order of the heights of the persons according to 6. The arrangement is
the given information will be C D A B E
Sachin > Rahul > Saurav > Dhoni > Kaif So, B is E’s neighbour.
Hence, Sachin is the tallest. 7. Arranging the given information in decreasing order
12. Aakash finished the race before Krishna and after we get B > D > A and D > E > C, but we don’t know
Suhail. Ravi finished the race before Suhail and Mayur. whether A < C or C < A.
Hence, Ravi won the race. Hence, we cannot decide.
13. The sequence of books according to the given For questions 8 and 9:
information will be Bhagat Pramod Subodh Jayesh Alok
E South
A 10. LEFT
B
F
C
D A
so C
Hence, D is at the bottom of the pile. E
14. From the given information, order of landing is: B
FAE D BC G D
Hence, G landed last. RIGHT

15. Since Q is sitting to the left of S and to the right of R, Hence, B and D are to the right of E.
their places are R Q S 11. The order of persons from the tallest to the smallest
Since R, Q and T are not sitting adjacent to each is as follows:
other, T must be to the right of S. G K/M M/K F H L
P is sitting between R and Q. The final arrangement 12. The order of the books from bottom to top is shown
is R P Q S T below.
Hence, R and T are sitting at the extreme ends. A
LEVEL-2 E
1. The order of weight is D > F > A > C > B > E. C
B
Hence, C is the 4th heaviest.
D
2. B | BR | BRW | BRWG | BRWGY | B | BR| BRW |
BRWG Hence, D touches the table.
Therefore, in the above sequence G will be the next 13. The information for weight can be summarised as
letter. Hence, Green will come next in the series. shown below.
3. Arranging the given information, we get Raman > Chaman > Aman> Baman >Saman
Pankaj > Mandar > Amit > Prashant > Vinod Hence, Chaman is the second heaviest.
Hence, Pankaj is the tallest. 14.
Krishna

Padma

RIGHT
Sudha
Rama
LEFT

Tapti

4. Using the formula,

T  RT  RB  1
Hence, Padma is in the middle.
We get,
15.
Dhanush
Shekhar
RIGHT

T = 16 + 15 – 1 = 30.
Basha
David

LEFT
Bala

Hence, there are 30 students in the class.

5. Given information can be shown as:
Hence, Dhanush is standing in the middle.
Sameer Ravi Keshav Mahesh Piyush  North

OR
Mahesh Sameer Ravi Keshav Piyush
 14
CHAPTER
PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
Directions for questions 1 to 15: Each quest ion is
followed by t wo st at ement s, I and I I . Answer each
quest ion using t he following inst r uct ions. M ar k:
(a) if the question can be answer ed using statement
I alone, but cannot be answer ed using statement
I I alone.
(b) if the question can be answer ed using statement
I I alone, but cannot be answer ed using statement
I alone.
(c) if t he quest ion can be answer ed using bot h t he
st at ement s t oget her, but cannot be answer ed
using eit her st at ement alone.
(d) if t he quest ion can be answer ed using eit her
st at ement I or I I individually.
(e) if t he quest ion cannot be answer ed even using
bot h t he st at ement s t oget her.
1. I s M anish t aller t han Chandr a?
I . Suhas is of t he same height as M anish and
Chandr a.
I I . Chandr a is not shor t er t han Suhas.
2. Buses ar e always punct ual in Delhi cit y. H ow
long, at t he most , will M r Dhir en have t o wait
for t he bus?
I . M r Dhi r en has come t o t he bus st and at
9 a.m.
I I . Ther e is a bus at 10 a.m. and possibly another
bus even ear lier.
3. H ow is Rajesh r elat ed t o Anish?
I . Bikr am is t he br ot her of Anish.
I I . Bikr am is Rajesh’s son.
4. H ow is Shahr ukh r elat ed t o Salman?
I . Aami r ’s wi fe Reena i s pat er nal aunt of
Salman.
I I . Shahr ukh is the br ot her of a fr iend of Reena.
5. Tendulkar r anks t ent h in a class. H ow many
st udent s ar e t her e in t he class?
I . H is fr iend got 58t h r ank which is t he last .
I I . Tendulkar ’s r ank fr om t he last is 49t h.
Data Sufficiency
6. H ow many pages of t he book – The M an Who
Saw Tomor r ow did Sujit r ead on Sunday?
I . The book has 300 pages out of which t wo-
t hir ds wer e r ead by him befor e Sunday.
I I . Sujit r ead t he last 40 pages of t he book in
t he mor ning of M onday.
7. I n a cer t ain language, ‘pit nac nit ’ means ‘r ed
pant shi r t ’. Whi ch wor d means ‘pant ’ in t he
language?
I . ‘nit t im nac sir ’ means ‘he wor e r ed pant ’.
I I . ‘nee jic pit ’ means ‘shir t is dir t y’.
8. I n a code, ‘l ee pee t i n’ means ‘al ways k eep
smiling’. What is t he code for ‘smiling’.
I . ‘t in lut lee’ means ‘always keep left ’.
I I . ‘dee pee’ means ‘r ose smiling’.
9. Among t he five fr iends who is t he t allest ?
I . Dinesh is t aller t han At ul and Char les.
I I . Basu is shor t er t han Ena but t all er t han
Dinesh.
10. When is Tat a’s bir t hday?
I . Tat a’s fat her was bor n on 27t h M ay, 1948.
I I . Tat a is 25 year s younger t han his mot her.
11. On what day in Apr il is H r it hik’s bir t hday?
I . H r it hik was bor n exact ly 28 year s aft er his
mot her was bor n.
I I . H is mot her will be 55 year s 4 mont hs and 5
days on August 18 t his year.
12. At what t ime will t he plane leave t oday?
I . The plane nor mally leaves on t ime.
I I . The scheduled depar t ur e is at 14.30.
13. On whi ch day i n Januar y, Ronal do l eft for
Ger many?
I . Ron al do h as so f ar spen t 10 y ear s i n
Ger many.
I I . Ronaldo’s fr iend Rivaldo left for Ger many on
15t h F ebr u ar y an d j oi n ed Ron al do
20 days aft er Ronaldo’s ar r ival.
 14.2 Data Sufficiency
14. I n which year was Sangit a bor n?
I . Sangit a at pr esent is 25 year s younger t o
her mot her.
I I . Sangita’s br other, who was bor n in year 1964,
is 35 year s younger t o his mot her.
15. H ow many lect ur es wer e deliver ed in t he t wo
days’ pr ogr amme?
I . 18 speaker s wer e invit ed t o give at least one
l ect u r e, ou t of w h i ch on e-si x t h of t h e
speaker s could not come.
I I . One-t hir d of t he speaker s gave t wo lect ur es
each.
LEVEL-1
Directions for questions 1 to 15: Each quest ion is
followed by t wo st at ement s, I and I I . Answer each
quest ion using t he following inst r uct ions. M ar k:
(a) if the question can be answer ed using statement
I alone, but cannot be answer ed using statement
I I alone.
(b) if the question can be answer ed using statement
I I alone, but cannot be answer ed using statement
I alone.
(c) if t he quest ion can be answer ed using bot h t he
st at ement s t oget her, but cannot be answer ed
using eit her st at ement alone.
(d) if t he quest ion can be answer ed using eit her
st at ement I or I I individually.
(e) if t he quest ion cannot be answer ed even using
bot h t he st at ement s t oget her.
1. Who is t he shor t est st udent in t he class, a boy
or a gir l?
I . Eit her Ram or Shyam is t he shor t est boy in
t he class.
I I . Ram is shor t er t han Shyam, but t aller t han
Sit a in t he class.
2. Four candidat es (A, B, C and D) cont est ed an
elect ion in year 2000. One lost his deposit . Who
won?
I . C got mor e vot es t han A, but less vot es t han
B.
I I . I t was not A who lost his deposit .
3. Do t he car s P and Q t r avel along t he same r out e
for at least par t of t heir jour neys?
I . P goes fr om A t o C via B.
I I . Q goes fr om A t o D via B.
4. H as any one of t hem seen t he pict ur e t wice?
I . A few of t hem saw t he pict ur e t wice.
I I . M ost of t hem saw t he pict ur e only once.
5. P is t he only son of Q. Was P admit t ed?
I . Only the childr en of wor ker s wer e admitt ed.
I I . Q was not a wor ker.
6. H ow is A r elat ed t o D?
I . A is t he son of B.
I I . D is t he daught er -in-law of B.
7. What is Ram’s dat e of bir t h?
I . Ram is exact ly 2 year s elder t o Gaur av who
was bor n on 22-7-1982.
I I . Ram was bor n in year 1988.
8. H ow many Sundays wer e t her e in t he mont h of
M ar ch of a par t icular year ‘k’?
I . 10th Febr uary of that year ‘k’ was a Saturday.
I I . Year ‘k’ was a leap year.
9. Does M r X belong t o Gujar at ?
I . Gujar at is a st at e in I ndia.
I I . M r X is not an I ndian.
10. All who had got medals sat in t he fir st r ow for
t he gr oup phot o. But none who was less t han
five feet in height sat in t he 2nd r ow. (Ther e
wer e only t wo r ows.) Did Amar sit in t he fir st
r ow?
I . H e had not got any medal.
I I . H is height was 4 feet 10 inches.
11. A, B, C and D st ay in a four -st or ey building.
Who st ays on 3r d floor fr om t op?
I . A and C st ay on odd-number ed floor.
I I . D st ays above B.
12. Find code for ‘Jamaica’.
I . ‘Jamaica is wonder ful place’ st ands for ‘Raj
is sheet al’s fr iend’.
I I . ‘Tok y o pl ace w on der f u l i s’ st an ds f or
‘Ramesh’s fr iend is sheet al’s’.
13. H ow many wives does Sheikh have?
I . I n his fami l y t her e ar e five peopl e of hi s
gener at ion.
I I . Sheikh has t wo br ot her s.
14. A was bor n in which year of 19t h cent ur y?
I . H is br ot her was bor n in t he year 1972.
I I . Thr ee digit s of t he year ar e same.
15. What is t he code for ‘economy’?
I . ‘Opening of the economy’ stands for ‘economy
is in doldr ums’.
I I . I n t he above st at ement one wor d has not
been coded.
 Data Sufficiency 14.3

LEVEL-2 I I . Anu walks 2 km t owar ds Sout h fr om st ation

D ir ect ions for quest ions 1 t o 5: I n each of t he
f ol l ow i n g qu est i on s, a qu est i on i s f ol l ow ed by
infor mat ion given in t hr ee st at ement s. You have t o
study the question along with the statements and decide
t h e i nf or m at i on gi ven i n wh i ch st at em en t (s) i s
necessar y and sufficient t o answer t he quest ion.
1. H ow many br ot her s does Akash have? (Akash
is a boy)
I . N eel i m a i s A k ash 's m ot h er Su dh i r i s
N eel i m a's h u sban d an d h as on l y on e
daught er Riya.
I I . Riya has t wo younger and one elder br ot her.
I I I . Ak ash is not t he youngest chil d.
(a) Only I I and I I I (b) Only I and I I
(c) Only I and I I I (d) All I , I I , and I I I
(e) Any t wo of t he t hr ee
2. Who among P, Q, R, S and T was t he fir st t o
r each t he st at ion?
I . Q r eached ear l ier t han T; P and R wer e not
t he fir st t o r each.
A and t hen, befor e moving 8 k m t owar ds
nor t h, walks 3 km t owar ds West .
I I I . Befor e movi ng 3 k m t owar ds west , Anu
walk s 4 k m t owar ds Nor t h fr om st at ion A.
(a) Only I and I I
(b) Only I I and I I I
(c) Eit her I and I I or I and I I I
(d) All ar e necessar y
(e) Any t wo of t he t hr ee
5. A, B, C, D, E and F ar e sit t ing ar ound a cir cular
t able facing t he cent r e. Who is sit t ing opposit e
t o A?
I . B and C ar e si t t i ng opposi t e t o each ot her.
I I . E may sit ei t her on t he immediat e left of B
or on t he immediat e r i ght of C.
I I I . D cannot si t opposit e E, and A cannot sit
opposit e E.
(a) Only I and I I
(b) Only I I and I I I

I I . P r eached ear l ier t han bot h R and T, but (c) Only I and I I or I I I
coul d not r each ear li er t han S, who was at (d) All I , I I and I I I
t he st at i on befor e Q. (e) Data inadequate
I I I . R di dn't r each just aft er P. Direct ions for quest ions 6 t o 10: I n each of t he
(a) Only I and I I following questions, a question is followed by information
gi ven i n t hr ee st at ement s. You have t o deci de t he
(b) Only I and I I or I I I
i nfor mat i on gi ven i n whi ch of t he st at ement s i s
(c) Only I I and I I I necessar y and sufficient to answer the given question.
(d) All I , I I and I I I 6. I s t he t ime 6 o'clock now?
(e) None of t hese I . Aft er fift een mi nut es, t he minut e and t he
3. H ow is A r elat ed t o C? hour hands of t he clock will mak e a r ight
angle.
I . M has t wo daught er s. One of t hem is Z, who
is mar r ied t o A. I I . The t r ain which is r unning l at e by exact ly
t wo hour s fr om it s scheduled t ime of ar r ival,
I I . C is t he mot her of V, t he younger si st er of
ie 3 pm, has r eached now.
Z.
I I I . 6 o'clock is t he t i me of depar t ur e of a t r ain
I I I . M is C's husband. and it is st il l on t he plat for m.
(a) Only I and I I (a) Only I
(b) Only I and I I I (b) Eit her I I or I
(c) Only I and eit her I I or I I I (c) Eit her I I I or I I
(d) Any t wo of t he t hr ee (d) Eit her I or I I or I I I
(e) All ar e necessar y (e) All I , I I and I I I
4. Yogendr a is in which dir ect ion wit h r espect t o 7. H ow many sist er s does Neha have? (Neha is a
Anu? gir l.)
I . Yogendr a wal ks 1 km t owar ds N or t h-east I . K r ishna, Neha's mot her, has t hr ee childr en.
fr om st at ion A and t hen, befor e wal ki ng 2 I I . Vinod is t he fat her-in-law of K r ishna and he
km towar ds south, walks 2 km towar ds East. has only one son and one gr andson.
14.4 Data Sufficiency
I I I . Pooja, Neha's si st er, has t wo sibli ngs.
(a) Only I and I I
(b) Only I I and I I I
(c) Only I I and eit her I I I or I
(d) All I , I I and I I I
(e) Data inadequate
8. Who is t he t allest among P. Q, R, S and T?
I . R is t all er t han Q but not as t al l as T.
I I . P is not t he shor t est .
I I I . P is t all er t han onl y S.
(a) Only I and I I
(b) Only I and I I I
(c) Only I and eit her I I or I I I
(d) All I , I I and I I I
(e) Data inadequate
9. On which day of t he week did Anu ar r ive?
I . H er sist er, Tanu, cor r ect l y r emember s t hat
she di d not ar r i ve on Wednesday.
I I . H er fr iend, M anu, cor r ectly r emember s t hat
she ar r ived befor e Fr i day.
I I I . H er mot her cor r ect l y ment i ons t hat she
ar r i ved befor e Fr iday but aft er Tuesday.
(a) Only I and I I
(b) Only I I and I I I
(c) Only I and I I I
(d) All I , I I and I I I
(e) Data inadequat e
10. A, B, C, D and E ar e sitting in a row facing Nor th.
Who among t hem is in t he middle?
I . E is at t he r i ght end of t he r ow.
I I . D si t s bet ween A and C.
I I I . Neit her A nor C si t s at an ext r eme end.
(a) Only I and I I
(b) Only I I and I I I
(c) Any t wo of t he t hr ee
(d) All I , I I , and I I I
(e) Data inadequate
D ir ect ions for quest ions 11 t o 15: Each of t he
quest ions below consist s of a quest ion fallowed by t he
t wo st at ement s number ed I and I I given below it You
have t o deci de whet her t he dat a pr ovi ded i n t he
st at ement s ar e sufficient to answer the quest ion. Read
bot h t he st at ement s and give answer
(a) if t he dat a in st at ement I alone is sufficient t o
answer t he question while the data in statement
I I alone is not sufficient to answer t he question.
(b) if t he dat a in st at ement I I alone is sufficient t o
answer t he question while the data in statement
I alone is not sufficient t o answer t he quest ion.
(c) i f t he dat a eit her i n st at ement I alone or i n
st at ement I I alone is sufficient t o answer t he
quest ion.
(d) if t he dat a in bot h st at ement s I and I I t oget her
is not sufficient t o answer t he quest ion.
(e) if t he dat a in bot h st at ement s I and I I t oget her
is necessar y t o answer t he quest ion.
11. What colour will be on t he opposit e sur face of
t he br own sur face of a cube? The sur faces of
cube have differ ent colour s, namely r ed, black,
gr een, br own, whit e and blue.
I . The gr een sur face i s bet ween r ed and black
sur faces whi le t he blue sur face is adjacent
t o t he whit e.
I I . The br own sur face i s adjacent t o t he blue.
12. What char acter istic is possessed by t he per son
who is on the left of the weak per son and who is
sitt ing in a r ow of five per sons? I t is given that
other s possess t he following qualities: fat, t all,
fair and intelligent. And each individual possesses
only one quality.
I . The tall per son is on the left of the fair person
and t he weak per son i s sit t i ng bet ween t he
int elli gent per son and t he fat per son, who
is sit t ing on t he r ight of t he weak per son.
I I . One of t he t wo per sons at t he ext r eme ends
is i nt ell igent , and is second t o t he left of t he
fat per son, who is on t he immediat e r ight of
t he weak per son.
13. I f t ika pika mai is t he code for "Renu is PO" in a
code language used in t er r it or y X?
I . I n t he same code language "I want to be PO"
i s wr it t en as jai k ali gai pal i mai , "Renu
needs money" i s wr i t t en as saaj t ik a sik a;
and "H e needs sweet s" is wr it t en as baaj
koko saaj.
I I . I n t he same code l anguage "what he want
t o be" is wr it t en as jai kal i aaj gai koko; "I
want sweet s what Renu needs" i s wr i t t en
as baaj saaj pal i kal i aaj t ik a; and "PO ar e
gent le" i s wr i t t en as bogo mai al i.
14. H ow many car ds does B have? B is playing a
game of car ds wit h A, C, D and E. I t is given
t hat t he t ot al number of car ds is 158.
I . A says t o B, "I f you give me t hr ee car ds, you
wi ll have as many as E has and if I gi ve you
t hr ee car ds, you wil l have as many as D
has."
 Data Sufficiency 14.5

I I . A and B t oget her have 10 car ds mor e t han
what D and E t oget her have. And B has t wo
car ds mor e t han what C has.
15. The book of which subject is at the sixth position
fr om t he t op in a pile of t en books, including 3
books of H ist or y, 3 of H indi, 2 of M at hs and 2 of
English?
I . Star ting fr om above ther e is an English book
bet w een a H i st or y an d M at h s book , a
H i st or y book bet ween a M at h s and an
Engl i sh book , a H i ndi book bet ween an
Engl ish and a M at hs book , a M at hs book
bet ween t wo H i ndi book s and t wo H i ndi
book s bet ween a M at hs and a H i st or y book.
I I . I f we count fr om t he bot t om, t he book which
is at t he fi ft h posit ion i s nei t her M at hs nor
English.

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (e) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (e) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (e)
11. (c) 12. (e) 13. (e) 14. (c) 15. (e)
LEVEL-1
1. (e) 2. (c) 3. (e) 4. (a) 5. (e) 6. (e) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (e) 14. (e) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (b) 2. (e) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (e) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (a)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. a From statement I, we can conclude that Suhas,
Manish and Chandra are of the same height.
So, Manish is not taller that Chandra. Thus,
only statement I is sufficient to answer the
question. Statement II gives no relation between
Manish and Chandra.
2. c From both the given statements, we find that
Dhiren reached the bus stand at 9 a.m. and a
bus is sure to arrive at 10 a.m. So, Dhiren has
to wait for at the most one hour.
3. c From both the statements together, we find that
Rajesh is the father of Bikram and Bikram is
the brother of Anish. So, Rajesh is the father of
Anish. Thus, both the given statements are
needed.
4. e Clearly, both the statements together are not
sufficient to answer the question.
5. d Statement I reveals that 58th rank is the last
rank in the class. This means that there are 58
students in the class. So, statement I alone is
sufficient. Also, from statement II, we find that
Tendulkar’s rank in the class is 10th and 49th
from the last.
So, there are (10 + 49 – 1) = 58 students in the
class. Thus, statement II alone also is sufficient.
6. c From statements I and II, we find that Sujit
read (300 x ), i.e. 200 pages before Sunday
and the last 40 pages on Monday. This means
that he reads (300 – (200 + 40)), i.e. 60 pages on
Sunday.
7. e Clearly, from each of the statements, we find
that the code for ‘pant’ is either ‘nit’ or ‘nac’. So,
none of them is sufficient to answer the
question.
8. d Comparing the information in the question with
statement I, we find that ‘tin’ and ‘lee’ are the
codes for ‘always’ and ‘keep’. So, ‘pee’ represents
‘smiling’.
Thus, statement I alone is sufficient.
Again, comparing the information in the
14.6 Data Sufficiency
question with statement II, we find that the
common code word ‘pee’ stands for the common
word ‘smiling’. Thus, statement II alone is also
sufficient.
9. c From statement I, we have: D > A, D > C.
From statement II, we have: E > B > D.
Combining the above two, we get: E > B > D >
(A and C). So, E is the tallest.
10. e Clearly, even both the statements together do
not reveal Tata’s birthday.
11. c Clearly, the birthday of Hrithik’s mother can
be found out from statement II and then
Hrithik's birthday can be determined using the
fact given in statement I.
Thus, both the statements are required.
12. e Clearly, even both the statements together do
not reveal the exact time of departure of the
plane today.
13. e Clearly, even from both the given statements,
we cannot conclude the exact date of Ronaldo
leaving for Germany.
14. c From both the given statements, we find that
Sangita is (35 – 25) = 10 years older than her
brother, who was born in year 1964. So, Sangita
was born in 1954. Thus, both the given
statements are needed to answer the question.
15. e From statement I, we find that the no. of
speakers who attended the programme
1
= 18 – of 18 = 15.
6
1 leap year, 3rd, 10th, 17th, 24th and 31st March
From statement II, we find that ( x 15), i.e.
3
five speakers gave two lectures each, But we
don’t know about number of lectures given by
remaining 10 speakers. Because they can
deliver one lecture each or more than two also.
LEVEL-1
1. e Statement I does not mention the girls at all, so
it is insufficient to answer the question.
Statement II does not mention anything about
the height of Sita. Hence, statement II is also
insufficient to answer the question. Putting the
two statements together, we are able to say that
Ram is the shortest boy but it is not yet
comparable to the height of the shortest girl.
2. c From statement I, we get the order of candidates
getting votes as B > C > A.
From statement II, we find that it was D who
has lost his deposit (as A, B, C can’t have lost
their deposit). Hence, the final order of
candidates becomes B > C > A > D. Hence, B
has got the maximum number of votes.
3. e Combining both statements, both cars P and Q
travel from A to B. But we don’t know the
number of roads connecting A and B. Hence,
the question cannot be answered.
4. a From statement I, we infer that a small number
of people saw the picture twice. So, from
statement I alone, we get the answer ‘yes’.
Statement II alone is insufficient to answer the
question.
5. e The father of P was not a worker. But the mother
of P might be a worker. No information in this
regard is available either from the given
statements or from the introductory part. So,
this question cannot be answered.
6. e Statements I and II taken alone are not
sufficient to answer the question. Even when
considered together, the two statements are
not sufficient to answer the question, as D could
be either the wife or sister-in-law of A.
7. a From statement I, it is clear that Ram’s date of
birth is 22-7-1980. Hence, statement I is
sufficient to answer the question. From
statement II, though we get the year in which
Ram was born, we cannot find
out his date of birth.
8. c We get from statement I that 11th February
was a Sunday. Hence, 18th and 25th February
were also Sundays. The next Sunday can be
looked upon as ‘32nd February’ [which is 3rd
March for a leap year, as mentioned in
statement II].
Since statement II mentions that year ‘k’ is a
are Sundays, giving us 5 Sundays in that March.
In a normal year, 4th, 11th, 18th, 25th March
only would have been Sundays. Hence, the
answer for a normal year would be 4. Hence,
we require both statements to answer the
question.
9. c Since Mr X is not an Indian, it follows that Mr X
does not belong to any state in India. As Gujarat
is a state in India, we infer that Mr X does not
belong to Gujarat.
10. b From statement II, we note that Amar’s height
was less than five feet. Hence, we get from the
introductory part that he did not sit in the 2nd
row. As there were only two rows, this means
that he sat in he first row.
(Note: All those who had got medals sat in the
first row. But this does not mean that only those
who had got medals sat in the first row.)
11. c Combining both statements I and II, B and D
stay on 2nd and 4th floors respectively. Since D
is above B, B is on 2nd floor, i.e. 3rd floor from
top.

12. c Combining both statements I and II, when we
compare between statements given, in first half
other than Jamaica, remaining three words are
repeated. Also in the other half of the
statements, three words are repeated. Hence
Jamaica stands for Raj.
13. e This is because we don’t have any information
about his sisters. Hence, using both statements
together we cannot answer the question.
14. e Statement I gives no clue. And statement II gives
indication to 1811 and 1888. If brother was
younger or elder, than it would have been (e)
as the answer.
15. c Statement I in itself is not sufficient, but when
we consider second statement, it is clear that
economy stands for economy only.
LEVEL-2
1. b From I: Neelima and Sudhir have only one
daughter Riya. Also, Akash is their son.
No information regarding other children is
given, so I is not sufficient to answer the
question.
From II: Riya has two younger brothers and
one elder brother.
No information regarding sisters is given, so II
alone is not sufficient to answer the question.
From III: no information on Akash’s brothers
Combining I and II  Akash has two brothers
 Only I and II are necessary to answer the
question.
2. e From I: Q came before T and P and R did not
reach first.
No information regarding S is given, so I alone
is not sufficient to answer the question.
From II: P came before R, T but not before S
(who reached before Q)  S reached first.
So II alone is sufficient to answer the question.
From III: no information regarding who
reached first is given.
Only statement II is required to answer the
question.
 None of these.
3. c From I: M(parent) has two daughters . one
daughter is Z whose husband is A.
We know that A is the son in law but no
information on C is given, so I alone is not
sufficient to answer the question.
From II: C (mother) of V and Z.
But no mention of A is made, so II alone is not
sufficient to answer the question.
Combining I and II, we get A is C’s son in law.
Data Sufficiency 14.7
From III: M is C’s husband .
But III alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
Combining I and III, we get A is C’s son in law.
 The question can be answered using I and
either II or III.
4. c From I: Yogendra is to the South East of station
A.
But no information regarding Anu is given, so I
alone is not sufficient to answer the question.
From II: Anu is to the North West of station A.
But no information regarding Yogendra is given,
so II alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
Using the position of Yogendra from I and the
position of Anu from II the question can be
answered.
From III: Anu is to the North West of station
A.
But no information regarding Yogendra is given
, so III alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
Using the position of Yogendra from I and the
position of Anu from III the question can be
answered.
 The question can be answered using I and
either II or III
5. d From I: B and C are opposite to each other
I is not sufficient to answer the question since
no information regarding the others is given.
From II: E is either to the left of B or to the
right of C.
II is not sufficient to answer the question since
no information regarding the others is given.
From III: Both D and A are not opposite E so F
is opposite E.
III is not sufficient to answer the question since
no information regarding the others is given.
Combining I , II and III  D is opposite A.
 All I , II and III are necessary to answer the
question.
6. d From I: it is not 6 o'clock now because at 6:15
the hands are not at an exact right angle.
I is sufficient to answer the question.
From II: it is not 6 o'clock now because the 3
pm train which was 2 hours late has reached
now.
II is sufficient to answer the question.
From III: it is not 6 o'clock now because the 6
o'clock train is still in the platform.
III is sufficient to answer the question.
14.8 Data Sufficiency
The answer is: it is not 6 o'clock now.
 Either I or II or III is sufficient to answer the
question.
7. c From I and III it is clear that Neha has two
other siblings.
But I and III are not sufficient to answer the
question since no information regarding brother
or sister is given.
From II it is clear that Neha has only one
brother.
II is not sufficient to answer the question since
the other siblings are not mentioned.
The answer is: the second sibling is a sister.
 Only II and either III or I are sufficient to
answer the question.
8. b From I it is clear that T is taller than R and Q.
But I alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
From II no information regarding anyone other
than P is given
So II is not sufficient to answer the question.
From III it is clear that P is taller than S only
 P is shorter than Q, R and T.
But III alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
Combining I and III , we get T is the tallest.
 Only I and III are sufficient to answer the
question.
9. c From I it is clear that it is not Wednesday.
But I alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
From II it is clear that it is before Friday.
But II alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
From III it is clear that it is before Friday and
after Tuesday.
But III alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
Combining I and III : Anu arrived on Thursday
(which is after Tuesday , it is not a Wednesday
and it is before Friday.)
 Only I and III are sufficient to answer the
question.
10. b From I: E is at the right end.
No information regarding others is given, so I
alone is not sufficient to answer the question.
From II it is clear that D sits between A and C.
No information regarding others is given, so II
alone is not sufficient to answer the question.
From III it is clear that A and C, both are not
sitting at the extremes.
No information regarding others is given, so III
alone is not sufficient to answer the question.
Combining II and III the answer is: among 5
seats the middle 3 are occupied by A, D and C
and D is in the middle.
 Only II and III are sufficient to answer the
question.
11. e From I: More than one combinations of the
given faces are possible, so I alone is not
sufficient to answer the question.
From II: brown is adjacent to blue
But no information regarding other colours is
given so II alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
Combining statements I and II together we get
 white is opposite to brown.
 Data in both statements I and II put together
is necessary to answer the question
12. c From I: __, Intelligent, weak, fat,__
From II: Intelligent, weak, fat,__, __
From both the statements we can infer that the
person sitting on the left of the weak person is
intelligent.
 Data in statement I alone or statement II
alone is sufficient to answer the question
13. d From I: {I, want, to, be, PO} = { jai, kali, gai,
pali, mai}
{Renu ,needs, money} = {saaj, tika, sika}
{He ,needs, sweets} = {baaj, koko, saaj}
No code for 'is' given, so I is not sufficient to
answer the question.
From II: {what, he, want, to, be} = {jai, kali,
aaj, gai, koko}
{I, want, sweets, what, Renu, needs} = { baaj,
saaj, pali, kali, aaj, tika}
{PO, are, gentle} = {bogo, mai, ali}
No code for 'is' is given, so II is not sufficient to
answer the question.
Both I and II do not have a code for "is". So data
from both I and II together is not sufficient to
answer the question.
 Data Sufficiency 14.9
14. d Both statements I and II give the relation 15. a From I: we can clearly see that the pile of books
between the cards in each person's hand but do is as follows (from top to bottom)
not give the number of cards in any of the five History
persons' hands.
English
So data in both statements I and II put together
Mathematics
is not sufficient to answer the question.
History
English
Hindi
Mathematics
Hindi
Hindi
History
So data in statement I alone is sufficient to
answer the question.
From II: the fifth book from bottom is neither
mathematics nor English.
II is not sufficient to answer the question.
 Data in statement I alone is sufficient whereas
data in statement II alone is not sufficient to
answer the question.

 1
CHAPTER Physics
PH YSI CAL QU AN TI TI ES  Pr essur e  Angular D isplacement
U N I TS C.G.S. : dyne/cm 2 or g.wt /cm 2 radians
 L engt h M.K.S. : newton/m 2 or kg.wt/m 2  Angular Velocit y
C.G.S. : cent imet er M .K .S. or SI Syst em: km/pascal r adians/sec
M .K .S. : met er  Wor k  L uminous F lux
F.P.S. : foot C.G.S. : er g or dyne cm lumen(L n)
 M ass M .K .S. : joule or Nm  Solid angle
C.G.S. : gr am  P ow er steradians(Sr )
M .K .S. : kilogr am C.G.S. : er g/sec  L uminous I nt ensit y
F.P.S. : pound M .K .S. : wat t Candela(cd) or L umens
 T ime  E ner gy
 Candle Power
C.G.S. : second C.G.S. : er g
Candela(cd)
M .K .S. : second M .K .S. : joule
 M agnet ic Pole St r engt h
F.P.S. : second  Acceleration due to gravity (g):
M .K .S. : weber
 Cur r ent M .K .S. : met er /sec2
S.I . : amper e-met r e (A-m)
S.I . : amper e (A)  M oment of F orce:
 M agn et i c I n du ct i on or
 Temper at ur e C.G.S. unit : dyne cm
M agnet ic F lux Densit y
S.I . : kelvin (K ) S.I . unit : newt on met r e (Nm)
newt on/amper e-met r e
 Ar ea  D ensit y:
 I nt ensit y of M agnet ic field
C.G.S. : cm 2 C.G.S. : gr ams/cm 3
C.G.S. : Gauss
M .K .S. : m 2 M .K .S. : kilogr am/m 3
S.I . : Wb/m 2 or t esla
 Vol ume  H eat
 E lect r ic Power
C.G.S. : cm 3 or cc. C.G.S. : calor ie
S.I . : joule (J) joule/sec or wat t
M .K .S. : met er 3
Specific heat  Resist ance
 D ensit y 

C.G.S. : gm/cm 3 C.G.S. : cal/gm °C Ohm

M .K .S. : kg/met er 3 M .K .S. : J/kg°C  Specific Resist ance
 Speed  Cal or i f i c Val u e of Speci f i c Ohm-met r e
C.G.S. : cm/sec ener gy  Quant it y of heat
M .K .S. : met er /sec C.G.S. : cal/gm calor ies
 Vel ocit y M .K .S. : J/kg  Specific heat
C.G.S. : cm/sec  F r equency Cal/gm °C
M .K .S. : met er /sec her t z or Cycles/sec  H ouse hol d consumpt i on of
S.I . : km/sec  Char ge elect r ical ener gy
 M oment um coulombs (C) Kilowat t-hour s
C.G.S. : gm cm/sec  Capaci t y  Electro Chemical Equivalent
M .K .S. : kg.m/sec far ads (F) gm/coulomb
 F or ce  Pot ent i al  Self induct ance
C.G.S. : dyne volts (V) henr y
M .K .S. or SI unit : newt on (N)  Least Count of Screw Gauge  M ut ual induct ance
 T hr ust mm or cm henr y
C.G.S. : dyne or gm wt  U n i ver sal G r a vi t a t i on al  Elect ro M ot ive F or ce
Const ant (G)
M .K .S. : newt on or kg.wt volt s
Nm 2/kg2
 1.2 Physics
VALU ES
 Light year(ly) = 9.46 × 1012 km
 Distance of moon from Earth = 3.85 × 105 km
 Distance between Earth and the Sun = 1.5×1011 km
 N umber of Satellites of Jupitor = 14
 1 Astronomical U nit (1 AU ) = 1496 × 1011 met r es
 Per sec(largest unit of distance) = 3.26 light year
 Velocity of light = 3 × 108 met r e/sec
1 
 Time period of earth = 365 days
4 
 1 metre = 100 cm
 1 kg = 1000 gr ams
 Least count of Vernier callipers = 0.01 cm or 0.1 mm
 1 cubic meter = 1000 lit r es
 1 Litre = 1000 cubic cms
 1 gm/cubic cm = 1000 kg/met r e
 Relative density of mercury = 13.6
 Density of water = 1 gm/cm 3
 1 Square metre = 10,000 cm 2
 N umerical value of G = 6.67 × 10– 11Nm 2/kg2
5
 1 km/hour = met r es/sec
18
 1 newton = 105 dynes
 1 gm. weight = 980 dynes
 1 kg. weight = 9.8 newt ons
 N ormal temperature of H uman body = 36.9°C or
98.4°F
 M elting point of water = 0°C
 Boiling point of pure water = 100°C
 M elting point of wax = 60°C
 Freezing point of mercury = – 39°C
 Velocity of sound in vaccum = 0
 Time period for a seconds pendulum = 2 seconds
 1 H orse Power = 746 wat t s
 1 Kilo watt = 1.34 H or se Power
 1 Watt = 107 er gs/second
 Rat io bet ween coefficient of linear superficial
cubical expansions
 :  :  :: 1 : 2 : 3
 Audible frequency range = 20 H z t o 20,000 H z
 Value of g on M oon = 1.67 m/s2
 Value of g on Sun = 27.4 m/s2
 Value of g on Earth = 9.8m/s2
 For a freely falling body initial velocity = Zer o
 2  radians = 360°
 1 radian = 57°18 or 57°29
 Wave length of ruby laser = 6943Å
 Wave length of H e-N e laser = 6328Å
 Relat ive permeability of air vaccum = 1
 Permeability of free space (0) = 4× 10– 7 henry/metre
 Rel at i ve per m ea bi l i t y of a di am agn et i c
substance r  1
 Rel at i ve per m eabi l i t y of a pa r am a gn et i c
substance r  1
 Rel at i ve per m eabi l i t y of a f er r om a gn et i c
substancer  1
 1 kilo ohm = 103 ohm
1 M ega ohm = 106 ohms
Specific resistance of copper at 20°C = 1.7  10– 8
 Value of M echanical equivalent of heat
= 4.18 joules/calor ies
 1 Watt H our = 3600 wat t -second
 1 Kilowatt Hour = 36  105 watt-second = 3.6 × 106 Joule
 1 M ega watt = 106 wat t
 Electro-chemical equivalent of gold = 0.0006812
gm/Coulomb
 1 M eV = 1.6  10– 12 joules
 1 a.m.u = 931.5 M eV
 Energy gap of a conduct or = zer o
 1 Energy gap of a semi conductor = 1 eV
 Velocity of sound in air at 0°C = 330 m/sec
 Velocity of sound is air at 25°C = 351 m/sec
 1 farad = 106 M icr ofar ads
 Wave-lengt h ranges
(i ) Visible spect r um: 0.4 m t o 0.7 m
(ii ) I nfr ar ed spect r um: 0.7 m t o 100 m
(iii ) M icr o waves: 10 m t o 10m
(iv) Radio waves: 1 m t o 10 km
(v) Ult r a violet spect r um: 0.4 m t o 1 nm
(vi ) X r ays: 0.001 nm t o 10 nm
(vii ) Gamma r ays: 0.0001 nm t o 0.1 nm
 Ratio of Specific heat of air
Cp
  1.4
Cv
 Dielect ric constant value of rubber = 3
 H alf life period of radium = 1600 year s
 Dielect ric const ant value of paraffin = 2
PH YSI CS F ORM U LAS
Mass M 
 Densit y, d =
Volume  V 
Dist ance t r avel led s
 Speed, V =
Time int er val

 Displacement s
 Velocit y, V =
Time t 
 For ce, F = M ass(m)  Acceler at ion (a)
 Physics 1.3
 Weight = M ass(m)  Acceler at ion due t o gr avit y (g)  A  Dm 
sin 
Thr ust T   2 
 Pr essur e, P =  Refr act ive index of t he pr ism,  =
Ar ea  A  A
sin
 Thr ust , T = Pr essur e (P)  Ar ea (A) 2
1
 Boyle's law: PV = Const ant  Power of a L ense, P =
Focal lengt h in mt sf 
 Number of images for med by t wo plane mir r or s at
an angle   Relat ion bet ween I , V, H ; I 2 = V2 + H 2
360  Char ge, Q = CV
n= 1
 Q
 Cur r ent , i =
Size of t he image t
 M agnificat ion = 1 q1 q 2
Size of t he object  Coulomb's inver se squar e law F =
sin i 4 0 r 2
 Snell's law 12 =
sin r  Newt on's law of univer sal gr avit at ion
Relat ion bet ween u, v and f m 1m 2 Fr 2
 (i ) F = G 2 (ii ) G =
1 1 1 r m 1m 2
 
f u v r2
 Relat ion bet ween g and G, g =
 Equat ions of mot ion GM
1  Equat ion of mot ion of a body under gr avit y
(i ) v = u + at (ii ) s = ut + at 2 (iii ) v 2 – u 2 = 2as
2 1
(i ) v = u ± gt (ii ) h = ut ± gt 2 (iii ) v 2 – u 2 = ±2gh
 Wor k, W = For ce (F)  Displacement (S) 2
 Wor k, W = F  S cos   Equat ion of mot ion for a fr eely falling body
Work W  1 2
 Power, P = (i ) v = gt ...(u = 0) (ii ) h = gt (iii ) v 2 = 2gh
Time  T  2
 Pot ent ial Ener gy (P.E.) = mgh  M aximum height r eached by a body t hr own up,
1 2 u2
 K inet ic Ener gy (K .E.) = mv h=
2 2g
 Moment of force, M = Force(F)  Perpendicular distance u
M echanical advant age of wheel and axle  Time of ascent =

g
Radius of t he wheel u
= Time of descent =
Radius of t he axle 
g
 M echanical advant age of scr ew jack
2u
Cir cumference of t he scr ew  Time of flight =
= g
Pit ch of t he scr ew
M ass  Velocit y on r eaching t he gr ound
 Densit y = (i ) v = 2gh (ii ) u = 2gh
Volume
Densit y of t he subst ance Angular displacement
 Specific gr avit y =  Angular velocit y,  =
Densit y of Wat er Time int erval
 Quant it y of heat , Q = mst Also, v = r
Heat pr oduced M agnit ude, L = mvr = m r 2
 Calor ific value = 
Unit mass v2
H eat ut ilised Qu   Cent r ipet al acceler at ion, a =
 Ther mal efficiency = r
Tot al heat pr oduced Q1  mv 2 2
 Cent r al for ce, F =  m r
 Fundamental pr inciple of calorimetr y r
H eat lost by hot body = H eat gained by cold body  v2 
 Banking angle,  = t an – 1  
 Velocit y of sound, V = m   rg 
 Wor k done W 
 Dist ance bet ween a cr est and at r ough =  Elect r ic pot ent ial, V =
2 Char ge Q 
 Distance between two consecutive rests or tr ough =   Potent ial differ ence of cells connect ed in ser ies
 Newt on's for mula : E = E 1 + E 2 + E 3 + ...
E
Velocit y of sound in a gas, V =  Ohm's law : V = iR
P
 1.4 Physics
l  Beam Balance: To measur e mass of a subst ance
 Resist ance, R = 
A  Density bottle: To det er mine r elat ive densit y or
A specific gr avit y of liquids
 Specific r esist ance,  = R
l  H ydraulic machine: To pr ess bales of cot t on and
 Resist ances connet ed in ser ies, R = R1 + R2 t o pr ess oil seeds for get t ing oil
R1 R 2
 Resist ance ar e connect ed in par allel : R =  Barometer: To measur e at mospher ic pr essur e
R1  R 2  Altimeter: Used in air cr aft t o measur e alt it udes
V2
 Elect r ic power, P = V.i = i R =
2
...(V = iR)  Clinical T hermometer: To measur e t emper at ur e
R of human body
 Elect r ical wor k done, W = Vq  Six maximum and minimum T hermomet er: To
 Elect r ical wor k done, W = Vit measur e maximum and minimum t emper at ur e at a
 Elect r ical wor k done, W = Vq = i 2Rt place
i 2 Rt  Pressure cooker: House hold it em or appliance used
 H eat developed, Q = for cooking
J
 Far aday's fir st law : M = Z.i.t  Periscope: U sed in submar ines t o see object s on
 Far aday's second law : t he sur face of wat er
M 1 : M 2 : M 3 = E 1 : E 2 : E 3 = Z 1 : Z2 : Z3  Kaleidoscope: To obser ve a number of images wit h
wonder ful designs and colour s
 i
 M agnet ic induct ion, B = 0  Concave mirror: Used as a r eflect or in head light s
2 r
of vechicles; Dent ist s and ENT specialist s used t o
 For ce act ing on a cur r ent car r ying conduct or placed
see smal l i nner par t s of t hr oat , nose. used as a
in an ext er nal magnet ic field, F = ilB
shaving mir r or
V1 n 1
   Convex mirror: U sed in t el escopes; Ar r anged i n
V2 n 2
fr ont of t he dr iver of a vechicle
V1 i 2 n 1
    M agnetic compass: Used t o know posit ion of ship
V2 i 1 n 2 in mid sea and t o dr ive it in r equir ed dir ect ion for
 Alber t Einstein's mass, ener gy equivalence, E = mc2 r eaching t heir dest inat ions
 Electro magnets: Used in tape r ecorders, speaker s,
dynamos and motors
DEVI CES AN D I TS U SES
 Volt aic cell: Chemi cal ener gy i s conver t ed i nt o
 Sonometer: To measur e fr equency of a t unning for k elect r ical ener gy
 Vernier callipers: To measur e lengt hs accur at ely  Dry cell: Used in radios, torch lights, tape records etc.
 M easuring Jar: To measur e volume of liquids in  Telegraph: Used in sending messages t o a dist ance
millilit r es. place in a ver y shor t t ime
 M easur ing flask and pipet t e: To obt ai n fi xed  Electric iron: To pr ess t he clot hes
amount of liquid
 Soldering gun: To connect var ious element s in a
 Burette: To deliver any required volume of a liquid upto cir cuit
its maximum capacity
 Electric stove: For cooking or boiling of wat er, milk
 Common balance: To measur e mass of a body et c.
 Spring balance: To find weight of an object  H ydrometer: To deter mine specific gr avity of liquids
 Compression spring balance: To find weight of a  Calorimeter: To measur e quant it ies of heat
per son  Bomb calorimeter: To det er mine calor ific value of
 Postal balances: Used in Post offices fuels and foods
 Table or scale balances: Used in fancy shops and  Astronomical telescope: To view dist ant st ar s and
sweet shops planets
 Platform balances: Used in Railway st at ions, I r on  Terrestrial telescope: To view dist ant object s on
and har dwar e shops and in par cel offices t o weight ear t h
heavy weight s  Dip circle: To det er mine dip of a place
 M icro balances: To measur e mass of a subst ance  Gold leaf electroscope: To det ect pr esence of st at ic
upt o one micr ogr am elect r icit y over a body
 Electronic balances: Used in jewellar y shops  Coolidge tube: I n pr oduct ion of X -r ays
 Single pan analytical balance: Used in laboratories  Screw Gauge: To measur e t hickness of a t hin glass
 Clocks: To measur e t ime plat e and diamet er of a t hinwir e or a small spher e

 Gravity meters: To find value of ‘g’ at a given location
 Spring balance: To det er mine weight of a body
 Cent rifuge: To separ at e par t icles of higher mass
fr om t hose of lower mass in a given mixt ur e
 Simple pendulum:: To det er mine ‘g’ value
 Ripple tank: Used for demonst r at ion of waves.
 Ammeter: To measur e cur r ent in amper es.
 Voltmeter: To measur e pot ent ial differ ence in volt s
 Rheostat: Used t o r egulat e t he value of a cur r ent
in a cir cuit
 Resitance: Opposes t he flow of elect r ons t hr ough
t he conduct or
 Tap-key: Used t o make or br eak an elect r ic cir cuit
 Cell, battery: Power sour ces
 Voltameter or Elect rolytic cell: Vessel i n which
elect r olysis t ake place
 Elect ric mot or: Devi ce whi ch conver t s el ect r i cal
ener gy int o mechanical ener gy
 AC D ynamo or AC Gener at or : Devi ce whi ch
conver t s mechanical ener gy int o elect r ical ener gy
 Tr ansfor mer : Devi ce whi ch ei t her i ncr eases or
decr eases magnit ude of an alt er nat ing volt age and
ior n cor e t o minimise power losses
 N uclear reactor: Used in Nuclear Power St at ions
t o dr ive t ur bines of t he elect r ic gener at or syst em
 Diodes: Used in r ect ifier cir cuit s
 P-n junction diode: Used as an elect r onic swit ch
 Light emitting diodes: Used in digit al clocks and
digital calculat or s
 Junciton transistor: Used to stabilise power supplies
 Computer: Used in banki ng, i ndust r y, commer ce
science, educat ion, weat her pr edict ion, war far e et c.
 St op wat ch: U sed in r unning r aces, l abor at or i es
t ype inst itut es
TERM S AN D TH EI R EXAM PLES
 Opaque bodies: st one, met als, wood, human body
 Transparent bodies: glass, wat er
 N atural fibres: cot t on, jut e, wool
 Artificial fibres: nylon, dacr on, or lon
 Self-luminous body: sun, st ar s, bur ning candle
 Fundamental units: lengt h, mass and t ime
 Derived units: ar ea, volume, densit y
 Scal ar quant i t y: l engt h , mass, t i m e, vol um e,
t emper atur e
 Vector quantity: displacement , velocit y, for ce
 Transverse waves: waves pr oduced on str ings, light
waves
 Longit udinal waves: sound waves i n a medium,
vibr at ion in spr ing
 M usical inst r ument s:
(i ) St r inged inst r ument s: sit ar, violen, veena
(ii ) Dr um inst r ument s: mr idangam, tabala
((iii ) Blow t ype inst r ument s: flut e, clar inet
Physics 1.5
 N on-luminous bodies: ear t h, moon, chair
 M edium: air, glass, wat er, vaccum
 Transparent subst ances: gr ound gl ass, l ayer of
par affin wax, oiled paper
 N atural magnets: ear t h, bar magnet , H or se shoe
magnet , r ing magnet
 M agnetic substances: ir on, st eel, nickel, cobalt
 N on-magnet ic subst ances: paper, wood, br ass,
aluminium
 Physical effort: pushing, pulling, t ur ning, bending
 M ental effort: memor ising a poem, solving a pr oblem
 Renewable source of energy: sol ar ener gy, wind
ener gy, wat er power, biomass ener gy
 N on-renewable source of energy: coal, oil, nat ur al
gas
 Energy crisis: solar ener gy, t idal, nuclear ener gy
 Fuels: pet r ol, ker osene, diesel, coal
 Simple machines: wheel and axle, scr ew-jack
 Wheel and axle: winches, capstans, drills, tap handles
 Primary colours: r ed, gr een, blue
 Secondary colours: yell ow, magent a, cyan.
 Lenses: convex, concave
 Optical syst ems: t elescopes, micr oscopes
 Conductors of electricity: copper, aluminium, metals
 I nsulators: r ubber, glass, wood
 Capacit or s: L eydenj ar capaci t or, par al l el pl at e
capacit or, hor izont al t ype capacit or
 Cat hode r ay-t ubes: t el evi si on pi ct u r e t u bes,
comput er display t ubes, t ube light s in t he houses
 Flourescent substances: zinc sulphide
 Gravity meters: boliden gr avit y met er, gulf gr avit y
met er
 L inear mot ion or Tr anslat or y mot ion: mot i on
of t he bus
 Oscillatory or Vibratory motion: pendul um of a
wall clock
 Gaseous laser: helium- neon laser
 Solid laser: r uby laser
 Diamagnetic substances: air, wat er, bismut h, gold
 Par amagnet ic subst ances: oxygen, mangenese,
aluminium, plat inum, chr omium
 Ferromagnet ic substances: ir on, cobalt , ni ck el
 Power sources: cell, bat t er y
 Power consumer: bul b
 Connectors: conduct ing wir es
 H eating effects of electric current: elect r ic ir on,
immer sion heat er, elect r ic st ove, elect r ic bulb
 N at ur al r adi o act i ve subst ances: u r ani u m ,
t hor ium, r adium, act inium
 I sotopes: 2010Ne, 2110Ne, 2210Ne; 1H 1 1H ,21H 3
 I sobars: 4019K , 4020Ca, 136C, 137N
 1.6 Physics
 Radio isotopes: r adio act ive sodium, r adio act ive SCALAR AN D VECTOR QU AN TI TI ES
cobalt , r adio act ive iodine Scalar Quant it ies
 Semi-conductors: gr aphite, pur e ger manium, silicon Physi cal quant i t i es possessing magni t ude onl y ar e
 Trivalent atoms: gallium, indium, aluminium, boron called scalar quant it ies.
 Pentavalent atoms: ar senic, ant imony, phosphor us e.g. ar ea, lengt h, volume, mass and speed ar e scalar
quantities.
M OT I ON
Pr essur e, elect r ic cur r ent s ar e scaler quant it y.
A body if changes it s posit ion wit h r espect t o anot her,
t hen it is called mot ion . Ever y one knows t hat even Vect or Quant it ies
ear t h i s not st at i onar y. H owever, for al l par t i cal Physical quantities that can be r epr esented completely
applicat ions, ear t h is asssumed as st at ionar y. Thus a by magnitude and dir ection ar e called vector quantities.
body can be said in mot ion if it changes it s posit ion e.g. velocit y, acceler at ion, weight , momentum, cur r ent
wit h r espect t o ear t h. densit y and for ce ar e vect or qunt it ies.
Types of M otion VELOCI TY
1. U nifor m mot ion. The r at e of change of displacement i n a par t icul ar
I f a body cover s equal dist ances in equal int er vals of dir ect ion is called velocit y .
t ime, it is said t o be moving wit h unifor m mot ion or I t is a vect or quant it y. I t s unit is m/s.
mot ion of body is unifor m. 
 Displacement s
2. N on-uniform mot ion or Var iable mot ion  
Mathematically, Velocity, V =
Time t 
m /s
I f a body cover s unequal distances in equal int er vals
U nifor m velocit y
of time, then it is said to be moving with non-unifor m
or var iable mot ion. I t a body moving in a par ticular dir ection, cover s equal
dist ances in equal int er vals of t ime, it is said t o be
ORI GI N moving wit h unifor m velocit y. Alt er nat ively a body is
Any ar bit r ar ily select ed fixed point wit h r espect t o said t o be moving wit h unifor m velocit y if it s speed
which t he posit ion changes is known as or igin. and dir ect ion does not change wit h t ime.
DI STAN CE Var iable velocit y
 I t is t he act ual lengt h cover ed by a body dur ing t he
A body is said t o be moving wit h var iable velocit y if it
whole jour ney.
cover s unequal dist ance in equal int er vals of t ime.
 I t is a scalar quant it y.
A body is said t o be moving wit h var iable velocit y if
 I n SI unit s, it is measur ed in met r es(m).
(1) dir ect ion of mot ion changes, or
DI SPLACEM EN T (2) speed changes or
 I t can be defined as t he dist ance t r avelled by a body
(3) bot h dir ect ion and speed changes.
in a par t icular dir ect ion.
 I t is a vect or quant it y. Physi cal Quant ity S.I . U nit s Symbol
 I t is t he shor t est dist ance bet ween any t wo point . Dist ance met r e m
Displacement met r e m
 I n SI unit s, it is measur ed in met r es(m).
M ass kg kg
SPE E D Time second s
 The rate of change of movement (distance) is called speed. Speed met ers per second ms– 1
 I t is a scalar quant it y. Velocit y met ers per second ms– 1
 I n SI units it is measur ed in metr es per second(m/s). Acceleration met ers per second ms– 2
di st ance d  square
 Mathematically, Speed =
Angular veloci ty radians per second rad s
–1
t ime t 
Aver age speed ACCELERAT I ON
I t is t he dist ance t r avelled by body per unit t ime. The r at e of change of velocit y is called acceler at ion .
M at hemat ically, Aver age speed  
 Change in velocit y v  u 
Tot al dist ance t ravelled by t he body Acceler at ion, a =
= Time  t 
Time t aken by t he body t o cover Types of Accelerat ion
t he t ot al dist ance
1. U nifor m acceler at ion.
U nifr om speed
I f a body cover s equal dist ances in equal int er vals of I f velocity of a moving body increase by equal amount
t ime, t hen it is said t o be moving wit h unifor m speed. in equal inter vals of time, then it is said to be moving
wit h unifor m acceler ation .

2. Var iable acceler at ion.
I f vel ocit y of a moving body changes by unequal
amount s in equal inter vals of t ime, t hen it is said t o
be moving wit h var iable acceler at ion .
RE TARD AT I ON
I f final velocity of a body is less than the initial speed,
then it is called deceleration and the body is said t o be
u n der goi n g r et ar dat i on . F or al l m at h em at i cal
calculations, it is taken as acceleration with minus sign.
GRAPH S
Gr aphs ar e used for conveni ent ly r epr esent ing t he
given dat a on t wo mut ually per pendicular axes.
For t he pr oper ly plot t ed gr aphs, we can find out t hose
values which ar e not given on t he dat a.
Average velocit y ( vavg)
It is defined as the velocity of a moving body per unit time.
Tot al dist ance t ravelled
M at hemat ically, v avg =
Tot al t ime t ak en
I n t he case of a unifor mly acceler at ed mot ion,
u+v
v avg =
2 I t is t he st udy of mot ion of object s independent of t he
wher e, u = init ial velocit y, v = final velocit y
Angular velocit y (  )
 The r ate of change of angular displacement is called
angular velocit y .
 The velocity of a body moving in a cir cle is measur ed
in r adians/ seconds (r ad s– 1).
Angular displacement i n radians
= or  =
Time t ak en
wher e,  = angular displacement
E quat ions of mot ion
Consi der mot i on of a body, movi ng wi t h uni for m
acceler at ion.
L et u is init ial velocit y and a is acceler at ion of t he
body. Then
Final velocit y of t he body v = u + at
Since body is moving wit h unifor m acceler at ion, t hen
uv
Aver age velocit y of t he body, v ar g =
1 2
Dist ance cover ed by t he body, s = ut  at
2
1
Dist ance cover ed in n t h second s = u  a 2n  1
2
M ot ion under gr avit y
When a body falls t owar ds t he ear t h, it s velocit y goes
in incr easing continuously. The body is said to be falling
under gr avit y.
When a body falls under gr avit y, it cont inuously gains
acceler at ion g.
Thus equat i ons of mot i on of a body fal l i ng under
gr avit y ar e wr it t en as
1 at t r act ion bet ween molecules.
v = u + gt ; s = ut + gt 2 ; v 2 = u 2 + 2gs = u 2 + 2gh
2
I n t hese equat ions, ‘a’ is r eplaced by g.
Physics 1.7
When body goes away fr om t he ear t h, t hen its velocit y
goes on decr easi ng cont i nuousl y. The val ue of g i s
t ak en as negat i ve for such cases for sol vi ng t he
pr oblems of physics
1 2
Thus v = u – gt , s = ut – gt , and v 2 – u 2 = – 2gs
2
or v 2 = u 2 – 2gh
M OM EN T OF A FORCE
The turning effect produced by a force is called its moment .
F1 F2
F 1 l = F 2 l
A B
l l
wher e, F 1 = F 2 = for ces act ing on t he ends of a bar
l = ar m of moment
Unit s : N-m in S.I syst em.
S
= Newt on is a unit of for ce. I t is equal t o t he for ce whi ch
t pr oduces accel er at i on of 1 m/s2 i n a mass of 1 k g
 1 N = 1 kg  m 2; 1 N = 105 dyne
KI N EM ATI CS
causes of mot ion. I t is also gener ally independent of
t he object t hat is moving.
M oment um
I t is equal t o pr oduct of mass and velocit y of a body. I t
is a vect or quant it y and is r epr esent ed by ‘P’.
P=mv
 Unit s : kg-m/sec in SI syst em
t L aw of Conservat ion of M oment um
M oment um can neit her be cr eat ed nor dest r oyed but
can be changed fr om one for m t o anot her for m.
When t wo or mor e bodies int er act mut ually, t hen sum
t ot al of moment um r emains unchanged unless t hey
ar e act ed upon by some unbalanced ext er nal for ce.
F ORCE
...(i ) For ce is agency which pr oduces or t ends t o pr oduce,
destr oys or tends to destr oy, the state of r est or unifor m
mot ion of a body.
I t also changes shape and dir ect ion of a body.
2
I t SI syst em it is measur ed in newt on(N).
For example a ball on a table moves when it is pushed. It
shows that the ball needs a force to change its state of rest.
Types of Force
I n nat ur e we obser ve a number of for ces.
1. M uscular force : I t is exer ted in lifting heavy bodies.
2. Force of friction : It helps us to move on smooth roads.
3. M agnetic force of at t ract ion : I t i s r esponsi bl e
for an ir on r od at t r act ed by a magnet .
4. Gravitational force : I t pulls all bodies towards the
centr e of the earth.
5. Cohesion and Adhesion : Ther e ar e for ces of
6. N uclear force : Ther e ar e ver y shor t r ange for ces
t hat keep t he nuclear par t icles t oget her.
 1.8 Physics
I N ERT I A Angular velocit y (  )
I ner t ia is a measur e of mass of a body. Gr eat er t he I t i s def i n ed as t h e r at e of ch an ge of si n gu l ar
mass of a body gr eat er will be it s iner t ia or vice ver sa displacement of a body.
when any vechicle st ar t s suddenly, the passenger falls I f a body descr ibes a small angle  in small int er val
backwar d. I t is due t o iner t ial pr oper t y of t he body. of t ime t , t hen
I M PU L SE 
The pr oduct of for ce and time for which it acts is called =
t
impulse. I t is a vect or quant it y. Unit of angular velocit y is r adians per second(r ad s– 1).
I mpulse = For ce  Time
TI M E PERI OD
The unit s of impulse is Ns.
The time per iod of a body r evolving about a fixed points
N EWTON ’S LAWS OF M OTI ON is defined as t he t ime t aken by it t o complet e one full
F irst law r evolut ion. I t is denot ed by T.
A body cont inues t o r emain in st at e of r est or unifor m FREQU EN CY ( n)
mot ion in t he same dir ect ion in a st r aight line unless Fr equency of a body r evolving about a fixed point (or a
act ed upon by some ext er nal unbalanced for ces. fi xed axi s) i s defi ned as t he number of compl et e
Second law r evolut ions made by it in a unit t ime.
The r at e of change of moment um of a body is dir ect ly n = 1/T
pr opor t ional t o t he implied for ce and t akes place in Relat ion bet ween Angular velocit y, Time
t he dir ect ion of t he for ce per iod and F r equency
mv 1
i.e F or F = ma  = 2  = 2 n
t T
T hir d law Relat ion bet ween L inear and Angular velocit y
To ever y act ion t hr er e is equal and opposit e r eact ion v=r
i .e. F1 = – F2 M agnit ude of t he linear velocit y of a par t icle moving
F or mulae of M ot ion i n a ci r cl e i s pr oduct of t he angul ar vel oci t y and
 For ce = mass  acceler at ion dist ance of t he par t icle fr om t he axis of r ot at ion.
 M oment um = mass  velocit y CEN TRI PETAL FORCE
 Newt on is a unit of for ce. One newt on is t hat much I t is t he for ce t hat comples a body t o keep moving in a
f or ce w h i ch pr odu ces i n a m ass of 1 k g an cir cular path with a constant speed and is directed along
acceler at ion of 1 m/s2 r adius of t he cir cle t owar ds it s cent r e.
 SI unit of moment um is kgm/s, velocit y is m/s
mv 2
Cent r ipet al for ce F = = mr 2 ...(v = r )
 S.I unit of acceler at ion is m/sec2
r
wher e m is mass of a par t icle moving along a cir cle of
RE ACT I ON r adius r wit h a unifor m speed v.
When t wo for ces act ing on t wo bodies in cont act ar e CEN TRI FU GAL FORCE
equal and opposit e, t hen one of the ot her for ce is called
I t is defined as t he for ce of r eact ion
react ion . 
v
exer t ed by a body moving unifor mly 

v
ROTATORY M OTI ON along a cir clular pat h on t he ext er nal

F O
F

A body is said t o possess mot ion of r ot at ion if agen t w h i ch i s pr ov i di n g t h e

(i ) all t he par t icles of t he body move in cir cles wit h cen t r i pet al f or ce, by vi r t u e of i t s v

t heir cent r es lying on t he axis of r ot at ion, and const ant t endency t o t r avel along a st r aight line pat h.
(ii ) all t he posit ion vect or s sweep out t he same angle The cent r ifugal for ce act s along t he r adius but in t he
in a given t ime int er val. out war d dir ect ion.
Angular D isplacement M OM EN T OF I N ERTI A (M .I .)
I f a par t icle moving in a cir cle, t hen it may be defined M .I . of a r igid body, about a given axis of r ot at ion
as the angle swept out by t he posit ion vect or in a given i s su m of t h e pr odu ct s m r 2 t ak en f or al l t h e
t ime int er val. par t icles const it ut ing t he body, wher e m is mass of a
The S.I . unit of measur ement of angular displacement par t icle and ‘r ’ is it s nor mal dist ance fr om t he axis of
is r adians. Radian is t he angle subt ended at t he ent r e r ot at ion
of a cir cle by an ar c of lengt h equal t o r adius of cir cle.  I = mr 2
S Moment of iner t ia is a scalar quantit y. I ts unit is kg m 2.
360
(in r adian) = ; 1 r adian =  57.3
r 2
 Physics 1.9
WORK, POWER AN D EN ERGY 3. Square of the per iod of revolution of the planet r ound
W ORK t he sun is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o t he cube of t he
aver age dist ance bet ween planet and t he sun, i.e.
When a body is displaced by t he applicat ion of a for ce,
wor k is said t o be done by t he for ce. T2  r 3
Wor k = For ce  Displacement , or W = F  S N ewt on’s law of Gravit at ion
Ever ybody in t his univer se at t r act s ever y ot her body
Unit s : I n S.I syst em – newt on-met r e or joule and
wi t h a for ce, whi ch i s di r ect l y pr opor t i onal t o t he
I n C.G.S syst em – er gs; 1 joule = 107 er gs pr oduct of t heir masses and inver sely pr opor t ional t o
POW E R t he squar e of t he dist ance bet ween t hem.
W m 1m 2 m 1m 2
The r at e of doing wor k is called power. P =
t M at hemat ically, F  ; or F = G
d2 d2
1 joule wher e m 1 and m 2 = mass of two bodies and d is distance
Unit s : wat t and kilo wat t and 1 wat t =
1 sec between them
H orse power is anot her unit of power, G = const ant called uni ver sal gr avi t at i onal
1 H .P = 746 wat t const ant .
EN ERGY Gravitational constant G between sun and earth
The capacit y t o do wor k is called ener gy. N  mt 2
is 6.7  10– 11
Differ ent for m of ener gy ar e int er nal ener gy, kinet ic kg 2
ener gy, pot ent ial ener gy, chemi cal, t her mal ener gy, ACCELERATI ON DU E TO GRAVI TY (g)
elect r ical ener gy et c. I t is t he acceler at ion with which a body falls fr eely it is
Kinet ic ener gy i n depen den t of m ass of t h e body. T h e val u e of
It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion. acceler at ion due t o gr avit y is not const ant at all par t s
1 on t he ear t h’s sur face.
M at hemat ically, K .E = mv 2 GM
2 The aver age value of g is 9.81 m/sec2. g  2
where, m is mass of the body and v is velocity of the body R
Pot ent ial ener gy Thus we find t hat ‘g’ is independent of mass of a body.
I t is t he ener gy possessed by t he body due t o it s some/ I t depends on mass and r adius of t he ear t h.
r est posit ion. M ass of the Earth
P.E. = mgh gR 2
M=
wher e, g = acceler at ion due t o gr avit y G
h = height of the body above the r efer ence point wher e, M = 5.91  1024 kg
L aw of Conservat ion of Energy R = r adius of ear t h = 6.38 106 m
The total energy of a closed system is constant. I t can G = univer al gr avit at ional const ant
neither be created nor destroyed, but can be converted G = 6.67  10– 11 Nm 2/kg2
into one form to other form.
Variat ions in value of g
Relat ion bet ween M ass and Energy (E inst ein’s
equat ion) 1. Var iat ions wit h alt it ude (height ).
Tot al ener gy of body, E = mc2 gh = g 1  2h 
 g 
wher e, m = r elat ive mass of body
where, gh = acceleration due to gr avity at a height ‘h’.
GRAV I TAT I ON
Al l obj ect s possessi ng mass have t he pr oper t y of The value of ‘g’ decr eases wit h incr easing height
gr avitation. (r adius).
Gr avit at ion is t he for ce of at t r act ion bet ween any t wo 2. Var iat ion wit h dept h.
object s of t he univer se. A chair lying in a r oom att r act s Acceler at ion due t o gr avit y at dept h ‘d’
all ot her object s including t he ear t h.
g = g 1  d 
GRAV I T Y  R
I t is the force of attr action between object and the ear th. The value of ‘g’ decr eases wit h incr easing d.
K epler’s laws 3. Variation due t o shape of the eart h.
1. Each planet moves in an ellipt ical or bit wit h t he Ear t h is not a per fect spher e. I t is slight ly bulging
sun at one of it s foci. at t he equat or and flat t ened at t he poles, whi ch
2. The line joining t he planet t o t he sun sweeps equal means t he pol ar r adi us of ear t h i s smal l er as
ar eas in equal int er vals of t ime (or ) compar ed t o it s equat or ial r adius. Thus value of ‘g’
Velocit y of t he r adius vect or joining planet and t he at poles will be mor e t han it s value at equat or, i.e.
Sun is const ant . gpolar > gequait or ial
 1.10 Physics
Gr avit at ional pot ent ial ener gy F r equency
GM m The time after which the body r etr aces its path is called
P.E = – t ime per iod and t he number of vibr at ions made in one
R
Negative sign of gravitational potential at a point shows second is called frequency .
that for ce is applied opposite to the dir ection of mot ion 1 1
Fr equency, n = or 
as to move the body without acceler ation due to gr avity. Time per iod T
SATELLI TE D isplacement and Amplit ude
Sat ellit e is like a body t hat is r evolving in an or bit The physcial quantity which varies uniformly with time
ar ound a compar at ively much lar ger body. in an oscillat or y mot ion is called displacement .
e.g. moon is a sat ellit e of ear t h. The maximum value of displacement is called amplitude.
Geost at ionar y sat ellit e. SI M PLE H ARM ON I C M OTI ON
I t is t hat sat ellit e which r evolves ar ound t he ear t h A m ot i on i n w h i ch accel er at i on of t h e body i s
wit h t he same angular speed in t he same dir ect ion as pr opor t i on al t o i t s di spl acem ent fr om t he mean
t hat of t he ear t h ar ound it s axis. Such a sat ellit e is posi t i on and i s al ways di r ect ed t owar ds t he mean
also called geosynchronous sat ellit e. posit ion is called simple har monic mot ion .
M ovement of Planet and Satellit es or
4 r 2 Th e m ot i on of f oot of t he
G.M . =
T2 per pendicular dr opped fr om
wher e, r = r adius of t he or bit t h e par t i cl e m ov i n g i n a
T = per iod of r evolut ion cir cle on t he hor izont al and
ver t i cal di amet er s i s call ed
M = mass of t he sun (for planet ) or of ear t h (for
simple har monic mot ion .
an ear t h sat ellit e)
Simple H ar monic mot ion is r epr esent ed by
H eight of Geost at ionary sat ellit e
h = R0 – R  2 
y = A sin  t   ; y = A sin (t + )
wher e, R0 = r adi us of fi xed or bi t ar ound t he ear t h T 
wher e, A = amplitude
(42.250 km)
 = angular fr equency
wher e, R = r adius of ear t h(6380 km)
h = 35,870 km  = phase differ ence
Or bit al velocit y (v0) PH ASE
I t is t hat pr oper t y of wave mot ion which t ells posit ion
I t is t he speed of a sat ellit e in it s or bit of the par t icle at any instant. Phase is measur ed eit her
v0 = gR = 6.4  106  9.8 = 7.92 km/s by t he angle which t he par t icle makes wit h t he mean
Escape velocit y (v e) posit ion or by fr act ion of t ime per iod.
The minimum velocit y wit h which a body should be Energy of a particle execut ing S.H .M .
pr oject ed t o over come the ear t h’s gr avit ational field is 1
called t he escape velocit y. E= m2 A 2
2
v e = 11.2 km/s SI M PLE PEN DU LU M
SI M PLE H ARM ON I C M OTI ON The metal sphere is called bob and the point fr om which
PERI ODI C M OT I ON t h e pen du l u m i s su spen ded i s cal l ed cen t r e of
I t is a mot ion which r epeat it self in definit e int er val of
suspension .
t ime. The dist ance between cent r e of suspension and cent r e
of gr avi t y of t he bob i s cal l ed effect i ve l engt h of
e.g. mot ion of sun ar ound ear t h, mot ion of ar ms of a
clock, mot ion of simple pendulum et c.
pendulum .
Oscillat or y or Vibr at or y mot ion l
Time per iod of t he simple pendulum, T = 2
When a body moves t o and fr o on eit her side of a point g
in definit e t ime int er val, t hen t his mot ion is called Seconds pendulum
oscillat or y or vibr at or y mot ion .
I t is the simple pendulum having a time per iod at 2
T ime per iod seconds. Its effective length is 99.992 cm or approximately
I t is time taken by the body t o complete one oscillation. one meter. On ear th, time period of the pendulum in
e.g. mot ion of a mass suspended fr om a spr ing mot ion mines or up the hills is mor e than that on the sea level
of simple pendulum et c. because at these places ‘g’ is less than that on sea level.
 Physics 1.11
GEN ERAL PROPERTI ES OF M ATTER BU OYAN CY
At mospher ic pr essur e The pr oper t y by vir t ue of which a body immer sed in a
Air exerts pressure which is called atmospheric pressure. liquid exper ience an upwar d thr ust is called buoyancy .
I f ‘h’ is height of t he at mospher ic air, ‘d’ is densit y of Buoyant for ce
t he air and ‘g’ is acceler at ion due t o gr avit y, t hen Whenever a body is immer sed in liquid an upwar d force
Atmospheric pr essur e = hdg = 76  13.6  980 dyne/cm 2 act s on t he body by t he liquid. This upwar d for ce is
called buoyant for ce.
D ensit y
Buoyant for ce depends upon
Densit y of a subst ance is defined as t he r at io of it s
mass t o it s volume. (i ) volume (V) of the solid body immersed in the liquid,
m (ii ) densi t y of t he l i qui d(  ) i n whi ch t he body i s
=
v immer sed, and
Unit s : kg/m 3 (iii ) acceler at ion due t o gr avit y (g)
Relat ive densit y
M at hemat ically, Buoyant For ce = V..g
I t is defined as t he r at io of densit y of t he subst ance t o
Buoyant force = Weight of the liquid displaced by the body.
t he densit y of t he wat er at 4C.
Cent r e of Buoyancy
F l ui d
A fluid may be defined as t hat st at e of mat t er which The point at which t he buoyant for ce act s is called
cannot indefinit ely or per manent ly oppose or r esist a cent r e of buoyancy and is defined as cent r e of gr avit y
shear ing st r ess. of t he displaced liquid.
L iquid KI N ETI C TH EORY OF GASES
I t is a fluid which alt hough has no shape of it s own, M OLECU LE
occupies a definit e volume which cannot be alt er ed, I t is t he smallest par t icle of t he subst ance which has
however gr eat t he for ce applied t o it . al l t he pr oper t i es of t hat subst ance and whi ch can
Cent er of pressure r emain in fr ee st at e.
The point of t he plane (immer sed in a liquid) at which AT OM
the r esult ant pr essur e act s is called center of pressur e. I t is the smallest unit of the substance which is invisible
F luid pr essur e and which can not be dest r oyed.
A liquid cont ained in a vessel exer t s a for ce on t he 13
bot t om of t he vessel and on t he sides of t he vessel.  3A 
Radius of at om, r at om = 
This for ce is nor mal t o t he sur face. The pr essur e is  4  N  
defined as for ce per unit ar ea. Avogadr o’s number
Unit s : newt on/m 2 I t r epr esent s t he number of molecules in one mole of
Ar chimedes’s pr inciple any subst ance.
When a body (t ot ally or par t ially) is immer sed in a I t s value is 6.02  1023 per gm mole.
fluid it appears to lose a par t of its weight and appar ent
loss of weight is equal t o weight of fluid displaced. m
Number of molecules   6.02  1023
Appar ent weight of t he body = Act ual weight of t he M
body – Upt hr ust wher e, m = mass of t he subst ance
L aws of F loat at ion M = moleculer weight
L et a body of weight W is immer sed in a fluid and W  is STATES OF M ATTER
t he upt hrust . Ther e ar e mainly t hr ee st at es of mat t er viz., solid,
1. I f W > W , t hen body will sink. liquid and gas
2. I f W = W , t hen body float s wit h whole of it s volume 1. Solids : The molecules of solid ar e ver y close t o
inside t he liquid. each ot her, t her efor e int er nal for ces of at t r act ion
3. I f W < W , t hen body will float wit h some of it s par t ar e ver y st r ong. M olecules of t he solid can not move
out side t he liquid fr om one place t o another place but they can vibr at e
Pascal’s law simple har monically about t heir mean posit ions.
Pressure applied at any point in the fluid is tr ansmitted 2. Liquids : The molecules of liquids ar e much closer
equally and undiminished t o all par t s of t he fluid. i n compar i son t o t he mol ecul es of a sol i d . The
Boyle’s law inter molecular for ces of at t r act ion ar e smaller than
Volume of a given mass of a gas var ies inver sely as t hat of solid. The molecules of a liquid ar e fr ee to
pressure of gas provided temperatur e remains constant. move with the volume of the liquid but velocit y of
1 the molecules is much less t han that of the gases.
P or PV = const ant .
V
1.12 Physics
3. Gases : I n t his stat e of matt er, t he distance bet ween
t he mol ecules i s ver y l ar ge. The int er molecular
for ces of attr action acting between the molecules ar e
ver y small, ther efor e gases do not have a definite
shape (or ) definite volume.
Kinet ic t heory and Gas pressure
The pr essur e of a gas i s t he r esul t of cont i nuous
bombar dment of t he gas molecules against t he walls
of t he cont ai ner and i s equal t o t ot al moment um
impar t ed per second per unit ar ea of t he walls of t he
cont ainer by t he bombar ding molecules.
TEM PERATU RE SCALE
Kelvin scale
T = (273 + t )  K
I DEAL GAS
I deal gases obey Boyl es and Char l es l aw for al l
condit ions of pr essur e and t emper at ur e. Ther e is no
int er molecular for ce of at t r act ion act ing bet ween t he
molecules of gases.
Gas equat ion : PV = nRT
wher e, P = pr essur e ; T = t emper at ur e ; V = volume
n = number of molecules
R = universal gas constant = 8.31 joule/mole-kelvin
Degree of F reedom
The t ot al number of co-or di nat es or i ndependent
quantities which must be known in order to describe
completely the position of an object or the state of a system
is called degrees of freedom of the object or system.
3 t he value of 32° and steam point is given a value of
M onoatomic gas : U = RT
2
5 between the t wo fixed points. The Fahr enheit scale
Diatomic gas : U = RT
2
7 6
Polyatomic gas : U = RT or RT  3RT
2 2
Vander Waal equation (Equation of state for real
gases)
 a 
 P  2   V  b  = RT
V Conversion of Celsius to Fahrenheit to Kelvin scale
H E AT TH ERM OM ET RY
H EAT
I t is an agent which pr oduces t he sensation of war mt h.
When an object i s heat ed, i t s mol ecul es begi n t o move
fast er. H eat al ways fl ows fr om a hot t er body t o a
colder body.
H eat is measur ed in calor ie or K ilocalor ie. SI unit of
heat is joule (J).
H eat ing and Cooling of subst ances
On cooling gases become liquid. When liquids are heated
they change to gases and when solids ar e heated, t hey
change to liquids. Liquids solidify on cooling.
Calor ie.
I t i s t h e am ou n t of h eat r equ i r ed t o r ai se t h e
t emper at ur e of 1 gm of wat er t hr ough 1C.
K i localor i e.
I t i s t h e am ou n t of h eat r equ i r ed t o r ai se t h e
t emper at ur e of 1 kg of wat er t hr ough 1C.
1kcal = 1000 calor ies
T her mal E quilibr ium
When t wo bodies come in cont act in such a way t hat
no t r ansfer of heat t ak es pl ace fr om one body t o
an ot h er , t h en t h e bodi es ar e sai d i n t h er m al
equilibr ium.
T her mal Ener gy
The sum of i nt er nal k i net i c ener gy and i nt er nal
pot ent i al of t he mol ecules of gas i s call ed t her mal
ener gy (or ) int er nal ener gy of t he gas.
T E M PERAT U RE
Temper at ur e of a subst ance is t he degr ee of its hot ness
or coldness. Following t hr ee t emper at ur e scales ar e
commonly used for measur ement of t emper at ur e :
1. Celsius scale (  C) : Thi s scal e was gi ven by
Cel si us. On cel si us scal e t he t emper at ur e of
melt ing ice, i.e. melt ing point of ice is given t he
value 0° and t emper at ur e of st eam i s given by
100°C. This scale has been divided int o 100 equal
par t s of degr ees. Since t her e ar e 100 divisions or
degr ees on t he cel si us scal e, i t i s al so cal l ed
cent igrade scale (cent i = 100 and gr ade = division).
Celsius scale is used par ticular ly in scientific wor k.
2. Fahrenheit scale ( F) : This scale was given by
Fahr enheit. On Fahr enheit scale, ice point is given
212°, so t hat t her e ar e 212 – 32 = 180 degr ees
is gener ally used for household t her momet er s.
3. Kelvin scale (K) : This scale was given by Kelvin.
On t his scale of temper atur e, ice point has a value
of 273 K and steam point has a value of 373 K and
ther e ar e 372 – 273 = 100 divisions between two
fixed points. This is also called absolute scale of
temper at ur e.
C F  32 K  273
 =
100 180 100
Also, K = C + 273
Types of T hermomet ers
1. L iquid t her momet er s
2. Gas t her momet er
3. Plat inum t her momet er
4. Ther moel ect r i c t her momet er
5. M agnet ic t her momet er
6. Opt ical pyr omet er.
Specific H eat
I t is defined as t he amount of heat in calor ies r equir ed
t o r aise t he t emper at ur e of a unit mass of a subst ance
by 1°C(or 1°K).

SI unit : joules per kilograme per kelvin, i.e. J- kg– 1 K – 1.
 Specific heat of wat er is 4200 Jkg– 1 K – 1.
 Specific heat of wat er is maximum.
 Specific heat of copper is 0.093 cal/gm °C, which means
that 0.093 calor ie of heat is r equir ed to r aise the
temperature of 1 gm of copper by 1 degree centigrade.
T her mal capacit y
I t i s t h e am ou n t of h eat r equ i r ed t o r ai se t h e
t emper at ur e of whole body t hr ough 1°C.
Ther mal capacit y = M ass of t he body  Specific heat
S.I unit : jouls per kelvin(J/K ).
The common unit of t her mal capacit y is calor ies per
degr ee, which is wr it t en as cal/ °C or cal °C– 1.
Principle of H eat M easurement
When t wo bodies at differ ent t emer at ur es ar e placed
in cont act wit h each ot her, t hen heat will pass fr om
t he body at higher t emper at ur e t o t he body at lower
t em per at u r e u n t i l bot h r each t o a com m on
t emper at ur e in t his pr ocess.
H eat lost by one body = H eat gained by t he ot her body.
H eat lost or gained by a body is given by
Q = m  s  (T 2 – T 1); Q = m.s.t
Subl imat ion
Dir ect conver sion of solid int o gases st at e i s cal led
sublimat ion .
H oar F rost
Dir ect conver sion of vapour s int o solid st at e is called
hoar fr ost .
M elt ing
Conver si on of sol i d i nt o l i qui d st at e at const ant
t emper at ur e is called melt ing.
Boil i ng
Evapor at ion wit hin t he whole mass of t he liquid is
cal l ed boi l i ng. Boi l i ng t ak es pl ace at a const ant
t emper at ur e called boiling point .
E vapor at i on
Conver sion of liquid int o vapour s at all t emper at ur es
is called evapor at ion . I t is a sur face phenomenon.
Effect of pressure on melting point of a solid
The var iat ion of melt ing point wit h pr essur e is given
by t he for mula
dL JL
 at 4C is maximum.
dt T v 2  v 1 
EXPAN SI ON OF SOLI DS
Solids expand on heat ing. Dur ing t he expansion of
solids, t he dist ance bet ween it s molecules incr eases.
The expansion of solids does not depend on it s mass.
Types of Expansion of solids
I t is of t hr ee t ypes.
1. L inear expansion.
Change in lengt h due t o change of t emper at ur e is
called linear expansion .
Physics 1.13
Coefficient of linear expansion ( ) : I t i s t he
incr ease in lengt h per unit lengt h of a solid when
it s t emper at ur e is r aised by 1°C.
2. Super ficial expansion.
The expansion in ar ea of an object due t o change in
t emper at ur e is called super ficial expansion.
Coefficient of superficial expansion(  ) : I t i s
t he incr ease in ar ea per unit ar ea of solid when it s
t emper at ur e is r aised by 1C.
3. Volume expansion or Cubical expansion(  ).
T h e ex pan si on of v ol u m e du e t o ch an ge i n
t emper at ur e is called cubical expansion.
EXPAN SI ON OF LI QU I DS
L iquids do not have definit e shape and size. Ther efor e
t hey have cubical expansion alone.
Types of Expansion of liquids
I t is of t wo t ypes.
1. Appar ent expansion.
I t is the expansion of a liquid in which the expansion
of it s cont ainer has not been t aken int o account .
Coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid
(a) : I t is incr ease in it s volume per unit volume
which appear s to have taken place when it is heated
t hr ough 1C in a expandable vessel.
Apparent expansion of t he liquid
a =
Or iginal volume  Temper at ure differ ence
2. Real expansion or Absolut e expansion.
I t is the expansion of a liquid in which the expansion
of it s cont ainer has also been t aken in account .
Coefficient of real expansion of a liquid ( r ): I t
is t he incr ease in it s volume per unit volume which
act ually t akes place when it is heat ed t hr ough 1C
Real expansion of t he liquid
r =
Or iginal volume  Temper at ure differ ence
Anomalous Expansion of Wat er
Wat er ex pan ds an om al ou sl y ar ou n d 4  C. I f
t emper at ur e of wat er at 0C i s i ncr eased, t hen it s
volume decr ease upt o 4C, becomes minimum at 4C
and t hen incr eases. The peculiar behaviour of wat er
ar ound 4C is called anomalous expansion of wat er .
Thus volume of wat er at 4C minimum while densit y
EXPAN SI ON OF GASES
Ther e ar e t wo coefficient s of expansion in gases.
1. Volume coefficient (  v)
At constant pr essur e, the change in volume per unit
v ol u m e per degr ee cel si u s i s cal l ed vol u m e
coefficient .
2. Pr essure Coefficient (  P)
At const ant volume t he change in pr essur e per unit
pr essur e per degr ee cel si us i s cal l ed pr essur e
coefficient .
 1.14 Physics
BOYLE’S LAW 2. Convect ion
At const ant t emper at ur e, t he pr essur e of a definit e I n t his mode of t r ansfer ence, heat is t r ansmit t ed
mass of gas is inver sely pr opor t ional t o it s volume. fr om one par t of body t o anot her par t by t he act ual
1 movement of heat ed par t icles.
At const ant t emper at ur e, P  or PV = const ant .
V
T H E RM OD YN AM I CS
It is the branch of physics which deals with the conversion Cold
Convection cur rent
of heat int o mechanical ener gy and vice ver sa. Hot
TH ERM ODYN AM I CAL STATE
St and Burner
I t r efer s t o a st at e of a body (or t he syst em) t hat is
com pl et el y def i n ed by pr essu r e, v ol u m e an d 3. Radi at i on
t emper at ur e of t he body. I n t his mode of t r ansfer ence, heat is t r ansmit t ed
LAWS OF TH ERM ODYN AM I CS fr om one place t o t he ot her dir ect ly wit hout heating
Zer ot h law of T her modynamics t he int er vening medium.
Wh en ev er t wo bodi es A an d B ar e i n t h er m al e.g. heat fr om Sun r eached ear t h.
equilibr ium wit h anot her body ‘C’, t hen bodies A and Power t r ansmit t ed, P =  A(T 24 – T 14) wat t
B will also be in t her mal equilibr ium wit h each ot her. wher e A = sur face ar ea
F ir st law of T hermodynamics  = emissivit y of t he sur face
The heat ener gy given t o a syst em is equal t o incr ease T 2 = t emper at ur e of t he body
in int er nal ener gy of t he syst em and wor k done. T 1 = t emper at ur e of t he sur r oundings
dQ = dU + dW or dU = dQ – dW  = St ef an s con st an t (5.67  10 8 wat t
wher e, dQ = heat ener gy m et r e2  K – 4 )
dU = change in int er nal ener gy Black body
dW = wor k done A per fect ly black body is one t hat absor bs complet ely
I n case of a cyclic pr ocess, U = 0; t hus all t he r adiat ions falling on it .
K ir choff 's law
dQ = dW
At any t emper at ur e and for par t icular wavelengt h,
Second law of T her modynamics
r at io of t he emissive power t o t he absor pt ive power of
H eat can not flow fr om a colder body t o a hot t er body all subst ances is same and is equal t o t he emissive
wit hout some wor k being done by an ext er nal ener gy. power of a per fect ly black body.
T hir d law of T her modynamics e
i.e. = E
The absolute entr opy of a perfectly crystalline substance a
becomes zero at absolute zero temperature(0K). Now, E  = 1; t hus a = e
M ODES OF TRAN SFER OF H EAT wher e, E  = emissive power ;, a = absor pt ive power
Ther e ar e t hr ee modes of t r ansfer of heat . K ir choff 's law signifies t hat good absor ber s ar e good
1. Conduct i on r adiator s.
I n t his mode of t r ansfer ence, heat is t r ansmit t ed TH ERM ODYN AM I C PROCESS
fr om on e par t i cl e t o t h e ot her par t i cl e i n t he Reversible changes for perfect gas
dir ect ion of fall of t emper at ur e. Ther e is no act ual A reversible change always consists of a succession of states
movement of par t icles. of equilibrium in the absence of any dispersive process.
U nder st abl e condi t ons, t he amount of heat ‘Q’ I sochor ic or I sovolumet r ic pr ocess
flowing in a time ‘t’ at r ight angles to the faces of a I t r efer s t o a pr ocess, in which t her e is no change in
wall of which one face is at temper atur e T 1 while the t he volume of t he syst em pr essur e and t emper at ur e
other face is at temper atur e T 2 (T 2 > T 1) is given by may change in such a pr ocess.
T2  T1 Adiabat ic pr ocess
Q = K .A.  t joules I n t his pr ocess, t her e is change in t he heat cont ent (or
f
wher e, K = t her mal conduct ivit y of t he mat er ial ent halpy H ) of t he syst em, i.e. syst em neit her gains
A = ar ea of faces of t he wall nor losses heat .
Also for a per fect gas, equat ion for r ever sible adiabatic
f = t hickness of t he wall.
change is
Coefficient of thermal conductivity(K). I t is t he
Tv – 1 = const ant (or ) T 1v 1 – 1 = T 2v 2 – 1
amount of heat flowing i n one second acr oss t he
opposi t e faces of a 1 cm cube, mai nt ai ned at a and Tp1– / = constant (or ) T 1p11– / = T 2p21– /
t emper at ur e differ ence of 1C. wher e  = cp/cv
 Physics 1.15
I sot her mal pr ocess For a r ever sible pr ocess, change in entr opy is given by
B
I n t his pr ocess, t he t emper at ur e r emains const ant , dq
ds = SB – SA =  r ev
i.e. dT = 0 T
A
I sobar ic pr ocess For adiabat ic changes, ds > 0
This pr ocess occur s at const ant pr essur e, i.e. dp = 0 This is valid for r ever sible changes only.
Thus w = pdv = nRdT
SOU N D
Q = n.cp dT
WAVE
Efficiency of H eat engine
The differ ent shaped vehicle which is r esponsible for
Q
 = 1 2 t r ansmi ssi on of ener gy fr om one pl ace t o anot her
Q1 t hr ough a medium wit hout any t r anslation of medium
Coefficient of per for mance in case of r efr iger at or is called a wave.
Q2 Q2 Wave mot ion
C.O.P. = 
W Q1  Q2 Pr opagat ion of dist ur bance fr om one place t o anot her
CARN OT CYCLE is called wave mot ion .
I t is a r ever sible cycle and consist s of M ECH AN I CAL WAVES
t wo isot her mal (A  B and C  D) and The waves or iginat ed in an elast ic mat er ial (air, st eel
and wat er ) ar e called mechanical waves.
t wo adiabat ic (B  C, D  A) changes. Types of M echanical waves
These ar e of t wo t ypes.
1. Tr ansver se waves. T h e par t i cl es of m edi u m
vibr at e at r ight angles in t r ansver se waves
e.g. pr opagat ion of waves t hr ough a r ope.
A  B i s an i sot h er m al expr essi on at con st an t 2. L ongit udinal waves. The par t i cl es of medi um
t emper at ur e T 2. vibr at e t o and fr o in longit udinal waves
V e.g. sound waves.
Q2 = w 2 = nRT 2 log B  0
VA E lect r omagnet ic wave
B  C is an adiabat ic change in which t emper at ur e El ect r om agnet i c waves ar e f or med by n at ur al l y
change for m T 2 and T 1 per pendicular vibr at ing elect r ic and magnt ic fields.
w = – n.c dT = – n.c (T 1 – T 2) > 0 Pulse
I t is a wave of shor t dur at ion. I t can also called a wave
C  D i s an i sot her mal compr essi on at const ant
of single dist ur bance.
t emper at ur e T 1.
Ampl i t ude
V
Q1 = w 1 = nRT 1 log d  0 I t is t he maximum displacement of the par ticles of t he
Vc
medium fr om t heir mean posit ion.
D  A is an adiabat ic compr ession. Wavelengt h (  )
w = – n.c.dT = – n.c (T 1 – T 2) < 0 I t is t he dist ance bet ween near est par t icles which ar e
For t he complet e cycle, du = 0 in t he same st at e of vibr at ion.
w BC + w DA = 0 T ime period (T )
Qcycle = Q2 + Q1 = w 2 + w 1 = w cycle I t is defined as t he t ime t aken by any par t icle of t he
V medi um t o compl et e one osci l l at i on. I t i s al ways
Area of cycle, w cycle = nR(T 2 – T 1)log 2
V1 measur ed in seconds.
w Q 2  Q1 Q F requency (f)
Efficiency,  =  = 1 1 Number of vibr at ions per second is called fr equency .
Q Q2 Q2
1
T2  T1 T1 Mathematically, f=
or =  1 T
T2 T2 wher e T is in seconds.
 is less t han one for a car not cycle. Phase
E nt r opy(s). The phase of an oscillating particle at any instant denotes
dq r ev the position and dir ection of motion of the par ticle at
ds =
T that instant. I t is r epr esented either by the angle which
For a cyclic pr ocess, ds = 0 the particle makes with the mean position or by fr action
Unit s: J/K of wavelength or by fr action of time per iod.
1.16 Physics
E poch
I f the particle does not start from mean position at t = 0,
t hen it is said t o possess an init ial phase called epoch .
I nt ensit y of wave
The amount of ener gy flowing per unit t ime t hr ough
unit ar ea per pendicular to t he dir ection of pr opagation
of t he wave is called int ensit y of t he wave.
Unit s : joule/m 2-sec or wat t /m 2
Pi t ch
I t i s t he char act er i st i c of sound t hat depends on
fr equency.
I t det er mines t he shr illness or gr aveness of sound. A
gr ave not e is called low pitched note while a shr ill note
is cal led high pit ched not e. Smaller t he fr equency;
smaller is t he pit ch. Gr eat er t he fr equency, gr eat er is
t he pit ch.
Wave velocity (c)
I t is t he dist ance t r avelled by t he wave in one second.
I t is also called velocit y of wave.
M at hemat ically, velocit y of wave, V = n 
wher e,  = wavelengt h of t he wave
n = fr equency of t he wave
I nfr asonic waves
These ar e t he waves wit h fr equencies below audible
r ange, i.e. less than 20 Hz. I nfrasonic waves ar e usually
pr oduced by lar ge sour ces.
e.g. waves or iginat ing fr om ear t hquakes
Audible waves
Sound waves in t he fr equency r ange 20 H z t o 20,000
H z which pr oduces t he sensat ion of hear ing is called
audible waves.
The audible frequency range of dogs is 15 Hz to 50,000 Hz.
U lt r asonic waves
Waves with fr equencies above audible r ange ar e called
ult r asonic waves. Waves wit h fr equency above 20,000
H z is ult r asonic wave.
Refr act ion of sound
When sound waves travel fr om one medium to another,
t hey ar e deviat ed fr om t heir pat h. Refr action of sound
follows t he same laws as t hat of light
sin i v due t o t heir super posit ion, t he r esult ant int ensit y
i .e. = 1
sin r v2
wher e v 1 and v 2 ar e vel oci t i es of sound in t he t wo
mediums.
D iffr act ion of sound
Sound waves easily bend r ound t he edges of t he holes
and t he obst acles, t his is called diffr act ion of sound.
F act ors affect ing Velocit y of sound in air
1. Effect of pressure.
The change of pr essur e have no effect on t he
velocit y of sound in air (or any ot her gas).
2. Effect of densit y.
I f densit y of a gas incr eases, t hen velocit y of sound
in it decr eases.
3. Effect of t emper at ure.
The velocit y of sound in air incr eases on r aising
t he t emper at ur e.
4. Effect of humidit y.
Sound tr avels fast er in humid air and slower in dr y
air.
SH OCK WAVES
I f speed of a body i n ai r is gr eat er t han t he speed of
sound, t hen i t is cal led super sonic speed. Such a body
leaves behind it a conical r egion of dist ur bance whi ch
spr eads cont i nousl y. Such a di st ur bance i s cal l ed
shock wave.
RESON AN CE
When a body i s set int o vi br at i ons by an ext er nal
per iodic for ce whose fr equency is equal t o t he nat ur al
fr equency of t he body, t hen ampl it ude of vibr at i on
i ncr eases at each st ep and becomes l ar ge. Such
vi br at i ons ar e cal l ed r esonant vibr at ions and t he
phenomenon is called r esonance.
Condit ion for Resonance
Because the sound has to tr avel down the tube and
back dur ing one half vibr at ion of the pr ong, length of
the air column for r esonance must be one four th of the
wavelength of the sound emitt ed by the tuning for k.
 2 3
I f lengt h of t he air column is incr eased by , ,
2 2 2
... et c, wher e  is wavelengt h of sound in air, we will
again obt ain r esonance in each case.
SU PERPOSI TI ON OF WAVES
Tw o or m or e pr ogr essi v e w av es can t r av el
simult aneously in t he medium wit hout effect ing t he
m ot i on of on e an ot h er . T h er ef or e r esu l t an t
displacement of each par t icle of t he medium at any
inst ant is equal t o vect or sum of t he displacement s
pr oduced by t wo waves separ at ely. This pr inciple is
called principle of superposition .
Applicat ion of Pr inciple of Super posit ion
1. I nt er fer ence.
When t wo waves of same fr equency t r avel in a
medium simultaneously in the same dir ection, then
at any point of t he medium is differ ent fr om t he
sum int ensit ies of t he t wo waves. At some point ,
int ensit y of t he r esult ant wave is ver y lar ge while
at some ot her point s it is ver y small or zer o. This
phenomenon is called int er fer ence of waves.
2. Beat s.
When two sound waves of near ly equal fr equencies
ar e pr oduced simultaneously, t hen int ensit y of t he
r esult ant sound pr oduced by t heir super posi t on
incr eases and decr eases alter nately with t ime. This
r ise and fall int ensity of sound is called Beat s. The
number of maxima (or ) minima heard in one second
is called beats fr equency.
 Physics 1.17
Applications of Beats : Pencil of light rays
(i ) Fr equency of unk nown t unni ng for k can be I t is a gr oup of inclined r ays of light diver ging fr om a
calculat ed. point sour ce or conver ging t o anot her point .
(ii ) M usical inst r ument s can be t uned by r educing
beats.
3. St at ionar y waves.
Stationar y wave is for med when two waves of same (a) (b)
fr equency t r avel l i ng i n opposi t e di r ect i ons ar e Beam of light
super imposed on each ot her. This is a par t icular As shown in t he figur e t he
phenomenon of inter fer ence of waves. I n stationar y gr oup of par al l el r ays i s
waves, t her e is no flow of ener gy in eit her dir ection. called beam of light .
The medi um get s spl i t up i nt o segment s, each D iver gent r ays
segement vibr at ing up and down a whole.Ther e I f r ays of l i ght ar e di ver gi ng fr om a poi nt sour ce
ar e some par t icles which ar e per manent ly at r est ,
so t hat di st ance bet ween r ays goes on i ncr easi ng
called nodes ‘N’ while others which suffer maximum
as t hey m ove f or war d, t hen t he gr ou p i s cal l ed
displacement fr om t he mean posit ion ar e called
diver gent r ays as shown in fi gur e (a) above.
antinodes.
Conver gent rays
L ongit udinal st at ionar y waves
These can be pr oduced in a long flexible spr ing or in I f r ays of light ar e conver ging t o a point so t hat t he
air column inside a closed end or open end pipe. dist ance bet ween t he r ays goes on decr easing as t hey
move for war d, then t he gr oup is called convergent rays
E lect r omagnet ic waves
as shown in figur e (b) above.
These can be pr oduced by r apid vibr at ion of cur r ent in
a conduct or. I f r esist ance of conduct or is ver y small, Parallel r ays
t hen fr equency of t he oscillat ion is given by I f successive light r ays keep equal dist ance t hr ough,
1 t hen t hey ar e par allel r ays.
f= ...  f  n 
2 L C I M AGE
I f a pencil of diver ging fr om a point ‘O’ is caused by
Spect r um of E lect r omagnet ic waves
r eflect ion (or r efr act ion) t o conver ge or t o appear t o
Fr equency (Hz)  104 106 108 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 diver ge fr om some ot her point I , t hen I is called image
Wavelengt h (m). of t he object ‘O’.
104 102 100 10 – 2 10 – 4 10 – 6 10 – 8 10 – 10 10 – 12 10 – 14 Real image
Radio micro U.V, V.L X-rays,  -r ays I f r eflected (or r efr act ed) r ays fr om fir st point act ually
Visible range is comprised of radiations with frequency meet at the second point, then the second point is called
/ wavelengt h r ange : r eal image of fir st point . Real image can be t aken on
t he scr een.
Fr equency : 3.84  1014 H z < f < 7.69  1014 H z Virt ual image
Wavelengt h : 7.80  10 7 m > l > 3.90  10 7 I f r eflect ed (or r efr act ed) r ays fr om fir st point appear
t o meet at t he second point , t hen it is called vir t ual
r ed violet image of fir st point . I t can not be t aken on t he scr een.
DOPPLER EFFECT REFLECTI ON AN D REFRACTI ON
Whenever t her e is a r elat ive mot ion bet ween sound
Refl ect i on
sour ce and t he obser ver, t her e is an appar ent change
in fr equency of t he sound sour ce. This effect is called I t is bending of l ight t o t he fir st medium fr om t he
Doppler effect . sur face of separ at ion of t he t wo media. The r ays ar e
sen t back by t h i s pr ocess. T h e ph en om en on of
L I GH T r eflect ion of light is shown in t he figur e.
I t is an agent which pr oduces in us t he sensat ion of I ncident ray Reflected ray
sight . I t it self is
invisible but makes t he ot her object s visible. I t may Plane mirr or
be defined as t he r adiant ener gy which pr oduces t he Refr act i on
sensat ion of light . I t is bending of light fr om it s st r aight pat h as it ent er s
M I RROR fr om one medium t o anot her.
I t is a highly polished sur face fr om which most of light
is r eflect ed.
II
RAY OF LI GH T
I t is a st r aight line pat h along which t he t r ansfer of I

light ener gy t akes place.

l
 1.18 Physics
M EDI U M Regular r eflect ion
Opt imal medium When a beam of par allel light r ays falls on a shining
A subst ance or any por t ion of space t hr ough which but plane sur face, t he light r ays ar e r eflect ed back in
light can pass is called opt ical medium . I t can be solid, t he same or der. I t is r egular r eflect ion.
liquid or gas.
H omogeneous or I sot r opic medium I nci dent r ay Reflect i ng r ay
M edium possessing same opt ical pr oper t ies in all t he
dir ect ions is called homogeneous medium . A B
Tr anspar ent body I r r egular r eflect ion
I t is a body t hr ough which light can pass easily, e.g. When light beam falls on r ough but uneven sur face
air, glass et c. t he light r ays r eflect ed back in many dir ect ions. This
Tr anslucent body is known as ir r egular r eflect ion. I t gives scat t er ed or
I t is the body through which light can pass only partially, diffused light.
so t hat object can be seen only indist inct ly, e.g. oiled
paper. I nci dent r ay Reflect i ng r ay
Opaque body
I t is a body which does not allow light t o pass t hr ough A B
i t , e.g. br i ck s, wood et c. N o subst ance i s per fect l y LAWS OF REFLECTI ON
t r anspar ent or per fect ly opaque. The r eflect ion of light fr om a plane sur face like t hat of
L uminous body a plane mir r or takes place accor ding to two laws which
A body that emits light itself is called as luminous body, ar e called t he laws of r eflect ion .
e.g. st ar, sun, fir e et c. F irst law of Reflect ion
N on-luminous body The incident r ay t he r eflect ed r ay, and t he nor mal all
A subst ance t hat does not emit light it self is called lie in t he same plane.
non-luminous body. Second law of Reflect ion
REFLECTI ON OF LI GH T The angle of r eflect ion is always equal t o t he angle of
The pr ocess of sending back t he light r ays which fall incidence.
on t he sur face of an object is called r eflect ion of light . i=r
N N or mal TYPES OF M I RRORS
A B 1. Plane mir r or
I nci dent r ay i Refl ect i ng r ay When a plane mir r or is r ot at ed t hr ough an angle ,
r
  M ir r or t hen t he image is r ot at ed t hr ough an angle 2.
M O M 2. Spher ical mir r or
N I t is t hat mir r or whose r eflect ing sur face is t he par t
I ncident r ay of a hollow spher e of glass. Ther e ar e t wo t ypes
The r ay of light or iginat ing fr om t he sour ce and falling ( i ) Concave mir r or
on t he sur face of a mir r or OA is t he incident r ay. I t is that spher ical mir r or in which the r eflection
Point of incidence of light t akes place at t he concave sur face (or
I t is the point at which the incident r ay comes in contact bent in sur face).
wit h t he mir r or. O is t he incident point . M i r r or
Reflect ed r ay IR
The r ay of light which is sent back by t he mir r or is
called r eflect ed r ay . OB is t he r eflect ed r ay.
N or mal R.R
The nor mal is a line at r ight angles to the mirr or sur face
Concave
at t he point of incidence. ON is t he nor mal.
Angle of incidence (i) Sur face
I t is the angle made by the incident r ay with the nor mal ( ii ) Convex mir r or
at t he point of incidence.
I t is that spherical surface at which the r eflectioin
Angle of reflect ion (r) of l i ght t ak es pl ace i s convex sur face or t he
I t is t he angle made by t he r efl ect ed r ay wi t h t he sur face bulges out war ds.
nor mal at t he point of incidence.
 Physics 1.19
FOCAL LEN GTH L aws of Refr act ion
Focal lengt h of a concave or convex mir r or is equal t o 1. The incident ray, nor mal to the sur face of separation
half of t he r adius of cur vat ur e at t he point of incidence and r efr act ed r ay lie in t he
r same plane.
f=
2 2. Sine of angle of incidence bear s a const ant r at io t o
Relat ion bet ween Conjugat e dist ances (M ir r or t he sine of angle of r efr act ion, i.e
for mul a) sin i
1 1 1 I I = Snell's law 
 
I
sin r
v u f wher e, I I I is r efr act ion index of I I medium wit h
1 1 1
  r espect t o medium I .
I mage dist ance Object dist ance Focal lengt h
TOTAL I N TERN AL REFLECTI ON
L inear M agnificat ion I f angle of incidence is incr eased beyond cr it ical angle,
I t is defined as t he r at io of image dist ance t o object ive t hen t he r ay is r eflect ed back int o t he fir st medium.
distance. This phenomenon is called t ot al int er nal r eflect ion .
v Cr it ical angle
m=
u At a par t i cul ar angl e of i nci dence, t he angl e of
(or ) I t is the r atio which the size of image bear s to the r efr act ion (r ) becomes 90. The angle of incidence(c)
size of object. for which t he angle of r efr action is 90, is called cr itical
I angle.
m= Angle of Disper sion
O
Ar eal magnificat ion The differ ence in angles of deviat ion of any t wo r ays is
M agnificat ion in ar ea is called ar eal magnificat ion. I t called angle of disper sion for t hose r ays.
is given by D i sper si on
Area of image v 2 The separation of white light into its constituent colours
m2 =  by r efr act ion(or ) ot her means is called disper sion of
Area of object u 2
light .
Sign convent ion used in M irrors
A
(1) All dist ances ar e measur ed fr om t he pole of t he
mi r r or. IR
Red
Bl ue
(2) Dist ances opposit e t o t he dir ect ion of incident r ay Whit e l i ght
Yel l ow
ar e t aken as negat ive.
(3) Dist ances in t he dir ect ion of incident r ay ar e t aken B C

as posit ive. D isper sive power

(4) When image is r eal, v is t aken as negat ive.
When image is vir t ual, v is t aken as posit ive.
(5) Focal lengt h of a concave mir r or is negat ive.
Focal lengt h of a convex mir r or is posit ive.
(6) Downwar d dist ances ar e t aken as negat ive (– ve).
Upwar d dist ances ar e t aken as posit ive (+ve).
REFRACTI ON OF LI GH T
When a r ay of light passes fr om one medium t o ot her,
it suffer s a change in dir ect ion at t he boundar y of
separ at ion of t wo media. This is called r efr act ion .
AON = i = angle of incidence
A N Nor mal r ay
I ncident ray
Medium I
O Plane mir ror
M M
Medium I I r 2. Concave lens (diver gent ).
i Refr act ion r ay
N B
NN  = nor mal t o t he sur face at point A
BON = r = angle of r efr act ion
I t is r at io of t he disper sion bet ween any t wo colour s t o
t he deviat ion suffer ed in t he same pr ism by t he mean
r ay.
v  R
W =  1
y
CU RVED SU RFACES
I f cur ved sur faces ar e spher ical, t hen t he lenses ar e
called spher ical lenses.
Types of curved surfaces
Cur ved sur faces ar e of t wo t ypes.
1. Convex lens (convergent ).
The dist inguishing char acter ist ic of a convex lens is
t hat it is t hicker at t he cent r e t han at t he edges.
Focal lengt h of convex lens is posit ive.
The dist inguishing char act er ist ic of a concave lens
is t hat , it is t hinner at t he cent r e t han at edges.
Focal lengt h of concave lens is negat ive.
 1.20 Physics
LEN S H ypermet r opia or L ong sight edness
Power of lens I t is t he defect of t he eye when i t cannot see near
I t is it s abilit y t o conver ge or diver ge t he r ays of light . object clear ly. This defect can be cor r ect ed by using a
I t is measur ed as r ecipr ocal of t he focal lengt h of a conver ging lense of cor r ect focal lengt h.
lens expr essed in met r es. At igmat i sm
1 I t is a defect of t he eye when a st r aight object looks as
Power of lens (P) =
f  mt s cur ved. I t occur s due t o asymmet r ic cur vat ur e of eye
lens. This defect is cor r ect ed by using cylindr ical lens.
L ens formula
T ELESCOPES
The gener al for mula for connect ing object and image
dist ance, for bot h t he convex and concave lens is They ar e used t o br ing t he dist ance object s closer and
hence incr eases t he visual angle (i). I t is an opt ical
1 1 1 inst r ument .
= 
f v u Types of Telescopes
L ens-M aker 's formula 1. Ast r onomical t elescope 2. Ter r est r ial t elescope
For mula for t he r efr act ion t hr ough a lens is 3. Galellion t elescope 4. Reflect ing t elescope.
1  1 1  M I CROSCOPE S
=    1  
f  R1 R 2  M icr oscope is an opt ical instr ument which for ms lar ge
wher e,  = r efr act ive index of t he lens i mage of a cl ose and mi nut e obj ect . Th i s i m age
subt ends a lar ge visual angle at t he eye so t hat t he
N ewt on's formula for lenses
2 object looks lar ge.
x 1x 2 = f
Types of M icroscopes
wher e, x 1 = dist ance of object fr om t he fir st focus
1. Compound micr oscope 2. Simple micr oscope
x 2 = dist ance of image fr om t he second focus.
3. Elect r onic micr oscope
Combinat ion of t wo lenses in cont act
ABERRATI ON OF LEN SES
1 1 1
Focal lengt h f is given by, =  The image for med by t he lense suffer fr om following
f f1 f 2 t wo main dr awbacks :
Power, P = P1 + P2 1. Spher ical aber r at ion
H U M AN EYE Aber r at i on of t he lens due t o which all t he r ays
Human eye for ms r eal image on the r etina. The eyeball passes thr ough t he lense ar e not focussed at a single
is near ly spher ical chamber and can be r ot at ed in t he point and t he image of a point object placed on t he
socket by means of it s six muscles. The out er coat ing axis is blur r ed, is called spher ical aber r at ion .
called scler ot ic consist s of fibr ous whit e t issues. The
fr ont par t of scler ot ic is t r anspar ent . M ar ginal rays
Fm
A nor mal eye has power of accommodat i on whi ch
Par axi al r ays Fp
enables object s as far as infinit y and as close as 25 cm
t o be focussed on r et ina. Fm
N ear point
The shor t est dist ance at which an eye can see clear ly I t can be r educed by using
is called near point . (i ) stops
L east point (ii ) lens of lar ge focal lengt hs
I t is t he dist ance at which an eye can see clear ly. I t is (iii ) plano-convex lenses
t aken as 25 cm for a nor mal eye. (iv) cr ossed lenses
Visual angle (v) combining convex and concave lenses
The angle which an object subtends at our eye is called 2. Chr omat ic aber r at ion
visual angle. The appar ent size of an object as seen by
our eye depends upon t he visual angle. I mage of a whit e object for med by lens is usually
col our ed and bl ur r ed. Thi s defect of t he i mage
M yopia or Shor t sight edness
pr oduced by lens is called chr omat ic aber r at ion .
I t is t he defect of t he eye when it cannot see far -off
WAVE N ATU RE OF LI GH T
object s clear ly.
M yopia occur s due t o Wavefr ont
(i ) elongat ion of t he eye ball, or The focus of all such par t icles of t he medium which
ar e vibr ating in the same phase at any inst ant is called
(ii ) decr ease in focal lengt h of t he lens.
wavefront .
M yopia is cor r ect ed by a concave lens.
 Physics 1.21
I nt erference of light M agnet ic axis
When two light waves of exactly equal fr equency having I t is t he line joining t he t wo poles of a magnet inside
a phase differ ence which is const ant wit h r espect t o it s body.
t ime t r avel in t he same dir ect ion and over lap each M agnet ic mer idian
ot her, t hen t he int ensit y is not unifor m shape. This I t is t he ver t ical plane passing t hr ough axis of fr eely
phenomenon is called int er fer ence of light . suspended magnet .
Polar isat ion of light Geogr aphic mer idian
I t is t he only phenomenon in physics which pr oves I t is t he ver t ical plane passing t hr ough t he axis of
t hat light is a t r ansver se wave. r ot at ion of t he ear t h.
Plane of vibrat ion D eclinat i on
The plane cont aining dir ect ion of vibr at ion and t he I t is t he angle bet ween geogr aphic mer idian and t he
di r ect i on of pr opagat i on of l i ght i s cal l ed plane of magnet ic mer idian at t he place.
vibr at ion . M agnet ic lengt h
Plane of polar isat ion The dist ance bet ween poles of t he magnet is called
The plane passing thr ough the dir ection of pr opagation magnet ic lengt h . I t is denot ed by ‘2 l ’.
an d con t ai n i n g n o vi br at i on s i s cal l ed pl ane of Unit s: met er in S.I . syst em.
polarization .
M agnet ic moment (M )
Br ewest er ’s law I t is pr oduct of t he pole st r engt h (m) and lengt h of
Br ewest er discover ed t hat t her e is a simple r elat ion magnet (2l ) is called magnet ic moment .
bet ween polar ising angle ‘i p’ and r efr act ive index  of
 M = m  2l = 2lm
the mater ial r elat ive t o the sur r ounding medium. This
is called Brewest er ’s law . Unit s: Amper e-met er 2 or joule/t esla
sin i p M agnet ic flux ( )
 = t an i p = The t ot al number of magnet ic lines of for ce nor mal t o
cos i p
a sur face is called magnet ic flux .
The polar ising angle for air glass is 57. Unit s: weber
DOU BL E REFRACTI ON
I ntensity of M agnet ic field (H )
I t was discover ed by Er asmous Bar t hdinous. A r ay of When a magnetic mat er ial is place in a magnetic field,
unpol ar i sed l i ght i nci dent on a cal ci t e (or quar t z) it becomes magnetised. The capability of magnetic field
cr y st al , spl i t s u p i n t o t w o r ef r act ed r ays. T h e t o magnet ise a mat er ial is called magnet ic intensit y of
phenomenon is called double r efr act ion . t he field.
DI FFRACTI ON OF LI GH T B
Bending of light ar ound t he edges of an obst acle, or H =
0
encr oachment of light wit hin t he geomer t ical shadow
Unit s : amp/met r e.
is called diffr act ion of light .
M agnet ic pot ent ial
At mospher e is t r anspar ent t o visible r adiat ion, but
M agnet ic pot ent ial at a point is defined as t he wor k
almost opaque t o infr ar ed r adiat ions.
done car r ying a unit nor t h pole fr om infinit y t o t hat
L ow lying clouds pr event infr ar ed r adiat ions t o pass point against t he field. or
t hr ough t hem and t hey keep t he ear th’s sur face war m
at night . This effect is called gr een house effect . Magnetic potential is defined as a quantity whose space
r at e of var iation in any dir ect ion gives int ensit y of t he
The differ ence bet ween int er fer ence and diffr act ion is
magnet ic field.
t hat super -posit ion effect bet ween wavelet s st ar t ing
Unit s : joule/weber
fr om t wo coher ent sour ces whi l e di r ect i on i s t he
diffr act ion in t he super posit ion. M AGN ETI C SU BSTAN CES
M AGN E T I SM 1. D iamagnet ic subst ances
These ar e subst ances which on being placed in a
M agnet ic Poles (m)
magnet ic field get feebly magnet ised in dir ect ion
When a magnet is br ought near a heap of ir on filling
opposi t e t o t hat of t he magnet i si ng fi el d. Such
t he ends of t he magnet show t he gr eat est at t r act ion.
substances get r epelled when br ought near a st r ong
These ends wher e the magnetic attr action is maximum
magnet. This pr oper t y of diamagnet ic subst ances is
ar e called poles of a magnet .
called diamagnetism .
I n ever y magnet ther e ar e t wo poles e.g. Bi smut h (BI ), H ydr ogen (H 2), Ni t r ogen (N 2),
1. Sout h pole ; 2. Nor t h pole. Water (H 2O), Common salt (NaCl), Diamond (C), Gold
S.I . unit of st r engt h of a magnet ic pole: amper e met er (Au), Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn) et c
 1.22 Physics
2. Par amagnet ic subst ances connect i ng wi r e, as shown i n Fi g. (b), t he posit i ve
These ar e subst ances which on being placed in a char ge passes on t he ear t h as shown in Fi g. (c). N ow
di amagnet i c fi el d get feebl y magnet i sed i n t he i f we fi r st r emove t he connect i ng wi r e and t hen t he
dir ect ion of t hese magnet ic field. Such subst ances, char ged r od, t he negat i ve char ge spr eads on t he
get at t r act ed t owar ds t he magnet , when br ought whol e conduct or as shown i n Fi g. (d).
near a str ong magnet. This pr operty of paramagnetic I nsulat or + Insulator +
+ + + +
subst ances is called paramagnet ism . B A B A
e.g. Aluminum (Al), Sodium (Na), Plat inum (Pt ),
M anganese (M n), Copper (I I ) chlor ide (CuCl 2) et c Glass r od Glass r od
(a) (b)
3. F er r omagnet ic subst ances +
I nsulat or + + Insulator
These ar e those which on being placed in a magnet ic
B A B A
field get st r ongly magnet ised in t he dir ect ion of t he
magnet ic field. Such subst ances when br ought near Glass r od
t he magnet get ver y much at t r act ed t owar ds t he (c) (d)
magnet . This pr oper t y of fer r omagnet ic subst ances ELECTRI C F ORCE
is called ferr omagnet ism . I t is t he for ce exper ienced by a char ge ‘q’ placed at a
e.g. Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co), Magnetite (Fe3O4) point in an elect r ic field of int ensit y ‘E’.
E L E CT ROSTAT I CS Mathematically, F = Eq
ELECTRI CI TY Unit s : newt on
Amber, glass, ebonit e, sulphur et c. on being r ubbed Coulomb's I nverse square law
at t r act l i ght bodi es. Thi s pr oper l y i n mat er i al s i s I t st at es t hat t he for ce of at t r act i on (or ) r epul sion
developed due to electrification by friction. On acquiring bet ween two char ges is
t his pr oper ty, the mat er ial is called elect rified and t his
(i ) dir ect ly pr opor tional to the pr oduct of two char ges,
pr oper t y is called electr icity . The elect r icit y developed
on bodies, when t hey ar e r ubbed wit h each ot her is (ii ) inver sely pr opor tional to the squar e of the distance
called fractional elect r icity (or ) stat ic elect r icity . bet ween t hem.
Types of E lect ricit y q1 q 2 1 q1 q 2 qq
i.e. F  or F=  k 12 2
1. Posit ive char ges r2 4 0 d 2 r
2. Negat ive char ges
1
Rules : L ike char ges r epel and unlike char ges at t r act wher e, k
each ot her. 4 0
Test : Repulsion is a super t est of elect r ificat ion. k = constant called permitivity or dielectric constant
E lect r oscope = 9  109 Nm 2/c2
I t is an inst r ument used t o det ect and det er mine t he Value of k depends upon
kind of elect r icit y pr esent on a char ged body. (i ) unit s in which for ce, char ge and dist ance
Electric field (E) (ii ) nat ur e of int er vening medium
The r egion in t he neighbour hood of an elect r ic char ge Unit s : Nm 2/c2
wher e its influence can be exper ienced is called electric
SEM I CON DU CT OR
field.
I t allows t he cur r ent par t ially when t he t emper at ur e
Unit s : newt on/coulomb (or ) volt /met r e
is incr easing conduct ivit y also incr easing r esist ance
CH ARGE I N DU CTI ON wi l l be decr easi ng. Thi s i s t he speci al pr oper t y of
L et a conduct or AB is mount ed on an insulating st and semiconduct or.
as shown bel ow. Br i ng a posi t i vel y char ge i n t he e.g. Ge, Si
conduct or is at t r act ed t owar ds t he glass r od while t he
posit ive char ge is r epelled. Thus near end A of t he ELECTRI C FI ELD I N TEN SI TY (E)
conduct or acquir es negat ive char ge and it s far end B I nt ensit y of t he elect r ic field at a point is defined as
acquir es posit ive char ge. When posit ively char ged r od t he for ce exper ienced by a unit posit ive char ge when
is r emoved, t he conductor against becomes elect r ically placed at t hat point .
neut r al. I f a small t est char ge q0 exper iences a for ce F at a
T h i s sh ow s t h at du r i n g i n du ct i on , equ al an d point in a elect r ic field, t hen int ensit y E of t he elect r ic
opposi t e char ges ar e i nduced at t he t wo ends of field at t hat point is given by
t he conduct or. Holding the positively char ged r od near
E = F/q0
t he conduct or, i f far end is connect ed t o ear t h wi t h a
 Physics 1.23
I t is a vect or quant it y and has t he same dir ect ion as Elect ric pot ent ial energy (U )
t hat of t he for ce on a unit posit ive char ge. Electr ic potential ener gy of a system of char ges is the
Unit : S.I unit of electr ic int ensity is newton/Coulomb. wor k done in br inging these char ges fr om infinity to
ELECTRI C LI N ES OF FORCE near each other to for m the syst em.
The pat h t r aced by a t est char ge fr ee t o move under Pot ent ial ener gy U of a syst em of char ges q1 and q2
t he effect of an elect r ic field is called a line of for ce. separ at ed by a dist ance (r ) a par t is given by
The line of for ce is a cur ve so dr awn t hat a t angent t o
it at any point gives dir ect ion of t he r esult ant elect r ic 1 q1q 2
U= .
field at t hat point . 4 0 r
Pr oper t ies. Capacit or (or ) condenser
(1) A line of for ce st ar t s fr om a posit ive char ge and I t is a device, which is used for st or ing elect r ic char ge.
ends on a negat ive char ge.
Two met al plat es separ at ed by an insulat or const it ut e
(2) No t wo lines of for ce cr oss each ot her. a capacit or or condenser.
(3) I t is always nor mal t o t he sur face of t he conduct or.
Types of Condensers
(4) These do not pass int o a closed conduct or.
1. Fixed condenser 2. Var iable condenser
(5) These cont r act lengt hwise and expand sidewise.
3. Elect r olyt ic condenser 4. L eyden jar
(6) The dir ect ion of for ce is given by t he dir ect ion in
which a fr ee posit ive char ge t ends t o move. Capaci t ance
I t is t he r at io of char ge of a conduct or t o it s pot ent ial
Q
+Q –Q C= far ad
V
CAPACI TY (C)
Electric int ensity at a point in an Electric field The capacit y of a conductor may be defined as t he r at io
I t is equal t o t he for ce in dynes exper ienced by a unit bet ween t he char ge ‘Q’ given t o t he conduct or and t he
positive charge when placed at that point. The dir ection pot ent ial V t o which it is r aised.
of elect r ic int ensit y is t he same as t hat for ce. Q
i .e. C= far ad
1 q V
Elect r ic int ensit y at a point , E =  2 Capacity of conductor is 1 far ad if a char ge of 1 coulomb
4 E d
Unit s : dynes/e.s.u (or ) is r equir ed t o r aise it s pot ent ial 1 volt
ELECTRI C DI POLE 1 coulomb
 1 far ad =
I t is a pair of equal and opposite char ge separ at ed by a 1 volt
fixed dist ance is called elect r ic dipole. Unit : Pr act ical unit of capacit y is far ad.
ELECTRI C POTEN TI AL Far ad is t he capaci t y of conduct or whose pot ent i al
The electric potential at a point in an electric field is r aises by 1 volt when char ge of 1 coulomb is given t o it
measured by the amount of work done in taking a unit 3  109 st at coulomb
1 coloumb
+ve charge from infinity to that point against electric forces. 1 far ad = =
1 volt 1 / 300 st at volt
1 far ad = 9  1011 st at far ad
+Q +Q
Capacit y of a parallel plat e condenser
t
Unit : volt X Y

1 volt = 1 joule/1 coulomb = 1/300 e.s.u. of pot ent ial

Pot ent ial difference (V)
The potential difference between two points in an electric
field is defined as the amount of wor k done in moving a d
unit posit ive char ge fr om one point to t he other. K 0 A
C= Far ad
I f W amount of wor k is r equir ed t o move a char ge Q d
fr om one point t o anot her in t he elect r ic field, t hen I f t her e i s vacuum (or ai r )
pot ent ial differ ence bet ween t wo point s is given by bet ween plat es, t hen k = 1
W 0 A
V= or W = QV
Q  C0 =
d
S.I . unit Volt
1.24 Physics
I f t her e is a dielect r ic medium (inst ead of vacuum) E lect r omot ive for ce
bet ween t he plat es, t hen capacit ance of t he capacit or I t is t he pot ent ial differ ence at t he poles of t he cell
incr eases k t imes
when no cur r ent is flowing (open cir cuit ).
C = kC
E lect r ic cir cuit
wher e, k = dielect r ic const ant of medium
I t is t he closed pat h along which an elect r ic cur r ent
d = dist ance bet ween t he plat es in cm
flow.
A = ar ea of t he plat e in sq. cm
Cu r r en t f l owi ng t hr ough t he ci r cui t ( cl osed
Capacit or s in Ser ies combinat ion ci r cui t )
When a number of capacitor s having capacit ies C1, C2,
When t he cell is in closed cir cuit , a par t of e.m.f is
C3 ... Cn ar e joi ned i n ser i es, t hen t hei r combi ned
capacity is used up t o over come int er nal r esist ance ‘r ’ of t he cell.
I n such a case, cur r ent flowing t hr ough cir cuit
1 1 1 1 1
=    ...  R
C C1 C2 C3 Cn
+q +q +q +q
i
E
+ v1 v2 v3 vn r
V
Capacit or s in Par allel combinat ion E
i=
When ‘n' number of capacit or s having C1, C2, C3 ... Cn Rr
ar e joined in par allels t heir combined capacit y is wher e, E = e.m.f of t he cell
C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + Cn r = int er nal r esist ance of t he cell
Wh en ‘n ’ capaci t or s ar e con n ect ed i n par al l el R = ext er nal r esist ance of t he cir cuit
combinat ion, t hen pot ent ial r emains const ant and t he
I f V is pot ent ial differ ence bet ween t he poles, t hen
r esult ant capacit y should be incr easing.
C1 q1
V = E – ir
Ammet er
C2 q2 I t is an inst r ument used t o measur e elect r ic cur r ent
in amper es.
+q C3 q3 –q Vol t met er
A B
I t i s an i n st r u m en t u sed t o m easu r e pot en t i al
differ ence bet ween t wo point s in volt s.
Cn qn
Ohm’s law
LI GH TN I N G CON DU CTOR
I t st at es t hat cur r ent flowing t hr ough a conduct or is
When a char ged cloud passes by a t all building, t he
direct ly pr opor t ional t o the pot ential differ ence across
char ge on t he cloud passes t o t he ear t h t hr ough t he
it s ends, if t emper at ur e and ot her physical condit ions
building. This causes a big damage t o t he building.
r emain unchanged.
Thus t o pr ot ect t he t all building fr om light ing, t he
light ing conduct or s, (which ar e point ed met al r oads) Vi or V = iR
passes over t he char ge on t he clouds t o ear t h, t hus wher e, V = pot ential differ ence
pr ot ect ing the buildings. i = cur r ent , R = r esist ance
CU RRE N T E L E CT RI CI T Y S.I . unit of r esist ance is ohm .
EL ECTRI C CU RREN T L imit at ion of Ohm’s law
I t is defined as t he r at e of flow of char ge t hr ough any (1) Only small cur rent should be allowed to flow through
sect ion of a conduct or. I f a char ge ‘q’ passes t hr ough
t he ci r cui t so t hat t emper at ur e shoul d r emai n
any sect i on of a conduct or i n t ime t , t hen cur r ent
const ant .
flowing t hr ough it is given by
(2) The conduct or should not be subject ed t o any kind
q
i= of st r ess or st r ain or t ension.
t
ELECT RI C RESI STAN CE
Unit : amper e
The elect r ic r esist ance of a conduct or is t he pr oper t y
When one coulomb of char ge flow t hr ough any sect ion
of t he conduct or by vir t ue of which it opposes t he flow
of a conduct or in one second, t hen cur r ent fl owi ng
of cur r ent t hr ough it .
t hr ough it is called one amper e.
 Physics 1.25
L aws of Resist ance ELECTRI C EN ERGY (JOU LE’S LAW)
Resist ance of t he conduct or, Joule found t hat t he amount of heat (H ) pr oduced in a
R  L engt h of conduct or (l) conduct or is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o
l (i ) squar e of cur r ent (i) flowing thr ough the conductor,
R
Ar ea of cr oss-sect ion a  (ii ) r esist ance (R) of t he conduct or and
1 (iii ) t ime (t ) for which t he cur r ent flows.
R = 
a
 H  i 2RT
wher e  = specific r esist ance.
This r elat ion is called Joule's law
Specific r esist ance () is also called r esist ance and it s
1 I 2 Rt
r eciprocal   is called conductivity (k) of the mater ial. or H = (in calor ies)
 J
wher e J = 4.18
1 EL ECTRI C POWER
k=

Elect r ic power of an appliance is defined as t he r at e
Specific resist ance (or) Resist ivit y (  ) of consumpt i on of el ect r i c ener gy or as i t s r at e of
I t is defined as t he r esist ance offer ed by 1m lengt h of doing wor k.
the conductor having an area of cross-section of 1 square W
met er. P=
t
Ra wher e, W = elect r ic wor k done in t ime t
=
l Unit : S.I . unit of power is wat t .
Unit s of  : ohm-met er or ohm-cm
1 j oul e
CON DU CTAN CE (C) 1 wat t =
second
1
I t is t he r ecipr ocal of r esist ance, i.e. C = or 1 joule = 1 wat t
R
Unit s : mho or ohm – 1 Commer cial unit of elect r ic ener gy is kilowat t hour
Conduct ivit y (K ) 1 kilowat t hour = 1000J/s  3600 s = 3.6  108 J
Colour code for Carbon Resist ances
T h e val u e of r esi st ances used i n el ect r i cal an d
elect r onic cir cuit s var y over a ver y wide r ange.
R These r esi st ances ar e usual l y car bon r esi st ances
4
t em p and a col our code i s used t o i ndi cat e val ue of t he
r esist ance.
I t is r ecipr ocal of t he specific r esist ance (or ) r esist ivit y
(), i.e. N ot e : You can l ear n t he or der of col our by t he
sent ence,
1
k= “ B B R Y of Gr eat Br it ain has Ver y Good Wife”

L etter s as an Colour F i gur e M ulti plier
Unit s : M ho (or ) ohm – 1
aid to memor y
Super conduct ivit y 0
B Black 0 10
I n case of most of t he met als, t her e occur s a decr ease 1
B Br own 1 10
in r esist ance wit h decr ease in t emper at ur e and t he
2
r esi st an ce appr oach es zer o as absol u t e zer o of R Red 2 10
temper atur e is appr oached. This phenomenon is called O Or ange 3 103
super conductivity . Y Yellow 4 10
4

e.g. r esist ance of mer cur y becomes zer o at 4K . 5

G Gr een 5 10
T her mi st or s 6
B Blue 6 10
T h ese al l ow sem i con du ct or m at er i al s, w h ose 7
V Violet 7 10
r esistance var ies appr eciably with r ise in temper atur e.
8
Ther mist or s ar e used in elect r onics indust r y, e.g. t o G Gr ay 8 10
safeguar d t he heat er of a t elevision t ube against t he W Whit e 9 10
9

var iat ions in cur r ent .

1.26 Physics

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 9. Magnets attract magnetic substances such as ir on,
nickel, cobalt et c. They can also r epel :
1. A Jet engine wor ks on the principle of conser vation
of : (a) par amagnet ic subst ances.
(a) linear moment um (b) angular moment um (b) fer r omagnet ic subst ances.
(c) ener gy (d) mass (c) diamagnet ic subst ances.

2. The sur face t emper at ur e of t he Sun is near ly :
(a) 2000K (b) 4000K
(c) 6000K (d) 8000K
3. I f t he elect r ical r esist ance of a t ypical subst ance
suddenly drops to zero, then the substance is called :
(a) super conduct or (b) semiconduct or
(c) conduct or (d) insulat or
4. A spher ical air bubble is embedded in a piece of
glass. For a r ay of light passing thr ough the bubble,
it behaves like a :
(a) conver ging lens.
(b) diver ging lens.
(c) piano-conver ging lens.
(d) piano-diver ging lens.
5. ‘The st ar s seem t o be higher on t he sky t han t hey
act ually ar e'. This can be explained by :
(a) at mospher ic r efr act ion.
(b) disper sion of light .
(c) t ot al int er nal r eflect ion.
(d) diffr act ion of light .
6. Which one among t he following is not a sour ce of
r enewable ener gy ?
(a) H ydr oelectr icit y
(b) Solar ener gy
(c) Fuel cell
(d) Wind ener gy
7. M ass of B is four t imes t hat of A, B moves wit h a
velocit y half t hat of A. Then B has :
(a) kinet ic ener gy equal t o t hat of A.
(b) half t he kinet ic ener gy of A.
(c) t wice t he kinet ic ener gy of A.
(d) kinet ic ener gy one-four t h of A.
8. I n a pr essur e cooker cooking is "fast er because
t he incr ease in vapour pr essur e :
(a) incr eases t he specific heat .
(b) decr eases t he specific heat .
(c) decr eases t he boiling point .
(d) incr eases t he boiling point .
(d) non-magnet ic subst ances.
10. When a r ay of light is going fr om one medium t o
anot her, it s :
(a) wavelengt h r emains same.
(b) fr equency r emains same.
(c) fr equency incr eases.
(d) wavelengt h incr eases.
11. A body init ially at r est is acted upon by a const ant
for ce. The r at e of change of i t s ki net i c ener gy
var ies :
(a) linear ly wit h squar e r oot of t ime.
(b) linear ly wit h t ime.
(c) linear ly wit h squar e of t ime.
(d) inver sely wit h t ime.
12. Whi ch one among t he fol l owi ng st at ement s i s
cor r ect ?
(a) Convex mir r or s ar e used by doctor s to examine
or al cavit y
(b) Concave mir r or s ar e used as r eflect or s
(c) Convex mir r or s ar e used as r eflect or s
(d) Convex mir r or s should be used for shaving
13. Bat s can ascer t ain dist ances, dir ect ions, nat ur e
and size of t he obst acles at night . This is possible
by r eflect ion of t he emit t ed :
(a) ult r asonic waves fr om t he bat .
(b) ult r asonic waves fr om t he dist ant object s.
(c) super sonic waves fr om t he bat .
(d) super sonic waves fr om t he dist ant object s.
14. L ight t r avels slower in glass t han in air because:
(a) r efr act ive index of air is less t han t hat of glass.
(b) r efr act ive index of air is gr eat er t han t hat of
glass.
(c) densit y of glass is gr eat er t han t hat of air.
(d) densit y of glass is less t han t hat of air.
15. The lines of for ce of a unifor m magnet ic field :
(a) must be conver gent .
(b) must be diver gent .
(c) must be par allel t o each ot her.
(d) int er sect .
 Physics 1.27

LEVEL-1 m1  m 2
(a) g (b) g
1. As t he speed of char ged par t icl e incr eases in a m1
cycl ot r on, (choose Tr ue (T) or False (F))
m1  m 2 m2
(a) t he par t i cl e moves t o a lar ger ci r cle (c) g (d) .g
m2 m1  m 2
(b) t her e i s r elat ivist ic change in t he mass of t he
par t icle [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

(c) fr equency of t he cycl ot r on has t o be adjust ed 7. Which of t he fol lowing st at ement s is cor r ect ?
(a) F, F, F (b) T, T, T (a) Speed of light in vacuum is 3 × 108 m/s
(c) T, F, T (d) T, T, F (b) Speed of light is differ ent for differ ent colour s
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (c) Speed of li ght i s differ ent in differ ent media
(d) Al l of t he above
R1 R 2
2. The for mula R = r epr esent s [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
R1  R 2
8. I n H ei sen ber g's U ncer t ai ni t y pr i nci pl e, t he
(a) ser i es connect i on uncer t ai ni t y of moment um and posi t i on of a
(b) par allel connect ion par t icle can be
(c) br idge connect i on (a) r educed usi ng smal ler wavelengt h of pr obing
(d) linear connect i on light
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (b) r educed usi ng lar ger wavel engt h of pr obi ng
3. The ear t h conduct or pr ovides a pat h t o gr ound light
for (c) r educed usi ng hi gh ener gy pr obe par t i cl es
(a) ci r cui t cur r ent (b) leak age cur r ent acceler at ed by cyclot r on
(c) over cur r ent (d) hi gh vol t age (d) can 't be r edu ced as i t i s f u n dam en t al l y
inher ent
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
4. I f t he mass of sun, ear t h and di st ance bet ween
t hem is r espect i vel y M , m and r ; wor k done by 9. The speed of sound in air is approximately equal
t he sun's gr avi t y on ear t h for one r evol ut i on to :
r ound t he sun is (a) 3 × l08 m/sec (b) 330 m/sec
GM m (c) 5000 m/sec (d) 1500 m/sec
(a) zer o (b)
r2 [RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]

GM m GM m 10. 'When a body is wholly or partially, immersed in

(c) 2 (d) 2 a fluid, it experiences an upthrust equal to the
r r2
weight of the fluid displaced'. This is known as:
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) Pascal's principle
5. The choke of a t ube light wor k s on t he pr i nciple
of (b) Archimedes principle
(a) bi-met allic (b) capacitance (c) Stoke's law
(c) induct ance (d) ionizat ion (d) Newton's Laws of Motion
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]

6. I n t he fi gur e below, what is t he acceler at ion of 11. Which one of the following is not a scalar
body wit h mass m 2, gi ven g i s t he acceler at i on quantity?
due t o gr avit y (assume pulley and sur faces ar e (a) Volume (b) Mass
smoot h) (c) Force (d) Length
m1 [RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
12. The resultant of two forces P and Q acting at an
angle 0, is given by :

m2 (a) P 2  Q 2  2PQt an 

(b) P 2  Q 2  2PQsin 
1.28 Physics
4. What is the boiling point of water in Kelvin Seale?
(c) P 2  Q 2  2PQcos 
(a) 100 K (b) 273 K
(d) P  Q  2PQtan  (c) 373 K (d) 300 K
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

13. A cyclotron is a : 5. Acid r ain is caused by:

(a) Bunch of Gamma Rays (a) CO & CO2 (b) SO2 & O2
(b) High Frequency Oscillator (c) SO2 & N O2 (d) NO2 & O2
(c) Particle Accelerator [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

(d) None of these 6. Whi ch pl anet has hot t ur bul ent at mospher e
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] dominat ed by car bon-di-oxide?
14. The nucleus of an atom generally, contains : (a) Venus (b) Mars
(a) Protons and Neutrons (c) Jupiter (d) Nept une
(b) Protons and Electrons [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

(c) Electrons and Neutrons 7. A tunic fork when sounded together with another
t uni ng for k of k nown fr equency of 240 H z, emi t s
(d) Only Neutrons
2 beat s. On l oadi ng t he t uning for k of known
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] fr equency t he number of heat s hear d ar e one
15. A bullet is fired vertically upwards with a velocity per second. The fr equency of the t uning for k is:
of 196 m/sec. What is the maximum height (a) 241Hz (b) 242 H z
reached by the bullet ? (Assuming g = 9.8 m/sec2)
(c) 239 H z (d) 238 H z
(a) 1960 m (b) 196 m
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c) 980 m (d) 490 m
8. Tachymet er (or Tacheomet er i s an i nst r ument
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] for measur ing-
LEVEL-2 (a) rpm
1. I n a cl assi cal bl ood pr essu r e m easu r i n g (b) Tor que
inst r ument in which t he doct or obser ves t he r i se (c) Rot at ional kinet ic ener gy
and fall of mer cur y, the hand air pump is attached
(d) Dist ances
t o a-
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) I sobar (b) Tr ansducer
9. W h i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g i s N OT u sed f or
(c) M anomet er (d) M er cur y column
measur ement of t emper at ur e?
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) Ther mocoupl es (b) Ther most at s
2. Conser vat ion of ener gy cor r esponds t o which law
(c) Pyr omet er s (d) Al l ar e used
of t her modynamics?
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) Zer ot h l aw (b) Fi r st l aw
10. Al um i n i u m i s comm onl y used as con du ct or
(c) Second l aw (d) Thir d l aw
material in tr ansmission lines compar ed to copper
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] because:
3. I n our house when we swi t ch on heavy l oad (a) I t i s mor e conduct i ve
appl iances, we not i ce t hat t her e is sl ight di p in
(b) I t s t ensi le st r engt h is mor e
t he gl ow of t he bulb t hat was al r eady swit ched
on. Thi s i s due t o- (c) I t i s cost li er
(a) H eavy cur r ent dr awn by heavy load (d) I t i s cheaper and l ight er
(b) Addi t ional r esist ance added t o t he cir cuit [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]

(c) Resi st ance of elect r ical wi r i ng 11. Find t he dist ance of object fr om a concave mir r or
of focal lengt h 10 cm so t hat t he si ze of i t s r eal
(d) Resi st ance of par t of t he ci r cuit decr easi ng
image i s four t imes t he si ze of t he object .
fr om infi nit y t o a posit ive val ue
(a) 7.5 cm (b) 5 cm
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c) 2.5 cm (d) 12.5 cm
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
 Physics 1.29
12. A bar omet er measur es :
4
(a) Absolut e pr essur e 14. The r efr act ive i ndex of wat er is . What is t he
3
(b) At mospher i c pr essur e speed of li ght i n wat er ?
(c) Gauge pr essur e (a) 2.25 × 108 m/sec (b) 4 × l08m/sec
(d) Vacuum [ RR B SSE 2014 RE D (c) 1.5 × l08m/sec (d) 2.67 × 108 m/sec
SH I F T ]
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
13. Which one of t he foll owi ng has t he dimensions
15. I f t he electr on in hydr ogen or bit jumps fr om t hir d
of pr essur e ?
or bi t t o second or bit t hen t he wavelengt h ( o f
(a) MLT – 2 t he emit t ed r adi at ion i s given by : (wher e R =
(b) ML – 1T – 2 Rydber g const ant )
(c) ML – 2T – 2 R R
(a)   (b)  
(d) ML – 1T – 1 6 5
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ] 36 5R
(c)   (d)  
5R 36
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
1.30 Physics
AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1

1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (b)

11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (* ) 7. (* ) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (b)

11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 10. When a r ay of light is going fr om one medium t o
an ot h er i t s f r equ en cy r em ai n s sam e an d
1. A jet engine wor ks on the pr inciple of conservation
wavelengt h decr eases.
of linear moment um.
11. A body init ially at r est is acted upon by a constant
2. Sur face temper atur e of t he sun in near ly 6000K.
for ce. The r at e of change of it s ki net ic ener gy
3. Wh en t he el ect r i cal r esi st an ce of a t ypi cal var ies linear ly wit h squar e of t ime.
su bst an ce su dden l y dr ops t o zer o t h i s
12. Conver e lense of lar ge focal lengt h is used for
phenomenon is called as super conduct or s.
shar ing. I t is also used in solar cooker.
4. A spherical air bubble behaves like a diverging lens.
13. Emission of r eflect ed super sonic waves fr om t he
6. (c) Fuel cell is not a sour ce of r enewable ener gy. bat can ascer t ain distance, dir ect ions, nat ur e and
7. Suppose mass of A = m size of obst acle at night .
 mass of B = 4m 14. L ight t r avels sloveen in glass t han in air because
Velocit y of A = v r efr act ive index of air is less t han t hat of glass.
15. The lines of for ce of a unifor m magnetic field must
V
Velocit y of B = be par allel t o each ot her.
2
1 LEVEL-1
K inet ic ener gy of A = mv2
2 1. All 3 points are true about charged particle in
2 cyclotron whose speed increases. Particle moves
1  v
K int enic ener gy of B = 4m  
 2
to a larger circle, its relativistic mass changes
2 because of speed change and frequency of
1 v2 cyclotron has to be adjusted.
=  4m 
2 4 2. When two resistances are in parallel, the formula
1 gives the value of combined resistance of the
mv2
= circuit.
2
3. Earth conductor allows path for the leakage
So kinet ic ener gy B = K inet ic ener gy A
current in the body of the equipment or tool to
8. We know t hat ground.
Pr essur e Temper at ur e 4. Work done is zero because force is always
as t he incr ease in vapour pr essur e, incr eases t he perpendicular to the direction of movement of
boiling point . the earth. Also another way to look at this is
9. Magnet s at tr act magnetic substance such as ir on, earth returns to the same point after one
ni ck l e, cobal t et c t hey al so r epel di amagnet i c revolution so work done must be zero as there
subst ances. are no latent energy forms involved.

5. Choke works on inductance principle. The
function of choke is to provide high voltage
enough for ionization to take place in a tube light
and after establishment and sustenance of
ionization, limit the voltage across the tube. That
is the reason why a tube fuses when the choke is
shorted.
6. Force = m.a Here m = m1+ m2 But force applied
is m2g. Therefore acceleration = F/m.
7. All the statements are correct. Speed of light
changes in different media and it is different for
different colours in media other than vacuum.
8. The uncertainty of position and momentum of
particle in Heisenberg's Uncertainly principle
cannot be reduced because it is inherent.
10. Archimedes' principle states that the upward
buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed
in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged,
is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body
displaces and acts in the upward direction at the
center of mass of the displaced fluid.
Physics 1.31
Second law of thermodynamics states hot the
entropy of an isolated system always increase.
Third law of thermodynamics states that
entropy of a system approaches a confound
value as the temperature approaches absolute
zero.
 Option (b) is correct.
3. a Heavy current drawn by heavy load because
it has low resistance and takes more power.
4. c Boiling point of water is 373K.
5. c Acid rain is caused by chemical reaction when
compounds like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides are released into air, these substance
rize very high into atmosphere, where they
mix and react with water, oxygen and other
chemicals to form acid rain.
 Option (c) is correct.
6. * Planet Venus has hot-turbulent atmosphere
dominated by CO2.

11. Force is a vector quantity. F = m.a and the 7. * The frequency of tuning fork is
direction of acceleration will determine the = 240 – 2 = 238 Hz
direction of force.
8. a Tachymeter can measure rpm.
12. Whenever two vector quantities are added, their
resultant vector is given by this formula.  Option (a) is correct.
9. d All devices are used to measure temperature.
2 2
P  Q  2PQ cos 
10. b Copper has highest conductivity but low tensile
13. A cyclotron accelerates charged particles strength compare to aluminium as copper is
outwards from the center along a spiral path. must costly so it is no used for transmission
The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a line.
static magnetic field and accelerated by a rapidly
varying (radio frequency) electric field. 1 1 1
11. d  
u 4u f
14. Both protons and neutrons are found in the
nucleus and are together called nucleons. 5u 1
2

However, electrons revolve in orbits outside of 4u 10
the nucleus.
 u = 12.5 cm.
15. v2 – u2 = 2as
12. b A barometer is an instrument used to measure
 0 – (196)2 = – 2 × 9.8 × S atmospheric pressure.
S = 1960  Option (b) is correct
LEVEL-2 Force mass  acceleration
13. b Pr essure  
1. c Manometer is an instrument in which doctor Area Area
observes the rise and fall of mercury.
M1  L1 T 2
2. b First law also known as law of conservation
L2
of energy, states that energy can neither the
created not be destroyed in an Isolated M1 L1 T 2
system.
 Option (b) is correct
1.32 Physics

C 15. d Emitted radiation

14. a Refractive index 
V
1 1  1 1
  4R  2  2   4R  
4 3  108 4 6   16 36 
 
3 V
 36  16   20 
 4R    4R 
9  10 8  16  36   16  36 
V  = 2.25 × 108 m/s
4 5R
 Option (a) is correct 
36
 Option (d) is correct
 2
CHAPTER Chemistry
Composit ion of M at t er F or mul a
Classificat ion of mat t er I t is a gr oup of symbols of element s which r epr esent s
one molecule of a subst ance
M at t er e.g. H y dr ogen H 2 ; Ox y gen O 2 ; N i t r ogen N 2 ;
Chlor ine Cl 2 ; Car bondioxide CO2 et c.
Pur e subst ances M i xt ur es
Chemical E quat i on
El ement s Compounds H omogenous H et er ogenous I t is a way of wr iting a chemical r eaction inter ms of
1. M atter. Anything that has mass and occupies space chemical symbols and for mulae. The equat ion should
is matt er . r epr esent a tr ue chemical r eactionwhich can be done
in an labor ator y. Reactant s ar e wr it t en on left hand
2. Pure Substance. A subst ance is t he for m of mat t er side and pr oducts on r ight hand side and these ar e
w h i ch h as def i n i t e com posi t i on el em en t an d separ ated by an ar r ow (). Each r eactant and pr oduct
compounds and pur e subst ance. ar e seper at ed by(+) si gn.The physi cal st at es ar e
3. M ixture. A combination of two or more substances in r epr esented in br acket s.  r epr esents heat changes. I f
which the substances r etain their identity is mixture. H is negat ive, t he r action is exothermic and if its is
Types of M ixt ures. posit ive, t he r eact ion is endot her mic. The equat ion
( i ) H omogeneous mixt ur e : I t has a uni for m should be balanced.
composit ion t hr oughout it s mass and no visible e.g. 2H 2(g) + O2(g)  2H 2O(l ); H = – 136 K .cal
bou n dr i es of separ at i on bet w een v ar i ou s N ote: Unbalanced r eaction viocates low of conser vation
const it uent s. of mass.
e.g. solut ion of sugar in wat er.
( ii ) H et erogeneous mixt ure : I t i s a subst ances I on s
having different composition throughout its mass. When electr ons ar e r emoved fr om or added to a neutr al
I t has visible boundar ies of separ ation between atom or molecule, a charged particle called ion is formed
various constituents. or ions ar e for med by the heter olytic fission of a covalent
e.g. mixture of sand and cement bond. An ion that bear s a ‘+’ ve char ge is called cations
4. Element. A subst ance that cannot be separ at ed into while those which bears a ‘-’ ve charge ar e called anions.
simpler subst ances by chemical means is element . Types of I ons
Types of Element s. 1. M onoatomic ions. These cont ain only one at om.
( i ) M etal: It is a good conductor of heat and electricity. e.g. M g+2, Fe+3
( ii ) Nonmetal: It is poor conductor of heat and electricity. 2. Polyatomic ions. These contain more than one atom.
( iii ) M et alloid: I t has int er mediat e pr oper t ies of e.g. OH – , SO4– 2
metals and nonmetals.
5. Compound. A subst ance composed of at oms of t wo I oni c Compounds
or m or e el em en t s ch em i cal l y u n i t ed i n f i xed Neut r al compounds containing cations and anions ar e
proportions is compound. I n compound elements loss called ionic compounds. Cat ions ar e most ly der ived
t heir ident it ies. fr om met al at oms.
Monoatomic anions ar e named by the addit ion of suffix
Symbol -ide t o a st em der ived fr om t he name of element .
I t is an abbr eviat ion or shor t ened for m for t he full e.g. Car bide C– 4, Oxide O– 2, Nit r ide N – 3, Fluor ide F – et c
name of an element . This pr esent syst em of symbols
Polyatomic ions containing oxygen are called oxyanions.
was int r oduced by Ber zelius.
Types of I onic Compounds.
Symbols and t heir L at in names
These ar e of t wo t ypes
English name Symbol L atin name
1. suffix-ate : I t is used for ion wit h lar gest number
Ant imony Sb St i bium of oxygen at oms.
Copper Cu Cupr um
Gold Au Aur um e.g. NO3 – nit r at e
I r on Fe Fer r um 2. Suffix -ite : I t is used for ion with smallest number
L ead Pb Plumbum of oxygen at oms.
Sodium Na Nat r ium e.g. N O 2 – nit r it e
 2.2 Chemistry
When an element for ms mor e than two oxyanions, e.g. 2KCI O3(s)  2K CI (s) + 3O2(g)
the prefix per meaning more and hypo meaning less D i ssociat i on.
ar e used in addition to suffixes-ite and - at e. I t is a r ever sible decomposit ion r eact ion.
e.g. Cl O 4 – per chlor at e; Cl O 2 – chlor it e e.g. PCl 5(s)PCl 3 + Cl 2
3. D isplacement React ions
Cl O 3 – chlor at e; ClO– – hypochlor it e React ions in which one element r eplaced anot her
When t wo or mor e ani ons di ffer i n number of element for m a compound ar e called displacement
hydr ogen at oms, t hey ar e named as hydr ogen or reactions.
dihydr ogen . e.g. Zn(s) + H 2SO4(eq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H 2(g)
e.g. PO 43 phosphat e These ar e r edox r eact ions; i.e. t hey involve t r ansfer
of elect r ons fr om one subst ance t o anot her.
H PO42 hydr ogen phosphat e 4. M etathesis Reactions or Double Decomposition
H 2PO4 dihyr ogen phosphat e React ions in which t wo compounds r eact t o for m
t wo new compounds and no changes in oxidat ion
The subscr ipt of t he cat ion is numer ically equal t o number t ake place ar e called met at hesis r eact ions.
t he char ge on t he anion and subscr ipt of t he anion e.g. pr ecipit at ion r eact ions, neut r alisat ion r eact ion
is numer cially equal t o t he char ge on t he cat ion. AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
e.g. sodium car bonat e H Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H 2O(l)
Na + CO3– 2
1 2 5. I somer i sat ion
N a2 CO3 The i nt er conver si on of one for m of i somer i nt o
Common name F or mula Systematic name anot her is called isomer isat ion.

Dr yice CO2 Solid car bondioxide e.g. NH 4CNO   NH 2CONH 2
Ammonia NH 3 Tr ihydr ogen nitr ide
Table salt NaCl Sodium chlor ide L aws of Chemical Combinat ion
Caust ic soda NaOH Sodium hydr oxide
1. L aw of con ser va t i on of m ass or L aw of
Caust ic potash K OH Pot assium hydr oxide
indest r uct ibilit y of mat t er
Soda ash Na2 CO3 Sodium car bonat e
I n a chemical change, t ot al mass of t he r eact ant s is
Pear l ash K 2 CO3 Pot assium car bonate
equal t o t he t ot al mass of t he pr oduct s;
Quick lime CaO Calcium oxide
M ar ble CaCO3 Calcium car bonat e
or
Slaked lime Ca(OH )2 Calcium hydr oxide M at t er can neit her be cr eat ed nor dest r oyed;
M ilk of M g(OH)2 M agnesium or
managesia hydr oxide Dur ing a chemical r eact ion, t her e is no det ect able
Baking soda NaH CO3 Sodium hydr ogen loss or gain in t he t ot al mass.
ar bonate
Bleacking CaOCl 2 Calcium oxy 2. Law of definite (or) constant proportions (Proust)
powder chlor ide A chemical compound al ways cont ai ns t he same
L aughing gas N 2O Nit r ous oxide element s combined t ogether in t he same pr opor t ion
Cane sugar Cl 2 H 22 O11 Sucr ose by weight
Epsom salt M gSO4. M agnesium sulphate or
7H 2O heptahydr at e A chemical compound has a fixed composition by weight.
Gypsum CaSO4. Calcium sulphat e 3. L aw of mult iple propor t ions (D alt on)
2H 2O dihydr at e
When t wo element s combine t o for m t wo or mor e
compounds, t he di ffer ent wei ght s of one of t he
Types of Chemical React ions
element s combining with the const ant weight of the
1. Combinat ion React ions
ot her bear a simple r at io t o one anot her.
React ions in which t wo or mor e subst ances combine
t o f or m a com pou n d ar e cal l ed com bi n at i on 4. L aw of combining volumes (Gay-L ussac)
reactions. When gases combine, t hey do so in volume which
e.g. 2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2M gO(s) bear a simple r atio t o one anot her and to t he volume
Synt hesis is t he for mat ion of a compound fr om it s of the product pr ovided all gases are measur ed under
const it uent element s. t he same condit ions of t emper at ur e and pr essur e.
e.g. N 2(g) + 3H 2(g)  2NH 3(g) 5. L aw of r ecipr ocal pr opor t ions (Rit cher )
2. D ecombinat ion React ions When two elements combine separately with a fixed
React i ons i n whi ch a compound decomposes t o weight of a thir d element, the ratio of their weights in
pr oduce t wo or mor e differ ent subst ances ar e called which they do so is either the same or a whole number
decomposit ion r eact ions. of multiple of the r atio in which they react together.
 Chemistry 2.3

At oms conditions of temperature and pressure (STP) or normal

condit ions of t emper at ur e and pr essur e (NTP).
At om
At STP, 22.4 lit r es of all gases have t he same number
I t is the smallest par ticle of an element that maint ains
of molecul es and mass of each vol ume i n gr ams is
chemical ident it y t hr ough all t he chemical changes.
numer ically equal t o it s molecular mass.
That cannot have a st able independent exist ance.
M ol ecul e Avogadr o’s H ypot hesi s
I t is t he smallest par t icle of an element or compound Equal volumes of all gases under similar condit ions of
t hat can have a st able independent exist ence. t emper at ur e and pr essur e cont ain equal number of
mol ecul es.
At omi ci t y 2  volume densit y = M olecular weight
N umber of at oms const it ut i ng a mol ecul e is cal led
atomicity . Relat ive D ensit y
e.g. Nit r ic acid - 5 H NO3 ; H ydr ochlor ic acid - 2H Cl I t is t he r at io of mass a cer t ain volume of a gas t o t he
Ozone - 3O3 mass of t he same volume of hydr ogen under similar
condit ions of t emper at ur e and pr essur e.
At omic M ass
Mass if cer t ain volume of t he gas
I t is t he r at io of mass of one at om of an element t o 1 Relative density =
Mass of same volume of hydrogen
12
par t of mass of car bon -12 at om.
1 amu = 1.667  10– 24g M ass of 22.4 lit r es of any gas at S.T.P is equal t o it s
molecular mass in gr ams.
or Avogr am = 1.667  10– 31 kg
Aver age At omic M ass Avagadr o’s N umber
I t is an aver age based on t he abundance of isot opes of I t is t he number of at oms pr esent in one gr am at om of
t hat element in nat ur e. an element
e.g. Car bon – 12.01 amu; Clor ine – 35.46 amu or
I t is t he number of molecules pr esent in one gr am
Gram Atomic M ass or Gram Atom molecular mass of a subst ance
I t is the numer ical value of t he atomic mass expr essed
or
in gr ams.
I t is t he number of molecules pr esent in one gr am
M ass of el ement s in gr ams molar volume of a gaseous sust ance.
Number of gram atoms =
At omic mass of t he el ement
I t is denot ed by N A , N 0 or N and has a value of 6.023 
M ol ecul ar M ass 1023 and it s unit is mol – 1.
M olecular mass of a substance (element or compound)
is defined as t he r at io of t he mass of one molecule of L oschmi dt N umber
t he subst ance t o 1/12 par t of mass of car bon-12 at om. The number of molecules pr esent in 1 ml of a gas or
M olecular mass of a subst ance vapour at STP is called L oschmidt number .
M ass of one molecule of t he subst ance I t s value is 2.689  1019 ml – 1
=
1
par t of mass of car bon -12 at om M ol e
12
I t is t he amount of subst ance t hat cont ains as many
M ol e element ar y ent it ies as t her e ar e at oms in 0.012 kg of
The numer i cal val ue of t he mol ecul ar mass of a car bon -12
subst ance when expr essed in gr ams is cal led gr am
molecular weight or gr am molecule or gr am mole or or
molar mass or mole. I t i s t he amount of subst ance whi ch cont ai ns one
Mass of subst ance in grams Avagadr o’s number
Number of moles =
Molecular mass 6.023  1023 of par t icles
No. of at om on M olecules or
Number of moles =
6.023  1023 1 mole r epr esent s 22.4 lit r es of a gas at STP
Volume of gas at STP (in lit re)
Number of moles = Gram atomic mass (or gr am at om).
22.4
M ass of 6.023  1023 at oms of an element .
ST P Condi t ions
0 C or 273K t emper at ur e, 1 at mospher e or 760 mm of Gram molecular mass
K g or 76cm of H g pr essur e ar e cal l ed st an dar d M ass of 6.023  1023 molecules of any subst ance.
 2.4 Chemistry

At omic St r uct ur e (6)The empt y space ar ound nucleus i s cal led ext r a
nucluear part . The volume of atom is about 1015 times
F undament al Par t icles t he volume of nucleus.
The t hr ee basic subat omic par t icles; elect r on, pr ot on
(7)This model is called planetary model as it r esembles
and neutr on which for m the building blocks of all atoms
sloar syst em.
ar e called fundamental par ticles.
At omic number, Z
E lect r on
I t is a subat omic par ticle which car r ies a unit negat ive The at omic number of an element is defined as t he
char ge. I t is discover ed by Sir J.J Thomson dur ing t he number of unit post ive char ges or t he pr ot ons pr esent
st udy of cat hode r ays in a dischar ge t ube. The name in t he nuclues of an at om.
was int r oduced by St oney. Z = number of unit posit ive char ges
e/m of elect r on = 1.76  108 coulomb/g = number of pr ot ons
M ass of elect r on = 9.11  10-28 g or 9.11  10 – 31 kg = number of elect r ons (I n case of at om)
1 = ser ial number of elements in periodic table
I t is the mass of hydr ogen, i.e. 0.0005486 amu M oseley’s r elat ionship is,
1837
 (Nu) = a(Z – b)
Rest mass of elect ron
M ass of moving elect r on = wher e,  = fr equency of X - r ay
2
v 
1   Z = at omic number
c
a and b = const ant s.
wher e, v = velocit y of elct r on M ass number (A)
c = velocit y of light I t is t he t ot al number of pr ot ons and neut r ons pr esent
Pr ot on in t he nucleus of an at om of an element .
I t is a subat omic par t ilce which car r ies a unit post ive A = Z + n (atomic number + number of neutrons)
char ge. or n =A– Z
The name pr ot on was suggest ed by Rut her for d.
A
Char ge = + 1.602  10– 19 coulomb
M ass = 1.007276 amu Z
e/m = 9.58  104 c/g wher e, A = mass number
Goldst ein discover ed t he posit ive r ays or canal r ays. Z = at omic number
N eut r on ‘  ’ = symbol of element
I t is a subat omic par t icle which car r ies no char ge. I t is e.g. 11H , 73 L i, 2311Na, 42H e
discover ed by Chadwick.
I sot opes
M ass of neut r on = 1.675  10– 24 g or 1.675  10– 27 kg
These ar e atoms of same element which have t he same
or 1.008665 amu
at omic number but differ ent mass number s.
Pr ot ons and neut r ons ar e found in t he nucleus at t he
They di ffer i n number of neut r ons pr esent i n t he
cent r e of t he at om. The elect r ons r evolve out side t he
nucleus.
nucleus in shells or ener gy levels called unit .
e.g. 3517Cl, 3717Cl
At omic models
Thomson pr oposed wat er melon model of an at om. H e I sobar s
assumed it to be a spher e of positive electr icity in which The at oms of di ffer ent el ement s whi ch have same
t he elect r ons ar e embedded like seed. mass number but differ ent at omic number s ar e called
isobars.
Rut her for d’s  -r ay Scat t er ing E xper iment They di ffer i n number of el ect r ons, pr ot ons and
H is model of at om is called nuclear model . neut r ons.
(1)At om is spher ical and has a lot of empt y space in it . e.g. 146C, 147N
(2)The entir e mass of at om is concentr ated in its cent r e
which is post ively char ged and lies at t he cent r e. I sot ones
(3)The nucleus is sur r ounded by elect r ons which move These ar e t he at oms of differ ent element s which have
in cir cular pat h called or bit s. t he same number of neut r ons.
(4)Number of elect r ons is equal t o number of pr ot ons. e.g. 146C and 168O
H ence t he at om is neut r al. L i ght
(5)Diamet er of nucleus is 10– 13 t o 10– 12 cm and t hat of L ight is a for m of ener gy. I t i s an el ect r omagnet i c
at om is 10– 8 cm. r adiation.
 Chemistry 2.5
N ewt ons cor puscular t heory of light T ype of Wavelength Gener at ion
Accor di ng t o N ewt on, l i ght i s composed of mi nut e r adiation in Å sour ce
par t icles or cor puscules which t r avel in st r aight lines
in all dir ect ions. Gama r ays 0.01 t o 0.1 Nuclei of
r adioact ive
Wave theory of light
element s
Accor ding t o H uygens, l ight t r avels i n t he for m of
X-r ays 0.1 t o 150 By placing a
waves fr om a luminous object in all dir ect ions.
met al obst acle in
Char act er ist ics of Wave pat h of fast
Wavelengt h moving e –
The dir ect distance between any two adjacent ident ical Ultra violet 150 t o 3800 Sun r ays
poi nt s of t he wave, i .e. t he di st ance bet ween t wo rays
adj acent cr est s or t wo adj acent t r oughs i s cal l ed Visi ble 3800 t o 7600 St ar s, ar c l amps
wavelengt h . I t is denot ed by . light
U nit s : m, cm, A 0 or nm; 1 A 0 = 10– 8 cm= 10– 10 m; I nfr ar ed 7600 to 6 106 I ncandescent
1nm=10– 7cm = 10– 9m r ays object ive
F r equency M icr o 6 106 t o K lyst r on t ube
I t is t he number of wave cr est s or t r oughs passing or waves 3 109
t r ough a given point in one second. I t is denot ed by Raido 3 1014 t o Fr om an
(Nu). waves 3 1014 alt er nat ing
Unit s : cycle per second or H er t z(H z) cur r ent wit h
c c high fr equency
h = c or  or  =
  Quant um t heor y
wher e, c = speed of pr opagat ion of wave A black body is a per fect absor ber of ener gy, i.e. it
Fr equency and wavelength ar e inver sely pr opor t ional absor bs complet ely all t he r adiat ions falling on it .
t o each ot her.
Phot o elect ric effect
Vel ocit y
When a beam of light of suit able fequency falls on t he
I t is t he dist ance t r avelled by a wave in one second.I t
sur face of a met al, elect r ons ar e eject ed fr om it . This
is denot ed by ‘c’.
is called phot o elect r ic effect . This was fir st obser ved
Unit s : cms– 1 or ms– 1
by H er t z. The l i ber at ed el ect ons ar e cal l ed phot o
Velocit y of light is 3  1010 cms– 1 or 3 108 ms– 1. electrons.
Wave number
E inst ein’s concept
I t is t he number of waves in one uni t lengt h. I t is
L ight i s pr opagat ed in space in bundles or packet s
denoted by  (Nu bar ). called phot on . Phot on has no mass, t hus one quant um
1 of light is called phot on .
 
 Ener gy of phot on, E = h 
= c 
wher e, n = element const ent
Unit s : cm – 1 or m – 1
Ampl i t ude Bohr ’s T heor y of H yr ogen At om
H eight of t he cr est or dept h of t he t r ough of a wave is 1. Electr ons r evolve r ound the nucleus in cer tain fixed
called it s amplit ude. I t is denot ed by A. I t is a measur e closed cir cular pat hs called or bit s.
of int ensit y or br ighness of a beam of light .
The angular momentum of or bit becomes quantised.
Spect r um nh
Wh i t e l i gh t i s com posed of sev en di f f er en t 2. mvr =
2
colour s(VI BGYOR). When a beam of whi t e l ight i s
passed t hr ough a pr ism, it split s int o seven colour s; wher e, m = mass of elect r on
t his is called disper sion . This ar r ay of colour s similar v = velocit y of elect r ons
t o a r ain bow is called spect r um . r = r adius of or bit
The r ange of visible r egion is 3800 t o 7600Å. n = number of or bit in which t he e– pr esent .
The r adi at i ons wi t h fr equenci es l ower t han r ed l i ght Angular moment um is an int egr al mult iple of h/2
ar e cal l ed infr a r ed and t hose whose fr equenci es ar e
mor e t han vi ol et ar e cal l ed ult r a viol et r adi at i on . 3. As l ong as an el ect r on r evol ves i n an or bi t , i t
nei t her gai n nor l oses ener gy; such or bi t s ar e
The ar r angement of var i ous t ypes of el ect omagnet i c
r adi at i ons i n t he i ncr easi ng or der of wavel engt h or cal l ed st at i onar y st at es. Ener gy l evel s ar e t he
d ecr easi n g or d er of f r equ en ci es i s cal l ed st at ionar y st at es associat ed wit h a difinit e amount
elect r omagnet ic spect r um . of ener gy.
 2.6 Chemistry
4. The most st able st at e of an at om is it s gr ound or Wave nat ure of elect ron
nor mal st at e. M at t er has dual char act er and it behaves like a wave
5. When an elect r on jumps fr om one st at ionar y or bit and a par t icle. This was pr oposed by de Br oglie.
t o anot her, t he emission or absr opt ion of ener gy DeBr oglie equat ion wavelengt h of r evolving elect r on
takes place. Emission of ener gy takes place in ter ms
h
of light .  =
mv
E = E2 – E1 = h
wher e,  = wavelengt h
When an electr on moves for m inner to outer or bit
by absorbing a definite amount of energy, the electron m = mass of par t icle
is said to be in an excited st ate. v = velocit y of par t icle
Radius of or bit , r = 0.529  10– 8 n 2 cm h = Planck’s const ant
wher e, n = number of t he or bit M oment um, p = mv
When n = 1, r = 0.529 Å or 5.29  109 cm. h
 p=
This is called Bohr ’s r adius and is denot ed by a0. 
Energy of an electron, wher e, = wave nat ur e
2.179  10 11 p = par t icle nat ur e
En = erg per atom
n2 Or bi t
13.6 I t is a well defined closed pat h ar ound t he nucleus in
or En = eV per at om which t he elect r on r evolves.
n2
313.6 Quant um N umber s
or En = k.cal per mol
n2 Electrons of an atom are characterised by four quantum
13.12 numbers.
or En = kJ per mol
n2 1. Principle quant um number (N ei ls Bohr )
The negat i ve val ue of ener gy E n wou l d k eep on I t is denot ed by’n’.
incr easing as t he elect r on moves t o t he ener gy level Values of n = 1,2,3,4 ....... 
near er t o t he nucleus. I f n = 1, K shell
2 e2 I t denot es t he ener gy of r evolving elect r on. I t also
Velocit y of elect r on in nt h or bit , V n=
nh gives t he r elat ive dist ance of el ect r on fr om t he
Split t ing of spect r al lines in an elect r ical field is called nucleus.
st ar k effect and in appli ed magnet i c field is call ed The maximum number of elect r ons t hat can be
Zeeman effect. pr esent in an ener gy shell is given by 2n 2
When an elect r on is excit ed int o n t h ener gy level, t he wher e, n = number of shells.
number of spect r al l i nes for med i n t he emi ssi on H ence K shell has 2 e– n=1
spect r um is given by L shell has 8 e– n=2
n(n  1) M shell has 18 e –
n=3
2 N shell has 32 e– n=4
wher e, n = number of shell in which t he elect r on is 2. Azimuthal quant um number (Sommer feld)
present in excited state. I t is denot ed by ‘l ’.
Values r anges fr om 0 t o (n– 1)
Sommer feld ext ension t o Bohr ’s M odel
l = 0,1,2,..........(n – 1)
Electrons revolve round the nucleus in an elliptical orbits.
They have a major axis and a minor axis with different The main shells ar e made up of ener gy shells called
wavelengths AB and CD respcetively. The nucleus of atom sub ener gy st at es. I t descr ibes shape of t he or bit al
is pr esent at one of t he focii of ellipse.The angular and hence called or bit al quant um number.
momentum of revolving electr on in an elliptical orbit is Shell Value of n Value of l
an integral multiple of h/2 and is given by K 1 0
h L 2 0, 1
mvr = k M 3 0, 1, 2
2
N 4 0, 1, 2, 3
K shell; n = 1, k = 1 cir cular O 5 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
L shell; n = 2, k = 1,2
M shell; n = 3, k = 1,2,3 ellipt ical  l  0, it r epresent ed s  orbit al 
 l  1, it r epr esent ed p  or bit al 
N shell; n = 4, k = 1,2,3,4  
 l  2, it r epr esent ed d  orbit al 
The t ot al ener gy of t he elect r on r emains same in an  
at om.  l =3, it r epresent ed f  orbit al 
 Chemistry 2.7
3. M agnet ic quantum number (L ande) E l ect r oni c Confi gur at i on
I t is denot ed by ‘m’. Ar r angement of el ect r ons i n t he space ar ound t he
Values of m ar e all whole number s r anging fr om nucleus in an at om is called elect onic configuar at ion .
– l t o + l including zer o. Pauli’s exclusion pr inciple
m = – l , – l +1 ...... – 1, 0, +1 ......+ l – 1, + l . No t wo elect r ons in an at om can have t he same set of
Tot al number of values of m = (2l + 1). value for all t he four quant um number s.
This denot es the spat ial or ient ation of t he or bit als. An or bit al can hold a maximum of 2 e- wit h opposit e
4. Spi n qu an t u m n u m ber (U h l en beck an d spins.
Gouldsmit) Aufbau pr inciple
I t is denot ed by m s or s. The newly ent er ing elect r on of an atom enter s int o
I t indicat es dir ect ion of spin of e– . that orbital with lower ener gy among the available ones.
1 1
I t has only t wo values + and – or 
2 2
Par allel spin   : Elect r ons spinning in t he same
dir ect ion. Two elect r ons of par allel spin never be
accomodat e in an or bit al.
Opposite spi n : Electr ons spinning in the opposite
dir ect ions.

Quantum Symbol Per mit ted Total number

values of permitted F i g. M ot her ’s or bit al ener gy di agr am
values The or der of incr easing ener gies of or bit als is found t o
Pr inciple n 1,2,3,4,...... n be
Azimut hal l 0,1,2, ..... n 1s < 2s < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5d < 6s.........
(n– 1) (n+l) r ule is used t o know t he sequence of ener gies of
M agent ic m – l......0....+l 2l+1 or bit als.I t st at es t hat , t he or bit al wit h t he lowest (n+l)
Spin m s or s +1/2 and 2 value is filled fir st . I f t wo or mor e or bit als have same
– 1/2 (n+l) values, t hen one wit h lower ‘n’ is filled fir st .

Per iodic Classificat ion of E lement s

Repr esent at ive L ON G F ORM OF PERI OD I C T ABL E Repr esent at ive element s
I ner t
element s gases
A 0
1 2
H He
1.00797 I I A III A IV A VA VI A VI I A 4.0026
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.939 9.0122 Transit ion met als 10.811 12.01115 14.0067 15.994 18.9984 20.183
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.9898 24.312 III B IV B VB VI B VI I B VI I I VI I I VI I I IB I I B 26.9815 28.086 30.9738 32.064 35.453 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.098 40.08 44.956 47.90 50.942 51.996 54.9380 55.847 58.9332 58.71 63.54 65.37 69.72 72.59 74.9216 78.96 79.909 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.905 91.22 92.906 95.94 (99) 107.07 100.905 106.4 107.870 112.41 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60 126.9044 131.30
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
 Ba *La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cs 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.948 183.85 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.09 196.967 200.59 204.37 207.19 208.980 (210) (210) (222)
132.905
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
Fr Ra † Ac Rf Ha Unh Uns Uno Une Uun
(223) (226) (227) (257) (260)

I nner t r ansit ion met als

* L ant hani de 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
ser ies Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.12 140.907 144.24 (147) 150.35 151.96 157.25 158.924 162.50 164.930 167.26 168.934 173.04 174.97
† Act ini de 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
ser ies Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.038 (231) 238.03 (237) (242) (243) (247) (247) (249) (254) (253) (256) (253) (257)
 2.8 Chemistry
 L avoisier classified element s simply into met als and
non-met als.
 Dober einer ar r anged gr oup of t hr ee element s such
that the atomic mass of centr al element is ar ithmatic
mean of ot her t wo el ement s. These wer e cal l ed
t r aids.
e.g. L i, Na, K .
 Newland pr oposed law of oct aves which st at es t hat
when element s ar e ar r anged in incr easing or der of
t heir at omic masses, t he pr oper t ies of ever y eight h
element ar e r epet it ion of fir st .
 L ot har M eyer plot t ed a gr aph of at omic volumes
ver sus at omi c wei ght s of di ffer ent el ement s and
showed t hat si mi l ar el ement s occupi ed si mi l ar
post ions on cur ve.
Mass number
At omic volume =
Densit y
M andeleef’s per iodic law
The physical and chemical pr oper t ies of element s ar e
a per i odi c funct i on t o t hei r at omi c wei ght s. The
element s pr edict ed by him ar e called eka element s.
e.g. Scandium is called Eka Bor on .
Per i odi c L aw
The physical and chemical pr opet ies of element s ar e
per iodic funct ion of t heir at omic number s.
Per i odi ci t y
I t is t he occur ance of element s wit h similar pr oper t ies
at r egular int er vals when ar r anged in incr easing or der
of t heir at omic number s.
M odern Periodic law (M osel ey)
The physical and chemical pr oper t ies of element s ar e
a per iodic funct ion of t heir elect r onic configur at ion.
L ong form of Periodic t able
The table is called extended form or long form of periodic
table.
I t h as 18 ver t i cal col um n s cal l ed gr ou ps and 7
hor izontal r ows called per iods. 18 ver tical columns ar e
made int o 16 gr oups or families.
Shortest period. Fir st per iod wit h only 2 element s.
Short period. The second and t hir d per iods ar e called
shor t per iods as t hey cont ain 8 element s.
L ong Per i od
The four t h and fift h per iods cont aining 18 element s
each ar e called long per iods. Each of t hese per iods
cont ains
t wo s-block element s, t en- d-bolck element s and six p-
block elements.
Longest period. Sixt h per iod
I ncomplet e priod. Sevent h per i od.
Classificat ion of E lement s int o Blocks
s-block element s
The element s in which differ enciat ing elect r on ent er s
t he s-or bi t al of out er most shel l ar e cal l ed s-bl ock
elements.
Gener al elect r onic configur at ion of s-block element s
ar e ns1-2.
p-block element s
The element s in which differ enciat ing elect r on ent er s
t he p-or bit al of t he out er most shell ar e called p-block
elements.
Gener al elect r onic configur at ion of p- block element s
ar e ns2 np1-6.
d- block element s
The elements in which differ enciat ing elect r on enter s
int o d-or bit al of penult imat e shell ar e called d-block
elements.
Gener al electr onic configur ation of d-block element ar e
ns1-2 (n-1)d1-10.
f-block element s.
The element s in which differ enciat ing elect r on ent er s
int o t he ant ipenult imat e shell (n-2) of f or bit als ar e
called f-block element s.
General electronic configur ation of f-block element ar e
ns2 (n-1)d 0 t o 1 (n-2)f 1 t o 14.
Classificat ion of E lement s
Based on el ect r oni c confi gu r at i on, el ement s ar e
classified int o four t ypes.
1. I nert gas element s
Element s in which the out er most s and p subshells
ar e complet ely filled ar e called iner t gas element s.
Gener al el ect r oni c configur at i on is ns2 np 6.
T h ese el em en t s ar e cal l ed r ar e gases. T h ey
const it ut e zer o gr oup of per iodic t able.
2. Repr esent at ive element s.
E l em en t s i n w h i ch t h e ou t er m ost sh el l i s
incompletely filled are called representative elements.
Gener al elect r onic configur at ion is ns1, ns2, ns2,np1
t o ns2 np5.
M etals, non-metals and metalloids come under this
cat egor y. These ar e also called nor mal element s.
3. Transit ion element s
Elements which have incompletely filled outer most
and penultimate shells are called transition elements.
Gener al elect r onic configur at ion is ns1-2 (n-1)d1-9.
4. I nner t ransit ion element s
El ement s i n whi ch t hr ee out er most shel l s, i .e.
valence penultimate and the antipenutlimate shells
ar e incomplet ely filled ar e called inner t r ansit ion
elements.
Gener al el ect oni c con fi gur at i on i s n s2(n -1)d 0-1
(n-2)f 1-14.
 Chemistry 2.9
Per i odi c Pr oper t i es Salt: I t is a subst ances which can neit her give H +
The pr oper t i es whi ch ar e r epeat ed aft er cer t ai n or OH – ions in aqueous solut ions.
i n t er val of at om i c n u m ber s ar e cal l ed per i odi c e.g. NaCl, K 2SO4
properties. Strengt h of Acids and Bases
At omic size I t depends on t he degr ee of dissociat ion().
The di st ance bet ween nucl eus and t he out er most Degr ee of dissociat ion,
elect r on of an at om is called at omic r adius. Number of moles dissociat ed
At omic r adium does not det er mined dir ect ly. =
Tot al number of moles of subst ance
Cr yst al radius or M et allic radius
 St r ong acid : I t pr oduces lar ge number of H + ions
I t is one-half of t he dist ance bet ween nuclei of t wo
in aqueous solut ion.
adjacent met al at oms.
e.g. H Cl, H 2SO4, H NO3
Covalent r adius
Weak acid : I t pr oduces less number of H + ions.
I t is one-half of t he dist ance bet ween cent r es of nuclei
of t wo similar at oms bonded by a covalent bond. e.g. CH 3COOH , H 3BO3

V ander Waal’s r adius [H + ][X – ]

I t is one half of t he int er nuclear dist ance bet ween t wo
at oms faci ng each ot her bel ongi ng t o t wo near est
molecules of t he element in solid st at e.
r covalent < r met allic ; r covalent < r vander waals
I onic r adius
I t is t he effective dist ance fr om nucleus of t he ion upt o
which it has an influence on it s elect r on cloud.
Dissociat ion const ant of a base, K b =
Val ency
N umber of hydr ogen at oms or number of chlor i ne
at oms or double t he number of oxygen at oms t hat
combi ne wi t h an at om of t he el ement . El ect r ons
pr esent in out er most shell ar e called valence electrons.
Acids and Bases
All substances ar e basically classified int o acids, bases
and neutr al substances. Robert Boyle defined acids and
bases based on t heir pr oper t ies.
Aci ds
These substances ar e sour in taste, tur ns blue lit mus
red liberate hydrogen when reacts with metals, conducts
Dissociat ion const ant of acid, K a =
[HX]
Strong base dissociates to a larger extent in aqueous
solution and produces lar ger number of OH – ions
while weak bases dissociates to a lesser extent.
e.g.NaOH , K OH , Ba(OH )2 ar e st r ong bases.
NH 4OH , Ca(OH )2, Al(OH )3 ar e weak bases.
[M + ][OH – ]
[M OH ]
K a and K b ar e lar ge for st r ong acids and bases and
small for weak acids and bases. The K a values of
H Cl , H N O3, H 2SO4, K b val ues of N aOH , K OH
cannot be det er mined as they dissociat e t o a lar ger
ext ent and do not exist in equilibr ium.
N eut r alizat ion.
When acids r eact s with equal quantit y of base, both
l oose t hei r char act er i st i c pr oper t i es and gi ve
neutr al solution. H er e H + ions of acid combine wit h
OH – ions of base t o give undissociat ed wat er.
e.g. H Cl  N aOH    N aCl  H 2O

Acid base salt wat er

electr icity in solut ion st ate and neutr alized bases. About 13.67 K.cals of heat is evolved which is called
B ases heat of neut r alization .
These subst ances ar e bit t er in t ast e, t ur ns r ed lit mus The opposite reaction of neutralisation is Hydrolysis.
blue, soapy t o t ouch, conduct elect r icit y in aqueous 2. Bronst ed- Lowry theory (Pr ot on t heor y )
solut ions and neut r alized acids. An acid is a subst ance t hat exhibit s a t endency t o
M oder n D ef i n i t i on of A ci ds a n d B a ses loose one or mor e pr otons and a base is a substance
t hat exhibit s a t endency t o gain pr ot ons.
(Based on T hr ee T heor ies)
Acid : pr ot on donor
1. Ar r heni us t h eor y (T h eor y of i on i zat i on or
elect r olyt ic dissociat ion.) Base : pr ot on accept or
Acid: I t is a subst ance which cont ains hydr ogen A pr ot on t r ansfer r eact ion is called pr ot olysis.
and ionizes in aqueous solut ion t o give H + ions. When an acid loses a pr ot on, t he r emaining par t
Their gener al for mula is H X. has a t endency t o gain it and it behaves as base.
e.g. H Cl, H 2SO4, H NO3, H SO4, CH 3COOH 
H A  H*  A
 pr oton base
Base: I t i s a subst ance whi ch i oni ses i n wat er
pr oducing hydr oxyl (OH – ) ions and ar e r epr esented 
H Cl   H   Cl 
as M OH .   H O*  A 
H A  H 2 O   3
e.g. NaOH , Ca(OH )2, NH 4OH et c. acid – 1 base– 2 acid – 2 base– 1
2.10 Chemistry
A – is called conjugat e base of acid, H A and H 3O+ is
conjugat e acid of base H 2O.
Conjugate acid-base pair : I t is acid– base pair
differ ing by a pr ot on.
e.g. H Cl + H 2 O 
  H 3O*  Cl 
 e.g. Be(OH )2, Al 2O3, ZnO, Cr 2O3 et c.
H 2O + N H 3 
 NH *4  OH 
 3. L ewis t heory or Elect ronic t heory
These ar e r ever sible r eact ions.
Conjugat e base of st r ong acid is always weak.
N eutralization: Tr ansfer of a pr ot on fr om acid t o
a base is called neut r alizat ion .
e.g. H 3O+ OH +   H 2O + H 2O
Classification of Slovents: These are of four types.
(i ) Pr ot ophilic solvent s : These have t endency t o
accept pr ot ons e.g. wat er, alcohol, liquid NH 3
(ii ) Pr ot ogenic solvent s : These have t endency t o
pr oduce pr ot ons e.g. wat er, H Cl
(iii ) Amphipr ot ic solvent s : These act s as ei t her
pr ot ophilic or pr ot ogenic
e.g. wat er, NH 3
(iv) Aprotic solvents : These solvents which neither
donat e nor accept pr ot ons
e.g. benzene, CCl 4
St rengt h of Acids and Bases : St r ong aci d i s
one whi ch has a gr eat er t endency t o donat e a
pr ot on and i f t he t endency i s l ess, t he aci d i s
weak .
HCl+ H 2O    H 3O+ + Cl

H Cl is a st r ong acid t hen wat er
Cl – is conjugat e base which is a weak base as it has
less t endency t o be at t ached t o a pr ot on.
 H 3 O+ +CH 3 COO 
CH 3 COOH +H 2 O  
CH 3COOH weak acid.
CH 3COO– conjugat e base is a st r ong base as it has
gr eat er t endency t o accept a pr ot on .
The conjugate base of a strong acid and the conjugate
acid of a st r ong base ar e weak. The conjugat e acid
of a weak base and t he conjugat e base of a weak
acid ar e st r ong.
L eveling effect : St r ong aci ds such as H N O3,
H 2SO4, H Cl when pr esent in aqueous solut ion all
of t hem have same st r engt h, because al l t hese
aci ds compl et ely di ssoci at e and donat e H + i ons
easily t o water which exists as H 3O+ in wat er. Since
t hese acids pr oduces H 3O+ ions in wat er and H 3O+
is the st r ongest acid in wat er, the str engt h of above
acids come down t o t he level of H 3O+ st r engt h in
water. Similar ly str ong bases such as NaOH, KOH,
Ba(OH )2 come down t o it s st r engt h of OH – ions
which ar e st r ong bases i n wat er. This i s call ed
levelling effect .
The strength of acid and base depends on the natur e
of t he solvent used.
Amphoteric substances or Ampholyte : These
ar e t he subst ances whi ch can act as an aci d as
w el l as a base, i .e. capabl e of donat i n g and
accept ing a pr ot on.
Acid : An acid is any molecule or ion that can accept
a pair of electr ons and for ms a co-or dinat e covalent
bond.
e.g. H +, AlCl 3, BF 3
Elect r on-pair acceptor.
Base : A base is any molecule or ion that can donate
a pair of electr ons and for ms a co-or dinat e covalent
bond.
e.g. NH 3H 2O, OH –
Elect r on pair donor is a base.
N eut r ali zat ion : F or mat i on of a co-or di nat e
covalent bond bet ween an acid and a base is called
neutralization .
Types of Lewis acids.
(i ) M ol ecul es i n whi ch t he cent r al at om has
incomplet e oct et of elect r ons in valence shell
(i.e. having a vacant or bit al).
e.g. BF 3, SO3, AlCl 3; t he cent r al at oms ar e B,S
and Al.
(ii ) Posit ive heavy met al wit h incomplet e st able
or bitals
e.g. Ag+, Cu +2, Fe+2, Fe+2 et c.
I n cr ease of ch ar ge an d decr ease of si ze
incr eases acidic st r engt h of t he ion.
(iii ) M olecules cont aining double bonds bet ween
differ ent at om
e.g. CO2
All Bronst ed– L owry’s acids are L ewis acids.
Br onsted– Lowry’s acid is a pr oton donor, Lewis acid
is an elect r on pair accept or.
e.g. H Cl is an acid.
H Cl + NH 3  [NH 4] + + Cl –
H Cl fur nishes a pr ot on – Br onst ed L owr y’s acid
The pr ot on of H Cl accept s a lone pair of elect r ons
from NH 3 to for m a co-or dinate covalent bond-Lewis
acid.
Al l L ew i s a ci ds n eed n ot be Br on st ed –
L owr y’s acids.
L ewi s aci d i s an el ect r ophil e. I t i s an el ect r on
deficient molecule or ion.
Br ownst ed – L owr y’s acid is a pr ot on donor and
elect r on pair accept r or but all elect r on deficient
molecules cannot be defined as pr ot on donor s.
BF 3 is a L ewis acid, but not a Br onst ed acid.
 Chemistry 2.11
Types of Lewis bases. wher e, K w is called ionic pr oduct of wat er which is
These are of t hr ee t ypes. influenced by t emper at ur e only. I t s val ue
(i ) All at oms cont aining negat ive char ge; lar ger incr eases wit h t emper at ur e.
t he char ge densit y on t he ion, gr eat er is it s At 25 t he value of K w is 1.0  10– 14.
abilit y t o donat e an electr on pair and st r onger [H +][OH – ] = 1.0  10– 14
is basic char act er. I n pu r e wat er and neut r al sol ut i ons, t he mol ar
e.g. Cl – , F – , O– 2, et c. concent r at i ons of hydr ogen i on [H +] and hydr oxide
(ii ) At oms and molecules cont aining one or mor e ion[OH – ] ar e equal.
lone pair of elect r ons.
(iii ) M olecules having C = C. The cloud of C = C [H +] = [OH – ] = 1.0  10 14 = 1.0  10– 7 mole/lit r e
wi l l for m coor di nat e bond t o gi ve compl ex [H +] = 1.0  10– 7 mole/lit r e
compound. All Br onsted bases ar e Lewis bases. [OH – ] = 1.0  10– 7 mole/lit r e
 Br onst ed-L owr y’s base is a pr ot on accept or. The r el at i onshi p K w = [H +][OH – ] hol ds good i n al l
L ewis base is an elect r on pair donor . aqueous solut ion.
e.g. br omide is a base H + + Br –  H Br [H +] = [OH – ] neut r al solut ion
 Br omide is pr oton acceptor – Bronsted-Lowr y’s [H ] > [OH ]
+ –
acidic solut ion
base, br omide i s el ect r on pai r donor -L ewi s
[H +] < [OH – ] basic solut ion
base.
As it has 4 lone pair of e– on it and donat es a [H +] = 10– 1 M  10 7 M  10 14 M
acidic neut r al basic
pair t o H +.
The degr ee of acidic or basic nat ur e of a solut ion can
All Lewis bases need not be Bronsted– Lowry’s be expr essed in t er ms of hydr ogen ion concent r at ion.
bases.
L ewis base is a nucleophile. I t is an accept or of all Kw 1.0  1014
[H +] = =
posit ive ions and elect r on deficient molecules. [OH  ] [OH  ]
Br onst ed-L owr y’s base is a pr ot ophile. I t accept s Kw 1.0  1014
onl y pr ot ons. CaO i s a L ewi s base, but not a Similar ly, [OH – ] = +

[H ] [H + ]
Br onst ed base.
Pr ot on concent rat ion of Acids and Bases
N eut r alizat ion. I n solut ion of st r ong acids
An acid and a base r eact t oget her t o for m salt and [H +] = nor malit y of t he solut ion
w at er w i t h t h e l i ber at i on of h eat i s cal l ed
neutralization . or [H 3O ] or [H +] = Molar ity of the solution  Protocity
+

T h e am ou n t of h eat ev ol v ed du r i n g t h e Pr ot ocit y of an acid : I t is defined as t he number of

neut r alizat ion of one gr am equivalent of a base in pr otons pr ovided by each acid molecule upon ionization.
di l u t e aqu eou s sol u t i on i s cal l ed h eat of I t is also called basicit y .
neutralization . I n solut ions of st r ong bases
The heat of neut r alizat ion of a st r ong acid and a [OH – ] = nor malit y of t he solut ion
st r ong base is 13.7 K . cal/mole (at 25C). or [OH – ] = molar it y of t he solut ion  acidit y
Acidi t y of a base : I t i s defi ned as t he number of
I onic Pr oduct of Wat er hydr oxyl ions pr ovided by each base molecule upon in
Th e pr oduct of h ydr ogen i on concen t r at i on an d
ionization.
hydr oxyl i on concent r at i on of pur e wat er or any
aqueous solut ion is called ionic pr oduct of wat er . pH and pOH
The concept was int r oduced by Sor ensen.
H 2O 
 H   OH 
 p H : I t i s n egat i v e l ogar i t h m of h y dr ogen i on
concent r at ion.
H 2O H 2O 
 H 3O  OH 
 1
base acid acid base
pH = – log10 [H +] = log10 [H + ]
 H  OH 
 
 H 3O  OH  
K  K  p OH : I t i s n egat i v e l ogar i t h m of h y dr ox y l i on
 H 2 O H 2OH 2O concent r at ion
2 1
K H 2O  H   OH  or K  H 2O  H 3 O  OH   pOH = – log10 [OH – ] = log10 [H – ]
wher e, K = equilibr ium const ant
For pur e wat er at 25C, pH + pOH = 7 + 7 = 14
Si n ce t he i oni zat i on of wat er i s ver y smal l , t he
concent r at ion of wat er can be t aken as const ant . For pur e wat er and neut r al solut ions
Then K[H 2O] = K w or K [H 2O] 2 = K w (another constant) pH = pOH = 7
K w = [H +][OH – ] or K w = [H 3O+] [OH – ] pH = 0  7  14
Acidic neut r al basic
 2.12 Chemistry
The lower the pH , the mor e acidic is t he solution and 2. Quinonoid t heor y
higher concentr ation of [H +] the higher the pH , the mor e pH r ange of indicat or s.
basic is t he solution and higher concent r ation of [OH].
The pH value can be deter mined exper imentally using I f indicat or is weak acid, H ln + H 2O 
 H 3O + ln
+ –

a pH mat er. On heat i ng, t he i oni zat i on of wat er Dissociat ion const ant of indicat or
incr eases t he concent r at ion of bot h H + and OH – ions.
The value of bot h pH and pOH decr eases. The pH of an [H  ][ln  ]
K ln =
acidic solut ion incr eases upon dilut ion. [Hln]

Buffer Solut i on [ln  ]

Sol ut i ons whi ch can r esi st t he change of p upon H pH = pK ln + log
[H ln]
addit ion of small amount of a st r ong acid or a st r ong
base is called Buffer solut ion . I f pH of solut ion is equal t o or gr eat er t han Pk ln+1
Types t hen solut ion exhibit t he colour of indicat or ions and
Buffer s ar e of t wo t ypes. if pH of solut ion is equal t o or less t han pK n– 1 , t hen
1. Acid buffer : The solut ions wit h const ant pH r ange solut ion exhibit s t he colour of indicat or molecule;
of 0 t o 7 ar e called acid buffer s. t hus aci d-base indicat or s funct i on in p H r ange of
An acid buffer consists of a weak acid and its salt (pK ln+1) t o (pK ln– 1)
with a str ong base.
e.g. CH 3 COOH + CH 3 COO Na; H 3PO4 + NaH 2PO4 Colour pH
I ndicator
2. Basic buffer : The solut ion wit h const ant pH r ange Acid Alkali r ange
of 7 t o 14 ar e called basic buffer s.
M ethyl or ange r ed yellow 3.1 – 4.4
A weak base and it s salt wit h a st r ong acid for ms
basic buffer. M ethyl r ed r ed yellow 4.2 – 6.3
e.g. NH 4OH + NH 4Cl
Fe(OH )3 + FeCl 3 L it mus r ed blue 4.6 – 8.3
Buffer capacit y
The number of moles of an acid or a base added per Bromothy molblue yellow blue 6.0 – 7.6
lit r e of buffer t o change it s pH value by one unit is
Thymol blue yellow pur ple 8.0 – 9.6
called buffer capacity .

Acid – Base I ndicator s Phenolpht halein colour less r ed 8.3 - 10

I ndicat or s ar e used t o find equivalence point bet ween
an acid and a base in volumet r ic analysis. Select ion of I ndicat or
I t depends on t he change in pH value at the equivalence
Types
Ther e ar e t wo t heor ies of indicat or s. poi nt i n an aci d-base neut r al i zat i on r eact i on. The
change of pH just at t he end-point is called pH r ange of
1. Ost wald’s t heor y.
(i ) All indicat or s ar e eit her weak or ganic acids or
t it r at ion . An indicat or will show a shar p change in it s
bases. colour if pH r ange of the indicator is within t he pH r ange
of t he t it r at ion.
(ii ) I n solut ion t hey dissociat e t o give ions which
exist in equilibr ium. T it r at ion.
acid indicator H ln + H 2O  H O + ln 1. Tit r at ion of st r ong acid wit h a st r ong base :
 3
  pH r ange is about 3.3 t o 10.5. All t he indicat or s in
undissociated indicat or ion t he above t able can be used.
indicat or molecule 2. Tit r at ion of weak acid wit h a st r ong base :
base indicat or ln + H 2O  
H in + + OH pH r ange 8 t o 10 phenolpht halein and t hymol blue
indicat or molecule indicat or ion only fall in t his r ange.
(iii ) The mol ecul ar and i oni c for ms of indicat or 3. Tit r at ion of weak base wit h a st r ong acid :
have differ ent colour s.
pH r ange is 6 t o 3 met hyl or ange.
(iv) Depending on [H +], t he ionization equilibr ium
4. Tit r at ion of weak acid wit h a weak base:
shift s eit her t o r ight or left .
pH change near the end point is not shar p and hence
(v) The colour changes with change in pH of the
solution. it cannot be det ect ed wit h an indicat or.
 Chemistry 2.13
Types of salts Sol ut i ons
1. N ormal salt s A sol ut i on i s defi ned as homogenous mi xt ur e of t wo
These ar e obtained by complete neutralization of an or mor e subst ances. Subst ances whi ch mak e up a
acid with a base. sol u t i on ar e cal l ed com ponen t s. Th e component
e.g. NaCl / CaCO3 havi ng t he same physi cal st at e as t he sol ut i on and
2. Acidic salt s pr esent i n excess over t he ot her component i s cal l ed
These ar e obt ained by par t ial neut r alizat ion of a solvent .
pol ybasi c aci d wi t h a base. Gi ves H + i on s on
secondar y ionizat ion. Ot her s whi ch ar e i n same or di ffer ent physical st at es
e.g. NaH SO4, Na2H PO4 and pr esent i n smal l er por t i ons ar e cal l ed sol ut es.
3. Basic salt s For mat i on of a sol ut i on i s a physical pr ocess.
These ar e obt ai ned by par t ial neut r al i zat ion of
polyacidic base. These give OH – ions on secondar y Types of Sol ut i ons
ionization. These ar e of t hr ee t ypes.
e.g. Mg(OH )Br, Zn(OH)I 1. Gaseous solut ion. These ar e sol ut i ons i n whi ch
4. M ixed salt s. gases and vapour s mi x i n al l pr opor t i ons and for m
These ar e obt ained by neut r alizat ion of a mixt ur e homogeneous mi xt ur es.
of t wo acids wit h a base or a mixt ur e of t wo bases Sol vent Sol ut e E xampl e
wit h an acid.
gas gas at mospher i c ai r
e.g. CaOCl 2, K (NH 4) C2O4 et c.
liquid per fumes
Salt H ydr olysis sol id smok e
The pr ocess in which t he cat ion or anion of t he salt 2. L i qui d sol ut i on. T h ese ar e t h e sol u t i on s i n
r eacts with water to pr oduce acidic or alkaline solution. whi ch sol vent i s l i qui d and sol ut e i s gas, l i qui d or
The fr act i on of t he t ot al salt t hat is hydr olyzed at
sol id.
equilibr ium is called degr ee of hydr olysis.
1. Salt of a weak acid and a strong base Sol vent Sol ut e E xampl e
Salt s of t his t ype under go anionic hydr olysis. liquid gas aer at ed dr i nk s
salt + wat er acid + base liquid al cohol i n wat er
– + + –
CH 3COO + Na + H 2O CH 3COOH + Na + OH sol id sugar sol ut i on
H ence, CH 3COO– + H 2O CH 3COOH + OH
–
Sol ubi l i t y of a gas i n a l i qui d i s gover n ed by
The aqueous solut ion cont ains fr ee OH ions, hence H enr y’s l aw, whi ch st at es t hat “ at a con st ant
t heir solut ion is basic hydr olysis const ant . t emper at ur e, sol ubi l i t y i s di r ect l y pr opor t i on al
Ot her examples ar e K CN, Na2CO3, H COOK et c. t o pr essur e of gas” .
2. Salt of st rong acid with, weak base 3. Solid solut ion. At oms or molecul es of one soli d
Salt s of t his t ype under go cat ionic hydr olysis. As r epl ace t hose i n t he second sol i d t o for m sol i d
t he aqueous solut i on cont ains fr ee pr ot ons, t he
solut ions.
solut ion is acidic hydr olysis const ant .
Sol vent Sol ut e E xampl e
e.g. N H 4  Cl –  H 2O NH 4 OH + H + + Cl
sol id gas sol i d i ce-cr eam
H ence, NH 4  H 2 O NH 4 OH + H + liquid t oot h past e
sol id all oy
3. Salt of weak acid and weak base
Salt of this type undergo both anionic and cationic Types of Sol ut i ons
hydr olysis. The nature of their solution is almost (Based on r elat ive amount of dissolved solut e
neutral.
pr esent in a solut ion at a given t emper at ur e)
e.g. N H 4 + CH 3COO– + H 2O NH 4OH + CH 3COOH These sol ut i ons ar e of t hr ee t ypes
As bot h H 3O and OH i ons ar e r el eased, t he
+ –
1. Sat urat ed solut ion. I t i s t he sol ut i on cont ai ni ng
solut ion is neut r al wit h PH 7. maxi mum amount of sol ut e i n di ssol ved st at e at
e.g. NH 4CN, CaCO3, AlPO4 a gi ven t emper at ur e. I n t his solut ions t wo phases
4. Salt of st rong acid and strong base ar e in equilibr ium.
Salt of t his t ype do not under go hydr olysis, hence 2. U n sa t u r a t ed sol u t i on . I t i s t h e sol u t i on
nat ur e of t heir solut ion is exact ly neut r al. cont ai ni ng l ess t han t he maxi mum quant i t y of a
The hydrolysis constant (K h) in aqueous solution of sol ut e i n di ssol ved st at e at a gi ven t emper at ue.
these salts is equal to ionic product of water (K w), i.e.
3. Super sat ur at ed sol ut i on. I t i s t he sol ut i on
Kh = Kw
cont ai ni ng mor e amount of sol ut e di ssol ved t han
Na+ + Cl – + H 2O Na+ + OH – + H + + Cl –
i n a sat ur at ed sol ut i on. I t i s met a st abl e and
H ence, H 2O H + OH –
+
becomes sat ur at ed by shak ing or st i r r ing.
e.g. NaNO3, N 2SO4, NaClO4
 2.14 Chemistry

Sol ubi l i t y 2. Percentage by weight. I t is t he number of gr ams

I t is t he amount of solut e r equir ed t o sat ur at e 100 of solut e pr esent in 100 gr ams of solut ion
gr ams of solvent at a given t emper at ur e. weight of solut e
% by weight =  100
Weight of solut e weight of solut ion
Solubilit y =  100
Weight of solvent 3. Volume fraction. I t is t he volume(in ml) of t he
F act or s affect ing Solubilit y of subst ance solut e pr esent in 1.0 ml of solut ion.
1. N ature of Solvent and Solute. I onic subst ances volume of solut e
ar e sol u bl e i n pol ar sol v en t s an d n on -i on i c Volume fr act ion =
volume of solut ion
subst ances ar e soluble in non-polar solvent s.
Rat e of dissolut ion of a solid in a liquid depends on 4. Percentage of volume. It is the volume (in ml) of
( i ) Size of solute particles : I ncrease in surface the solute present per 100 ml of the solution is volume
area increases the rate of dissolution as dissolution volume of solut e
is a surface phenomenon. percent % by volume =  100
volume of solut ion
( ii ) Agitat ion of t he mixture : St ir r i ng speeds 5. M ole fraction. I t is t he r at io of number of moles
dissolution. of a component t o t he t ot al number of t he moles
( iii ) Temperature : Rise of t emper at ur e speeds up of all component s pr esent in solut ion.
dissolut ion as t he t emper at ur e is incr eased, n
M ole fr act ion of slout e, X solut e =
t he k i net i c ener gy and hence t he r at e of nN
diffusion of bot h solut e and solvent par t icles n
incr eases. Some t ime solubilit y decr eases on M ole fr act ion of solvent , X solvent =
nN
I nver se of t emp.
 X +X =1
2. Pressure. The effect of pr essur e on solubilit y of a solut e solvent

gas in a liquid is gover ned by H enr y’s law. 6. M ole per cent age.
M ole per cent age = M ole fr act ion  100
3. Temperat ur e. The sol ubi l i t y of gases i n wat er
generally decreases with increase of temperature. 7. M olality. I t i s t he number of gr am mol es of a
solute pr esent in one kilogr am(1000g) of a solvent.
H eat of Solution
I t is t he amount of ener gy evolved or absor bed when weight of solut e 1000
m= 
one mole of solute is dissolved in large excess of solvent. molecular weight weight of solvent
H eat of solut ion = lat t ice ener gy + hydr at ion ener gy
10  solub ilit y
m=
H ydr at i on E ner gy gram molecular weight of solut e
I t i s t he amount of ener gy r eleased when ions ar e
pr oduced fr om one mole of ionic subst ance in wat er. Unit : mol kg-1
8. M olarity. I t is t he number of gr am moles of solut e
L at t ice E ner gy
pr esent in one lit r e of t he solut ion.
I t is t he amount of ener gy r equir ed t o separ at e one
weight of solut e  1000
mole of ionic cr yst al int o it s const it uent ions. M=
gr am molecular weight  solut ion in ml
If lat t ice ener gy > hydr at ion ener gy, t he syst em cools
weight %  densit y  10
down . M=
molecular weight of solut e
If lat t ice ener gy < hydr ation ener gy, the system heats
up. Unit : mol lit – 1
If lat t ice ener gy = hydr at ion ener gy, t he syst em 9. N ormality. I t is t he number of gr am equivalent s
has little effect of t emper ature of solut e pr esent in one lit r e of solut ion.
weight of solut e  1000
Solubi li t y Cur ves N=
volume of solut ion  eq. (m 1 ) weight of solut e
Cur ves which show t he var iat ion of solubili t y wit h
percent weight
t emper at ur e ar e called solubilit y cur ves. N=
equivalent weight
Concent r at i on
molecular wei ght
The amount of solut e pr esent in definit e quant it y of Equivalent weight =
solut ion is called concent r at ion . n
M et hods of expr essing Concent r at ions Nor malit y = n  M olar it y
1. Weight fr act ion. I t i s t he number of gr ams of U nit : gm eq. lit – 1
solut e pr esent in one gr am of t he solut ion. 10. Formality. I t is t he number of for mula weight
W weight of solut e of solut e pr esent in 1lit r e of solut ion.
Weight fr action = 
w  W weight of solut ion Unit s. for mula weight lit r e-1
 Chemistry 2.15
Char act er ist i cs of E qul i br i um st at e Col l oi dal St at e
1. The equi l i br i um st at e can be obt ai ned fr om bot h Tr ue sol ut i on
di r ect i ons I t i s a homogenous mi xt ur e of sol ut e and sovl ent
2. Chemi cal equi l i br i um i s dynami c i n nat ur e. f or m i n g on e ph ase i n wh i ch t h e m ol ecu l es ar e
mi xed r andoml y. The sol ut e par t i cl es never set t l e
3. Cat al yst cannot shi ft t he posi t i on of equi l i bur i m down size of par t i cl es < 10– 7cm.
but hel ps i n at t ai ni ng i t qui ck l y. e.g. sal t sol ut i on
4. T h e equ i l i br i u m can be sh i f t ed by ch an gi n g Suspen si on .
condi t i ons l i k e t emper at ur e, pr essur e et c. The sol ut i on i n whi ch t he par t i cl es can be seen wi t h
5. The syst em whi ch i s in equil i br i um st at e wi l l be nak ed eye and whi ch set t l e on st andi ng ar e cal l ed
i n equl i br i um as l ong as i t r emains undi st ur bed. suspensions.
Si ze of par t i cl es > 10 – 5cm.
6. At equi l i br ui m st at e t he change i n fr ee ener gy
(G = 0) i s zer o. C ol l oi ds
A col l oi dal syst em i s het r ogeneous and consi st s of
Sur face Chemi st r y
at l east t w o p h ases t h e d i sp er sed p h ase an d
A dsor pt i on di sper sed medi um possessi ng cer t ai n char act er i st i c
T h e pr ocess of accu m u l at i on of a su bst an ce i n pr oper t i es. T h e si ze of par t i cl es r an ges f r om
hi gher condi t i ons at t he sur face whi ch separ at es 10 – 5 -10– 7 cm.
t wo phases. D i sper sed phase
Adsor ben t Subst ances whose par t i cl es ar e di st r i but ed i n a
I t i s t he subst ance whi ch t ak es up or adsor bs t he medi um. I t i s al so cal l ed di scont i nuous phase or
gas or l i qui d. inner phase.
Adsor at e D i sper si on medi um
I t i s t he subst ance whi ch i s adsor bed. The medi um i n whi ch t he col l oi dal par t i cl es ar e
Types of adsor pt i on di sper sed. I t i s al so cal l ed cont i nuous phase or
1. Physi cal or Vander waal ’s adsor pt i on. out er phase.
When a gas i s adsor bed on t he sur face of a sol i d D i sper sed M edium N ame E xample
by weak vander waal ’s for ce, t he phenomenon phase
i s cal l ed ph ysi cal adsor pt i on . M u l t i l ay er ed 1. gas liquid foam soap lather
pr ocess i nvol ves heat of adsor pt i on 1-10 K cal /
m ol e. 2. gas solid solid foam cor k
2. Chemical or Act i vat ed adsor pt i on. 3. liquid gas aerosol fog, cloud,
When a gas i s adsor bed ont o t he sur face of a mist
sol i d by for ces si mi l ar t o t hose of a chemi cal 4. liquid liquid emulsion milk
bond, i t i s cal l ed chemi sor pt i on or L angmui r 5. liquid solid gels cheese
adsor pt i on . I t i nvol ves heat of adsor pt i on 10-
6. solid gas smoke dust
100 K cal /mol e.
7. solid liquid sols proteins
A dsor pt i on
I t i s t he phenomenon of i ncr ease i n concent r at i on 8. solid solid solid sol or gel minerals
t hr oughout t he body al ong wi t h t he sur face.
Sol
Sor pt i on I f disper sion medium is a fluid, it is called sol .
I t i s t h e pr ocess i n wh i ch bot h absor pt i on an d
H ydr osol
adsor pt i on t ak es pl ace. I t i s al so cal l ed r ever se
I f disper sion medium is wat er, it is called hydr osol .
pr ocess.
I f alcohol or benzene ar e used, t hey ar e called alcosol
F act or s affect i ng adsor pt i on or benzosol.
(1) N a t u r e of a d sor ben t a n d a d sor ba t e:
Types of colloids
Per manent gases ar e adsor bed l ess and easi l y
1. Lyophilic colloids.
l i qui fi abl e gases ar e adsor bed much.
These ar e susbst ances which passes int o colloidal
(2) Pr essu r e st ate simply by br inging it in contact with a solvent.
(3) Temper at ur e I t is also called r ever sible colloid.
(4) Sur face ar ea of adsor bent . e.g. gum, gelat in.
2.16 Chemistry
2. Lyophobic colloids.
These ar e insoluble substances which do not r eadily
yield colloidal solut ions when br ought in cont act
wit h solvent . I r r ever sible colloids ar e also called
suspensoids.
I f wat er is used, t hey ar e called hydr ophilic and
hydr ohobic colloids.
M i scel l s
Subst ances behave as nor mal, st r ong elect r olyt es at
low concentr ations but at higher concentrations exhibit
colloidal pr oper ties due to aggregation of par ticles; such
aggr egat ed par t i cl es ar e call ed micelles and t hese
subst ances ar e called associat ed colloids.
e.g. soap or det er gent s
These ar e amphit het ic, i.e. t hey have bot h lyophilic
and lyophobic gr oups.
Br ownian movement
Th e r an dom an d con t i n uou s m ot i on of col l oi dal
par t icles in a disper sion medium is called Br ownian
movement . This er at ic mot ion is a r esult of const ant
bombar dment of colloidal par t icles by t he molecules
of disper sion medium in all dir ect ions. These impar t
moment um t o colloidal solut ion.
Tyndall effect
When a beam of light is passed t hr ough a colloidal
solut ion, it becomes visible as a br ight st r eak. This
phenomenon is called tyndall effect and the illuminated
pat h is called t yndall cone.
EM U L SON S
Emulsions ar e for med by disper sion of one liquid in
another liquid. Disper sion of tiny par ticles of one liquid
in another liquid is called an emulsion and the pr ocess
is called emulsificat ion.
Types of Emulsions
1. Oil in-wat er.
Oi l i s di sper sed phase and wat er i s di sper si on
medium.
e.g. M ilk
2. Wat er-in-oil.
Wat er is disper esed phase and oil is disper sion
medium.
e.g. But t er
Emulsifier s (or) E mulsifying agent s
To get st abl e emul si ons, smal l amount of anot her
subst ances ar e added; t hese ar e called emulsifer s or
emulsifiying agents.
D e- emulsificat ion
T he pr ocess of con ver t i n g an em u l si on i nt o i t s
com pon en t s, i .e. oi l an d w at er i s cal l e de-
emulsificat ion .
Coagul at ion
The phenomenon of change of col l oi dal st at e t o
suspension st at e is called coagulat ion or flocculat ion .
The amount of electr olyte r equir ed to coagulate a fixed
amount of a sol depends on t he valency of flocculat ing
i on.
H ardy-Schulze rule
Gr eat er t he valency of flocculat ingion, higher is it s
capacit y t o cause pr ecipit at ion.
Gold number
Weight in milligr ams of a pr otective colloid to be added
t o pr event t he coagulat ion of 10ml of a given gold
solut ion on adding 1ml of 10% solut ion of NaCl.
D onnan membr ane equlibr ium
The pot ent ial differ ence devel oped due t o unequal
concent r at ion of ions on t wo sides of t he membr ane.
E lect r ophor esi s
When an elect r ic cur r ent is passed t hr ough a colloidal
solut ion cont aining opposit ely char ged solid par t icles
and liquid medium and t he pr ocess in which only t he
sol i d par t i cl es can move i s cal l ed cat aphor esi s or
electophoresis.
Zet a pot ent ial or Elect okinet ic pot ent ial
I t is t he differ ence of pot ent ial bet ween fixed and
diffused par t s of t he double layer.
Gel
Colloidal solut ions cont aining a liquid disper sed in
solid. The pr ocess of for mat ion of gel is called gelat ion .
e.g. cur d, soap, boot polish.
Cat al ysi s
Substances which alter s the r ate of a chemical r eaction
wi t hout under goi ng a chemi cal change i s cal led a
cat alyst and t he phenomenon is called cat alysis.
Char act erist ics of Cat alyst
1. Cat alyst r emains chemically unchanged dur ing a
r eact ion.
2. Small quant it y is enough t o br ing about a r eact ion.
3. I t does not effect equlibr ium of r ever sible r eact ions.
4. I t h as m ax i m u m ef f i ci en cy at i t s opt i m u m
t emper at ur e.
5. I t does not init iat e a r eact ion t hat does not occur.
6. Cat al yst i c pr om ot er s : Su bst an ces w h i ch
incr ease act ivit y of cat alyst ar e called pr omot er s.
7. Specificity : Ever y cat alyst is specific in act ion and
act s only on a par t icular subst r at e.
 Chemistry 2.17

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 8. Whi ch one among t he fol l owi ng i s t he mai n
ingr edient in cement ?
1. The mat er ial used for elect r ic fuse is an alloy of
t in and lead. This alloy should have: (a) Gypsum
(a) high specific r esistance and low melting point. (b) L ime st one
(b) low specific r esistance and high melting point. (c) Clay
(c) low specific r esist ance and low melt ing point . (d) Ash
(d) high specific resistance and high melting point. 9. Glass is act ually :
2. Silver war e tur ns black aft er a per iod of t ime due (a) a cr yst alline solid.
t o for mat ion of : (b) an ionic solid.
(a) nit r at e coat ing on silver. (c) an elast ic solid.
(b) sulphide coat ing on silver. (d) a vitr ified liquid.
(c) chlor ide coat ing on silver. 10. Solutions in test tubes containing H 2O and aqueous
(d) oxide coat ing on silver. NaOH can be differ ent iat ed wit h t he help of :
3. When concent r at ed H 2SO4 spilt s on t he sur face, (a) r ed lit mus. (b) blue lit mus
it should be immediat ely cleaned : (c) Na2CO3 (d) HCl (aqueous)
(a) wit h a piece of clot h. 11. H uman st omach pr oduces acid ‘X' which helps in
(b) by adding cold wat er. digest ion of food. Acid ‘X' is :
(c) by adding solid Na2CO3. (a) acet ic acid. (b) met hanoic acid.
(d) by adding solid BaCl 2. (c) hydr ochlor ic acid. (d) cit r ic acid.
4. A bee-sitting leaves an acid which causes pain and 12. Whi ch one among t he fol l owi ng i s used as a
ir r it at ion. The inject ed acid is : moder at or in nuclear r eact or s?
(a) acet ic acid. (a) Ozone (b) H eavy hydr ogen
(b) sulphur ic acid. (c) H eavy wat er (d) H ydr ogen per oxide
(c) cit r ic acid. 13. Which one of t he following cont ains maximum
per cent age of nit r ogen by mass?
(d) met hanoic acid.
(a) Ur ea
5. I r on nails ar e dipped int o blue copper sulphat e
solut ion. Aft er some t ime ir on nails ar e : (b) Ammonium cyanide
(a) dissolved and blue colour is dischar ged. (c) Ammonium car bonat e
(b) dissolved but blue colour is not dischar ged. (d) Ammonium nit r at e
(c) not dissolved and blue colour is not discharged. 14. Oxygen and ozone ar e
(d) not dissolved but blue colour is dischar ged. (a) Allotr opes (b) isomer s
6. A st udent by chance mixed acet one wit h alcohol. (c) isot opes (d) isobar s
Thi s mi xt ur e of acet one and al cohol can be 15. When applied t o t he affect ed ar ea, which one of
separ at ed by : t he following will r elieve t he pain due t o ant -bit e
(a) filt r at ion. or bee-st ing?
(b) separ at ing funnel. (a) L emon juice (b) Vinegar
(c) fr act ional cr ystallization. (c) Baking soda (d) Caustic soda
(d) fr act ional dist illation.
LEVEL-1
7. Which one among t he following met hods is not
1. H adr ons and Bar yons ar e
effect ive in r emoving ar senic fr om cont aminat ed
gr ound wat er ? (a) I ndust r ial chemicals
(a) Boiling (b) Types of subat omi c par t i cl es
(b) Rever se osmosis (c) Alkalies
(c) I on exchange (d) Cyclot r ons
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(d) Coagulation-adsorption
2.18 Chemistry
2. Wh i ch of t h e f ol l owi n g i s a h et er ogen eou s 11. Major contributing activity towards Global
mixt ur e? Warming by Greenhouse gases
(a) Br ass (a) Agriculture
(b) Sugar sol ut ion in wat er (b) Deforestation
(c) Air (c) Energy
(d) Milk (d) lndustry
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
3. A class of compounds which ar e used as fragr ances 12. Electrostatic Precipitators are devices for
when molecular wei ght i s low and ar e nat ur al ly
(a) Particulate Emission Control
occur r i ng fat s when molecular wei ght i s high in
t he ser ies, is call ed (b) Water Pollution Control
(a) amino aci ds (b) ar omat ic compounds (c) Noise Pollution Control
(c) est er s (d) or ganic aci ds (d) Energy Pollution Control
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
4. Disinfection of drinking water is done to remove: 13. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure
(a) Odour (b) Bacterias of
(c) Turbidity (d) Colour (a) Oxygen utilized during oxidation of organic
matters
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(b) Suspended particles in water
5. Global warming is caused by :
(c) Suspended particles in air
(a) N2 (b) CO2
(d) Noise level in air
(c) Ozone (d) None of these
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
14. Biodegradable pollutants are
6. What is the General formula of Alkanes ?
(a) quickly degraded by natural means
(a) CnH2n+2 (b) CnH2n
(b) can not be degraded
(c) CnH2n – 2 (d) CnH2n + 4
(c) can be degraded by burning only
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(d) disposed in flowing water only
7. The pollutant responsible for ozone holes is :
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(a) CO2 (b) CO
15. The state in which molecular attractions are very
(c) SO2 (d) CFC
strong is
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(a) Solid (b) Liquid
8. Ammonia is prepared commercially by the :
(c) Gas (d) Vapour
(a) Oswald process [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(b) Hall process
(c) Contact process LEVEL-2
(d) Haber process 1. What is t he common pr oper t y bet ween L iAlH 4,
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] Sodium amalgam and NaBH 4?
9. The elements which have same mass number (a) They ar e used in r emoving slag fr om molt en
but different atomic numbers are know as : met als
(a) Isotones (b) Isobars (b) They ar e used in manufact ur ing est er s
(c) Isotopes (d) Halogens (c) They ar e r educing agent s
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (d) They ar e coat ed on welding elect r odes
10. Which one of the following is not a Noble Gas ? [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]
(a) Helium (b) Bromine 2. Soaps ar e manufact ur ed by:
(c) Argon (d) Neon (a) React ion of alkalies wit h glycer ol
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (b) React ion of fat s wit h soluble hydr oxides
 Chemistry 2.19
(c) React ion of calcium and magnesium ions wit h (c) su m of t h e n u m ber of pr ot on s an d t h e
dilute sulphur ic acid neut r ons in t he nucleus of an at om
(d) React ion of dodecyl benzene wit h H 2SO4 and (d) number of pr ot ons or elect r ons in one gr am
t hen NaOH of Sodium
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT] [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
3. Chemical bonding which r esult s in for mat ion of 10. I sot opes of t he same element have
molecules fr om at oms is basically- (a) Same number of neut r ons
(a) Nuclear for ce (b) Same at omic mass
(b) Shor t r ange for ces (c) Same number of pr ot ons
(c) Elect r ost at ic for ce (d) Differ ent at omic number
(d) Gr avitat ional for ce [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT] 11. I n a r eaction between Zinc and I odine. Zinc I odide
4. Glycer ol can be r epr esent ed by chemical for mula: is for med. What is being oxidised ?
(a) C2HSO2 (b) C3H 7OH (a) Zinc ions (b) I odide ions
(c) C3H 5OH (d) C3H 8O3 (c) Zinc At om (d) I odine
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT] [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
5. The most ideal di si nfect ant used for dr i nki ng 12. Whi ch of t he fol l owi ng hal ogens i s t he best
wat er is : oxidising agent ?
(a) Alum (b) Chlor ine (a) F 2 (b) Cl 2
(c) L i me (d) Nit r ogen (c) Br 2 (d) l 2
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT] [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
6. Which one of t he following is gener ally added t o 13. Nit r ogen is used t o fill elect r ic bulbs because it
Table Salt t o make it flow fr eely in r ainy season ? (a) is light er t han air
(a) Ca3(PO4)2 (b) Na3PO4 (b) makes t he bulb t o give mor e light
(c) KCI (d) KI (c) does not suppor t combust ion
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT] (d) is non-t oxic
7. Valence elect r ons in t he element A ar e 3 and t hat [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
i n el ement B ar e 6. M ost pr obabl e compound
14. Fr ot h float at ion pr ocess for t he concent r at ion of
for med fr om A and B is :
Or es is an illustr ation of t he pr act ical applicat ion
(a) A2B (b) AB2 of
(c) A2B3 (d) A3B2 (a) Adsor ption
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT] (b) Absor ption
8. At oms of t he element s bel ongi ng t o t he same (c) Coagulation
gr oup of per iodic t able will have :
(d) Sediment ation
(a) Same number of pr ot ons
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
(b) Same number of neut r ons
15. The pr esence of ni t r ogen i n t he pr oduct s of
(c) Same number of elect r ons combust ion ensur es t hat
(d) Same number of elect r ons in t he valence shell (a) Complet e combust ion of fuel t akes place
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT] (b) I ncomplet e combust ion of fuel t akes place
9. Avogadr o's number, N A means (c) dr y pr oduct s of combust ion ar e analysed
(a) number of pr ot ons in nucleus of an at om (d) air is used for t he combust ion
(b) number of at oms i n one gr am at om of an [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
element
2.20 Chemistry

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1

1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (b)

11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a)
LEVEL-2

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (c)

11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 13. I n Ur ea (NH 2 CO NH 2)
1. The mat er ial should have high specific value and 28
Per cent age of Nit r ogen =
 100  46.6%
low melt ing point which is used for elect r ic fuse 60
is an alloy of t in and lead. I n Ammonium Cyanide (NH 4CN)
2. Silver conver t s int o silver sulphide in pr esence 28
of air and H 2S, which is black in colour Per cent age of Nit r ogen =  100  63.6%
44
 Ag 2S  2H+
2Ag  H2S  I n Ammonium Car bonat e (NH 4)2 CO3
Black
3. When concent r ated H 2SO4 split s on t he sur face it 28
Per cent age of Nit r ogen =  100  29.2%
should be immediat ely cleaned by adding solid 96
Bacl 2 (Bar ium Chlor ide). I n Ammonium nit r at e (NH 4)2 NO3
4. A bee-sting leaves methanoic acid (HCOOH) which 28
causes pain and ir r it at ion. Per cent age of Nit r ogen =  100  42.8%
98
5. I r on i s mor e r eact i ve t han copper, so r epl ace So, in ammonium cyanide per centage of nit r ogen
copper fr om copper sulphat e solut ion. is maximum
Fe  CuSO4 
 FeSO4  Cu
reddish brown
14. Oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3) ar e allotr opic for ms of
blue green
oxygen.
Copper submitted on iron nails by which the colour
of solut ion become light . 15. I n ant bit e and bee st ing for mic acid (H COOH ) is
pr esen t , wh i ch i s r espon si bl e f or pai n an d
6. Acet one and alcohol have differ ent boiling point s
ir r it at ion. For mic acid is a weak acid it can be
so it can be separ at ed by fr act ional dist illat ion.
neut r al so bak i ng soda (sodi um bi -car bonat e-
9. Glass is an elast ic solid. Na2CO3) is used in r elieve in pain due t o ant i-bit e
10. Red lit mus is uneffect ed by wat er (H 2O) because or bee st ing.
it is neut r al in nat ur e while NaOH is basic in
LEVEL-1
nat ur e so r ed lit mus t ur ns int o blue colour.
11. H uman st omach pr oduces H ydr ochl or i c (H cl ) 1. Hadrons and Baryons are types of subatomic
which helps in digest ion of food. particles. Baryons are heavy subatomic particles
that are made up of three quarks.
12. H eavy wat er i s used as moder at or i n nuclear
r eact or s which r educes t he velocit y of neut r ons. 2. Milk is an example of a heterogeneous mixture.
Mixtures can be separated into two (or more)

individual substances by physical means. Our
glass of ice water is a mixture because we can
easily separate the ice from the liquid water by
filtration.
3. A class of compounds which are used as
fragrances when molecular weight is low and are
naturally occurring fats when molecular weight
is high in the series, is called esters.
4. Disinfection of drinking water is done to remove
Bacteria. Water disinfection means the removal,
deactivation or killing of pathogenic
microorganisms.
Microorganisms are destroyed or deactivated,
resulting in termination of growth and
reproduction. When microorganisms are not
removed from drinking water, drinking water
usage will cause people to fall ill.
5. CO2 causes green house effect trading to global
warming.
6. The alkanes comprise a series of compounds that
are composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms with
single covalent bonds. This group of compounds
comprises a homologous series with a general
molecular formula of C n H 2 n+2.
7. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other
halogenated ozone depleting substances (ODS)
are mainly responsible for man-made chemical
ozone depletion. The total amount of effective
halogens (chlorine and bromine) in the
stratosphere can be calculated and are known as
the equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine
(EESC).
8. The Haber Process combines nitrogen from the
air with hydrogen derived mainly from natural
gas (methane) into ammonia. The reaction is
reversible and the production of ammonia is
exothermic. The catalyst is actually slightly more
complicated than pure iron.
9. Atoms of chemical elements having same atomic
mass but a different atomic number are called
Isobars. The sum of the number of protons and
neutrons together form the atomic mass.
10. Among the given options, Bromine is not a Noble
Gas.The six noble gases that occur naturally are
helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr),
xenon (Xe), and the radioactive radon (Rn).
11. A greenhouse gas is a gas that absorbs and emits
radiant energy within the thermal infrared
range. Increasing greenhouse gas emissions
cause the greenhouse effect.
Chemistry 2.21
12. Electrostatic Precipitators are devices for
particulate emission control.
13. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD, also called
Biological Oxygen Demand) is the amount of
dissolved oxygen needed (i.e. demanded) by
aerobic biological organisms to break down
organic material present in a given water sample
at certain temperature over a specific time
period. The BOD value is most commonly
expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed per
litre of sample during 5 days of incubation at 20
°C. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a
measure of Oxygen utilized during oxidation of
organic matters.
14. Biodegradable pollutants are quickly degraded by
natural means. Biodegradable pollutants: Such
pollutants are quickly degraded by microbes
(bacteria and fungi) in nature e.g. sewage, ...
Examples of such pollutants are: DDT, mercury,
lead, arsenic, some pesticides, radioactive
substances, glass, plastic, aluminium pieces, etc.
15. Solid has the highest molecular attractions hence
is dense and compact.
LEVEL-2
1. a In organic chemistry we normally learn
about two important reducing reagents,
sodium borohydride (NaBH 4) and lithium
aluminum hydride (LiAlH4 or LAH). We learn
that NaBH4 is a “weak reducing agent” and
can only take aldehydes and ketones to alcohols
easily. NaBH4 can handle esters, but it is very
slow at converting them and thus not
preferable.
2. b Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides;
three molecules of fatty acids attach to a
single molecule of glycerol. The alkaline
solution, which is often called lye (although
the term “lye soap” refers almost exclusively
to soaps made with sodium hydroxide), brings
about a chemical reaction known as
saponification.
3. c A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between
atoms, ions or molecules that enables the
formation of chemical compounds. The bond
may result from the electrostatic force of
attraction between oppositely charged ions as
in ionic bonds or through the sharing of
electrons as in covalent bonds.
2.22 Chemistry
4. d The glycerol chemical formula is C3H8O3 and
its extended formula is CH2OH-CHOH-CH2OH.
The IUPAC name for glycerol is 1, 2,
3- Trihydroxypropane or 1, 2, 3- Propanetriol.
5. b The most ideal disinfectant used for drinking
water is Chlorine. Chlorine is one of the most
commonly used disinfectants for water
disinfection.
6. a Ca3(PO4)2 is generally added to Table Salt to
make it flow freely in rainy season.
7. b Valence electrons in the element A are 3 and
that in element B are 6. Most probable
compound formed from A and B is A2B3.
8. d Atoms of the elements belonging to the same
group of periodic table will have Same number
of electrons in the valence shell.
9. b In chemistry and physics, the Avogadro
constant, named after scientist Amedeo
Avogadro, is the number of constituent
particles, usually atoms or molecules, that are
contained in the amount of substance given
by one mole.
10. c The atoms of a chemical element can exist in
different types. These are called isotopes. They
have the same number of protons (and
electrons), but different numbers of neutrons.
Different isotopes of the same element have
different masses.
11. a Zinc powder is added to a solution of iodine in
ethanol. An exothermic redox reaction occurs,
forming zinc iodide, which can be obtained by
evaporating the solvent. In reaction between
Zinc and Iodine. Zinc Iodide is formed. Zinc
atom is being oxidised.
12. a Fluorine is such a powerful oxidising agent
that you can’t reasonably do solution reactions
with it.
13. c Filling a bulb with an inert gas such as argon
or nitrogen slows down the evaporation of
the tungsten filament compared to operating
it in a vacuum. This allows for greater
temperatures and therefore greater efficacy
with less reduction in filament life.
14. a Froth floatation process for the concentration
of Ores is an illustration of the practical
application of Adsorption.
15. d The presence of nitrogen in the products of
combustion ensures that air is used for the
combustion.
 CHAPTER
3 Biology
Classificat ion of Plant s
PLANT KINGDOM
 These have pr imit ive vascular syst em.

2. Phaner ogamae
Cryptogamae Phanerogamae
(Plants without seeds) (Seed bearing plants)

I t includes all flower ing plant s which bear seeds.

Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnospermae Angiospermae
These ar e also called sper mat ophyt es.
Algae Fungi Classificat ion of Phaner ogames
( i ) Gymnosper ms.
Hepaticae Anthocerotae Musci
 These ar e r epr esent ed by cycas, pines and
Psilopsida Lycopsida Sphenopsida Pteropsida
cedar.
 These have t he naked (uncover ed) seeds, i.e.
Cycadopsida Coniferopsida Gnetopsida
seeds ar e not enclosed in a fr uit .
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
 These ar e r epr esent ed by coni fer s, which
Depending on t he pr esence or absence of flower s and gr ow in cool climat e of hills, sometimes using
seeds, ent ir e plant kingdom is divided int o following. melt ing snow as a sour ce of wat er. H owever,
some like cycads and member s of Gnet ales
1. Cr ypt ogamae t hr ive in war m dr y climat e.
I t includes all non-flower ing plant s such as algae,
 Some common gymnosper ms ar e :
fungi, lichens, mosses and fer n.
Abi es, Cedr u s, Pi nu s and ot her t i m ber -
Classificat ion of Cr ypt ogamae yielding species
( i ) T hallophyt a. ( ii ) Angi osper ms.
 Nut r it i on i s aut ot r ophi c i n algae, wher eas
 These have cover ed seeds, i.e. they ar e always
fungi exhibit het er ot r ophic nut r it ion. Algae
enclosed in an ovar y or fr uit .
usually sust ain it self in a var iet y of habit at s
 These r ange i n si ze fr om mi nut e fl oat i ng
such as wet land as well as on ot her plant s
and even ani mal s. Some gr ow i n mar i ne duckweeds to giant eucalyptus and silk cotton
wat er and ar e called seaweeds. t r ees and include plant s of gr eat var iet y and
for m-cact i, wat er lillies, sunflower s, or chids,
( ii ) Br yophyt a. pit cher plant s, I ndian pipe et c.
 This gr oup der ives it s name fr om t he mosses
 These ar e seed-bear ing plant s well adapt ed
whi ch gr ow on t he r ock s, wal l s and t r ee
to t he ter r estr ial life and they occur in diver se
t r unks in moist and shady places.
habit at s like cold t undr a t o hot t r opical and
 These lack r oot s, flower s and seeds.
even deser t ar eas. They also t hr ive well in
 M osses also r et ain moist ur e like the sponges. aquat ic habit at s.
 M em ber s of t h i s gr ou p r epr odu ce bot h  These plants repr esented by trees, shrubs and
v eget at i v el y t h r ou gh f r agm en t at i on , her bs ar e eit her monocot yledons or dicot y-
gemmae and t uber s, as wel l as by sexual ledons. They have a body well differ ent iat ed
met hods. int o r oot , st em and leaves.
( iii ) Pt er idophyt a.  These ar e mainly classified int o t wo main

 These occur in humid and t r opical climat es classes :

and usually gr ow on soil, r ocks, in ponds and (a) Dicot yledons
as epiphyt es on ot her plant s. (b) M onocotyledons
 3.2 Biology

Classificat ion of Animals

Animal Kingdom Chrodata

Protozoa Metazoa
(unicellular/acellular) (multi cellular) Protochordata / Acraniata Vertibrata / Craninta

Parazoa / parifera Eumetazoa

Hemichordata urochordata cephalochordata Agnatha Gnathostomata
(Jawless) (with true jaw)
Super class
Diploblastic Triploblastic
(having 2 germinal layers) (having 3 germinal layers)
e.g. Porifera and coelenterata Ostacodermi Cyclostomata Pisces Tetrapoda
(Extinct) Classes
Classes
Acoelomata Pseudoeoelomata Eucoelomata
Placodermi Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes
(Extinct)(cartilaginous fishes) (Bony fishes)

Protostomia or, Schizocoelom Desstrostomia or, Enterocoelom

(e.g. Annelida, Arthropoda and (e.g. Echinodermata
Mollusca) and chordata)
Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia

 Based on t he pr esence or absence of not ochor d at Phylum – Pr ot ozoa (Pr ot ista)

some st age in t heir life, animals ar e categorised int o
 Wor d meaning is fir st animals.
t wo major gr oups :
(1) Non-chor dat es ; (2) Chor dat es  These protozoans ar e micr oscopic called animalcules.
 Th e ani mal k i n gdom i s di vi ded i nt o 35 Phyl a  Common feat ures are : Encystment and Pher omer an
(singular : Phylum) of which 11 ar e consider ed as of r egener at ion
major Phyla.  H umidit y is needed in life span.
 Ani mal K i ngdom (Ani mal i a) i ncl udes about 1.2  Exo– skelet on is absent except Pohyst omela.
million known species.
 Endo– skelet on is absent .
D i f f er en t i at i on bet w een N on - ch or da t a a n d  L ocomot ar y or ganellae ar e pseudopodia / flagella /
Chor dat a cillia / absent .
S.N o. Char acter N on Chor data Chor data  Nut r it ion may be holozoic / holophit ic / par asit ic.
F un damental Char act er s  Digest ion is int r acellular.
1 Notochor d or Absent in ever y Pr esent i n any st age of
(chor da dor sali s) st age of li fe cycle l ife cycl e
 Respir at ion occur s by plasmalemma.
2 Gil l Slit s Absent in ever y Pr esent i n any st at e of  Excr et ion t akes place by plasmalemma.
st at e of l ife cycle l ife cycl e  Cont r act ile vacuole is pr esent for osmor egulat ion
3 N er vous syst em Vent r al, Double N er ve – cor d Dor sal, (however it is absent in parasitic pr otozoa and mar ine
and Solid Singl e and H oll ow
ner ve – cor d pr ot ozoa).
4 Post and t ai l Absent Pr esent  Cir culat ion by cyclosis.
5 M outh Gener ally in fi r st Aft er fir st segment in  Asexual r epr oduct ion by binar y fission / mult iple
segment ant er ior r egi on
fission / spor ulat ion .
6 Anus Gener ally in l ast Befor e l ast segment
segment poster ior r egion  H ologamy t ype of sexual r epr oduct ion is pr esent .
7 L i ver Absent Pr esent
Phylum – Porifer a
8 H ear t Dor sal Vent r al
 Animals ar e pores bear ing.
9 R.B.C. Absent Pr esent
10 Ci r culat or y Open / closed / Closed  I ncur r ent por es ar e ost ia, mor e in number, small in
system absent size, cont r olled by por ocyt e cells and equal t o mout h.
11 Posit i on of Dor sal to nerve Vent r al t o ner ve cor d  Excur r ent por es ar e osculum, one or few in number,
ali ment ar y canal cor d
large in size, controlled by myocytes and equal to anus.
12 Symmetr y All t ype Bil at er al
 Cells ar e loosely ar r anged.
13 Gr ade All t ypes Or gan syst em
14 Body wall Di pl obl ast ic / Tr i pl obl ast i c Out er wall is pinacoder m made up of pinacocyt es
Tr ipl oblast ic (pinacoderm cells)
15 Coelom All t ypes Ent er ocoeli c I nner wall is choanoder m made up of choanocyt es or
16 Repr oduct i on M ainly asexual Sexual collar ed flagellat ed cells.
17 L ar vae Gener ally pr esent Gener all y absent  Bet ween t hese t wo layer s, mesenchyma (mesohyl
18 Regener at i on M or e L ess layer ) is pr esent in which amoebocyte cells ar e ther e.
19 Temper at ur e Cold bl ooded Col d blooded / war m
blooded
Choanocyt e cells ar e r esponsible t o t r ansfer sper ms
20 Tot al animals 95-97% 3-5%
t o ovum.

 A m oebocy t es ar e com i n g f r om bot h l ay er s
(pinacoder m and choamoder ms).
 Cent r al cavit y is spongocoel or par agast r ic cavit y.
 Endoskeleton is present (secr eted by scleroblast cells).
 Animals ar e sessile or sedent ar y or not locomot e.
 Digest ion is int r acellular (in choanocyt e cells)
 Respi r at i on and excr et i on t hr ough gener al body
sur face by difussion.
 Animals ar e mainly bisexual.
 Fer t ilizat ion is int er nal.
 I n body spicules pr esent , may be mega scler es or
micr o scler es.
 Spicules ar e for med by act inoblast cells.
 Spicules ar e of monoaxon t o polyaxon t ype (diaxon
is absent ).
 Commonly called sponges.
 M ost ly mar ine.
 Animals of t hese phylum ar e maximum act ive in
animal kingdom.
 Nut r it ion is holozoic.
 Chr omat ocyt es cells pr esent .
 Food is st or ed in t hesocyt e cells.
 Olynt hus is ancient sponge, pr esent in life cycle of
most of t he sponges.
Phyl um– Coel ent er at a
 Centr al cavity is coelenteron or gastrovascular cavity,
which is helpful in nut r it ion and cir culat ion.
 H et scheck named it Cnidar ia.
 St inging cells or Nematoblast or Cnidocyt es pr esent
for offence and defence.
 Out er layer is epider mis
I nner layer is gast r oder mis
Bet ween t hem mesoglea is pr esent .
 M out h is meant for ingest ion and egest ion.
 Digest ion is int er – cellular and int r a– cellular bot h.
 Respir at ion t hr ough gener al body sur face.
 Ner vous system is diffused type, ner ves brain absent.
 Asexual r epr oduct ion by budding (gemmat ion)
 M ostly bisexual.
 Fer t ilizat ion is ext er nal.
 Development is indir ect .
 Planula lar va is common.
 M et agen esi s i s pr esen ce of gen er at i on , i .e.
polymor phism is pr esent .
Classificat ion
These ar e mainly of t wo for ms :
1. Pol yp.
I t is long, cylindr ical body, sedent ar y and colonial,
hollow, wit hout velum t hin.
M esoglea wit hout st at ocyst and as asexual for m.
2. M edusa.
I t is umbr ella shaped, fr ee swimming and solit ar y
velum.
Biology 3.3
Reef
Cor al r eefs (cor al + algae) ar e of t hr ee t ypes :
( i ) Fringing reefs : Closest to sea shor e and wit hout
cagor m.
( ii ) Barrier reefs : 1/2 t o 10 miles a way fr om sea
shor e and having lagoon.
( iii ) Atoll : I t is cir cular cor al r eef having lagoon. I t
is called cor al island.
N ote : The lar gest cor al r eef is The Gr eat Bar rier Reef
of Aust r alia (about 1920 kms.)
Phylum – Plat yhelmint hes
 Body is dor so vent r ally flat t ened.
 Commonly called flat wor ms.
 Epider mis is syncit ial.
 M uscles pr esent in t he for m of bundle.
 Digest ion is int er cellular.
 I ncomplet e aliment ar y canal is pr esent or absent .
 Gener ally par asit es.
 M ainly anaer obic r espir at ion occur.
 Excr et or y or gan ar e
Flame cells or pr ot onephr idia or solenocyt es.
 Ner vous syst em is ladder shape.
 Ganglions ar e for med for t he fir st t ime.
 Bisexual.
 Sex duct s pr esent .
 Sucker s or hooks or bot h pr esent .
 Power of fer t ilit y is mor e.
 L ife cycle is complicat ed.
 Digenet ic.
 Vitelline glands give nour ishment to zygotes and also
helpful t o give out zygot es out of ut er us.
 Fer t ilizat ion is int er nal.
 Development indir ect .
 M any lar vae ar e pr esent .
 Polyembr yony pr esent , i.e. fr om one zygot e many
embr yos ar e for med.
Phylum – Aschelmint hes
This phylum is similar toplatyhelminthesin charactersexcept
 Commonly called r ound wor m / t r ue wor m
 Pseudocoelome is pr esent .
 Unisexual in nat ur e
 M onogenet ic / Digenet ic
 Excr et or y or gans ar e coelomoduct s.
 I n ner vous syst em r ing is for med.
 M aximum adapted for par asit ism.
 Cleavage is spir al and det er minat e.
 Eut yly is comont at ur e. i.e. number of cells ar e fixed
and show incr ease in size only (auxet ic gr owt h).
 Complet e and st r aight aliment ar y canal is pr esent .
 3.4 Biology
Phylum – Annelida
 Body is met amer ically segment ed.
 Segment at ion is ext er nal by annuli.
 Segment at ion is int er nal by coelosept a.
 Tr ue coelom is pr esent
 Complet e aliment ar y canalis pr esent
 L ocomot ar y or gan ar e set ae
 Sacker s ar e pr esent in leech.
 Digest ion is int er cellular.
 Respir at ion by body wall / gills / par apodia.
 Excr et or y or gans ar e nephr edia.
 Cir culat or y syst em is closed t ype.
 Ner ve r ing pr esent .
 Animals ar e bisexual / unisexual.
 Fer t ilizat ion is ext er nal.
 Development is indir ect .
 Haemoglobin or erythroqruorine is desolved in plasma.
Phylum – Ar thr opoda
 Fir st lar gest phylum r egar ding populat ion (consist s
of mor e t han 80% of animal kingdom)
 Joint ed legs pr esent .
 H aemocoel is pr esent .
 Cir culat or y syst em is open t ype.
 Exoskelet on is made up of chit in.
 Endoskeelt on is pr esent .
 Respir at ion by t r achea / gills / book lungs.
 Excr et ion by malpighian t ubules / gr een glands or
ant ennar y glands / coxal gland.
 Br ain pr esent .
 Unisexual in nat ur e.
 Fer t ilizat ion is int er nal.
 I n most of ani mal s (except i nsect ) haemocyni ne
disolved in plasma.
 Cillia t ot ally absent .
 Ecdysis / moult ing / exuviae is common.
 Compound eyes ar e pr esent her e.
Phylum – M ollusca
 Soft bodied animals.
 Body i s cover ed by mant l e, whi ch i s hel pful i n
r espir at ion and secr et ion of shell.
 I n shell conchalin pr ot ein pr esent .
 Second lar gest gr oup.
 Torsion and detorsion may pr esent i.e. twisting of
viscera ar ound axis, so animals become asymmetrical.
 Cir culat or y syst em open.
 Coelom is maximum r educed.
 Exo skelet on is made up of calcium car bonat e.
 M uscular foot pr esent .
 I nt er cellular digest ion.
 Respir at ion by ct enidia / pulmonar y sac.
 Excr et ion by coxal gland / renel gland / keber 's gland
/ met anephr idia / coelomoduct / or gan of bajonus.
 Br ain pr esent .
 Unisexual.
 Fer t ilizat ion ext er nal.
 Development indir ect .
 Glochidium / velliger / t r ocophor e lar vae ar e pr esent.
 Hepat opancr eas pr esent.
 Body is differ ent iat ed int o head, viscer a and foot .
 Balancing or gans ar e st at ocyst .
 Osphar idium is chemor ecept or.
 K idney is sac like.
 I n hear t 1– 2 aur icles and 1 vent r icle pr esent .
 Cleavage is spir al and det er minat e.
 Redula ar e t eet h like st r uct ur e, may pr esent .
Phylum – E chinoder mat a
 Animals ar e exclusively mar ine.
 Skin is spiny.
 Commonly called swimming pebbles.
 Exo sk el et on and endo sk el et on ar e made up of
calcar ius ossicles.
 L ocomot ion by t ube feet .
 Respir at ion by tube feet / der mal pappulae/bursae.
 Excr et ion by wat er vascular syst em.
 Wat er vascular syst em consist s of
(i ) Teidmann's bodies
(ii ) S– shaped stone canals.
 No br ain, Unisexual.
 Fer t ilizat ion is ext er nal.
 Development indir ect .
 Lar vae pr esent ar e Pinnaria / bipinaria / oricularia /
echinopluteus
 M out h pr esent on or al sur face.
 Anus pr esent on abor al sur face.
 Cover ing of body is echinocar dium.
Algae
They ar e simple, t hallose, aut ot r ophic non– vascular
pl ant s havi ng uni cel led sex or gans and no embr yo
for mat ion.
Algae occur in following var iet ies of habit at s:
1. F r esh wat er for ms
They occur in r iver s, ponds, pools, lakes and ditches.
Some for ms occur as passively float ing and dr ift ing
flor a (phytoplanktons),
e.g. diat oms
2. M arine for ms
M ost of t he member s of br own algae, r ed al gae,
some gr een and blue– gr een algae occur in sea.
3. Ter r est r ial for ms
Sever al member s of gr een and bl ue– gr een al gae
and a few ot her s occur on damp soi l . Osci l lat or i a
and N ost oc occur on al k al i ne and cal car eous
soi l .

4. U nusual or Specialised habit at s
Algae Repr oduct ion
M et hods involved in r epr oduct ion ar e
1. Vegetative reproduction
2. Asexual reproduction
3. Sexual r epr oduct ion.
F un gi
 The br anch dealing wit h t he st udy of fungi is called
mycology.
 Fungi do not have chlor ophyll and t her efor e t hey do
not pr epar e t heir own food mat er ial.
They have t o obt ain it fr om ext er nal sour ces: eit her
from dead or ganic matter (sapr ophytes) or fr om other
living plant s and animals (par asit es).
Some fungi have symbiot ic r elat ionship wit h ot her
plants.
 The t hal l us i s made up of t hi n, l ong, br anched
filaments called hyphae. The mass of hyphae is called
mycelium .
I n Basidiomycet es, t he sept a ar e br oad in t he cent r e
sur r ounded by a double membr ane (par ent hesome)
on each side. Such a bar r el– shaped sept um is called
dolipor e sept um .
 Except slime molds all ot her fungi have cell walls.
The cel l wal l i s made up of cyt i n. I n t he cl ass
Oomycet es, t he cell wall is of cellulose.
 The fungi lack chlor ophylls but have car otenoids.
 The hyphae may be septate or unseptate. Unseptate
hyphae have nucl ei scat t er ed in cyt opl asm. Thi s
condi t i on i s cal l ed coenocyt ic. H owever, i n such
hyphae, sept a ar e for med at the t ime of for mat ion of
r epr oduct ive or gans or in older por t ions of hyphae.
N ut r it ion
On t he basis of nut r it ion, fungi ar e divided int o t wo
categor ies :
(i) Parasites
(ii) Saprophytes
Some fungi live in associat ion wit h ot her gr oups of
pl an t s f or m u t u al ben ef i t . T h ese ar e cal l ed
symbiont s. e.g. lichen, mycor r hiza
A plant body which consist s of a single cell and is
conver t ed complet ely int o a r epr oduct ive st r uct ur e
is called holocar pic e.g. Synchyt r ium .
But if only a par t of t he t hallus is used up in t he
for mat ion of r epr oduct ive st r uct ur e, it is called as
eucarpic.
Repr oduct i on
I n fungi r epr oduct ion is of t hr ee t ypes :
(i ) Veget at ive
(ii ) Asexual
(iii ) Sexual
The r eser ve food mater ial in fungi is glycogen which
is soluble polysacchar ide. Glycogen is also found in
animal cells and hence called animal st ar ch.
Biology 3.5
E conomic I mpor t ance
 Fungi like Agar icus, Clavat ia, M or chella ar e used
as human food.
 M or chella is commonly called sponge mushr oom.
 Tr ufflels is edible fungus and pr oduces it s fr uit ing
body embeded in soil.
L i ch en s
 I t is a composit e t halloid st r uct ur e, made up of an
alga and a fungus.
 Algal component of a lichen is called phycobiont ,
and fungal component is called mycobiont .
 T h e al gal com pon en t i s u su al l y a m em ber of
cyan oph y ceae or ch l or oph yceae. T h e f u n gal
component i s usual l y a member of ascomycet es,
r ar ely of basidiomycet es.
 The algal and fungal par t ner s ar e benefit ed by t his
associat ion (symbiosis or mut ualism). The fungus
der i ves n ut r i t i on fr om t h e al ga, wh i l e al ga i s
pr ot ect ed fr om desiccat ion by t he fungus.
 L ichens can t oler at e ext r emes of climat e and ar e
found ever ywher e r anging fr om hot deser t s t o cool
mountains.
 A sex u al r epr odu ct i on (i n cl u di n g v eget at i v e
r epr oduct ion) t akes place by fr agment ation, sor edia,
isidia and conidia.
 Sexual reproduction occurs only in the fungal partner.
The female r epr oductive or gan is a car pogonium and
male r epr oduct ive or gan is a sper mogonium.
 The fr uiting bodies ar e eit her apothecia or per ithecia
containing asci. Each ascus develops eight ascospor es.
Gymnasper m
 Fr uit -less seed plant s.
 Char act er ized by pr esence of naked seeds pr oduced
in cones. L eaves ar e dimor phic (scaly leaves and
foliage leaves)
 Pollinat ion is anemophilous (by wind)
 Embr yo development is mer oblast ic.
 Pol y em br y on y i s ch ar act er i st i c f eat u r e of
gymnosper ms.
 Endosper m is haploid, gamet ophyt ic t issue and is
for med befor e fer t ilizat ion fr om megaspor e.
 Gymnosper ms and angiosper ms r esemble in having
siphonogamy.
 Wood of Cycas is manoxylic and polyxylic while t hat
of Pinus is Pycnoxylic.
 Cycas is also called sagoplam.
 I n r achis of cycas, vascular bundles ar e ar r anged in
t he for m of inver t ed omega.
 Tr ansfusion t issue meant for conduct ion of wat er is
pr esent in leaflet s of cycas and leaves (needles) of
Pinus.
 Gr owt h of male plant in Cycas is sympodial while of
female plant is monopodial.
 3.6 Biology

T he Cell D iffer ences Bet ween Animal and Plant

 All life begins ar e a single cell. A number of or ganism Cel l s
ar e made of single cell, t hey ar e called uni/acellular.
S . C h a r a ct e r s P r ok a r y ot i c E u k a r y ot i c C e l l
e.g. Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Acet abular ia, Yeast . N o. C ell
 Cells ar e gr ouped into t issue, tissue into or gans, into 1 C ell W a ll C el l w al l absen t C el l w al l p r esen t
or gan syst em, r esult in Division of L abour. i n an i m al cel l . on l y i n p l an t cel l
 All t he cells int r act and co-oper at e wit h each ot her (B act er i a con si d er
and r emain par t ially dependent on each ot her. as p l an t s d u e t o
p r esen ce of CW )
 The cells having a common or igin and per for ming a
2 P l a st i d s P l ast i d s or ch l o- P l ast i d s p r esen t s
similar but specific funct ion const it ut es a t issue
r op l ast s absen t i n i n p l an t cel l s.
e.g. muscle an i m al cel l . (ex cep t F u n gi )
 Sever al t ypes of t i ssues j oi n t o for m an or gan N o-ch l or op h y l l
e.g. liver, kidney, leaf, r oot s, et c. 3 C e n t r osom e C en t r osom e fou n d C en t r osom e ab-
 Sever al or gans const it ut e an or gan syst em i n an i m al cel l s absen t i n pl an t
(ex cep t L ow er cel l
e.g. digest ive syst em, excr et or y syst em, et c. p l an t s)
 Cells var y widely in size and shape. I f bact er ia ar e
4 V a cu ol e s A bsen t bu t sm al l , Sap / T r u e v acu o-
among the or ganisms wit h smallest cells, lar gest cell t em p or ar y v acu o- l es ar e p r esen t i n
of all is t he yolk of an ost r ich egg. l es m ay p r esen t s. p l an t cel l s.
Pr ok ar yot ic cell 5 C ell Cyt ok i nesis by C el l di v i si on by
 Pr okar yot ic cells nuclear mater ial i.e. DNA, RNA, D i v i si on const r i ct ion for m - cel l pl at e f or m or
pr ot ei ns, et c. i s not bound by a defi ni t e nucl ear at ion or fu r r ow i n g. p h r agm op l ast
membrane. 6 R e se r v e R eser v e food i s M ai n l y st ar ch i s
 Cytoplasm lacks well defined cyt oplasmic or ganelles f ood ce l l s gl y cogen i n an i - r eser v e food i n .
m al pl an t cel l s.
e.g. en dopl asm i c r et i cu l u m , gol gi com pl ex ,
mit ochondr ia, cent r ioles et c.
Cell Wall
 These cells ar e r epr esent ed by bact er ia, blue- gr een
algae, mycoplasma or PPL O (pleur o pneumonia-like  Pr ovides shape t o plant cell r igidit y t o cells.
or ganism), spir ochet e and r icket t siae.  Funct ions as a bar r ier t o ent r y of pat hogens int o
 These cells ar e supposed t o be far smaller t han t he cell s.
euk ar yot i c cel l s. H owever, t hey mul t i pl y mor e  Pr ovides pr otection to protoplasm against mechanical
r apidly as compar ed t o most of t he eukar yot ic cells. injur y.
 These cells have r emar kable amount of var iat ion in  Cont r ol ent r y of exit of mat er ials.
shape and size.
 Funct ions as apoplast which is per meable t o wat er
E ukar yot ic cell
and miner als dissolved in it .
 These cells have a nucleus which cont ains nuclear
mat er ial enclosed by a double layer ed membr ane.  Plasmodesmat a pr oduce a pr ot oplasmic cont inuum
All plant and animal cells fall under t his cat egor y. bet ween adjacent cells.
 Component s of Eukar yot ic cells :  Bur st ing of cells on endomit osis.
Cell wall (absent in animals cells and some pr otist s), Pr ot opl ast
plasma membr ane, cyt oplasm and or ganelles
 I mpor t ant cyt oplasmic or ganelles: Plastid
Mitochondria, plastids, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum,
lysosomes, vacuoles, golgi complex, centrioles, etc.
Plasmalemma Cytosol Nucleus
Cell T heor y
Five fundament al facts:  Cell wit hout cell membr ane (H enst ein)
1. Body of living organisms consists of different types of  I t cont ains 1 or mor e vacuoles.
cells and their products, i.e. cell is structural unit of life.  I n mat ur e plant cells, pr ot oplast for ms a per ipher al
2. Single cell per for m all t he vit al act ivit ies, i.e. cells layer called pr imor dial ut r icle.
is funct ional unit of life.  I n animal cells pr ot oplast fills t he whole cell.
All act ivit ies of living or ganisms occur due t o t he
met abolic act ivit ies of t he cell. M i t ochondr i a
3. Cell is her edit ar y unit of life.  L ife span of mit ochondr ia is 5-10 days.
4. Cells ar e living or cell has life.  Aver age number of mit ochondr ia in each cell is 1000
(Each cell is made of a small mass of pr ot oplasm – 1600/cell
cont aini ng a nucl eus i n i t s i nsi de and a pl asma
 U sual l y pl ant cel l s have fewer mi t ochondr i a as
membr ane with or without a cell wall on its outside).
compar ed t o animal cell.
5. New cells ar ise fr om pr e-exist ing cell.

Shape and Size
 M it ochondr ia ar e spher ical or filamentous in shape.
 Smallest mit ochondr ia ar e pr esent in yeast (< 1).
 L ar gest mit ochondr ia ar e pr esent in Rana pipens
(20-40 )
 I n human body lar gest mit ochondr ia ar e pr esent in
pancreatic cells (10).
 Si ze depen ds on act i v i t y of cel l . A ct i ve cel l s
(mer ist emat ic cells) have lar ge mit ochondr ia.
 M it ochondr i al DNA can code t he synt hesi s of 10
differ ent types of pr oteins (Membrane pr oteins). Rest
of t he pr ot ei ns and enzymes of mit ochondr ia ar e
synt hesized under t he cont r ol of nuclear genes.
 Enzymes for r eplicat ion and t r anscr ipt ion of DNA
like DNA- polymer ase and RNA polymer ase.
 I n mit ochondr ia, 70s t ypes r ibosomes ar e pr esent ,
whi ch ar e cal led mit or ibosomes (M it ochondr ia of
mammals have 55s r ibosomes)
 I n scur vy disease, sever al mit ochondr ia fuse to for m
lar ge bodies called chondr iospher e.
F unct ions of M it ochondr ia
1. Cell oxidation. M it ochondr ia plays an impor t ant
r ole in ATP synt hesis dur ing aer obic r espir at ion.
M it ochondr ia ar e called Power house of cell because
t hey st or e ener gy in for m of ATP. ATP is ener gy
cur r ency. I n ATP t wo high ener gy bonds ar e pr esent
which ar e called pyr ophosphat ase bonds.
2. M i t ochondr i a hel p i n Vi t el l ogenesi s i n oocyt es,
M it ochondr ial K inase makes t he yolk viscous and
insoluble for a longer duration stor age. Mitochondria
of oocyt es called Yolk nuclei.
Golgi Appar at us
 Golgi in plant s is called lipochondr ion.
 Golgi body pr esent in all eukar yot es but absent in
mat ur e RBCs of mammals, sieve t ubes, br yophyt es
et c.
 Number of Golgi body :
One t o many in a cell locat ed near nucleus.
M aximum number of golgi body pr esent in r hizodial
cells of char a
(gr een algae = 25,000)
E ndoplasmic Ret iculum (E R)
Clternae Veslcles Tubules
Biology 3.7
 I t is a diffused cell or ganelle.
 I t consist s of t hr ee st r uct ur e :
1. Cisternae : L ong flatt ened and unbr anched unit s
ar r anged in st acks. 40– 50 nm t hick.
2. Vesicles : 25– 500 nm in diamet er.
3. Tubules : L ong, isolat ed, br anched unit s. 50– 190
nm t hick
 St r uct ur e of E.R. is like t he Golgi body but in E.R.
ci st er nae, vesi cl es and t ubul es ar e i sol at ed i n
cyt oplasm and t hese do not for m complex.
 Golgi body is localised cell or ganelle while E.R. is
widespr ead in cyt oplasm.
F unct ions of E.R.
1. Mechanical support : Par t icipates in t he for mation
of cytoskelet on with micr o-filaments, micr otubules
and int er mediat e filament s.
2. I nt r acel l ul ar exchange : For ms i nt r acel l ul ar
conduct i ng syst em. Tr anspor t of mat er i al s i n
cyt oplasm fr om one place t o anot her may occur s
t hr ough t he duct s of E.R.
3. Rough E.R. : Par t icipat es in pr ot ein synt hesis.
4. Lipid secretion : Lipid synthesized by the agranular
por t ion of E.R. (smoot h E.R.), st or ed int o t he Golgi
befor e finally being ext r uded int o t he cyt oplasm
as lipid dr oplet and t hence t o t he out side of cell.
5. Release of Glucose from Glycogen : Polymer isation
of glucose to for m glycogen granules probably occur
in t he hyaloplasm not in t he wall of E.R. but t he
r et iculum seems t o play a r ole in t he br eakdown
of glycogen (glycogenolysis).
6. Cellular metabolism : Membr anes of the r eticulum
pr ovi des an i n cr eased su r f ace for m et abol i c
act ivit ies wit hin t he cyt oplasm.
7. For mat ion of nuclear membr ane : Fr agment ed
vesicles of disint egr at ed nuclear membr ane and
ER elements ar r ange ar ound chr omosomes to for m
a new nuclear membr ane.
8. For mat ion of cell plat e.
9. For mat ion of lysosomes and Golgi body.
10. Det oxi f i cat i on : Sm oot h E R con cer n ed w i t h
det oxificat ion of dr ugs and st er oids.
Pl ast i ds
These ar e pr esent in plants and few pr otists (Euglena).
Classificat ion
On t he basis of funct ion plast ids ar e of t hr ee t ypes:
1. L eucoplast ; 2. Chlor oplast ; 3. Chr omoplast
 Al l t ypes of pl ast i ds have common or i gi n fr om
pr oplast ids, sac like non-lamellar st r uct ur es.
 Differ ent t ypes of plast ids may t r ansfor m fr om one
for m t o anot her. But chr omoplast s never t r ansfor m
t o chlor oplast s.
Plastid
Leucoplast Chloroplast Chromoplast
 3.8 Biology
R i bosom e
 Also called pr ot ein fact or y and engine of t he cell .
 Ribosomes ar e smallest cell or ganelles (150  250 Å)
 Unit membr aneless cell or ganelle.
 Ri bosom e can be seen on l y t h r ou gh el ect r on
micr oscope, i.e. after electr on micr oscopes invention,
r ibosomes wer e discover ed.
 Having negative char ge due to pr esence of phosphate
gr oup (H 3PO43– ).
 Palade coined t he t er m Ribosome.
 Except mammalian RBC all living cells have ribosomes.
 Pr ot eins in r ibosomes ar e negat ively char ged.
 r -RNA is synt hesized in Nucleolus.
Nucleoulus is called Ribosome fact or y.
 Ribosomes ar e univer sal cell or ganelle, pr esent in
all pr okar yot es and eukar yot es.
Cell Cycle
A growing cell under goes a cell cycle t hat is comprised
of essent ially t wo per iods
1. I nter phase.
2. Per iod of division. (M it osis/M eiosis)
Str uctur e of Cell
N ucl eus
 I n major it y of t he cells, nucleus lies in t he cent r e.
H owever, it may also be in t he per ipher y of t he cell
as in t he case of plant cells. The liquid pr ot oplasm in
t he nucleus is called nucleoplasm , which is bound by
a membr ane called nuclear membr ane.
 I t cont ai ns a net wor k of fi br ous mat er i al cal l ed
chr omat in . The condensed chr omat in is in t he for m
of fibr e like st r uct ur es called chr omosomes, which
help in inher it ance or t r ansfer of char act er s fr om
t he par ent s t o next gener at ion.
 L ar gest component of t he cell.
 N u cl eu s i s dou bl e m em br an e bou n d den se
pr otoplasmic body that contr ols cellular metabolism,
enclose all t he genet ic infor mat ion, and is able t o
t r ansmit t he same t o t he next gener at ion.
 Except mat ur e mammalian R.B.C. and Sieve cell of
phloem, ever y living cell have a nucleus.
 Pr ocar yotes have incipient nucleus devoid of nuclear
membr ane, nucl eol us and hi st one. Such t ype of
nucleus is called nucleoid.
 Nucleus of undividing cell is called interphase nucleus.
 The pr ot oplasm bet ween nucleus and t he plasma
membr ane is called cyt oplasm .
 L ar gest among t he or ganelles in t he cell ar e plast ids
found in plant cells. These cont ain pigment s.
 Ther e ar e r od shaped or spher ical or ganelles called
mit ochondr ia.
 I n t he cyt opl asm t her e ar e dr opl et s of subst ances
di ssol ved i n wat er. U nder t he mi cr oscope, t hese
dr opl et s appear as empt y spaces and ar e t er med as
vacuoles.
 I n amoeba, t he vacuoles cont ain food par t icles and
ar e called food vacuoles.
 M ost of t he pl ant cel l s have l ar ger vacuol es as
compar ed t o animal cells.
N umber, Size, Position and Shape
 Nor mally a cell has single nucleus, this condition is
called Uninucleate / Mononucleate / Monokaryotic.
 Som et i m es a cel l m ay h ave t wo n u cl ei cal l ed
Binucleat e / Dikar yot ic cell
 Nucleus usually occupies 20% of cells mass. I t s size
depend upon ploidy, cell mat ur it y and cell funct ion.
 N ucl eus l i es near geomet r i c cent r e of t he cel l ,
per iphar al nucleus pr esent in adipocyt es and plant
cell s.
 Nucleus is rounded in young plant s and polygonal in
animal cells, oval or ellipt ical in mat ur e plant cells.
Cel l D i visi on
 I t is t he pr ocess by which a cell called par ent cell ,
divides int o t wo cells, called daught er cells.
 Cell is usually a small segment of a lar ger cell cycle.
 I n meiosis however, a cell is permanently transformed.
 Cell division is t he biological basis of life. For simple
unicellular or ganisms such as t he amoeba, one cell
division r epr oduces an ent ir e or ganism. On a lar ger
scal e, cel l di v i si on can cr eat e pr ogen y f r om
mult icellular or ganisms, such as plant s t hat gr ow
fr om cut t ings. But most impor t ant ly, cell division
enables sexually r epr oducing or ganisms t o develop
fr om the one-celled zygote, which itself was pr oduced
by cell division fr om gamet es. And aft er gr owth, cell
division allows for cont inual r enewal and r epair of
t he or ganism.
 T h e pr i m ar y con cer n of cel l di v i si on i s t h e
maintenance of t he or iginal cell’s genome. Befor e
division, the genomic infor mation which is stor ed in
chr omosomes must be r eplicat ed, and duplicated
genome separ ated cleanly between cells. A gr eat deal
of cel l ul ar i nfr ast r uct ur e i s i nvol ved i n k eepi ng
genomic infor mation consistent between gener ations.
M i t osi s
I t i s t h e pr ocess of cel l di v i si on w h er eby t h e
chr omosomes ar e duplicat ed and dist r ibut ed equally
t o t he daught er cells.
 Biology 3.9
I t is a cont inuous pr ocess which t akes place in five N ut r i t i on
phases :
(i ) Pr ophase; ( i i ) Pr o-met aphase; ( i i i M et aphase;
Aut ot r oph
(iv ) Anaphase; (v ) Telophase  T h ese ar e l i v i n g or gan i sm s t h at sy n t h esi s
M eiosis or gan i c subst ances fr om i n or gani c m ol ecu l es
I t occur s in t he ger m cells, which ar e dest ined t o for m usi ng l i ght .
gamet es in sexually r epr oducing or ganisms.  These ar e pr imar y pr oducer s, i.e. all gr een plant s
Binar y F ission and many plankt ons ar e aut ot r ophs.
Prokaryotic cell division process is called Binary fission .  Some bact er i a use chemi cal ener gy of sul phar
Difference bet ween M it osis and M eiosis compounds t o synt hesis or ganic subst ances.
M i t osi s M ei osi s H et er ot r oph
1. The cel l di vi des onl y 1. There are two
These ar e living or ganisms t hat do not synt hesis food,
once aft er one r ound successive cell
of D N A r epl i cat i on. divisions: animal, fungi et c.
Fi r st and t he second
Phot osysnt hesi s
m ei ot i c di vi si ons.
2. M i t osi s t ak es pl ace 2. M ei osi s t ak es pl ace  Por e openings of plant leaves ar e called st omat a.
i n t h e som at i c cel l s. i n t he ger m These open in day and close at night .
(r epr oduct i ve cel l s)  I t occur s in visible light 4000 t o 7500 Å
cel l s.
(does not occur in I nfr a-r ed and ult r a-violet light ).
3. I t occur s i n bot h 3. I t occur s onl y i n
sexu al l y as wel l as sexual l y r epr oduci ng  Red, blue and violet wavelengt hs ar e absor bed by
asexual l y or gani sm s. t he pigment s.
r epr oduci ng  Temperatur e range :
or gani sm s.
35C (for conifer s) t o + 75 C for (Algae)
4. DN A r epl i cat es once 4. DN A r epl i cat es once
for one cel l di vi si on. for t wo cel l di vi si ons. I t t akes place at r apid r at e bet ween 10 C t o 35 C.
5. Cel l di vi des onl y 5. Ther e ar e t w o cel l  Cer t ain bact er ia and algae can also capt ur e light
once and t he di vi si ons bu t chr om o- ener gy and use it t o make food
chr om osom es al so som e di vi de onl y e.g. phot osynt het i c bact er i a cont ai ns chl or ophyl l
di vi de onl y once. once. i n t i n y bod i es cal l ed ch r om at op h or es . I n
6. Chr om osom e 6 Chr om osom al chr omat o-phor es component s ot her t han wat er
num ber r em ai ns num ber i s r educed
ar e combi ned wi t h CO2 t o for m sugar. N o oxygen
const ant at t he end fr om di pl oi d t o t he
of m i t osi s. hapl oi d. i s r el eased.
7. Gen et i c const i t ut i on 7. Genet i c const i t ut i on Essent ial Element s in Plant s
of daught er cel l s i s of t he daugh t er cel l s Car bon – 45%
i den t i cal t o t h at of usual l y di ffer s fr om
par ent cel l . The t wo t hat of t he par ent Oxygen – 3%
dau ght er cel l s ar e cel l due t o cr ossi ng
Hydr ogen – 6%
for m ed. over . Each
chr om osom e of Nit r ogen – 1.3% et c.
daught er cel l s
usual l y cont ai ns a Gr owt h St imulat or s
m i xt ur e of m at er nal I ndole acet ic acid
and pat er nal genes.
It incr eases t he t endency of cut t ing t o t hr ough out
8. N o cr ossi ng over of 8. Cr ossi ng over of
genes. genes t ak es pl ace. r oot s.
9. I t r equi r es l ess t i m e. 9. I t r equi r es l onger E t hylene
t i m e. I t acceler at es r ipening of fr uit s
3.10 Biology
Composi t i on of F ood
Food can be classified int o
1. Car bohydr at es and fat s : ener gy giving food
2. Pr ot eins : Body building food
3. M iner als and Vit amins : Pr ot ect ive foods
Carbohydrates U|
V|
Protein M acr o nut r ient s
Fat W 
UV M icr o nut r ient s
Vit amins
MineralsW
M iner als and Vit amins
4. Wat er
1. Car bohydr at es
Gener al for mula : (C,H , O  Cx (H 2O)y
 These pr ovide ener gy t o body
 B asi c un i t i n si m pl e su gar m ol ecu l e (m on o
sachar ide) is GlucoseC6H 12O6.
 One gm of glucose yields 4.2 k cal ener gy
 Car bohydr at es cont r ibut e about 45% of calor ies
in most diet s.
 L iver conver t s Glucose t o Glycogen.
5. M iner als
Gl ycogen is cal led animal st ar ch because it i s
for med in animals not in plant s. I t is st or ed in
liver and muscles.
Types of Carbohydr at es.
(i ) M ono Sacharides (C6H 12O 6) :
H uman body can make use of car bohydr at es
only in t he for m of monosachar ides.
e.g. Glucose, Galact ose, Fr uct ose (Fr uit sugar )
(ii ) Disacharides : C12H 22O11
Common disachar ides ar e maltose, sucr ose and
lact ose.
(iii ) Poly Sacharides : (C6H 10O5)n
St ar ch, Glucose and Glycogen.
2. F at s
 These ar e mixt ur e of L ipids [Tr iglycer ides].
 L ipids mixt ur e is solid at 20C.
 Veget able fat s ar e highly unsat ur at ed.
 Animal fats ar e satur ated and cause blood pr essure
and hear t disease.
 I t is made of C, H , and O alt hough, O is ver y less.
Gener al for mula  C57 H 110O6.
One gm fat = 9.0 k.cal.
 Fat s ar e st or ed in Adipose t issues.
3. Pr ot ei ns
 T h ey con t ai n N i t r ogen , Car bon , H ydr ogen ,
Oxygen
 These ar e pr imar y foods.
 I t is essent ial for gr owt h
 I t is made up of aminoacids
 These r egulat e met abolism
 These make 12 t o 15% of diet calor ies.
 Out of 22 Amino acids :
9 for adult s and 10 for childr en ar e t o be supplied
in the diet fr om outside and r est ar e manufactur ed
by t he body.
1 gm pr ot eins = 4.2 k. cal.
I t cannot be st or ed in human body.
Pr ot eins for m lar gest molecule in nat ur e

 These pr ovide base for manufact ur ing enzymes,
har mones and ant ibodies et c.
 It's deficiency causes Kwashiorker (Red haired body).
 Wat er usually for ms 75-90% of cyt oplasm.
 70 t o 90 per cent of living cells is wat er.
 I n humans about t wo-t hir d of t he body is for med
of wat er and of t hese, about 55 per cent (20-22
lit r es) is confined t o cells as int r acellular wat er.
The r emainder is found in ext r acellular fluids like
blood, t issur e fluid and lymph.
 I t is good solvent and thus it is needed in the body
 Minerals are requir ed
(i ) t o car r y out met abolic pr ocess.
(ii ) maint ain pr oper osmot ic pr essur e.
(iii ) for pr eser vat ion of physical shape.
 M iner als ar e inor ganic subst ances
 At least 29 element s ar e found in our body.
 M iner als have no ener gy value but imbalance of
miner al level in t hebody may cause diseases.
I mpor tant R equi r ement
M i ner als
Cal ci um Pr oper clot t ing of blood
Calcium (Ca) & Pr ot ect ion of t eet h
Phosphorus (P)
Potassi um (K) & pr oper muscular
Magnesium (Mg) cont r act ion
Sodi um (N a) M aint aining wat er bal ance
in body.
I odi ne (I ) Healthy functioning of
thyroid gland
Cobal t (Co) Utilization of vitamin (B12 esp.)
Zi nc (Zn) H ealt hy funct ioning of
t ongue
I r on
 I t is essent ial for haemoglobin.
 I t gives r ed colour t o RBC
 I t t r anspor t s oxygen t o human body
 Biology 3.11
6. Vit amins  I f concent r at ion of glucose r ises above 160 mg per
VI TAM I N S 100 cm 3 of blood glucose, it is excer et ed by t he
kidneys in ur ine. I f it falls below 40 mg/100 cm 3 of
blood, t he br ain cells may be affect ed.
Wat er soluble Fat soluble
B, C & P A, D, E, & K (cannot be washed) Element Found in N ormal H uman Body
I f t hey ar e t aken I f t aken in excess it causes
in excess t hey ar e a condit ion called E l em en t P er cen t E l em en t P er cen t
washed away hypervitaminous Ox y gen 65.0 Sodi u m 0.15
 Car bon 18.0 Ch l or i n e 0.15
 L oss of hair H y dr ogen 10.0 M agn esi u m 0.05
 Enlar gement of liver N i t r ogen 3.0 I r on 0.004
 Cr acked mout h Cal ci u m 2.0 I odi n e 0.00004
 Glycogen in the liver is a short ter m stor e. I f no Ph osph or ou s 1.1 M an gan ese 0.00013
other glucose supply is available, it will last the body Pot asi u m 0.35 Copper 0.00014
for about six hours.
Su l ph u r 0.25 Cobal t 0.00000016
 Excess glucose not stor ed as glycogen is conver t ed
int o fat and st or ed in t he fat cells.

Communi cabl e D i seases

N ame Cause T r ansmi ssi on I ncubati on P er i od
AI DS (Acquir ed H uman I mmunodeficiency Sexual r elat ions; shar ing of Sever al year s
I mmune Deficiency vi ew (H I V) syr inges; blood t r ansfusion
Syndr ome)
Br ucellosis Br ucellus abor t us or B cat t le or goat s 3-6 year s
melit eusis bact er ia
Chick enpox Var icella zost er vir us (U S) I nfect ed per sons; ar t icles 10-21 days
Var icella H er pes zost er vir us (U K ) Cont aminat ed by dischar ge fr om
mucous membr ances
Choler a Vi br io choler ae bact er ium Cont aminat ed wat er and seafood a few hour s-5 days
Common cold N umer ous vir uses Respir at or y dr oplet s of infect ed 1-4 days
per son
Diphit her ia Cor nybact er ium Respit ar y secr et ions and saliva 2-6 days
Di pht her ia bact er ium of infect ed per sons or car r ier s
Encephalit is Vi r uses Bit e fr om infect ed mosquit o 4-21 days
Gas gangr ene Cl ost r idium Welchii Soil or soil-cont aminat ed ar t icles 1-4 days
bact er ium
Gonor r hoea N eisser ia gonnor r hoeoe U r et hr al or vaginal secr et ions of 3-8 days
bact er ia infect ed per sons
H epat it i s A H epat it i s A vir us Cont aminat ed food and wat er 15-50 days
(I nect ious)
H epat it i s B H epat it i s B vir us I nfect ed blood; par ent er al 6 week s-6 mont hs
(Ser umt ype B) I nject ion
I nfluenza N umer ous vir uses (t ypes Dir ect cont act ; r espir at or y 1-4 days
A,B,C) dr oplet s, possi bly air bor ne
L epr osy M ycobact er ium lepr ae Dr oplet infect ion (minimally Var iable
bacillus cont agious)
M al ar ia Pl asmodium pr ot ozoa Bit e fr om infect ed mosquit o 6-37 days
M easles (r ubeola) Rubeola Vir t ual Dr oplet infect ion 10-15 days
M eningit is Var ious bact er ia and Respir at or y dr oplet s var ies wit h causat ive
vi r uses (Vir al meni ngit is) (bact er ial meningit is)
agent
M umps Vi r us Dir ect cont act wit h infect ed 14-21 days
per sons; Respir at or y dr oplet s
and or al secr et ions
3.12 Biology

N ame Cause T r ansmission I ncubation

P er iod
Par at yphoid fever s Salmonella bact er ia I ngest ion of cont aminat ed food and wat er 1-14 days
Pneumonia St r ept ococcus Pneumoniae Dr oplet infect ion 1-3 week s
Bact er ium
Poliomyeli t s Polio vir uses Dir ect cont act wit h nasophar yngeal 7-21 days
secr et ions of infect ed per sons; vomit
Rabies Vir us Bit e fr om r abid animal 10 days-6
mont hs
Rubella (Ger man Rubella vir us Dir ect cont act or dr oplet spr ead of 14-21 days
measles) nasophar yngeal secr et ion
Scar let fever Gr oup A haeolyt ic Dir ect or indir ect cont act wit h infect ed 1-5 days
St r ept ococcus bact er ia per sons, or dr oplet infect ion
Smallpox (Var iola) Poxvir us var iola Dir ect cont act ; dr oplet 7-14 days
Syphilis Tr eponema pallidum Sexual r elat ions; cont act wit h open 10-90 days
bact er ia lesions; blood t r ansfusion
Tet anus (lockjaw) Clost r idium t et ani bacil lus Animal faeces and soil 3-21 days
Tuber culosi s M ycobact er ium Dr oplet spr ead; ingest ion fr om var iable
t uber culosis baci llus cont aminat ed mil k
Typhoid fever Salmonella t yphi baci llus Cont aminat ed food and wat er 7-24 days
Whopping Cough Bor det ella por t ussi s Dr oplet spr ead 10-21 days
(per t ussis) bact er ium
Yellow fever Ar bovir us Bit e fr om infect ed mosquit o 3-6 days

D efi ci ency and D iseases

Vitamin Function D eficiency Sour ces
A Ret inol  For normal gr owt h in  Roughness and dr y skin. Fish, liver , oil, but t er , mil k,
childr en  I nabili t y t o see in dim light . egg, veget able yellow
 To maint ain conjuctiva  Xer opht hlmia leading to veget able and
aidsnight vi sion blindness (cor nea becomes
 To maint ain skin and r ough and dr y)
mucous membr ane.  N ycta l opi a (Night bl indness)
B Complex
B1 Thiamine st
 1 vit amin t o be Ber i-Ber i Yeast , bacon, veget ables, eggs
discover ed by Ezkman’ Checks gr owt h in childr en and liver s.
in 1897
 Essent ial for healt hy
ner ves & mucous
membrane
 (Dest r oyed by high
t emperat ur e & baking
soda)
B2 Riboflavin To obt ain st eady and  Checks gr owth M ilk , cer eals, veget ables,
cont inuous r elease of  Skin becomes r ough and r ed yeast , meat
ener gy  Diar r hoea & digest ive upset s
B3 Niacin ‘or ’  Essent ial for healt hy  Diar r haea.
Nicot inous digest ive funct ion.  A condit ion known as
Acid  H elps to cont r ol ‘Pel l agr a’
cholest er ol level.
Cholestr ol :
LDL ® Low Density lipo protein ® > 160 mg per 100 CmB of blood
H DL (H igh densit y l ipo prot ein), > 40 mg per , 100 CmB of blood
 Biology 3.13

V i t am i n F unct i on D efi ci ency Sour ces

B6 Pyr idoxine  Pr ot ein met abolism U seful dur ing r adio t her apy
Folic Acid  Aids in for mat ion of RBC
Anem i a Pr epar ed fr om
Biot in, cholin, mosit ol pant ot henic acid & par amino benzoic cid ar e al so st ept omycine cult ur e.
member s of vit amin B complex
B 12 Cyt amen For RBC P r eni ci ous Anaem i a M eat , l iver , fish
(cynocobalamin)
C Ascor bic  For pr oper for mat ion of  Scu r vy  Cit r us fr uit s, t omat oes,
Acid collagen in connect ive  Capillar y bleeding Gr een leaf, vegetable and
t issues  Check s gr owt h in childr en potato (newone)
 For mat ion of bones and  Decr eases wi t h age.
t eet h
D Calcifer ol N ecessar y for absor pt ion  R i ck et s  Can be for med by sun
D 2 D 3and met aboli sm of calcium  Oest eom alaci a : Defective l ight
U sed for r at and phosphor us deposition of enamel, leadi ng t o  But t er , cheese et c.
poi soni ng ul tr a violet
li ght nat ur al found dent al car r ies.
in animal food
E Tocopher ol  Essent ial for maint aining Wheat , Animal, Food.
fir mness of sk in
 Blood t hinner
K Philloquine For pr oper clot t ing of blood  Jaundice Gr een plant s Gr een peas,
 Can be made by body only in cabbage
t he pr esence of bile.
P H esper idin  H elps in maint aining 
nor mal capillar y
r esist ance.
 Deficiency may cause
int er nal bleeding.
 Sour ces – Gr eens
veget able and cit r ous
fr uit s.

N ut r i t i on Small I ntenstine (D uodenum + I lleum)

 I t is 20 feet long.
D i gest ive Syst em
 Villi pr ovides mor e sur face ar ea (600 times) for better
I t consist of absor pt ion.
 Mouth
 At t he place wher e small and lar ge int enst ine ar e
 Oesophagus joined, t wo or gans ar e found.
 St omach
 Small int enst ine Duodenum + I lleum
1. Caecum UV
L ost t heir ut ilit y
 L ar ge I nt enst ine  (Colon)
2. Appendix W
 Food in t he small int est ine is called chyle.
L ar ge I nt enst i ne
 I t is 5 feet long and 2-5 inches in diamet er
 I t has t hr ee par t s :
1. Coecum
2. Colon : I t i s t hi ck er t han smal l i nt est ine and
t hinner t han coecum.
— I t does not secr et any enzymes
— Digest ed r esidue is st or ed.
— I t absor bs wat er fr om r esidue.
 3.14 Biology
3. Rect um :
— I t secr et s no enzymes. I t st or es di gest i ve
r esidue and absor bs wat er fr om r esidue.
— I t is last par t of t he aliment r y canal.
D igest ion I n Buccal Cavit y
 I n buccal cavit y, food get s mixed wit h saliva fr om
salivar y gland dur ing chewing.
 Composit ion of Saliva :
99.4% H 2O, 0.6% ot her compounds which includes
inor ganic (NaCl, K Cl, Na2H PO4, CaCO3 ), mucous,
salivar y amylase or Pt yline, lysozyme.
pH : 6.8
 Tot al amount :1– 1.5 lit .
 Wit h saliva, Pb, H g and t heir iodides ar e excr et ed
out .
 Secr et i on of sal i va i s under cont r ol of M edul l a
oblongat a.
 Par a sympat het i c syst em i ncr eases secr et i on of
saliva.
 Sympat het ic syst em decr eases secr et ion of saliva.
 F unct ions of Saliva
(i ) To t ie food par t icles.
(ii ) To make food moist and slimy.
(iii ) Lysozyme and Thiocyanat e dest r oy bact er ia.
(iv) Pt yline conver ts st ar ch into maltose, isomaltose
and limit dext r ines.
(v) H elpful in det ect ing t est e.
(vi ) H elpful in wat er r egulat ion.
N ote : On feeling t hir st , O.P. of body fluid is incr eased.
N ow food is li k e a ball call ed bolus whi ch r eaches
st omach by perist alsis.
D igest ion in St omach
 Spal l anzani expl ai ned di gest i on i n gener al and
Beaumont explained it in man.
 As food comes in st omach, gast r ic juice is secr et ed
by 350 l ak h gast r i c gl ands. Gast r i c gl ands ar e
st imulat ed by gast r in hor mone secr et ed by G– cells
of pylor ic par t .
 Quant i t y of gast r i c j ui ce becomes maxi mum i n
1  The r eact ion is called saponificat ion .
1 t o 1 hour s.
2  Bile salt s ar e helpful in absor pt ion of Vit amin A, D,
 Composit ion of Gast r ic juice :
99% H 2O, 1% ot her s which include inor ganic salt s,
mucous, H Cl (0.4%), pepsinogen, pr or ennin, gast r ic
lipase, int r insic fact or of De Cest ello.
pH : 1.0– 1.5
 Tot al amount : 1– 3 lit ./24 hr s.
Functions of H CL
(i ) To pr ovide acidic medium.
(ii ) To kill har mful bact er ia.
(iii ) To dest r oy living par t of food.
(iv) To avoid r ot t ening of food.
(v) To act ivat e enzymes.
Pepsinogen    Pepsin
Pr or ennin   Rennin
F unct ions of Pepsin
Pepsin
Pr ot ein 
 Pept one+Pr ot eoses
F unct ions of Rennin or Rennet or Cymosin or
Cur ding enzyme
Caseinogen Renni
n  Casein — Ca

—  Par acasseinat e
F unct ions of Gast r ic lipase
I t is negligibly act ive.
Fat L I PASE
 Fat t y acids + Glycer ol
Now food is called chyme, it comes in Duodenum. Her e
ent er ogast r one is secr et ed which st ops digest ion in
st omach
M easur es against Aut odigest ion of St omach
 Ther e is a basic layer of mucous on mucosa.
 Tight junct ion ar e pr esent bet ween cells.
 Cells of mucosa ar e r eplaced at t he int er val of 2– 3
days.
N ote : A bact er ium H elicobact or pylor i is r esponsible
for pept ic ulcer.
D igest ion in D uodenum
 I t r eceives bile juice and pancr eat ic juice.
 H epat ocr ine st imulat es synt hesis of bile juice.
 CCK st imulat es cont r act ion of gall bladder.
 Secr et i n (di scover ed by Beyl i s & St ur l i ng) and
pancreozymine stimulate secretion of pancreatic juice.
 Fir st bile juice r eact s on food by making the medium
alkaline
Composit ion Bile juice
89% H 2O, 11% others which includes mucous, inorganic,
bi l e jui ce (Sodi um or Pot assi um t aur ochol at e and
glycholat e) , bile pigment , cholest er ol, lecit hin.
pH : 7.7 – 8.6
 Tot al amount : 500 – 1000 ml / 24 H r.
 Bi l e sal t s ar e hel pful i n emul si fi cat i on of fat s.
Emulsified fat molecules ar e called micelles.
E and K .
 Bile pigment , cholest er ol and lecit hin ar e excr et or y.
Pancreat ic juice – Complet e juice
Composit ion :
98.5% H 2O and 1.5% ot her s which includes inor ganic
salt s, mucous, chemot r ypsinogen, car boxypept idase,
ami n opept i dase, t r ypsi n ogen, amyl ase, mal t ase,
i somal t ase, l i mi t Dext r i nase, l i pase or st eapsi ne,
cholest er ol est er ase, polynucleot idase.
pH : 8.0
 Biology 3.15
Total amount : 500 – 800 ml / 24 hr s. Absor pt ion fr om St omach
H er e gl ucose, H 2O, al cohol and vi t ami ne B 12 ar e
Ent er ok inase absor bed.
Tr ypsinogen  Tr ypsin
Absor pt ion fr om I nt est ine
Trypsin
Chemot rypsinogen  Chemot r ypsin  Villi ar e helpful.
 Vilicr inine st imulat es it .
car boxypept idase
Poly/Tr i/Di pept ide  Amino acid  I n villi b.v. and lect eals pr esent .
Aminopept idase
 Car bohydr at e and pr ot ein ar e absor bed by b.v.

I somalt ase  L i pi d i s absor bed by l ect eal s, col our l ess l ymph
I somalt ose  Glucose
 becomes milky due t o for mat ion of chilomicr ones. I t
M alt ase r eaches t o hear t fir st .
M alt ose  Gl ucose
 Car bohydr at e and pr ot ein r each t o liver.
Dext rinase  Fr uct ose is absor bed by facilit at ed diffusion.
L imit dext rin  Glucose
 M annose and pent ose by passive t r anspor t .
Sucr ase  Glucose and Galact ose by act ive t r anspor t
Sucrose  Glucose  Fruct ose
I nver t ase
H 2O by osmosis.
L act ase D.A.A. by passive t r anspor t .
L act ose  Glucose  Galact ose
L .A.A. by act ive t r anspor t .
L ipase
I mulsified fat  Fat t y acid  glycer ol Vit amins A and D by simple diffusion.
I n columnar cells, acids phasphot ase enzyme pr esent ,
Ch. est erase
Cholest erol  Est ers of cholest erol shows act ive pr ocess for absor pt ion.
Polynuclect idase E gest i on
Nucleic acid  Nucleot ides

 To give out undigest ed food fr om aliment ar y canal.
D igestion in Small I ntest ine  Faeces can r emain in colon for 36 hr s t hen moving
H er e f ood get s su ccu s en t er i cu s st i m u l at ed by int o r ect um by gast r o-colic r eflex.
ent er okr inine har mone.
 Faeces consist s of 3/4 H 2O and 1/4 solid.
Composit ion of succus ent ericus :
 I n solid par t , 3% bact er ia, 30% r oughage, 20% fat ,
98.5% H 2O, 1.5% ot her s whi ch i ncl udes mucous, 15% inor ganic and 3% pr ot ein ar e pr esent .
i n or gan i c sal t s, er apsi n , m al t ase, i som al t ase,
 Dead mu cosal cel l s, mucou s, chol est er oal al so
l i m i t D ex t r i n a se, su cr a se, l ect a se, l i p a se,
pr esent . NH 3, CH 4 ar e negligible.
polynucleot idase, phasphot ase, nucleosidase
 Br own colour is due to stercobilin and stercobilinogen .
Erapsin
Tr i/Di/Pept ide   A.A.  Foul smell is due t o sket ol , I ndol and t r ept ophan .
Aminopept idase
dipept idase Teet h
Teet h ar e har d, yellow subst ance sur r ounding pulp.
Nucleot idase
Nucleot ides
 Pent ose  Nit r ogenous base Types of Teeth
Each half of t he jaw hold four t ypes of t eet h
D igest ion of Cellulose 1. I ncissor s
 I n m an di gest i on of cel l u l ose t ak es pl ace i n 2. Canines
her bivor ous.
3. Pr e molar s
 Cy st ase an d cel l u l ose con v er t cel l u l ose i n t o
4. M olar s
cellulobiose.
M ilk Teet h (Decidious t eeth)
 I n r abbit it is not complet ed in one inst ance. Rabbit
feeds on i t s eveni ng faeces. I t i s copr ophagy or N umber Age U sed for
pseudor umination. Such animals ar e copr ophagous. 1. I ncissors 8 7– 9 Slice and cut
 Food passes fr om aliment ar y canal t wo t imes, t his mont hs pieces
phenomenon is cest r ophy. 2. Canines 4 18 Tear food
mont hs it ems
Absor pt i on of F ood 3. Pre molars 8 24 mont hs Rip t ough food
Absor pt ion fr om M out h 4. Molar s 12 6-20 year s Gr iding
H er e negligible t obacco, alkohal and some medicines Total 32
as isopr enaline glycer ol t r i-nit r it e is absor bed.
3.16 Biology
Permanent t eet h 2. Appendicular skelet on (126 bones)
 The appendicular skelet on is made up of bones of
t he ar ms and legs and t heir suppor t s.
 Shoulder gir dle : I t consist s of
(i ) Scapula (shoulder blade)
(ii ) Clavicle (collar bone).
 Skelet on of t he ar m : I t is divided int o
(i ) H umer us (upper ar m)
 L ower t eet h come ear lier t han upper. (ii ) Radius and Ulna (for ear m) : Ulna is sit uat ed
 Dentine Har d yellow substance that sur r r ounds the t owar ds t he lit t le finger side, wher eas r adius
pulp. t owar ds t he t humb side.
 Other parts : Enamel, cementum, periodontal ligament. (iii ) Car pals (wr ist bones)
 Enamel : Pr otects teeth fr om sensitive heat and cold. (iv) Metacarpals (palm)
(v) Phalanges (finger s)
Teeth in Animals  Thumb has t wo bones.
 Cats, dogs and most other mammals have heterodont
 Ot her finger s have t hr ee bones :
t eet h which have differ ent uses.
 U nl i k e ot her mammal s fi sh an d r ept i l es h ave (i ) Pr oximal
homodont t eet h. All ar e of same size and shape and (ii ) Middle
have only one use). (iii ) Distal
 Fi sh and r ept i l es l oose and r epl ace t hei r t eet h  Bones of t he leg : I t consist of
cont inuously. (i ) Femur (t high)
 Snakes have teet h that cur ve back t owar d thethr oat. (ii ) Tibia and fibula (leg)
I n poisonous snakes cer tain teet h have a canal or
gr oove, thr ough which poison can be ejected. (iii ) Tar sals (back of t he foot )
 Bir ds, t oads, t ur t les, and some t ypes of insect s and (iv) M et at ar sals (for efoot )
whales do not have t eet h. (v) Phalanges (toes)
 L eg is at t ached t o t he t r unk by a pelvic gir dle
Skelet al Syst em made up of t wo hip bones; each consist s of t hr ee
 The human endoskelet on is made up of bones and bones :
car t ilage of var ious t ypes.
(i ) I llum
 Bone is a har d connect ive t issue in which gr ound
subst ance is ver y har d and cont ains calcium salt s. (ii ) I schium
 M ar r ow of t h e l on g bon es i s t h e si t e f or t h e (iii ) Pubis.
haemopoiesis, i.e. for mation of blood and blood cells. These bones ar e fused in adult s.
Classificat ion.
Classificat ion of Skelet al syst em Bones of appendicular skeleton may be classified as :
1. Axial skeleton (80 bones) ( i ) U pper ext remit y :
 I t consist s of skul l, ver t ebr al column, r i bs and
Shoulder gir dle (clavicle or collar bones, scapula)
st er num, i.e. skelet al element s which ar e pr esent
along t he longit udinal axis of t he body. Humerus; Ulna; Radius; 8 car pals; 5 metacarpals;
 Ther e ar e 80 bones in axial skelet on.
14 phalanges.
 M andible is t he only movable bone in t he skull of
( ii ) L ower ext remit y :
man. Pelvis gir dle (2 hip bones divisions of each – ilium,
ischium, pubis; anter ior joint is symphysis pubis)
Ver t ebr al column.
 I n humans, 26 ver tebr ae ar e pr esent serially along Femur of t high bone (longest bone)
the length of the trunk starting behind the occipital Pat el l a (sesamoi d); Ti bi a; F i bul a; 7 t ar sal s
bone of t he skull. (cal caneus i s heel bone) ; 5 met at ar sal s and
 Ver t ebr al column is main axis of t he body, which 14 phalanges.
ar ticulates with skull, pector al gir dle, pelvic gir dle N ote : (i ) Femur i s t he longest and heaviest
and t he r ibs. bone of t he body.
 Each ver t ebr a is cent r ally hollow. (ii ) Femur, tibia and fibula bones together
 Ver t ebr al column gives suppor t t o t he t r unk and suppor t shank of t he leg.
pr ovides places for t he at t achment of the r ibs and (iii ) Tibia is lar ger t han fibula and bear s
bones of pelvis as well as it per mit s movement major body weight .
and pr oject s t he spinal cor d.

E xosk elet ons
The har d mat er ial is for med mat er ial is for med
mainly on t he outside of the body and is oft en called
exoskeleton .
I n sect s su ch as beet l es or dr agon f l i es an d
cr ust aceans l i k e cr abs or l obst er s have a har d
cover ing t o t heir bodies called cut icle.
H uman Skelet on Syst em
Biology 3.17
 I t manufact ur es ur ea as wast e pr oduct of
pr oteins.
 I t st or es ir on, vit amin A and vit amin D.
 M anufact ur er of Fibr inongen {essent ial for
clot t ing of blood}.
 I t r egulat es sugar level in t he blood in r ange
of 80 – 150 mg/100 cm 3 of blood.
 I t act s as det oxificat ing agent in body.

H uman skelet on consist s of 206 pieces of bones.  Conver sion of stor ed fat for use by the tissues.
Ther e ar e 22 bones in human skull ( ii ) M ucous membr ane
 Cranial bones  I t sit uat ed in r espir at or y glands.
 F acial bones  I t secr et e st icky subst ances.

 E ar s  M ucous t r aps dust par t icles fr om air.

 T hr oat  I t also moist ens air which is br eat hed.
Ther e is one bone ( iii ) K i dneys
 Shoulder gir dle  These develop fr om mesoder m of the embryo.
Ther e ar e four bones  These r emoves a major par t of waste pr oducts
 T hor ax fr om t he body.
Ther e ar e 25 bones  T h ese ar e t wo bu t j u st on e k i dn ey can
 Ver t ebr al column per for m all funct ions.
Ther e ar e 26 bones  These ar e made up of special cells nephr ons
 Ar ms (each one is 5 cm long) and t ubular in shape.
Ther e ar e 6 bones  These r emoves foll owi ng subst ances fr om
I mpor t ant bones Radius, ulna, H umer us. blood uricacid: Ur ea, NH 3, NaCl, Phosphat es,
 H ands H ar mones et c.
Ther e ar e 54 bones :
Palm or metacarpal bines : Renal medulla

Finger bones or phalanges : Posterior vena cava

Rental artery and vein Kidney
Renal pelvis Renal cortex

 Pelvis Aorta

Ther e ar e t wo bones Ureter

Urinary bladder Ureter

 L egs. Urethra

Ther e are 8 bones I mport and bones Femur, Tibia,  These help in maint aining alkaline nat ur e of
Fibala, Pat ella blood by r emoving acidic pr oducts fr om blood.
 Feet.  The di sease t hat effect s k i dneys i s cal l ed
Ther e r ar e 52 bones : Nephrit is or Brightsdisease.
Ankle (t arsal) bones :  K idney and sweat glands co-or dinat e t heir
I nst ep bones : activities. I n summer, sweat gland sweat mor e
M et at ar sal boen (5  2) and r ole of kidney is r educed, but in wint er it
is r ever sed.
Toe bones :
2. E ndocr ine Gland Syst em
Gland Syst em Secr et ion is dir ect ly dischar ged t o blood. Secr et ion
Gland is an or gan in animal's body which synt hesises ar e called har mones. Secr et e in small qunat it y.
su bst an ces such as har mones, wh i ch ar e ei t h er Chemical N at ure of H ormones
dischar ged int o blood st r eam by endocr ine glands or
Ami nes.
car r ied out side t hr ough duct s by exocr ine gland
H or mones of pineal gland (melat onin) and adr enal
Gland can be divided as follows :
medulla.
1. E xocr ine Glands Syst em M odified Amino acids.
Secr et ions ar e car r ied t hr ough duct s. Secr et ion is H or mones of t hyr oid ar e iodinat ed t hyr onine. e.g.
called enzyems. Secr et es lar ge quant it y t hyr oxine.
I t consist s of following or gans : Pept i des.
( i ) L iver Hormones of hypothalamus (ARH, TRH, GRH, GI H),
 L iver is lar gest gland in t he body. int er mediate (MSH ) and poster ior lobes of pituit ar y
 Pr oduct ion of bi le, a gr een yellow alkal ine (ADH , oxyt ocin). ACTH of ant er ior pit uit ar y and
fluid t akes place in t he liver. calcit onin of t hyr oid belong t o t his cat egor y.
 3.18 Biology
These ar e fur ther classified as 8. M elanocyt e Releasing hor mone (M RH ) :
(i ) Shor t pept ides e.g. oxyt ocin, ADH I t stimulates intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland
(ii ) L ong pept ides e.g. calcit onin, ACTH to secrete its melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH).
Pr ot ei ns. 9. M elanocyt e I nhibiting hor mone (M I H) :
H or mones of following ar e pr ot einaceons : It inhibits secretion of melanocyte stimulating hormone
from the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland.
(i ) Pancr eas (e.g. insulin, glucagon)
Tar get cells. Neur ohor mones act on t he cells of t he
(ii ) Gast r oint est inal t r act
pituit ar y gland.
(iii ) Some female hor mones (e.g. r elaxi n of ovar y
and hCG of placent a)
S.N . R elea si n g of C on t r ol a n d
(iv) Par at hor mone (PTH )
I n h i bi t i n g R egu la t i on of
(v) M ost hor mones of ant er i or pi t ui t ar y except H or m on es Sp eci fi c
ACTH H or m on es
(e.g. TSH , FSH , L A, LTH , GH ) Secr et i on
St er oi ds. 1 T h yr ot r opi n St i m u l at es
Hormones are derived from cholesterol and other steroids r el easi n g h or m on es t h yr ot r opi n
e.g. al dost er one, cor t isol , sex cor t i coi ds (adr enal (T RH ) st i m u l at i n g
cor tex), testosterone, estr adiol, progester one (gonads h or m one r el ease
except r elaxin, placent a except hCG). 2 Gr ow t h h or m on e St i m u l at es gr ow t h
r el easi n g h or m on e h or m one r el ease
H ypot hal amus (GH RH )
 I t develops fr om t he ect oder m of t he embr yo. 3 Gr ow t h h or m on e I n h i bi t s gr ow t h
 I t l i es bel ow or i nfer i or t o t he t hal amus. I t i s i n h i bi t i n g h or m on e h or m one r el ease
connect ed t o t he ant er ior lobe of pit uit ar y gland by (GH I H )
hypophysial por t al veins, however it is connect ed t o 4 Gon adot r opi n St i m u l at es r el ease
t he poster ior lobe of pit uit ar y gland mainly by axons r el easi n g h or m on e of fol l i cl e
of neur osecr et or y cells. (Gn RH ) st i m u l at i n g
h or m one an d
N eur o H or mones l u t ei n i si n g h or m on e
The neur osecr etor y cells (neur ons) of hypothalamus 5 Pr ol act i n r el easi n g St i m u l at es
secr et e hor mones call ed neur ohor mones (r el easi ng h or m on e (PRH ) pr ol act i n r el ease
factor s). 6 Pr ol act i n i n h i bi t i n g I n bi t i s pr ol act i n
1. Adrenocorticotropic Releasing hormone (ARH ) : h or m on e (PI H ) r el ease
I t st imulat es ant er ior lobe of t he pit uit ar y gland t o 7 A dr enocor t i cot r opi c St i m u l at es
secr et e it s adr eno-cor t icot r opic hor mone (ACTH ). h or m on e r el easi n g adr en ocor t i cot r opi c
2. Thyr ot r opin Releasing hor mone (TRH ) : h or m on e (CRH ) h or m one
I t st imulat es ant er ior lobe of t he pit uit ar y gland t o 8 M el anocyt e St i m u l at es
secr et e it s t hyr oid st imulat ing hor mone (TSH ) or st i m ul at i n g m el an ocyt e
thyr o-tr ophin. h or m on e r el easi n g st i m u l at i n g
3. Somat ot r opin Releasing hor mone (SRH ) : h or m on e (M RH ) h or m one r el ease
I t st imulat es ant er ior lobe of t he pihlit ar y gland t o 9 M el anocyt e I n h i bi t s m el an ocyt e
r elease it s gr owt h hor mone (GH ) or somat ot r opin. st i m ul at i n g st i m u l at i n g
h or m on e i n h i bi t i n g h or m one r el eas
4. Growth I nhibiting hormone (GI H) somatostatin (SS) :
h or m on e (M I H )
I t inhibit s secr et ion of gr owt h hor mone fr om t he
ant er ior lobe of t he pit uit ar y gland.
5. Gonadot r opin Releasing hor mone (GnRH ) : Pit uit ar y Gland (H ypophysis Cer ebr i)
I t st imulat es ant er ior lobe of t he pit uit ar y gland t o  I t develops fr om ect oder m of t he embr yo.
secr et e t wo gonadot r opic hor mones :  I t i s l ocat ed j ust bel ow t he hypot hal amus. The
(i ) Follicle st imulat ing hor mone (FSH ) pit uit ar y gland is sit uat ed in a depr ession t he sella
(ii ) L ut einising hor mone (L H ) t ur cica of sphenoid bone of t he skull.
6. Pr olact in Releasing hor mone (PRH ) :  I t is t he smallest endocr ine gland. I t is about 1.3 cm
I t st imulat es ant er ior lobe of t he pit uit ar y gland t o in diamet er and weighs about half a gr am.
secr et e it s pr olact in.  I t is attached to the br ain by a stalk the infundibulum
7. Pr olact in I nhibit ing hor mone (PI H ) : which is continuous with the hypothalamus above
I t inbihit s secr et ion of pr olact in fr om t he ant er ior Adenohypophysis or par s dist alis and t he post er ior
lobe of pit uit ar y gland. lobe or neur ohypophysis or par s ner vosa.

H armones of Pit uit ary gland
1. H or mones of Ant erior lobe.
The anteriorlobe of the pituitary gland secretes following
hormones, most of them are trophic hormones.
(i ) Somat ot r opi c hor mone or Gr owt h hor mone
(STH or GH ) or Somat ot r opi n (Soma- body,
t r ophe nour i shment )
(ii ) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) or Thyrotropin
(iii ) Adr enocor t icot r opic hor mone (ACTH )
(iv) Pr ol act i n hor mone (PRL ) or M ammot r ophi n
hormone (MTH) or Luteotr ophic hormone (LTH)
(v) Gonadot r opic hor mones :
(a) Follicle-st imulating hormone (FSH )
(b) L uteinizing hor mone (L H )
2. H ormone of t he I nt ermediat e lobe.
Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) or intermedin
causes dispersal of pigment granules in the pigment
cells, ther eby darkening the colour in certain animals
like fishes and amphibians. I t is believed that it is
associ at ed wi t h t he gr owt h and devel opment of
melanocytes in man which give colour to the skin.
Tar get cells. M elanocyt es in skin.
3. H ormones of t he Post erior lobe.
( i ) Oxyt ocin (OT; Pitocin) :
Oxyt ocin pr omotes cont r action of the uter ine
muscle or labour pain and cont r act ion of the
myoepi t hel i al cel l s of t he l act at i ng br east ,
squeezing milk into the large ducts behind the
nipple. In late pregnancy the uterus becomes very
sensitive to oxytocin. The amount secr et ed is
increased just befor e and dur ing labour and by
sucking of the baby. Because of its r ole, oxytocin
is called birth hormone and milk ejecting hormone.
Tar get cells. Cells of mammar y glands.
( ii ) An t i di u r et i c h or m on e (AD H ) or
Vasopressin or Pit r essin :
This hor mone has t wo main funct ions :
(a) Antidiuretic effect : I t incr eases r eabsor ption
of wat er i n t he di st al convol ut ed t ubul e,
collect ing tubules and collect ing duct s of the
n eph r on s of t h e k i dn ey s. A s a r esu l t ,
r eabsor pt ion of wat er fr om t he glomer ular
filt r at e is incr eased.
(b) Pressor effect : I nvoluntar y muscles in the
walls of the intestine, gall bladder, ur inar y
bladder and blood vessels are stimulated to
contr act by ADH. Contraction of the walls of
the blood vessels raises the blood pressure and
this may be its most impor tant pressor effect.
Tar get cells. Cells of kidneys.
T hyr oid Gland
 I t develops fr om endoder m of t he embr yo.
 I t is the lar gest endocr ine gland located anter ior to
the thyr oid car tilage of the lar ynx in the neck.
Biology 3.19
 I t is bilobed or gan. The t wo lobes ar e connect ed by a
nar r ow st r uct ur e called ist hmus.
 M i cr oscopi c st r uct ur e of t he t hyr oi d gland shows
t hyr oid follicles composed of cubical epit helium and
filled wit h a hor monous mat er ial called colloid.
 Smal l amount of l oose connect i ve t i ssue for ms
st r oma of t he gl and. Besi des cont ai ni ng bl ood
capi ll ar ies, t he st r oma cont ai ns small clust er s of
specialized par afollicular cells or ‘c’ cells.
 I t can st or e enough hor mones in t he for m of colloid
t o supply t he body (for about t wo mont hs).
H ar mone Secr at ion
Thyr oid gland secr et es following hor mones.
1. T hyroxine (T 4) and Tri-iodot hyronine (T 3).
 These ar e secr et ed by t he t hyr oid follicular cells.
 T 4 and T 3 cont ain four and t hr ee at oms of iodine.
 T 3 is secr eted in smaller amounts (10%) but it is
more active and several times more potent than T4
 T 4 is conver t ed int o T 3 by r emoval of one iodine in
t he liver, kidneys and some ot her t issues.
 T 4 and T 3 have similar effect s on t he t ar get cells,
t hey ar e gener ally consider ed t oget her under t he
name, t hyr oid hor mone (TH ).
 Thyr oid gland is t he onl y gland t hat st or es it s
hor mones in lar ge quant it y.
 T 4 and T 3 ar e synt hesised by at t aching iodine t o
t he aminoacid t yr osine.
2. Calcit onin (CT ).
 I t is secr et ed by C-cells of t he t hyr oid gland.
 I t is secr et ed when calcium level is high in t he
bl ood. I t t h en l ow er s t h e cal ci u m l ev el by
suppr essing release of calcium ions from the bones.
Thus calcitonin has an action opposite t o that of
the par at hyr oid hor mone on calcium metabolism.
T hyr oid D isor der s
1. H y per t h y r oi di sm (H y per secr et i on of t h y r oi d
hor mone)
2. Hypothyroidism (Hyposecr etion of thyr oid hor mone)
(i ) Cr etinism (in childr en)
(ii ) M yxoedema or Gull’s disease (in adult s)
(iii ) Simple Goit r e
(iv) H ashimot o’s disease
Par at hyr iod Glands
 They develop fr om t he endoder m of t he embr yo.
 The parathyroid glands consist of four separate glands
locat ed on t he post er ior sur face of t he lobes of t he
t hyr oid gland.
 Cells of parathyroid glands are arranged in a compact
mass and ar e of t wo t ypes :
(i ) Small chief cells (or pr incipal cells)
(ii ) L ar ge oxyphil cells (or eosinophil cells).
3.20 Biology
 The cells ar e enclosed by a delicate connective t issue
capsule. The chief cells ar e much mor e numer ous
t han t he oxyphil cells. The lat er ar e absent in t he
young and appear a lit t le befor e t he age of puber t y.
H or mone
Chief cells of the par athyr oids secr ete a hor mone called
par at hyr oi d hor mone (PTH ) or par at hor -mone or
Collip’s hor mone.
 PTH r egul at es cal ci um and phosphat e bal ance
bet ween blood and ot her t issues.
 PTH inhibit s collagen synt hesis by ost eoblast s and
bone r esor pt i on by ost eocl ast s. I t mobi l i ses t he
r elease of calcium int o t he blood fr om t he bones.
 PT H i n cr eases cal ci u m absor pt i on f r om t h e
int est ines. I t incr eases calcium r esor pt ion fr om t he
nephr ons (and inhibit s phosphat e r esor pt ion) of t he
kidneys.
Par at hyr oid D isor der s
1. H ypopar at hyr oidism (deficiency of PTH ).
2. H yper par at hyr oidism (excess of PTH ).
Pancr eas
 I t is der ived fr om t he endoder m of t he embr yo.
 The pancr eas lies infer ior t o t he st omach in a bend
of t he duodenum.
 I t is bot h an exocr ine and an endocr ine gland i.e.
het er ocr ine gland.
 A l ar ge pancr eat i c duct r uns t hr ough t he gl and,
car r yi ng enzymes and ot her exocr i ne di gest i ve
secr et i ons fr om t he pancr eat ic acinar cells t o t he
small int est ine. The t issue of t he pancr eas has in
addit ion t o t he acinar cells, gr oups of cells called
islet s of L anger hans.
Types of cells ident ified in the islets
1. Alpha cells (about 20%)
2. Bet a cells (about 70%)
3. Delt a cells or D-cells (about 5%)
4. PP cells or F-cells (5%)
H or mones
1. Glucagon (secr et ed by – cells).
 I t st imulat es t he liver t o conver t st or ed glycogen
int o glucose.
 Glucagon is cont r olled by feedback in accor dance
wit h t he level of glucose in t he blood. When blood
sugar r ises, secretion of the glucagon is suppr essed
and when it dr ops, secr et ion of t he glucagon is
st imulated.
Tar get cells : Glucagon act s on t he cells of t he liver
and adipose t issue.
2. I nsulin (secr et ed by  – cells).
 I t was fir st pr epar ed / found by Benting and Best .
 A. F. sanger coined t he t er m insulin and pr oposed
t he molecular st r uct ur e of insulin (cow's insuline)
 H uman insulin was synt hesized by Tsan.
 I nsulin was t he fir st pr ot ein t hat was ar t ificially
synt hesized in labor at or y and is cr yst allized.
 One molecule of insulin is made up of 51 amino
acids t hat has t wo chains :
(i ) – chain : I t is made up of 21 aminoacids.
(ii ) – chain : I t is made up of 30 amino acids.
Both the br anches or chains ar e bind together with
cr oss bonds of disulphide bonds.
 F unct ions :
(i ) I t i s an t agon i st i c t o gl u cagon . I n su l i n
decr eases t he level of glucose in t he blood. I t
act s by incr easing t he r at e at which glucose
is t r anspor t ed out of t he blood and int o cells
and by st imulat ing muscle cells t o t ake up
su gar f r om t h e bl ood an d con ver t i t t o
glycogen.
L ike glucagon, insulin is pr imar ily r egulat ed
by f eedback f r om t h e bl ood gl u cose
concentr at ion. When blood sugar level dr ops,
t he secr et ion of insulin is suppr essed. When
blood sugar level incr eases, t he secr et ion of
insulin is st imulat ed.
(ii ) I t pr omot es pr ot ein synt hesis in t issue fr om
amino acids.
(iii ) I t r educes cat aboli sm of pr ot ei ns. I t is an
anabolic hor mone.
(iv) I t incr eases synt hesis of .fat in t he adipose
t issue fr om fat t y acids.
(v) I nsulin r educes br eakdown and oxidat ion of
fat.
3. Somat ost at in (SS).
I t r egulat es secr et ion of insulin and glucagon.
Tar get cells : Bot h somat ost at i n and pancr eat i c
polypept ide act on t he cells of t he pancr eas.
4. Pancr eat ic Polypept ide (PP).
 I t appear s that pancr eatic polypeptide inhibits the
r elease of digest ive’ secr et ion of t he pancr eas.
 Both somatostatin and pancr eatic polypeptide ar e
r el at i vel y newl y di scover ed hor mones of t he
pancr eas, and bot h ar e st ill being st udied.
D isor der s of t he Pancr eas
D iabet es mellit us (H ypoinsulinism)
The insuli n-dependent diabet es mel lit us (I DDM ) is
caused by a failure of the Beta-cells to pr oduce adequate
amounts of insulin while non-insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus (NI DDM ) appear s to involve failur e of insulin
to facilit ate the movement of glucose into cells.
1. Hypoinsulinism (H yper glycemia)
2. H yper insulinism – H ypoglycemia

Pineal Gland (E piphysis Cer ebr i)
 I t develops fr om t he ect oder m of t he embr yo.
 T h e pi n eal gl an d i s l ocat ed bet ween cer ebr al
hemispher es, wher e it pr ot r udes fr om t he r oof of
t hir d vent r icle.
 Pineal gland is a small rounded body which consist s
of
(i ) Pineal cells
(ii ) Suppor t ing glial cells.
H or mone :
1. Melatonin
2. Ser ot onin
T hymus Gland
 I t is der ived fr om endoder m of t he embr yo.
 Thymus gland is located in the upper part of the thorax
near the hear t. I t is a soft, pinkish, bilobed mass of
lymphoid tissue. I t is a pr ominent gland at the t ime
of bir th but it gr adually at r ophies I n t he adult.
 H assal l ’s cor puscl es ar e spher i cal or oval bodi es
pr esent i n t he t hymus. They ar e phagocyt i c i n
funct ion.
H or mone
 Thymus secr et es a hor mone named t hymosin which
st imulates t he development of cer tain kinds of white
blood cells involved in pr oducing immunit y. I t also
hast ens at t ainment of sexual mat ur it y.
 Thymosin hor mone stimulates the lymphocytes to
destroy the antigens produced by bacteria or pathogen.
I t self may be destr oyed by these lymphocytes.
Gonads
 These develop fr om t he mesoder m of t he embr yo.
 These ar e sex glands (ovar ies and t he t est es). These
pr oduce ova and sper ms r espect ively, i.e. cyt ogenic
in nat ur e but also secr et e hor mones.
1. Ovar ies
Following hormones are produced by the ovaries :
(i ) Oest r ogens
(ii ) Pr ogest er one
(iii ) Relaxin
(iv) I nhibinlactin
2. Test es
A pair of test es is situat ed in the scr otum of male.
T h e con n ect i v e t i ssu e pr esen t bet w een
seminifer ous t ubules in a t est is cont ain small
clust er s of endocr ine cells called inter st itial cells
or L eydig’s cells.
These cells secr et e var ious male sex - hor mones
cal l ed andr ogens. The pr i nci pal andr ogen i s
testosterone.
Biology 3.21
Funct ions of Test ost er one :
 I t st imulat es gr owt h and development of male
secondar y sex or gans l i k e semi nal vesi cl es,
pr ost at e and penis. I t also helps t o maint ain
t heir nor mal funct ions. Because t hese or gans
do not pr oduce gamet es (sper ms) and only help
in r epr oduct ion ar e, t her efor e called secondary
sex or gans.
 These also stimulates t he development of male
secon dar y sex u al ch ar act er s l i k e bear d,
moust ache and low-pit ch male voice in man.
 Test ost er one al so st i mul at es for mat i on of
sper ns in the seminifer ous tubules of the testes.
 This hor mone pr omot es gr owt h of many body
t i ssues such as bones and muscl es. I t i s due
t o t his fact t hat male has a higher st atur e t han
t he femal e.
Disor der s of t he Gonads
1. H ypogonadi sm
 I n adequ at e gon adal f u n ct i on i s cal l ed
hypogonadism .
 I t is due t o defect s in, or injur y t o t he hypo-
thalamus, pituitary gland of the testes or ovary.
2. Pr ecocious Puber t y
 Ear ly mat ur at ion of ovar ies and t est es wit h
pr oduct ion of ova, befor e t he age of 9 year s
in gir ls or sper ms befor e 10 year s in boys is
called sexual pr ecocit y.
3. E unuchoi di sm
F ai l u r e of t est ost er on e secr et i on cau ses
eunuchoidism.
A eunuch has undeveloped and non-functional
secondar y sex or gans like pr ost r at e, seminal
v esi cl es an d pen i s, l ack s ex t er n al sex
char act er s such as bear d, moust ache and low
pit ch voice and does not pr oduce sper ms.
4. Gynaecomast ia
(Gr. gyne = woman, mast os = br east )
 Excessive development of male mammar y
glands is called gynaecomast ia.
 Somet i mes t hese secr et e mi l k . I t r esul t s
when t he secr et ion of oest r ogens i s mor e
t han andr ogens.
Respi r at ion Syst em
Respi r at i on
 When body is at r est : aer obic r espir at ion.
 When involved in har d physical wor k : aer obi c +
anaer obic r espir at ion.
Glucose  CO2 + L act ic acid + Ener gy.
 The human r espir at or y syst em consist s of
exter nal nar es or nostr ils, nasal cavity, nasophar ynx,
lar ynx, t r achea, br onchi, br onchiole and lungs.
3.22 Biology
 The air enter s into t he nasal cavit y t hr ough nost r ils. Types of Circulat or y Syst ems
 L ungs ar e chief or gan in t he r espir at ion. Ther e ar e t hr ee t ypes of cir culat or y syt ems :
 Each lung cont ains millions of small air chamber s 1. No cir culat or y syst em
called alveoli . 2. Open cir culat or y syt em
 Pharynx (back of the noset and mouth), Larynx (voice 3. Closed cir culat or y syt em
box) and t r achea (wind pipe) ar e air passages t hat The cir culat or y syst em of all ver t ebr at es, as well as of
connect nose mout h t o lungs. annelids and cephalopods ar e closed, i.e. blood never
 Pharynx is also connected t o ear by Euschatian tube. leaves t he system of blood vessels consisting of ar ter ies
capillar ies and veins.
I nhaled air Exhaled ai r
Ar t er ies br ing oxygenat ed blood t o t he t issues (except
N itr ogen – 79% N itr ogen – 79%
pulmonar y ar t er ies), and veins br ing deoxygenat ed
Oxygen – 20.9% Oxygen – 16% blood back to the hear t (except pulmonary veins). Blood
CO2 – 0.04% CO2 – 4.04% passes fr om ar ter ies to veins thr ough capillaries,which
ar e t hinnest and most numer ous of t he blood vessels
 Nor mal r at e of r espir at ion in adult = 18/minut e. and these capillar ies helps t o join tissue with ar ter ioles
 Pulse r at e = 72/minut e. for t r anspor t at ion of nut r it ion t o t he cells.
 Nor mal r at e of r espir at ion in a baby = 40/minut e
Component s in Cir culat or y Syst em
Sequence of Breat hing 1. Bl ood.
I nhalation  Exhalation  Pause (Nor mal br eathing) Pumped body fluid, liquid medium.
I nhalat ion  Pause  Exhalat ion 2. H ear t .
(sickness, i.e. inver se br eat hing) Cen t r al pu m pi n g or gan ; m ai n com pon en t of
Capacit y of L ungs cir culat or y syst em.
Air capacity of lungs of male is about 10%higher than female.
3. Blood vessels.
Male lung capacity  4500 – 5000 ml. Syst em of channels which pr ovides pat hways for
Female lung capacity  4000 – 4500 ml. cir culation of pumped body fluid.
Tot al air B l ood
The amount of air that is exchanged in lungs in a quiet  Cir culat es body heat .
1
or nor mal br eat hi ng i s equal t o of capaci t y of  Car r ies nut r ient s and t r anspor t oxygen.
10
 Removes wast e pr oduct s fr om body cell.
lungs.
Vital capacity (VC) of Lungs  Car r ies ant ibodies t o fight against infect ions.
I t is t he volume of air t hat can be made t o pass int o  Gen er al l y bl ood m ak es 5% of body wei gh t i n
and out of l ungs by t he most for ceful r espi r at i on human bei ngs. An adul t of 80 k g wi l l have 5 k g
(inspir ation and expir at ion). bl ood.
I n adult male it can be 4 t o 4.5 lit r e Composit ion of Blood
I n female it can be 3.5 t o 4.0 lit r es. 1. Pl asma.
Vit al capacit y of lungs is measur ed by an inst r ument  St r aw colour ed.
cal l ed Spiromet er.  50 t o 60% of t ot al blood by volume.
Cellular Respir at ion  Plasma consist of 90% wat er and r est hundr eds
 I t involves ser ies of chemical r eact ions t hat occur in of substances (pr oteins, har mones, nut r ient s etc.)
t he pr esence of oxygen.  Cont ains fibr onogen (helps in blood clot t ing).
 Cells can obt ain some ener gy wit hout oxygen by a  H aemoglobin if high, immune syst em is high.
chemical pr ocess called glycolysis.
2. R.B.C. (Red Blood Cells).
 Glycolysis conver t s glucose molecules in t o smaller
 I t also called er yt hr ocyt es
r molecules called pyr uvic acid. This act ion r eleases
ener gy whi ch i s capt ur ed i n a compound cal l ed  L ar gest number of cells in blood.

adenosine triphasphate (ATP).  I n one dr op of blood, 5 t o 6 million of R.B.C.

 Cont ains mainly haemoglobin (gives r ed colour ).
Ci r culat or y Syst em
 Affinit y t o car bon mono oxide (CO) is 200 t imes
I t is an or gan syst em t hat moves subst ances t o and mor e t han t hat of O2.
fr om cells.
 R.B.C. count in male > female (10% less)
I t can also help st abilize body t emper at ur e and pH
 L ife of R.B.C. is 120 days
(par t of homeost asis).
 Biology 3.23
Diseases associat ed wit h R.B.C. Blood Groups
( i ) Polycyt haemia or E ryt haemia : I t is based on ant igens.
 R.B.C. count goes abnor mally high. 1. ABO syst em.
 Blood becomes t hicker and moves slowly. S. Blood To To
Antigen Antibody Genotype
 Skin becomes bluish. No. Group take give
( ii ) T halassemia [her edit ary disease] 1 A A B A, O A, AB IA IA / IA i
 Body is not able to make enough haemoglobin. 2 B B A B, O B, AB IB IB / IB i
 Regular blood tr ansfusion [ever y 3 to 4 weeks] A, B,
3 AB AB — AB IA IB
common in I ndia in Sindis and Punjabis AB, O
 Came in I ndia fr om Alexander ’s Ar my. A, B,
4 O — AB O ii
( iii ) Anaemia : AB, O
 Deficiency of ir on, folic acid or pr ot iens  Discover ed by L eindst einer.
3. Whit e Blood Corpuscles (W.B.C.).  O gr oup was discover ed by De cest ello and st ur li.
 I t is also called L eucocyt es.  A t t h e poi n t of i n j u r y, ser ot on i n e an d
 Types of W.B.C.
t hr omboplast in (lipopr ot ein) ar e r eleased.
Ther e ar e 3 t ypes of W.B.C.  Ser ot onine is helpful in vaso const r ict ion.
(i ) Gr anulocytes – 70%  manufact ur ed in  T h r om bopl ast i n h el ps i n t h e f or m at i on of
 pr ot hr ombinase.
(ii ) M onocyt es – 5%  r edbone-mar r ow.
 I n pr esence of pr ot hr ombinase, pr ot hr ombin is
(iii ) Lymphocytes – 25% : m an u f act u r ed i n conver t ed int o t hr ombin.
lymphgland (Thymous gland).
 Thr ombin r eact s wit h fibr inogen in pr esence of
 These ar e non pigment al (colour less).
air and Ca++ t o for m fibr in.
 L ar ger in size t han RBC but small in number.
 Net wor k of fibr in for ms clot .
 I n one dr op of blood – 7500 W.B.C.
 I n pr esen ce of XI I f act or (H agm en f act or /
R.B.C. glycopr ot ein) danse net is for med.
Rat io of = 600 : 1
W.B.C.
 These dest r oy t he pat hogens. 2. Rh syst em.
 Discover ed by L eindst einer and Winner. (1900)
 Dur ing infect ion W.B.C. count incr eases.
 Leukemia : I t is mor e common in childr en .  Race and Taylor wor ked in it .

(i ) Caused because of cancer of Red bone mar r ow.  Rh fact or comes fr om Rhehsus monkey.

(ii ) Abnor mal incr ease in W.B.C. and decr ease in  I f Rh fact or pr esent , Rh posit ive 97% in I ndia
R.B.C. and 80% in wor ld.
Remedies :  I f Rh positive blood is given to Rh negative per son,

(i ) Bone t r ansplantation first time no agglutination second time death occur.

(ii ) Radiation t r eat ment .  I f Rh negat i ve mot her i s havi ng Rh posi t i ve
embr ouy, disease is er yt hr oblast ois foet alis.
4. Plat elet s or T hr ombocyt es.  People who have Rh ant igen on the RBC ar e Rh +.
 Non nucleat ed like R.B.C.
 People who lack Rh ant igen an t he RBC ar e Rh – .
 Non pigment ed like W.B.C.
 90% people ar e Rh +, and Ot her s Rh – .
 L ife – 10 days.
 Plasma has no natur al antibody to the Rh ant igen
 Smaller in count .
, i.e. Rh + cannot pr oduce only ant ibody. But Rh –
 M anufact ur ed in Red bone mar r ow. may build up ant ibodies called Ant i Rh if t hey
W.B.C. r eceive Rh + blood.
 Rat io = =2:1
Thrombocytes  I f an Rh – pat ient r eceives Rh + blood, it causes
ant i Rh t o at t ack Rh + blood .
 Essent ial for blood clot t ing.
 Vi t am i n K i s essen t i al f or pr odu ct i on of If
|RS M other Foetus |UV  Pr oblem
T| Rh W|

Pr ot hr ombin. –
Rh +

Bl ood Gr oupi ng I f i t happens, no chance of chi l d bi r t h, onl y

 Developed by K ar l L andst einer in 1900.
 Membr ane of RBC contains pr oteins called Antigens
(mor e t han 300 ant igens have been ident ified).
M ainly t wo ant igens ar e impor t ant .
(i ) A fact or
(ii ) B fact or
abor t ion in second or subsequent t imes.
Remedy : vaccine ant i– D, so t hat mot her does
not develop ant i Rh.
 D est r u ct i on of RB Cs of f oet u s becau se of
unmat ched Rh fact or is called Er yt hr oblast osis.
 I n ot her cases t her e is no pr oblem.
3.24 Biology
H uman H eart (M ammalian H ear t)
 Situat ed in thor acic cavit y in per icar dial cavity close
t o it s fr ont wall. I t s br oad base faces upwar d and
backwar d. I ts nar r ow apex faces downwar d, for war d
and slight ly t o t he left side and r est s on diaphr agm,
below car diac not ch of left lungs.
 Shape : Some conical.
 Colour : Dar k r ed.
 Chamber : 4 (2 aur icles and 2 vent r icles)
 Size : Roughy 12 x 9 cms.
 Weight : Aver age weight is about 300 gm in male,
250 gm in female.
 H ear t is a hollow, muscular,somewhat conical four -
chamber ed for ce pump, enclosed in a fibr ous bag.
 Wall of t he hear t is made up of car diac muscle fibr e,
connect ive t issues and t iny body vessels.
 H ear t is sit uat ed in t he chest bet ween t he lungs.
I nt er nal St r uct ur e
 Wall of aur icles ar e t hi n t han wal l of vent r icl es,
because t hey have t o push t he blood t o vent r icles
only sit uat ed close t o t hem.
 Walls of vent r icles ar e t hick as t hey have t o pump
t he blood quit e far away. Wall of left vent r icle is 3
times thicker as it has to pump t he blood t o complete
body.
 H ear t has t wo pumps :
( i ) L eft pump : I t l eads oxygenat ed bl ood whi ch
i s r ed in col our.
( ii ) Right pump : I t l eads deoxygenat ed bl ood
(pur pl e in col our ). Bl ood bet ween t wo pumps
does not mi x dir ect ly. H owever i n foet us t her e
i s an openi ng, so t wo pumps meet as l ungs ar e
not funct i oni ng. So foet us get s oxygen fr om
mot her but just befor e bi r t h openi ng is cl osed.
I f t he openi ng i s not cl osed, t hen condi t i on of
blue baby i s r eached, and immediat e sur ger y i s
r equir ed.
 Auricle : Smal l er i n si ze and t hi nner muscul ar
valves.
 Vent ricle : L ar ger i n si ze and t hi ck er muscul ar
walls.
 L eft ventricle : Pumps oxygenat ed bl ood t o r est of
t he body.
– Taller t he per son, lower the blood pressure in adult.
– M ale have l ower bl ood pr essur e t han femal e.
 I n wal l of vent r i cl e, t endi nous cor ds pr esent .
 I nner wal l of vent r i cle i s r ai sed int o l ow muscul ar
r idges as columnae car neae and few lar ge muscular
el avat i on as papi l l ar y muscl es.
 B et w een v en t r i cl es i n t er v en t r i cu l ar sept u m
pr esent , bent t o r ight side.
 L umen of left vent r i cle i s l ar ge and l umen of r i ght
vent r i cl e i s smal l and semi l unar shape.
 Bet ween aur icl es and vent r i cles A.V. node pr esent .
 Bet ween 2 aur icles, int er aur icular sept um pr esent .
I n emr byo i n i t for amen oval i s aper t ur e pr esent ,
t hat conver t s int o a fossae oval is on bi r t h t i me.
 Right auricle : I n t hi s 2 openi ng pr esent pr e caval
and post caval (i n r abbi t 3 openi ngs).
On openi ng of pr e cavals eust achi an valve pr esent .
Behi nd i t cor onar y si nus opens on i t Thebasi us
val ve pr esen t . Ri gh t au r i cl e open s i n t o r i gh t
vent r i cl e.
 L eft aur icle : I n t hi s pul menar y vei ns open by
com m on aper t u r e (w i t h ou t v al v e). I t br i n gs
oxygenat ed bl ood fr om l ungs i nt o l eft aur i cl e.
 Ri ght aur i cl e S.A. node or pace mak er or hear t of
hear t or node of K eit h and Flack pr esent . I t is made
up of car di ac muscl es and st i mul at e hear t beat . I t
i s connect ed t o vagus ner ve.
 Bot h aur i cl es open i nt o vent r i cl es by aur i cul o
vent r icular valve.
 I n r ight side, it is made up of t hr ee flaps :
(i ) tr icuspid valve
(ii ) lower edges of valve are fixed to papillar y muscles
of vent r icle wall by chor dae t endinae fibr es.
 I n left side it is bicuspid or M it r al valve.
 Bot h valves ar e one way, i.e. allow blood fr om A t o V
not vice ver sa.
 Some F act s
Taller per son has lar ger hear t .
H uman hear t is fully developed about 8 week aft er
conception (star ts beating after 4 week of conception).
 Fish have a t wo chamber ed hear t :
(i ) Atr ium
(ii ) Vent r icle.
 Bir ds and animals have 4 chamber ed hear t (H ighly
developed).
H ear t Beat
Th e spont an eou s an d r hyt hm i c cont r act i on and
r elaxat ion of hear t t o pump out and r eceive blood is
called heart beat . So systole and diastole are collectively
called hear t beat .

Types
H ear t beat is of t wo t ypes.
1. N eurogenic : Cont r oled by ner ve
2. e.g. lower animals – Ar t hr opoda, M ollusca.
2. M yogenic : By own muscles
2. e.g. var t ebr at es including man and r abbit .
Some F act s
 Neur ogenic par t is less
 I t is under cont r ol of upper par t of medulla.
 Sympat hat ic acceler at e hear t beat .
 Par a sympat hat ic or vagal inhibit hear t beat .
 Adr enal, t hyr oxine incr eases hear t beat .
 H ear t beat is
210/ minut e in r abbit .
72 / minut e in man.
500 / minut e in mice.
800 / minut e in shr ew.
25 / minut e in elephant .
8 / minut e in belenopt er a.
 I n left vent r icle pr essur e is 115– 125 mm H g.
 I n r ight vent r icle pr essur e is 25– 30 mm H g.
 I n man car diac cycle is of 0.8 sec.
 H ear t beat below nor mal is br achae car dia.
 H ear t beat above nor mal is t achae car dia.
Origin of heart beat.
Mammalian hear t is myogenic (myo = muscle, genic
= or iginating fr om) i.e. hear t beat or iginat es fr om a
muscle (however, it is r egulated by t he ner ves). The
hear t beat or iginat es fr om t he sinoat r ial node (SA
node)— pace maker, which lies in t he wall of the r ight
atrium near opening of the superior vena cava. SA node
is a mass of neur omuscular tissue. Sometimes SA node
may become damaged or defect ive, so beat does not
function properly. This can be remedied by the sur gical
gr afting of an art ificial pace maker in the chest of the
patient. The ar tificial pace maker stimulates the hear t
at r egular inter vals to maintain its beat.
Conduction of H eart beat .
A n ot h er m ass of n eu r om u scu l ar t i ssu e, A t r i o-
Ventricular node (AV node) is situated in the wall of the
r ight atr ium. AV node picks up the wave of contr act ion
pr opagated by SA node. A mass of specialized fibr es,
bundle of His, or iginat es fr om the AV node.
Bundle of H is divides int o t wo br anches ; One going t o
each vent r icle.
Wit hin t he mycocar dium of t he vent r icles, br anches
of bundle of H is divide int o a net wor k of fine fibr es
cal l ed Pur k inje fibr es. The bundl e of H i s and t he
Pur kinje fibr es convey impulse of cont r act ion fr om AV
node t o t he myocar dium of t he vent r icles.
Regulat ion of H eart beat .
The rat e of hear t beat is regulated by two mechanisms.
1. N ervous regulat ion :
Car diac cent r e lies in t he medulla oblongat a of t he
br ain.
Biology 3.25
Car diac cent r e is for med of t wo par t s :
(i ) Car dio-inhibit or
(ii ) Car dio-acceler ator
Car dio-inhibitor is connected with the heart through
vagus ner ve (i t car r i es— par asympat het i c ner ve
fibres) and car dio acceler ator through sympathetic
n er ve f i br es. Sen sor y f i br es ext en d f r om t h e
receptors pr esent in the vena cava, aorta and car otid
si nuses t o t he car di ovascul ar cent r e of i n t he
medul l a obl ongat a. I mpul ses r ecei ved fr om t he
aorta and carotid sinuses decrease the hear t rate,
whereas impulses fr om the vena cava increase the
heart rate.
2. H or monal r egulat ion.
A dr en al i n (epi n eph r i n e) an d N or adr en al i n
(n or epi n eph r i n e) h or m on es ar e secr eat ed by
m edu l l a of t h e adr en al gl an ds. N or adr en al i n
acceler at es t he hear t beat under nor mal condit ions
while adr enalin does t his funct ion at t he t ime of
emer gency. These hor mones dir ect ly influence t he
SA node.
Thyr oxi ne hor mone secr eat ed by t hyr oi d gl and
i ncr eases oxi dat i ve met aboli sm of t he body cel l s.
Thi s r equi r es mor e oxygen and t hus i ndi r ect l y
i ncr eases hear t beat .
H eart rat e
Pulse per mi nut e i s cal l ed hear t r at e. H uman hear t
beat s about 72 t i mes per mi nut e i n an adul t per son
at r est , t hi s is hear t r at e of t hat per son. H ear t r at e
i ncr eases dur i ng exer ci se, fever, fear and anger.
Because smal l er ani mal s have t he hi gher met abol i c
r at e, t hei r hear t r at e i s hi gher t han l ar ger ani mal s.
An el ephant has nor mal hear t r at e of about 25 per
mi nut e wher eas mouse has a nor mal hear t r at e of
sever al hundr eds per mi nut e.
Car diac (H ear t ) Out put
The amount of bl ood pumped by hear t per mi nut e i s
cal led car diac out put . H ear t of a nor mal per son beat s
72 t i m es per m i n u t e an d pu m ps ou t abou t 70
mi ll i l i t r es of bl ood per beat . Thus car di ac out put i s
72  70 or 5040 mi ll i l i t er s per mi nut e, i.e. about 5
l i t r es per mi nut e whi ch i s equi val ent t o t ot al body
bl ood vol ume (about 5.5 l i t r es).
I n t he day hear t pumps about 7,600 l i t r e of blood.
P u l se
Pul se i s r hyt hmic cont r act i on and r el axat i on i n t he
aor t a and i t s mai n ar t er i es. Thus pulse i s a wave of
i ncr ease whi ch passes t hr ough ar t er i es as t he l eft
vent r i cl e pumps i t s bl ood i nt o t he aor t a. Pul se is a
r egul ar jer k of an ar t er y. Ther efor e, it i s al so cal l ed
ar t er ial pulse. The pulse r at e i s exact ly same as t he
hear t r at e i.e. 72 because an ar ter y pulses ever y t ime
t he hear t beat s. Pul se is usual ly t ak en on t he r adial
and ul ner ar t er y i n t he wr i st but i t can be t ak en on
any ar t er y t hat fl ows near enough t o t he sur face of
t he body t o be fel t l ik e neck , t empl es and ankl es.
3.26 Biology
F act ors affect ing Pulse rat e
1. Pulse r at e in childr en is mor e r apid t han in adult s.
2. Pulse r at e is mor e r apid in t he female t han in t he
male.
3. When t he per son is st anding up, pulse r at e is mor e
r apid t han when he/she is lying down.
4. When any str ong emotion is exper ienced, then pulse
r at e is incr eased
e.g. anger, exict ement , fear et c.
5. Any excer cie incr eases r at e of t he pulse.
Car di ac Cycl e
The car diac cycle consist s of one hear t beat or one
cycle of contraction and r elaxation of the car diacmuscle.
Dur ing a hear t beat, ther e is contr action and r elaxation
of at r ia and vent r icles. The cont r act ion phase is called
systole while r elaxation phase is called diastole. When
bot h at r ia and vent r icles ar e in diast olic or r elaxed
phase, t his is joint diast ole.
Successive st ages of Cardiac cycle
1. At r ial syst ole.
The at r i a cont r act due t o a wave of cont r act ion,
st imulat ed by t he SA node. The blood is for ced int o
t he vent r icles as t he bicuspid and t r icuspid valves
ar e open.
2. Beginning of vent r icular syst ole.
The vent r icles begin t o cont r act due t o a wave of
contr action, stimulated by the AV node. The bicuspid
and t r icuspid valves close immediat ely pr oducing
par t of t he fir st hear t sound.
3. Complet e vent ricular syst ole.
When vent r i cl es compl et e t hei r cont r act i on, t he
blood flows int o t he pulmonar y t r unk and aor t a as
t he semilunar valves open.
4. Beginning of vent ricular diast ole.
The vent r icles r elax and t he semilunar valves ar e
closed. This causes second hear t sound.
5. Complet e vent r icular diast ole.
The tricuspid and bicuspid valves open when pressure
in t he ventr icles falls and blood flows fr om atr ia into
t he vent r icles. Cont r act i on of t he hear t does not
cause t hi s bl ood fl ow. I t i s due t o t he fact t hat
pr essur e wit hin t he r elaxed vent r icles is less t han
t hat in t he at r ia and veins.
H ear t Sounds
The beating hear t produces characteristic sounds which
can be hear d by placing the ear against the chest or by
usi ng st et hoscope (an i nst r ument which magni fies
sounds and conduct s t hem t o ear ).
I n a normal person, two sounds ar e pr oduced per heart
beat.
1. F irst sound.
This is caused par t ly by t he closur e of t he bicuspid
and t r icuspid valves and par tly by t he contr action of
t he muscles in t he vent r icles.
The fir st sound lubb is low pit ched not ver y loud
and of long dur at ion.
2. Second sound.
This is caused by the closur e of the semilunar valves
and mar ks t he end of vent r icular syst ole.
The second sound dup is highly pit ched, louder,
shar per and shor t er in dur at ion.
Deffects of H eart
1. Blue Baby syndrome (Cyanosis).
Due t o per sist ing for amen ovalis in at r ial sept um
even aft er bi r t h, t he i mpur e bl ood fr om r i ght
aur icles comes t o left aur icle and t hen int o left
vent r icle fr om wher e it is supplied t o t he body
incr easing t he bluishness of t he body.
2. H ear t block (Cardiac arrest ).
I f S-A node becomes defective it cannot gener ate
i mpul se pr oper l y and t he hear t beat becoems
irr egular or may stop. This is cor r ected by implant-
ing ar tificial electr onic pacemaker in t he chest.
3. M ur mur ing hear t .
Due t o defect s in valves inst ead of the nor mal lub-
dup sound, mur mur i ng sound appear s as t he
sympt om.
4. M it r al st enosis.
Due t o defect of mit r al valve, passage of blood
t hr ough A-V aper t ur e, becomes impr oper.
5. Regur git at ion.
Due to improper closure of A-V aperture, some blood
dur ing ventr icular systole r eenter s the aur icle.
Car diac valves may be defect ive by bir t h or may
get damaged due t o st aphyl ococcal i nfect i on
(rheumatic fever ). This can be r epair ed or r eplaced
sur gically.
6. Angina pect or is.
 Due t o bl ock age or t hi ck eni ng of cor onar y
vessel’s wall, t her e is inadequat e blood flow t o
hear t muscles associ at ed wi t h pai n i n hear t
dur ing exer t ion or emot ional t ension.
 The bl ock age may be du e t o deposi t i on of
ch ol est er ol , sm ok i n g, di abet es or var i ou s
ot her fact or s. Si mi l ar defect i s al so cal l ed
cor onar y t hr ombosi s when cor onar y vessel s
ar e blocked by blood clot s.
7. Brown’s heart disease (Br own’s at rophy).
Excess lipid (or lipofuschin) level in blood causes
it s deposit ion in cor onar y vessels which at r ophy
and causes sympt oms as above.
8. H ooping hear t .
Sometimes impr oper r hythms in hear t beat occur,
t his is gener ally t he indicat ion of hear t at t ack.
9. M yocar dial infarct ion (H eart at t ack).
I nsufficient blood and O2 supply t o par t of car diac
muscl es may cause deat h of t hat par t . Fr om
damaged hear t muscle cells, cer tain enzymes leak

hence t heir pr esence i n plasma is ver y simpl e
diagnostic feat ur e for hear t att ack, t hese enzymes
ar e lact at e dehydrogenase and t ransaminase.
10. D ext r ocar di a.
I f hear t is placed towar ds r ight side in the thoracic
cavit y as bor n defect .
11. E ct opia cor dis.
Somet i mes hear t becomes l ocat ed out si de t he
t hor acic cavit y as bor n defect .
Blood Pr essur e
 I t is t he r esult of t he sum of
(i ) Osmot ic colloidal pr essur e of blood
(ii ) Elast ic r ecoil of blood vessel’s wall.
(iii ) Pumping for ce of hear t .
 First measured by British physiologist Stephan Hales
(1733) in car ot id ar t er y of mar e.
 I n human it was first measured by Vaivre (1856) using
L udwig mer cur y manomet er.
 Riva Rocci (1896) discovered sphygmomanometer, the
inst r ument t o measur e B.P.
 Nor mal r ange of B.P. is 120 / 80 mm H g.
(120 m m H g = sy st ol i c pr essu r e; 80 m m
H g = diast olic pr essur e)
 The di ffer en ces bet ween syst ol i c and di ast ol i c
pr essur e is called pulse pr essur e (40 mmH g).
80 mmHg  age in year s
 I t is is calculated as, B.P. =
50 mmHg  age in year s
 I n any age it shouldn’t exceed 150/100 mm H g and
shouldn’t be below 80/50 mmH g.
 The abnor mal r ise in B.P. (hyper t ension) occur s due
t o defect of any of t he above t hr ee component s. Wit h
incr easing age, r igidit y of t he ar t er ial wall causes
high B.P.
 H ypot ension (low B.P.) may be due t o
(i ) Chr onic vasodilat ion
(ii ) Anemia
(iii ) Blood loss and impr oper hear t act ion.
 B.P. is slight ly lower in female t han male unt il t he
menopause.
 Dur ing sleep, t he pr essur e falls by 20-30 mmH g and
may r each 180-200 dur ing exer cise.
Blood Coagulat ion
The pr oper ty of blood to change fr om fluid to gel st ate
within a few minutes of its coming in contact with air is
called blood coagulation or blood clotting or haemostasis.
Ai m
To pr event excessive loss of blood fr om an injur y.
Blood Clot t ing
 The clot begins t o develops in 15 t o 20 seconds but is
ful l y for med wi t hi n 3 t o 6 mi nut es i n a nor mal
per son.
Biology 3.27
 I t is a nat ur e's device t o check t he excessive loss of
blood fr om an injur y.
 Cl ot t ing is a bio– chemical r eact ion, explained by
H obel.
 Clot t ing t heor y is given by cascode.
 Vit amin K is essent ial for clot t ing.
 Bleeding t ime is 1– 3 minut es.
 Clot t ing t ime is 2– 6 minut es.
 Pr ocess of cl ot t i n g i s i n i t i at ed by pl at el et s /
Thr ombocyt es.
 Aft er clot t ing r emaining par t is ser um.
Ant icoagulant s
1. H eparin (hepar = liver ).
I t is synt hesized by mast cells of connect ive t issue
and l i ver cel l s. I t i s a het er opol ysacchar i de. I t
increases effectivity of antithrombin I I I (a – globulin)
which inactivat es t hr ombin, so pr event s conver sion
of fibr inogen int o fibr in.
2. H ir udin.
I t is an anticoagulant pr esent in the saliva of salivar y
glands of leech and is mixed with blood of host dur ing
it s st or age in it s cr op.
3. War far in.
I t is an ant icoagulant of plant or igin, which when
gi v en t o a pat i en t , l ow er s t h e f or m at i on of
pr ot hr ombin and fact or s VI I , I X and X fr om liver
cells by lower ing t he act ivit y of Vit amin K .
4. Sodium oxalat e, sodium cit rat e and EDTA.
(Et hylene diamine t et r a acet ic acid)
These ar e used as ant icoagulant s in blood banks as
these bind Ca++, so t hese ar e called chelating agent s.
5. Chilling of blood.
Also delays blood clot t ing as it lower s act ivit y of t he
enzymes involved in blood clot t ing.
Role of Vit amin– K in Blood Clot ting
 Vit amin K is also called anst i-haemor r hagic fact or.
 I t is a fat soluble vit amin and is essent ial for t he
for mat ion of pr ot hr ombin fr om t he liver.
 Deficiency of vitamin K causes hypopr othrombinemia
which int er fer es wit h blood clot t ing.
 Vitamin K is also synthesized by intest inal bact er ia.
Bl ood Vessel s
These are of t hr ee t ypes.
1. Ar t er ies
 Car r y blood away fr om hear t (oxygenat ed blood)
 A l l ar t er i es car r y oxygen at ed bl ood except
pulmonar y art ery , which car r ies blood fr om Right
vent r icle t o lungs.
L ar gest ar t er y  Aor t a ,which car r ies blood fr om
L eft vent r ical t o ot her par t s of t he body.
 Ar t er ies have capacit y t o cont r act and expand on
t heir own, t her efor e also for ce t he blood for war d.
3.28 Biology
 They have thicker muscular wall and smaller diameter.
 Flow of blood in ar t er ies is int er mit t ent flow.
 Pulmonary artery and Aorta are called great vessels.
2. Veins
 All veins car r y deoxygenat ed blood towar ds hear t.
 These cannot cont r act and expand on t heir own.
 Flow of blood is cont inuous.
 These have thinner muscular wall of larger diameter.
 These ar e pr ovided with valve to pr otect back flow.
 A l l v ei n s car r y deoxy gen at ed bl ood ex cept
pulmonar y vein, which car r y blood fr om lungs t o
left at r ium.
 L ar get vein is
(i ) Super ior vena covae, which br ings t he blood
fr om head and ar ms.
(ii ) I nfer ior vena cavae, which car r ies blood fr om
t r unk and legs.
3. Capill ar ies
 Th ese ar e hai r l i k e, t hi n bl ood vessel s t h at
connect s ar t er ies and veins.
 These have no muscular wall.
Lymphat ic Syst em
This system retur ns fluid from body tissues to the blood
st r eam.
I t consist s of
(i ) Lymph fluid
(ii ) Lymph gland
(iii ) Lymph vessels.
Lymph fluid
 Lymph nodes look like bump with diameter 1 to 25 mm.
 Pale fluid r esembling blood plasma.
 Cont ains WBC but r ar ely RBC.
 Cir culates in lymph vessels and bat hes t he body cell.
 Lymph fr om all but upper r ight quar t er of t he body
r eaches t he t hor aci cduct , t he l ar gest l ymphat i c
vessel which lies along t he fr ont of spine.
E l ect r ocar diogr am (E CG)
 I t is a gr aphic r ecor d of the electr ic cur r ent pr oduced
by excitation of the car diac muscles. The instr ument
used to r ecor d t he changes is electrocar diogr aph.
Waller (1887) first recorded the electrocardiogr am but
Einthoven (1903) st udied ECG in details, t her efor e,
he got Nobel Pr ize in 1924 for discover y of ECG. He
is also consider ed "fat her of elect rocardiography".
Pacem ak er
SA node is called natural pacemaker . When SA node does
not send impulses to the atria, ventricles fail to receive
atrial impulses. The conducting system of the heart is
disrupted. I n such patients normal heart beat can be
restored and maintained with an artificial pacemaker .
Tempor ar y Pacemaker
I t is used in emergency such as arr ythmia contr ol (e.g.
br adycar dia – slow hear t beat). Electr odes of temporary
pacemaker is introduced from jugular, sub clavian and
femoral veins as well as from veins of the upper extremity.
Per manent Pacemaker
I t i s used i n at r i ovent r i cul ar (AV) bl ock , SA node
dysfunct i on, et c. I n t he pat i ent s of St ok es adams
syndr ome (vent r icular escape or vent r icular asyst ole)
at r ial impulse suddenly fails t o be t r ansmit t ed t o t he
vent r icles. I n such pat ient s, per manent pacemaker is
implanted.
Ar t ificial Pacemak er
I t is an artificial electr onic device which r egular ly sends
small amount of elect r ical char ges t hat st imulat e t he
hear t .
I t consist s of
(i ) a pulse – gener at or cont ai ning cel l (sol i d st at e
lit hium cell) t o pr oduce elect r ical impulse,
(ii ) lead in t he for m of a wir e which t r ansmit s t he
impulse and
(iii ) elect r ode, which is connect ed t o t he por t ion of t he
hear t wher e impulse is t o be t r ansmit t ed.
Repr oduct i ve Syst em
1. M ale Repr oduct ive Syst em
H uman male r epr oduct ive syst em is composed of a
pair of testes, genital duct s, sever al accessor y glands
and penis.
Test es (Test icles).
 Test is is pr imar y male r epr oduct ive or gan. I t lies
in small sac-like muscular st r uct ur e out side t he
abdominal cavit y called scr ot um.
 I n adult males, each testis is a small, pinkish and
oval.
 2 in number (Diar chic)
 4– 5 cms long, 2.5 cm wide and 3 cm t hick.
 M esoder mal.
 I n em br yon i c st age at t ach ed t o k i dn ey by
mesor chium membr ane.
 I n embr yo at 7t h mont h of division descend down
in scr ot el sac. Condit ion is ext r a abdominal, due
t o it 3C less t emper at ur e is available, helpful in
sper mat ogenesis.

 Bot h scr ot el sac int er nally separ at ed by sept um
scr ot i. Ext er nal by a scar -like r aphe.
 I n scr ot el sac fat layer i s absent , i nvol unt ar y
muscles ar e der t os t unic pr esent .
 Lumen of scr otel sac is vaginal coelome, in it testes
pr esent .
 Vaginal coelome is connect ed t o main coelome by
inguinal canal.
 I n some cases t est es do not descend down in sac,
condition is cr yptor chidism such animals ar e high
flanker s (sper m ar e not pr oduced)
 Test es is at t ached t o pr e posit ion by sper mat ic
cor d (gonadial ar t er y, gonadial vein, ner ve and
connect ive t issue pr esent ).
 Test is is at t ached t o wall of scr ot el sac by elast ic
st r uct ur e i.e. guber naculum cor dis.
Biology 3.29
Seminal vesicles.
 I t is sit uat ed behind t he bladder.
 About 70% of the semen in seminal fluid pr oduced
by seminal vesicles.
Penis.
 I nt r omit t ent or gan.
 Er ect ile, it s apex is penis glanse.
 Cover ed by pr epuce (par t of skin).
 Main function is insemination (to tr ansfer sper ms
in vagina in deep).
 I n T.S. 3 cor ds pr esent , 2 on dor sal side cor pus
cover nosus, 1 on ventr al side cor pus spongiosum.
 Bet ween cor pus caver nosus sept um pr esent .
 Thr ough cor pus spongiosum ur et hr a passes.

 U ni t of t est i s i s semi ni fer ous t ubul e wh er e  Wal l of cor pus spongi osum ar e spongy due t o
sper ms are manufactur ed by sper matogenesis. All t r abeculae, having power of collect ion of blood at
t ubul es for m a cor d of 200– 400 met er. These t he t ime of er ect ion.
t ubules ar e spr eaded in connect ive t issue.  Penial ar t er y supply blood.
 I n t i ssue i nt er st i t i al cel l s or cel l s of L eydi ng
pr esent . T hese cel l s secr et e t est ost er on e or Semen.
andr ogen hor mones t o cont r ol secondar y sexual  Sper m s an d secr et i on of accesor y gl an ds
char act er s. collect ively called seminal fluid or semen .
 Out side each seminifer ous t ubule, t unica pr opr ia  I t is milky, semi-solid in natur e having par ticular
pr esen t . I n si de i t ger m i n al epi t h el i u m or smel l.
basement membrane present. Made up of cuboidal
 pH : 7.35 – 7.5
epit helium.
 Epit helium consist s of P.G.C. Pr imor dial ger m  Specific gr avit y : 1.028
cells and few ser t oli cells. 2. F emale Reproduct ive Syst em
 P.G.C. ar e endoder mal in nat ur e.
Female Reproductive Systems
 P.G.C. ar e r esponsible for sper mat ogenesis.
 Different stages of formation of sperms can be seen
Main organ Accessory organs
as Sper matogonia Ovaries Fallopian tube
(i ) Pr imar y sper mat ocyt e Uterus
Vagina
(ii ) Secondar y sper mat ocyt e ar e Ext. genitilia
(iii ) Sper matid Bartholins gland
Breasts
(iv) Sper ms.
Pr ost at e Gland.
 I t i s si t u at ed ar ou n d t h e f i r st par t of t h e
ur et hr a.
 Englar gement of pr ost at e r esult s in pr ost at it is
i.e. ur inat ion is difficult or impossible.
U r et hr a.
 I t is a thick walled muscular duct and is a common
passage for bot h ur ine and semen.
 Ur et hr a t r aver se and open at t he t ip of penis.
 F or pr odu ct i on of sper m s t est es r equ i r e –
t emper atur e 1°C less t han the body temper at ur e. Ovar ies
Types of sperms: Sper ms ar e of t wo t ypes  2 in number (didelphic).

(1) (2)  whit e / pinkish, almond like.

L ar ge sper ms Small sper ms  3 cm long, 2 cm wide, 1 cm t hick.

car r y X cr omosomes car r y Y cr omosomes  L i e i n t he l ower par t of abdomen at t ached t o
rd
23 pair of chromosomes is called sex chromosome. dor sal wall by mesovar ium.
3.30 Biology
 At t ached t o ut er us by ovar ian ligament .
 I n wall of ovar y viscer al per it onium, ger minal
epit helium, and t unica albuginea pr esent .
 Ger minal epit helium is made up of P.G.C.
 Gr ound par t of ovar y is st r oma differ nt iat ed in t o
out er cor t ex and inner medulla.
 M esoder mal in or igin.
 P.G.C. of ger minal epit helium is endoder mal in
or igin.
 Fir st of all fr om P.G.C. follicle cells ar e for med.
 Fuse to form egg nest. One is developing ovum,
r est cells ar e destr oyed t o give nour ishment t o
developing ovum. Destr oyed cells are atratic cells.
This phenomenon is at r asia.
 Fir st it is single layer ed called pr imar y follicle.
Soon it becomes double layer ed, i.e. secondar y
follicle. I t is soon conver t ed int o gr affian follicles
or mat ur e follicle.
 I t 's for mat ion is folliculogenesis under cont r ol of
FSH and L H .
Graffian F ollicle.
 I t appear s as knob or st igma in medulla.
 I t is r ound, discover ed by Gr aff .
 I t is cover ed by t wo layer s :
(i ) Thecae ext er na
(ii ) Theca inter na : Fr om t heca inter na, est r ogen
i s secr et ed t o con t r ol secon dar y sexu al
char at er s i n femal e. I nsi de t heca i nt er na,
membr ana gr anulosa is pr esent .
 Secondar y oocyt e is at t ached t o cover ing layer by
gr oup of cells, i.e. discus pr oliger ous. The point
of discus pr oliger ous close t o secondar y oocyt e is
H ill of follicular cells or cumulus oophor us.
Secondar y oocyt e i s cover ed by zona pell uci da
(pr i mar y egg membr ane) and cor ona r adi at a
(secondar y egg memebr ane).
 Cavit y of follicle is ant r um of H imor or follicular
cavit y filled wit h follicular fluid.
 Gr affian's follicle is r ept ur ed, secondar y oocyt e
come out of ovar y fr om st i gma poi nt fi r st i n
coelome. I t is ovulation. This t ime L.H. is secr eted
mor e.
 After r eptur ing rest part of gr affian's follicle which
i s yel l ow col our ed i s cal l ed cor pus lut eum . I t
consist s of clot t ing, fibr in, lut ein cells.
 L .H . i s helpful in for mat i on of cor pus l ut eum.
Cor pus lut eum secr etes pr ogest eron and r elaxin .
 Pr ogest er on is helpful in implant at ion, t o st op
ovulat ion dur ing gest at ion per iod.
 Relaxin is helpful t o r elax pelvic muscles dur ing
parturition .
 I f fer t ilisation occur s, t hen cor pus luteum var ium
is used. I f not t hen cor pus lut eum spor er um is
used.
 Aft er for mat i on of pl acent a, cor pus l ut eum i s
degener ated and conver ted into white scar corpus
albicanse.
F allopian T ube.
 Fer t ilisat ion occur in it . 10– 12 cm long muscular
t ube.
 I t is suppor t ed by double fold of per it onium.
 I t shows four r egions :
(i ) I nfundibulum :
Br oad, funnel shaped pr oximal par t .
 I t mar gin bear s fimbr iae.
I n funnel ost ium aper t ur e pr esent .
 Fr om it eggs ent er int o duct .
(ii ) Ampulla : L ong, wide, t hin walled.
(iii ) I st hmus : Ver y shor t , nar r ow t hick wall ed
str aight par t .
(iv) Ut er ine part : I t is nar r ow, communicate with
ut er ine cavit y.
U terus (Womb).
 L ar ge, pyr ifor m, highly elast ic.
 Development of embr yo t akes place in it .
 I t i s l ocat ed above and behi nd t he ur i nnar y
bladder.
 Att ached t o body wall by mesometr ium ligament .
 I n nullipar ous woman, it is about 8 cm long 5 cm
wide 2 cm thick, weighting 10– 15 gms, some what
lar ger in mult ipar ous woman.
 I t shows four r egions :
(i ) Upper wide dom shaped fundus t hat r eceives
fallopian t ubes.
(ii ) Cor nuae t he upper cor ner s wher e oviduct s
ent er int o ut er us.
(iii ) Middle large body or cor pus which is the main
par t.
(iv) Lower nar r ow cer vix that pr ojects into vagina.
 Cer vix communicat es wit h ut er us by int er nal os.
and wit h vagina by ext er nal os.
 Cavit y of cer vix bet ween ext er nal and int er nal
os. is cer vical canal. I t is 2.5 cm long.
 Cer vi x i s composed of t he bi ggest and most
power ful sphinct or muscles i n t he body. I t i s
st r ong enough t o hold about 7 k g of foet us fl ui d.
 I n t he wall of ut er us out er layer is per imet r ium,
middle myomet r ium and inner endomet r ium.
 M yomet r ium consist s of inner and out er of longe
muscles and middl e cir cular muscl es. L ongest
involunt ar y muscles pr esent her e.
 The cavit y of ut er us can be expanded 500 t imes
dur ing pr egnancy fr om 10 cm 3 t o 5000 cm 3.

Vagina.
 M edian, elast ic, muscular t ube 7.5 cm long. Open
int o vest ibule by vaginal or ffice.
 Uter us opens into an elast ic muscular tube called
vagina.
 Vagina is lined by a stratified squamous epithelium
wit hout any glands.
 D u r i n g r epr odu ct i v e l i f e,v agi n a con t ai n s
Lactobacillus acidophilus which keeps vaginal pH
bet w een 4.9 an d 3.5 by pr odu ci n g l act i c
acid fr om glycogen.
 The lining for ms vaginal r ugae.
 Space bet ween vaginal wall and cer vix is for nix .
Ext ernal Genit alia.
 Vest ibule is cover ed by t wo pair s of lips :
(i ) L abia major is
(ii ) L abia minor is
 At t he ant er ior junct ion of labia minor is, a small
er ect ile clit or is pr esent , homologous t o penis.
 A m em br an ou s f ol d f ou r ch et t e con ect s t h e
post er ior ends of t he labia minor is.
 Ar ea bet ween four chet t e and anus is per inium .
 Ur et hr a and vagina open by separ at e aper t ur e,
t he ur et hr al and vaginal or ffice int o vest ibule.
 Vagi nal or ffice i s cover ed by a membr ane, i.e.
hymen.
 A slit in hymen allows menst r ual flow to pass out.
 A fl eshy el evat i on above t he l abi a maj or i s i s
monsvenesis or mons pubis.
Ber t holian Glands.
 1 pair in number.
 Analogous t o Cowper 's gland of male.
Br east s.
 1 pai r, t hei r devel opment i s under cont r ol of
pit uitar y.
 Nipples pr esent (absent in pr ot ot heir a).
( iii ) M enst rual or Bleeding cycle :
 Ar ound ni pple ar eola mammar y pr esent , i n it
melanin is maximum.
 M ilk is synthesized by lectogenesis under contr ol
of pr olect in.
 M ilk is secr et ed under cont r ol of oxyt ocin.
 Ear ly milk is r ich in miner als, i.e. colust r um .
 M odified sweat gland.
 Glands open on t he nipples by lact ifer ous duct s.
 Just under nipple, lact ifer ous sinuses pr esent t o
st or e milk.
Onset of Pubert y in Female.
At t ains at t he age of 13 by est r ogen hor mone. I t
includes :
 Gr owt h of br east s
 Gr owt h of ext er nal genit ilia
Biology 3.31
 Br oading of pelvis
 Gr owt h of pubic hair
 I ncr ease in sub cut aneous fat
 St ar t ing of M .C., i.e. menar ch
Disorder s of female r eproduct ive syst em.
 St erility
 Menstr ual irr egularit y : This may be amenor r hea
(absen ce of M .C.) or ex cessi v e bl eedi n g
(dysmenor r hea).
Phases of menst rual cycle :
M enst r ual cycle consist s of t hr ee phases :
( i ) F ollicular (Pr olifer at ing) phase :
I t last s for about 14 days.
I t compr ises following event s :
 L evel of FSH is incr eased in t he blood ear ly in
t he cycle.
 FSH stimulates gr owth of the selected pr imar y
ovar ian follicle.
 FSH st imulat es follicle t o secr et e est r adiol.
 E st r adi ol i n h i bi t secr et i on of F SH an d
st imulat e secr et ion of L H .
 L H induces gr affian follicle t o bur st and eject
its egg in to fallopian tube. I t occurs after about
14 days.
 Est r adiol st imult es t he ut er us t o pr epar e for
implant at ion and nour ishment of foet us.
 Lining of fallopian tube becomes t hick t o move
ova int o ut er us.
( ii ) Luteal or secretory phase :
This phase last s for 10 days.
I t involves following event s :
 L H st imulat es gr affian follicle t o conver t int o
cor pus lut eum.
 Cor pus lut eum secr et es pr ogest er on and lit t le
amount of est r adiol.
 Pr ogester on inhibits the r elease of FSH so that
it may not develop additional follicle and eggs.
I t last s about for 4 days.
I t involves following event s :
 I f fer t ilization does not occur, secondar y oocyte
under goes aut olysis.
 I n some wall of ut er us secr et es a lut eolysine.
I t r eaches t o ovar y wher e it causes aut olysis
of cor pus lut eum.
 St r atum functionalis of endomatr ium is given
out wit h bleeding.
 M enst r ual flow cont inues for 3– 5 days.
 Endomatr ium tissue, unfer tilised egg and 500–
600 ml of blood ar e lost dur ing t his per iod.
 M enst ur al i s oft en descr i bed as funer al of
unfer t ilized egg or weeping of ut er us for t he
last ovum.
 3.32 Biology
Artificial I nsemination. Sex of Child
 I t is a t echnique t o make a female pr egnant by X + Y  XY M ale
ar t ificially int r oducing semen int o t he vagina.
X + X  XX Femal e
 Advant ages :
(i ) Semen of good qualit y male is used. Fir st 22 pair s of chr omosomes bet ween M and F ar e
(ii ) Pr eser ved semen can be t r asnpor t ed t o same but 23r d pair is differ ent .
distant place. M F
 Ar t ificial inseminat ion can be used in human. X Y X X

 I t may be AI H (Ar t ificial insesment husband).  Fat her det er mines t he sex.
 I t may be AI D (Ar t ificial inseminat ion donor ).  When an ovum is fertilized by sperm
 Childr en pr oduced by ar t ificial inseminat ion ar e +   Zygot e
called tube babies.
 30-hr s aft er fer t i l i zat i on, zygot e under goes cel l
F er t i l i sat i on division (2 divisions)
Progest erone – Sex hormone Embr oy
 I t st imulat es ut er us t o develop blood capillar ies t o
I t is called embr yo, unt il t he human char act er ist ics
r eceive and nour ish, t he fer t ilized ovum and also
ar e shown.
suppr esses, r elease of fur t her pr oduct ion of ova.
 When human char act er ist ics ar e shown, it is called
 Pr ogest er on e con t r ol s l ast t w o w eek s of
menst r uat ion cycle. foetus (Fr om 2nd and 3rd month of pr egnancy till bir th
it is called foet us).
 Secr et ion of pr ogest er ones is st opped if ovum is not
fer tilized. The cont r act i on of ut er us aft er deliver y is call ed
 T he dest r oyed capi l l ar i es of ut er u s r esul t s i n
involution.
menst r uat ion blood. Pl acent a
E est r ogen A common t issue of foet us and mot her (ut er us) which
 I t is cont inuously secr et ed. is physical, physiological and endocr inal connect ion is
 I t cont r ols fir st t wo weeks of menst r ual cycle. called placenta.
F unct ions
Sex D iffer ent iat ion M echani sm 1. To pr ovide nut r ient s t o foet us.
 Pr imit ive gonads ar e ident ical in bot h sexes upt o 6 2. To r emove met abolic wast e.
weeks of gest at ion pr essur e.
3. H elpful in r espir at ion.
 This gonad is called bipot ent ial pr imor dial gonad.
4. St or e food in t he for m of glycogen.
 I t is differ ent iat ed int o cor t ex and medulla.
5. I t pr oduces est r ogen, pr gest er on and r elaxin.
 Formation and devlopment of gonad is gonadogenesis.
N ote : A placent a consist s of 6 t issues. Thr ee fr om t he
 I n mal e, devl opement of t est es i s cont r ol l ed by foet al walls and 3 fr om mot her 's ut er us.
Y-chromosome.
F oet al t issues
 Test icular differ ent iat ion begins in t he 7t h week of
 Foet al endomet r ium, i.e. blood capillar ies.
gest at ion.
 Connect ive t issue.
 Differ ent iat ion of ovar ies occur lat er in female in
compar ision t o male or t est es. I t begins in t he 11t h  Chor ionic epit helium
or 12t h w eek of gest at i on u n der con t r ol of M at er nal t issue
XX chr omosomes.  M ucous epit helium of ut er ine walls
 Test es descend down in scr ot um in 7t h – 8t h mont h.  Connect ive t issue
 Ext er nal genit ilia appear in male by t he 5t h mont h.  M at er nal endot helial

Sper m Ovum (egg) N er vous Syst em

1. X and Y 1.Only X chr omosomes. H uman ner vous syst em consist s of t hr ee cont r ast ing
chr omosomes. funct ional subsystems.
2. Sur vive 2– 3 days. 2. Survive for only 24 hrs.
3. Mobile, i.e. capable 3.I mmobile.
of moving on its own.
4. Pr oduced in lar ge 4.Produce very few in
life time numbers
equal to (500 to 600 in
whole life).

1. Cent r al nervous syst em
 I t is is called main swit ch boar d .
 All t he ner ves ar e for med befor e t he bir t h.
 Ner ves gr ow up t o t he age of 5 year s and st op by
t he age 19– 20 year s.
 Consumes 20% of oxygen i nhal ed and 20% of
glucose int ake.
Parts of central nervous System
Biology 3.33
C.S.F. (Cer ebr ospinal fluid).
 Chor oid plexus is r esponsible t o for m C.S.F.
 I t is for med 20 ml/hr mainly by chor oid plexus and
ependyma of vent r icles.
 I t comes out of medulla oblongat a by for amen of
magendie and for amina of lushka.
 I t is slight ly alkaline and has specific gr avit y 1.005.
 Dir ect i on of movement of C.S.F i n br ai n is fr om
ant er ior t o post er ior.

Br ain Spinal cord St r uct ur e

 BRAIN
Medul a

Cerebrum
Mid Brain Hind Brain
Fore Brain
or or
or
2. Aut onomic ner vous syst em Prosencephalon Mesen cephalon Rhombencephalon
 Oldest par t of ner vous syst em.
1. Olfactory lobe 1.Optic Lobes 1.Cerebellum or
 Contr ols basic activities of life like hunger, thir st, metencephalon
2. Cerebrum or
hear t beat , br eat hing, feat , anger, hot , cold et c. Telencephalon 2. Medulla oblongata
 I t cont ains 3 par t s : or Myelencephalon
3. Diencephalon or
(i ) Medulla oblongata : I t contr ols br eathing and Thalamencephalon
hear t beat s.
(ii ) H ypot halamus : I t cont r ols - t emper at ur e, F or e Br ai n
sleep, hunger, t hir st et c. 1. Olfact or y L obes
(iii ) Thalamus:I t cont r ols level of concent r at ion.  1 pair, ver y small, solid, club shaped, separ at ed
3. Per ipher al ner vous syst em. fr om each ot her.
 Car r ies all t he messages sent bet ween cent r al  Fully cover ed by cer ebr al hemispher es on dor sal
ner vous syst em and r est of t he body. side, clear ly visible only in vent r al view.
 I t consist s of 12 pair s of ner ves t hat or iginat e in  Each olfact or y lobes consist s of
the br ain plus 31 pair s of ner ves of the spinal cord. (i ) Ant er ior olfact or y bulb
These ser ve as telephone wir e that car ry message
(ii ) Post er ior olfact or y t r act .
to and from every receptor and effector in the body.
 I n sh ar k an d dog, ol f act or y l obes ar e wel l
Br ai n (E ncephel on) developed.
 The br ain is sit uat ed in t he cr anial cavit y of skull.  Piscian br ain wit h lar ge olfact or y lobes is called
I t s shape i s oval and col our i s l i ght yel l ow or nose br ain.
cr eamish yellow.
 Their funct ion is t o r ecieve sense of smell.
 I t weighs 1200 - 1400 gms (98% of C.N.S) and has
100 billion neur ons. M i d Br ain
Part of Neuron  Optics lobes ar e found in it which ar e four in number,
t her efor e t hey ar e called Cor por a quadr igemina. I n
fr og t hey ar e t wo in number, hence called Cor por a
Cell body Axon Dendrites
bigemina.
M at t er
 They ar e solid and do not have opt ocoel.
 The br ain is composed of outer gr ey matter and inner
 2 super ior coculi and 2 infer ior coculi ar e pr esent .
whit e mat t er in t he ar eas of cer ebr um, r oof of mid-
br ain and cer ebellum.  Opt i c l obes ar e at t ached t o each ot her by cr ur a
cerebri.
 I n t he r est , gr ey mat t er is inner and t he olfact or y
lobes ar e made up of gr ey mat t er only.  Funct ions :
(i ) Super i or cocul l i ar e concer ned wi t h sense of
M eninges (Singular – M eninx) sight .
 The cover ings of br ain ar e called meninges. These
(ii ) I nfer ior coculi ar e concer ned wit h hear ing.
ar e t hr ee in number. These menings ar e int er nally
lined by squamous epit helium N ote : Br ain wit h lar ge opt ic lobes is avian br ain.
3.34 Biology
H ind Br ain or Rhombencephal on
1. Cer ebellum or M et encephalon
 I t is a small par t which lies below t he post er ior
par t of cer ebr u m an d abov e t h e m edu l l a
oblongat a.
 I t has a median lobe called vermis and t wo later al
lobes called cer ebellar hemispher es.
 There are three Arbor vit ae or t ree of life (made of
whit e mat t er ) in t he cer ebellum, of which t wo
ar e pr esent in t he t wo lat er al lobes and one is
pr esent in t he median lobe.
 I n cer ebellum flask shaped cells ar e pur kenje's
cell s.
 I t is sur r ounded by cer ebr al cor t ex.
 Funct ions :
I t s funct ions ar e equilibr ium and coor dinat ion of
movement of muscles in walking.
N ote : Cer ebellum is mor e developed in aves.
2. M edulla oblongat a or M yelencephalon
 I t is t he lower most par t of t he hind br ain and is
conical in appear ance.
 I t s lumen is called met acoel or 4t h vent r icle.
 An oval mass pons var ol i l i es above medul a
oblongat a. I t connect s medulla t o higher br ain
cent r es. I t cont r ols r espir at ion.
 F unct ions :
(i ) Car diac cent r e
(ii ) Respir at or y cent r e.
(iii ) Regulator of vasodilation and vasoconstr iction.
(iv) Regulator of per ist alsis and deglutinat ion.
(v) Regulat or of glandular secr et ion.
Some I mpor t ant F act s
 I n br ain glut amic acid met abolism is common
 I n latimar ia br ain's size is smallest in r atio of body
size.
 I n man 500 ml C.S.F. per day is absor bed.
 I n Br ain 750 ml. blood/ minut e flows.
 I n br ain's vent r icle 125 ml C.S.F. is pr esent out of
t ot al 150 ml.
 Vausois's sphinctor connects optic lobes to cerebellum.
 Bar r body is pr esent in t he neur ons in females.
 Aft er r emoving cer ebr al hemispher e deat h t akes
place.
 Amnesia is a condit ion in which memor y is lost
par t ially or complet ely.
 L oss of sensat ion is called anaest hesia.
 Neur in pr ot ein is at t ached t o t he inner sur face of
br ain.
 Br ain st em – medulla, pons var oli & mid br ain
collect ively for m br ain st em. A diffuse net wor k of
ner ve cel l s ext end t hr ough i t . I t i s r et i cul ar
activating syst em (RAS)
 Amygdal a i s found on t he vent r al sur face of
par acoel. I t is r elat ed t o r ecent and new memor y.
 L imbic syst em :
Limbic lobe (area of temporal lobes) + hippocampus
+ hypot halamus + par t of t halamus + amygdala
for m it .
I t i s concer ned wi t h behavi or emot i on, r ecent
memor y, food habit and sexual behaviour.
 Medulla oblongat a comes out of foramen magnum
in t he for m of spinal cor d.
Spinal cor d (M yelon)
 I t is a par t of t he CNS which is 45 cms long ( in
women 43 cms) and weighs 35 gms.
 I t or iginat es fr om lower par t of medulla oblongat a
and is pr esent on dor sal side in t he neur al canal of
ver t ebr al column up t o 1st lumbar ver t ebr a.
 I t is long, cylindrical, convex dorsally and flat ventrally.
 I t s last par t is conical, i.e. conus t er minalis which in
t he end becomes t hr ead like, i.e. filum t er minalis.
 I t is having br achial and lumbo sacr al swelling at
t he point of or igin of for e leg and hind leg.
M eninges
 The same t hr ee meninges cover t he spinal cor d also.
 Similar to br ain, epidur al space is also pr esent which
is filled wit h fat and connect ive t issue.
M at t er
I n cont r ast t o br ain, gr ey mat t er is found on t he inner
side and whit e mat t er is found on t he out er side.
C.S.F.
Dir ect ion of cir culat ion of C.S.F is fr om post er ior end
t o ant er ior end.
St r uct ur e
 Spinal cor d is hollow, it s lumen is cent r al canal or
neur ocoel filled wit h C.S.F.
 Canal is lined by ependyma of ependymal cells.
 Gr ey mat t er is but t er fly or H -shaped.
 Ther e ar e t hr ee pair s of cor nuae or hor ns :
(i ) dorsal
(ii ) ventr al
(iii ) lat er al hor ns.
 Dor sal, vent r al and lat er al funiculli lie close t o t he
whit e mat t er ar ea.
 Dor sal hor n for ms dor sal ar ch while vent r al hor n
for ms vent r al ar ch.
 On dor sal side dor sal sulcus wit h sept um is pr esent
and on vent r al side vent r al fissur e is pr esent .
 Funct ions :
I t conduct s i mpul ses t o and fr om t he br ai n and
cont r ols r eflex act ion .
Cr anial N er ves
 Ther e ar e 12 pair s of cr anial ner ves (t ot al weight
12 gms) in Amniotes and only 10 pairs in Anamniotes.

 Nat ur e of t hese ner ves may be sensor y or mot or or
mixed.
They can t he ident ified as follows:
1, 2, 8, – sensor y
3, 4, 6, 11, 12 – mot or
5, 7, 9, 10 – mixed
3, 7, 9, 10t h at t ached t o ANS also.
Spinal N er ves
 These ar e 31 pair s in number and all ar e of mixed
t ype. T hey wei gh a t ot al of 150 gms. and ar e
composed of medullat ed ner ve fibr es.
 At t he base of or i gi n of spi nal ner ves, gl and of
swammar dam or calcar ious ganglion is pr esent .
 Classificat ion
1. Cer vical – 8 pair s 4. Sacr al – 5 pair s
2. Thor acic – 12 pair s 5. Coccygeal – 1 pair
3. L umber – 5 pair s
 Each spinal ner ve or iginat es fr om spinal cor d fr om
dor sal r oot and vent r al r oot .
 I n dor sal r oot , r oot ganglion is pr esent .
 Bot h r oot s fuse in neur al canal t o for m spinal ner ve.
 I t comes out of ver tebr al column fr om inter ver tebr al
for amen.
 Out side vertebral column, each spinal nerve is divided
into t hree par t s
1. Dor sal br anch or Ramus dor salis
2. Vent r al br anch or Ramus vent r alis
3. Viscer al br anch or Ramus communicans
 I n r abbit 37 pair s spinal ner ves pr esent :
1. Cer vical – 8 pair s 4. Sacr al – 4 pair s
2. Thor acic – 12 pair s 5. Caudal – 6 pair s
3. L umber – 7 pair s
 I n rabbit caudal nerves combine with filum terminalis
t o for m cauda equina.
A.N .S.
 The t er m A.N.S was given by L angley.
 I t i s par t i al l y i ndependent syst em cont r ol l ed by
hypot halamus and it contr ols involuntar y actions as
hear t beat , br eat hi ng, homeost asi s, per i st al si s,
secr et i on of gl ands. So a gangl i oni c syst em t hat
cont r ols involunt ar y act ion is A.N.S.
 I nt er nal or gans r eceive fibr es fr om t wo sour ces :
1. Sensor y 2. M ot or
 Nerve of sensory region originates from dorsal root and
nerve of motor region is originated from ventral root.
 Viscer al mot or fibr es ar e divided int o t wo par t s
(i ) Pr eganglionic : M edullat ed (whit e mat t er )
(ii ) Post ganglionic : Non– M edullat ed (gr ey mat t er )
Reflex Act i on
 I t is funct ional unit of C.N.S. which was discover ed
by M ar shal H all and defined by Best and Taylor.
Biology 3.35
 I t is sudden, immediat e involunt ar y act ion against
ext er nal st imuli.
 I n man it is poly– synapt ic.
 I f we pr ick needle on skin, somatic sensor y ner ves
br i ng i mpul ses t o gr ey mat t er. H er e t hese ar e
analysed and or der is given to muscle by motor ner ve.
 The path fr om which impulse is passed is reflex arch .
 Minimum t ime is consumed in it since it is not under
cont r ol of br ain.
 Some common Reflexact ions :
Coughi ng, yawni ng, sneezi ng, k nee-j er k r efl ex,
blinking of eyes, scr at ch r eflex, flow of bile fr om gall
bladder, per ist alsis, hear t beat .
 Significance :
(i ) I t enables animal t o r espond immediately t o t he
har mful st imuli so t hat no har m is caused it .
(ii ) I t gives mor e t ime t o br ain t o wor k.
I mmune Syst em
Syst em of body which pr event t he body fr om diseases
and cancer is called immune syst em.
(I mmune = Exempt or Fr eedom)
Types of I mmunit y
I mmunit y is of t wo t ypes
1. Congenital immunity or I nnat e immunit y or Non-
specific immunit y.
2. Acquired immunity or Adaptive or specific immunity.
Accuir ed immunit y is of t wo t ypes
( i ) Passive acquir ed immunit y.
When readymade antibodies are given in immuno
supressive individual this is called passive immunity.
I n passive immunit y t r ansfer of ant ibodies t o a
r ecipient in a r eady– made for m.
( ii ) Act ive acquir ed immunit y.
 Thi s i mmuni t y devel op aft er i nfect i on or
vaccinat ion.
 I t is gener at ed due t o pr evious cont r act ion of
disease.
 I n many cases it is life long (against measles).
 I t is involved in act ive funct ioning of per sons
own immune system-leading to the synt hesis
of ant ibodies.
Ant igen or Agglut inogen
 For eign subst ances like pr ot ein or polysacchar ide
which stimulat es pr oduction of ant ibodies ar e called
antigen.
 Toxin of pat hogen, white of egg, feather s, fr uit , meat,
dr u g i n du ces t h e i m m u n e sy st em t o pr odu ce
antibodies.
 Si t e over t h e ant i gens t h at ar e r ecogn i sed by
ant ibodies and r ecept or s found on B and T cells ar e
called ant igen deter minants/epit opes.
 An ant igen may have one to sever al t ypes of ant igen
det er minants.
3.36 Biology
 Epitopes can bined specifically to antigen binding site
(par at ope) of t he ant i body mol ecul e and T cel l
r ecept or s.
 Epit opes ar e smallest unit of ant igenicit y.
 Each det er minant can st imulat e t he for mat ion of
antibody or effector cell. Thus a pur e pr ot ein antigen
may give r ise to many distinct antibodies and effector
cell s.
Ant i bodi es
 RBCs of all A, B, O blood gr oup possess a common H
ant igen which is pr ecur sor for for mat ion of A and B
antigens.
 I t i s a com pl ex gl y copr ot ei n secr eat ed by B -
I ymphocyt es in r esponse t o an ant igen. I t is also
called agglut inin.
 These ar e complex glycopr ot ein molecule made up
of 4 polypept ide chain :
Two light and t wo heavy chain.
 These t wo chain held t oget her by disulphide bond
in shape of Y– molecule.
 Two t op t ips of t his molecule bind wit h ant igen like
lock and key fashion and make ant i gen-ant ibody
complex.
 Ant ibodies for ms t hir d line of defence.
 Ant i bodies ar e pr ot einaceous subst ances occur in
blood plasma and pr oduced by immune syst em t o
over come t oxic effect of ant igens.
 Each ant i body has at l east t wo heavy and l i ght
polypeptide chains.
 H eavy chain is also called H chain wher eas light
chain is also called L chain which may be eit her
L ambda or K appa t ype.
 H eavy chain consist s of 440 amino acids wher eas
light chain consist s of 220 amino acids.
 Ther e is a var iable por t ion for binding t o ant igen
t hr ough el ect r ost at i c i nt er act i on and a const ant
portion that deter mines its adher ence and diffusivity.
 Var iable r egion also called V– region / antigen binding
fr agment / Fab.
 Const ant r egi on al so cal l ed const ant fr agment /
cr yst alline fr agment / Fc.
 Fc lacks t he abilit y t o bind t o ant igen and can be
cr ystallized.
 A n t i bodi es ar e al so cal l ed i m m u n ogl obu l i n s /
gammaglobulins.
 Ant ibodi es ar e pr oduced in r esponse t o ant igenic
stimulat ion.
 Antibodies ar e pr oduced by B lymphocyte and plasma
cell s.
Cells of I mmune Syst em
 They ar e lymphocyt es and ant igen pr esent ing cells
like macr ophages.
 A healt hy human has about a t r illion lymphocyt es.
 Lymphocyt es ar e of t wo t ypes :
(i ) T– lymphocyt es (T– cells)
(ii ) B– lymphocyt es (B– cells).
Both of these develop in bone mar r ow (in foetus fr om
yolk cells and t hen fr om liver spleen complex) fr om
lymphat ic st em cells.
 For mat ion of lymphocyt es is called haemat opoiesis.
 Some of young lymphocytes migr ate into t hymus for
processing. They are called T– lymphocytes afterwards
they pass on to all t he lymphoid tissues of the body.
 The ot her t ypes of l ymphocyt es r emai n i n bone
mar r ow and get pr ocessed t her e. They ar e called B–
lymphocyt es because in bir ds t hey ar e pr ocessed in
l ymphoi d di ver t i cul um of cl oaca cal l ed bur sa of
Fabr icius. Aft er pr ocessing B– lymphocyt es migr at e
t o all t he lymphoid t issues of body.
Ant i body F unct i ons
1. N eut r alisat ion
Some antibodies function as antitoxins and neutralise
the toxins pr oduced by pat hogens/for eign chemicals.
2. Agglut i nat i on
Ant ibodies called agglut inins cause immobilisat ion
and clumping of antigens (pr ecipitation) and antigen
cont aining pat hogens.
3. Opsoni sat ion/Adher ence
Ant ibodies called opsonins (I gG) at t ach t hemselves
t o sur faces of ant i gen cont ai ni ng cel l s, so as t o
r ecognised by phagocyt es.
4. Complement mediat ed cell lysis
Ant igen cont aining cells ar e per for ated by enzymes
pr oduced with the help of lysin antibodies (I gM– I gG)
and cyt ot oxic T– cells.
5. Phagocyt osi s
The l ysed i mmobi l i sed cl umped pat hogens ar e
engulfed by phagocyt es.
Vaccinat ion and I mmunisat ion
 I t is t he phenomenon of incr easing specific ant ibody
pr oduct ion and development of memor y B– and T–
cells against t he pot ent ial at t ack of a pat hogen.
 I t is car r ied out t hr ough vaccinat ion and inject ion of
ant iser um.
 When an i mmuni sed per son i s at t ack ed by t he
pat hogen, t hen exi st i ng ant i bodi es i mmedi at el y
at t ack t he ant igen while memor y T and B cells give
r ise to a massive cr op of lymphocyt es and anitbodies.
Vacci nat i on
Vacci ne
 I t i s t h e su spen si on of i n act i vat ed pat h ogen s
or ant i geni c pr ot ei n of pat hogen whi ch i s t ak en
or al l y or i nj ect ed t o pr ovi de i mmuni t y for t hat
pat hogen.

 Second gener at ion vaccines : I nst ead of at t enuat ed
pathogen, their antigenic polypeptides were separated
and used as vaccines.
Wit h t he help of genet ic engineer ing or r ecombinant
DN A t echnol ogy, ant i geni c pol ypept i des of t he
pat h ogen s ar e got sy n t h esi sed i n t r an sgen i c
or ganisms, e.g. hepatit is– B vaccine fr om t r ansgenic
yeast .
 Thir d generation vaccines : These ar e pur e synt het ic
ant igenic polypeptides or their genes extr act ed fr om
t he pat hogens.
I mmune Syst em D isor der s
I mpr oper funct ioning of immune syst em may cause
di scomfor t (al ler gy), di sease (AI DS) or even deat h
(anaphylactic shock).
These ar e divided int o t hr ee classes :
1. H yper sensit ive disor der or aller gy
 2 in number (didelphic).
 When a per son show hyper r esponse or hyper
sensitiveness for a common antigen or agent then
it is called aller gy.
 The agents which cause allergy are called allergens.
Common aller gens ar e :
pol l en gr ai n s, f ood (egg. f i sh ), m edi ci n es
(penicilline), cold, heat , sunlight , fibr es.
M anifest at ions (effect ).
I mpor t ant allergic r eact ions :
Sneezing ; Coughing ;Wat er ing of Eyes ; Oedema :
Accumulat ion of t issue fluid below skin ; Br onchial
Ast hma ; H ay fever ; Anaphylat ic shock ; Eczema
2. Aut o immune disor der
When i mmune syst em does not di scr i mi nat es
bet ween self and non-self ant igen, ant ibodies ar e
for med against t he self ant igen. These ant ibodies
destr oy self ant igen and also self tissue of t he body.
So, antibody for mation against self antigen is called
aut o immunit y.
Some subst ances/t i ssues of t he pat i ent 's body
develop antigenic act ivit y and hence ar e called self
ant igens /aut oant igens.
E xamples.
M yast heni a gr avi s ; Per ni ci ous (Dest r uct i ve)
an aem i a ; H ash i m ot o di sease ; Rh eu m at oi d
ar t hr i t i s ; I .D.D.M (I nsul i n dependent di abet es
mallit us) ; M ult iple scler osis.
3. I mmuno D eficiency D isor der
I t may be due t o gene mut at ion, gene deficiency,
infect ion, nut r it ional deficiency and accident s.
Biology 3.37
1. S. C.I . D . ( Sever e C om bi n ed I m m u n o
D eficiency)
 This disor der is due t o gene mut at ion or gene
deficiency of enzyme adenosine deaminidase.
 Tr eat ment : Gene t her apy
2. A.I .D .S. ( Acqu i r ed I m m u n o D ef i ci en cy
Syndr ome)
 I t is characterised by reduction in the number of
CD4 or hel per T 4– l ymphocyt es because of
infection of HIV (human immunodeficiency virus).
 I t i s al so call ed slim disease. ARC i s AI DS
r el at ed compl ex whi ch i s char act er i sed by
swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweat s and
weight loss.
 I t is of t wo t ypes :
H I V– I (mor e common i n I ndia, Eur ope and
Amer ica) and
H I V– I I (mor e common in Afr ica).
 I n India the first AI DS case was reported in 1986.
 Spread of disease :
The disease is rapidly spr eading thr oughout the
wor ld.
H i gh r i sk gr oups i ncl ude pr ost i t ut es, dr ug
addicts, homosexual males, per sons with extr a-
mar it al r elat ions and r ecipient s of unscr eened
blood t r ansfusions.
AI DS does not spr ead t hr ough
M osqui t o bi t es, H uggi ng, K i ssi ng, Shar i ng
meal s, Toi l et s t owel s or ut ensi l s, Shak i ng
hands, Coughing, Sneezing, Looking after AI DS
patients.
 Tr ansmission : Ther e ar e t hr ee r out es of
t r ansmission :
( i ) Par ent er al r out e : I t i s t hr ough bl ood
contact involving unscr eened tr ansfusion of
blood, t at toeing, infect ed r azor s of bar ber s,
poor l y st er i l i sed den t al i n st r u m en t s,
shar i ng of i nj ect i on needl es and or gan
tr ansplant.
( ii ) Sexual route : I t account s for 85% of H I V
i nfect i on due t o mul t i pl e sex par t ner s,
pr ost i t ut es, homosexual i t y and ar t i fi ci al
inseminat ion. Vir us is pr esent in sufficient
st r engt h in semen and vaginal secr et ions
of infect ed per sons.
( iii ) Transplacental route : I nfect ion can occur
fr om i nfect ed mot her t o foet us (ver t i cal
transmission) across placenta and to infants
t hr ough milk (per inat al t r ansmission).
3.38 Biology

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 12. Cor k cells ar e imper vious t o wat er because of
t he pr esence of
1. I n whi ch of t he fol l owi ng ar e M i t ochondr i a
absent? (a) Cellulose (b) Cutin
(a) Fungi (b) Angiosper ms (c) Lignin (d) Suber in
(c) Gr een algae (d) Blue-gr een algae 13. The biotic relationship between insects and plants
wit h r efer ence t o pollinat ion is called
2. Eucar yot ic or ganisms ar e t hose t hat cont ain
(a) Commonsalism (b) Mutualism
(a) DNA thr eads (b) Plastids
(c) Par asitism (d) Sapr ophytism
(c) Tr ue nucleus (d) Vacuoles
14. Phot osynt hesis gener ally t akes place in which
3. Wi t h whi ch of t he fol l owi ng i s Azot obact er
por t ions of t he plant ?
associat ed ?
(a) L eaf and ot her chlor oplast bear ing par t s
(a) Car bon fixat ion (b) Nit r ogen fixat ion
(c) Fer ment at ion (d) Root nodules (b) St em and leaf

4. Whi ch of t he fol l owi ng mi cr onut r i ent s pl ays (c) Root s and chlor oplast bear ing par t s
an impor t ant r ole in t he nit r ogen met abolism of (d) Bar k and leaf
plant s, especially in t he r educt ion of nit r at e? 15. Opium is obt ained fr om
(a) Bor on (b) Copper (a) Poppy leaves
(c) Molybdenum (d) Zinc (b) L at ex juice
5. Plant development is influenced by (c) Tablet t ype lat ex
(a) Qualit y of light only (d) Seed capsule of opium poppy
(b) Qualit y and quant it y of light
LEVEL-1
(c) Qualit y and dur at ion of light
1. I n t he cont ext of genet ics, DNA st ands for
(d) Qualit y, quant it y and dur at ion of light
(a) Di -Neur o Acid
6. Edible par t of t omat o is
(b) Dai ly N ews Analysis
(a) Endocarp (b) Fleshy t halamus
(c) Det oxic N eur o Acid
(c) Mesocar p (d) Whole fr uit
(d) Deoxyr ibo N uclei c Acid
7. Xylem is a complex t issue, consisting of differ ent [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
t ypes of cells. Which of t he following per for m t he
2. M at ch t he foll owing:
funct ion of conduct ion of wat er and miner als?
(1) Cell wall (a) Animal cell
(a) Fiber s (b) Par enchyma cells
(b) Pl ant cell
(c) Tracheary elements (d) None of t hese
(2) ATP (a) M it ochondr ia
8. The edible por t ion of mango is
(b) Genes
(a) Embr yo (b) Endocarp
(a) l – (a), 2 – (a) (b) l – (a), 2 – (b)
(c) Endosper m (d) Mesocar p
(c) 1 – (b), 2 – (a) (d) l – (b), 2 – (b)
9. The r ice gr ain is [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) A seed (b) One seeded fr uit 3. Synapses and Dendr i t es ar e associ at ed wi t h
(c) M any seeded fr uit (d) Mult iple seeded fr uit (a) cor t ex (b) epit helium
10. I n which of the following ar e plastids not pr esent? (c) r etina (d) ner ve-cell s
(a) Aer nechyma (b) Collenchyma [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

(c) Par enchyma (d) Schler enchyma 4. A tissue that connects muscle to bones in humans
11. Bamboo is a is call ed

(a) H er b (b) Gr ass (a) Tendon (b) Fibr e

(c) Axon (d) Femur
(c) Shrub (d) Tr ee
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
 Biology 3.39
5. H aemat ology is t he st udy r el at ed t o 14. Nephrons are connected with
(a) Pl ant r epr oduct i on syst em (a) Respiratory System
(b) Blood (b) Nervous System
(c) Food habi t s of ani mals (c) Circulatory System
(d) Bones (d) Excretory System
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
6. Which of the following is not a food bor ne disease? 15. Sight of delicious food usually makes mouth
(a) Amoebiasis watery, it is a
(b) Choler a (a) Hormonal response
(c) I nfluenza (b) Neural response
(d) H epat it i s A (c) Optic response
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (d) Olfactory response
7. A pher omone secr et ed by an animal [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]

(a) infl uences t he behaviour of ani mal s of same LEVEL-2

species
1. Accor ding t o I PCC, t hr ee fact or s cont r ibut ing t o
(b) pr ot ect s it fr om pr edat or s
Global war ming ar e :
(c) at t r act s t he vict ims for i t s food
1) CO2 emissions
(d) none of t he above
2) Change of land use defor est at ion
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
3) Non-veg food
8. Secretion of Insulin Hormone is by :
Place t hem in t he or der of t heir cont r ibut ion t o
(a) Thyroid (b) Pituitary
global war ming.
(c) Adrenal (d) Pancreas
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 1, 3, 2
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(c) 3, 1, 2 (d) 2, 1, 3
9. Earthworm belongs to which of the following
Animal Phyla ? [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]

(a) Arthropoda (b) Mollusca 2. St omat a ar e locat ed in-

(c) Annelida (d) Protozoa (a) Red blood cells (b) Chlor ophyll
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (c) St omach (d) L eaves
10. The total number of bones in the average adult [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]
human skeleton is : 3. Bile is secr et ed by-
(a) 350 (b) 206 (a) St omach (b) L iver
(c) 115 (d) 540 (c) L ar ge int est ine (d) Gall bladder
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]
11. Identify the disease which is caused due to
4. I n t he cont ext of act ion of medicines on human
deficiency of Protein ?
body, mat ch t he following:
(a) Scurvy (b) Beri-Beri
1. Recept or s a. Catalysts
(c) Night-Blindness (d) Kwashiorkor
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
2. Enzymes b. Neur ologically act ive

12. In humans, bile juice is secreted by 3. Tr anquilizer s c. Pr ot ei ns

(a) pancreas (b) small intestine (a) 1-c, 2-a, 3-b (b) 1-a, 2-c, 3-b

(c) esophagus (d) liver (c) 1-b, 2-a, 3-c (d) 1-a, 2-b, 3-c
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]

13. Which of the following is connected with 5. Which of t he following t issues t r anspor t s wat er
transport of water in plants ? and mi ner als fr om r oot s t o ot her par t s of t he
(a) Phloem (b) Xylem plant?
(c) Epidermis (d) Cambium (a) Phloem (b) Vessel
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] (c) Sieve t ube (d) Xylem
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]
3.40 Biology
6. An eating disorder of excessive weight loss usually (c) H er bivor es, Car nivor es, Pr oducer s
due to undue concer n about body - shape is known (d) H er bivor es, Pr oducer s, Car nivor es
as:
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(a) Anor exia ner vosa 11. Ear t hwor m belongs t o following animal phyla ?
(b) Appetitis (a) Por ifer a (b) Annelida
(c) Aut ot r ophic disor der (c) Mollusca (d) Arthropoda
(d) Aut otr ophic syndr ome [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT] 12. Which one of the following contains Human body 's
7. M at ch t he following - t her most at ?
1. Lysosomes a. Power H ouse (a) Pineal (b) Pit uitar y
2. DNA b. Chr omosomes (c) Thyr oid (d) Hypothalamus
3. Mitochondr ia c. Suicide bags [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(a) 1-a, 2-c, 3-b (b) l-c, 2-b, 3-a 13. Wh i ch on e of t h e f ol l ow i n g bl ood gr ou p i s
(c) 1-b, 2-c, 3 a (d) 1-c, 2-a, 3-b consider ed Univer sal Donor ?
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT] (a) AB (b) O
8. Nat ur e's cleaner s ar e : (c) A (d) B
(a) Pr oducer s (b) Consumer s [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]

(c) Decomposer s (d) Car nivor es 14. The number of chr omosomes in a nor mal human
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT] body cell is :
9. Tr iple Vaccine is administer ed to a new bor n child (a) 43 (b) 44
t o immunize against : (c) 45 (d) 46
(a) Whooping Cough, Tet anus and M easles [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(b) Whooping Cough, Tet anus and Dipht her ia 15. Which one of t he following diseases is caused due
(c) Tet anus, Dipht her ia and Small pox t o deficiency of pr ot ein ?
(d) Tet anus, Typhoid and H epat it is (a) K washior kor (b) Ricket s
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT] (c) Ber i - Ber i (d) Scur vy
10. A cor r ect food chain is : [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(a) Pr oducer s, H er bivor es, Car nivor es
(b) Pr oducer s, Car nivor es, H er bivor es
 Biology 3.41

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (d)
LEVEL-1

1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (b)

11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (b)
LEVEL-2
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)

11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (a)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. Mitochondr ia is pr esent in fungi, angiosper m and
gr een algae whit e it is not found in blue-gr een
algae.
2. Eucar yot i c or gani sms ar e t hose cont ai n t r ue
nucleus.
3. Azat abact er is associat ed wit h nit r ogen fixat ion,
which is found in t he r oot nodules of leguminous
plants.
4. M olybdenum is a micr onut r ient s which plays an
i mpor t ant r ol e i n t he ni t r ogen met abol i sm of
plant s, especially in t he r educt ion of nit r at e.
5. Pl ant devel opment i s i nfl uenced by qual i t y,
quant it y and also by dur at ion of light .
6. Whole fr uit is an edible par t of t omat o.
7. Xylem is a complex t issue, consist ing of differ ent
t ypes of cel l i n whi ch t r achear y el ement s ar e
per for m t he funct ion of conduct ion of wat er and
miner als.
8. The edible por t ion of mango is mesocar p.
9. The r ice gr ain is a seed of paddy cr op.
10. Plastide ar e pr esent in aer nechyma, collenchyma
an d par en ch y m a w h i l e i t i s n ot f ou n d i n
schler enchyma.
11. Bomboo is for m of gr ass.
12. Cor p cells ar e imper vious t o wat er because of t he
pr esence of suber in.
13. The biotic r elationship between insects and plants
wit h r efer ence t o pollination is called mutualism.
14. Phot osynt hesis t akes place in leaves and ot her
chlor oplast bear ing plant s in which chlor ophyle
is pr esent .
15. Opium is obt ained fr om seed capsule of opium
poppy.
LEVEL-1
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule
composed of two chains (made of nucleotides) that
coil around each other to form a double helix
carrying the genetic instructions used in the
growth, development, functioning and
reproduction of all known living organisms and
many viruses.
2. Cell walls are present in most prokaryotes
(except mycoplasma bacteria), in algae, plants
and fungi. Mitochondria are the energy factories
of the cells. The energy currency for the work
that animals must do is the energy-rich molecule
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP is
produced in the mitochondria using energy stored
in food.
3. Synapses and Dendrites are associated with
nerve-cells.In the nervous system, a synapse is
a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell)
to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another
neuron or to the target effector cell.
4. A tendon is a tough yet flexible band of fibrous
tissue. The tendon is the structure in your body
3.42 Biology
that connects a muscle to a bone. The structure
that transmits the force of the muscle contraction
to the bone is called a tendon.
5. Hematology, also spelled haematology, is the
branch of medicine concerned with the study of
the cause, prognosis, treatment, and prevention
of diseases related to blood.
6. Among the given options, Influenza is not a
foodborne disease.Foodborne illness (also
foodborne disease and colloquially referred to as
food poisoning) is any illness resulting from the
food spoilage of contaminated food, pathogenic
bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate
food as well as toxins such as poisonous
mushrooms.
7. A pheromone secreted by an animal influences
the behaviour of animals of same species. It is
generally used for mate selection.
8. Insulin and glucagon are hormones secreted by
islet cells within the pancreas. They are both
secreted in response to blood sugar levels, but in
opposite fashion! Insulin is normally secreted by
the beta cells (a type of islet cell) of the pancreas.
9. Earthworms are segmented worms of the phylum
Annelida, which encompasses about 9,000 species
and three classes. Class Oligochaeta are the
freshwater worms (including earthworms); class
Polychaeta are the marine worms; and class
Hirudinea are the leeches.
10. The total number of bones in the average adult
human skeleton is 206.
11. Kwashiorkor is a form of severe protein
malnutrition characterized by edema, and an
enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates. Sufficient
calorie intake, but with insufficient protein
consumption, distinguishes it from marasmus.
12. Bile or gall is a dark green to yellowish brown
fluid, produced by the liver of most vertebrates,
that aids the digestion of lipids in the small
intestine. In humans, bile is produced
continuously by the liver (liver bile), and stored
and concentrated in the gallbladder.
13. Xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue
in vascular plants, phloem being the other. The
basic function of xylem is to transport water from
roots to shoots and leaves, but it also transports
nutrients.
14. Nephrons are connected with excretory System.
It is the microscopic structural and functional
unit of the kidney. It is composed of a renal
corpuscle and a renal tubule.
15. Sight of delicious food usually makes mouth
watery, it is a neural response.
LEVEL-2
1. a According to IPCC, three factors contributing
to Global warming are CO2 emissions ,
Change of land use deforestation as well as
non-veg food. Global carbon emissions from
fossil fuels have significantly increased since
1900. Since 1970, CO 2 emissions have
increased by about 90%, with emissions from
fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes
contributing about 78% of the total
greenhouse gas emissions increase from 1970
to 2011. Agriculture, deforestation, and other
land-use changes have been the second-largest
contributors.
2. d In botany, a stoma (also stomate; plural
stomata) is a tiny opening or pore that is used
for gas exchange. They are mostly found on
the under-surface of plant leaves. In a stoma,
there is the chloroplast, a cell wall, a vacuole
and a cell nucleus.
3. b Bile or gall is a dark green to yellowish
brown fluid, produced by the liver of most
vertebrates, that aids the digestion of lipids
in the small intestine. In humans, bile
is produced continuously by the liver (liver
bile), and stored and concentrated in the
gallbladder.
4. a The principal minor tranquilizers are the
benzodiazepines, among which are diazepam
(Valium), chlordiazepoxide (Librium), and
alprazolam (Xanax). These drugs have a
calming effect and eliminate both the physical
and psychological effects of anxiety or fear.
Enzyme r is a catalyst. Enzymes are proteins
functioning as catalysts that speed up reactions
by lowering the activation energy.In
biochemistry and pharmacology, a receptor is
a protein molecule that receives chemical
signals from outside a cell.
5. d Xylem and Phloem tissues are present
throughout the plant. They begin at the root
and then move up to the stem, branches, and
leaves. The xylem tissue transports water and
minerals from the roots to the leaves whereas
the phloem tissue transports food from the
leaves to the other parts of the plant.
6. a Anorexia nervosa is a potentially life-
threatening eating disorder characterized by
self-starvation, excessive weight loss and

negative body image. Anorexia can affect
individuals of all genders, races and
ethnicities. While most common among
females, about 10-15% of all individuals with
anorexia are males. People of all ages develop
anorexia but it is most common for onset to
occur during adolescence.
7. b Mitochondria are tiny organelles inside cells
that are involved in releasing energy from
food. This process is known as cellular
respiration. It is for this reason that
mitochondria are often referred to as the
powerhouses of the cell.Lysosomes are tiny
sacs mostly present in animal cells. They are
filled with digestive enzymes. The released
enzymes then digest their own cell and
ultimately the cell dies. Hence, lysosomes are
called suicide bags of the cell.
8. c Nature’s cleaners are decomposers.
Decomposers and scavengers break down
dead plants and animals. They also break down
the waste (poop) of other organisms.
Decomposers are very important for any
ecosystem. If they weren’t in the ecosystem,
the plants would not get essential nutrients,
and dead matter and waste would pile up.
9. b Triple Vaccine is administered to a new born
child to immunize against whooping Cough,
Tetanus and Diphtheria.
Biology 3.43
10. a A correct food chain is Producers, Herbivores,
Carnivores
11. b Phylum: Annelida. Annelids are segmented
worms. Earthworms belong to this phylum
because their bodies are sectioned, creating
the ridged or ringed appearance that gives
the “ringed worms” of this phylum their
name.
12. d Hypothalamus contains Human body’s
thermostat. The hypothalamus is a small
region of the brain. It’s located at the base of
the brain, near the pituitary gland. While it’s
very small, the hypothalamus plays a crucial
role in many important functions, including:
releasing hormones. regulating body
temperature.
13. b In transfusions of packed red blood cells,
individuals with type O Rh D negative blood
are often called universal donors. Those with
type AB Rh D positive blood are called
universal recipients.
14. d There are 46 total chromosomes in a normal
human body cell. They pair up, creating 23
pairs of chromosomes.
15. a Protein malnutrition, or kwashiorkor, is
mostly found in people living in geographical
areas that have limited food resources. It’s
most commonly seen in children whose diets
are low in protein and calories.
 
 1
CHAPTER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
I N VEN TI ON S AN D DI SCOVERI ES
I nvention Year I nventor Country
Aer oplane 1903 Or ville and Wilbur Wr ight U.S.A
Ball-point pen 1888 John J. L oud U.S.A.
Bar omet er 1644 E.Tor r icelli I taly
Bar omet er, Aner oid 1799 W.J.Cant e I taly
Bicycle 1839 K . M acmillan Br itain
Bicycle t yr e (air ) 1888 J.B.Dunlop Br itain
Calculating M achine 1642 Blaise Pascal Fr ance
Cent igr ade Scale 1742 A. Celsius Fr ance
Cinema 1895 A.L . and J. L umier e Fr ance
Cir culat ion of blood 1628 William H ar vey England
Clock (mechanical) 1725 H sing and L ing-Tsan China
Clock (pendulum) 1657 Chr ist ian H uygens Holland
Diesel Engine 1892 Rudolf Diesel Ger many
Dynamite 1867 Alfr ed Nobel Sweden
Elect r ic ir on 1882 H .W. Seeley U.S.A
Elect r ic lamp 1879 Thomas Alva Edison U.S.A
Elect r ic mot or 1834 M or it z Jacobi Ger many
Theor y of Evolut ion 1858 Char les Dar win England
Fount ain pen 1884 L .E. Wat er man U.S.A
Glider 1853 Sir Ger or ge Cayley England
Gr amophone 1878 Thomas Alva Edison U.S.A
I nsulin 1923 Sir Gr eder ick Bant ing Canada
Jet engine 1937 Sir Fr ank Whit t le England
L ight ening conduct or 1752 Benjamin Fr anklin U.S.A
L ocomot ive, st eam 1804 Richar d Tr evit hic England
M achine gun 1861 Richar d Gat ling U.S.A
M atch, safet y 1855 J.E.L undst r om Sweden
M icr ophone 1878 David Hughes U.S.A
M icr oscope 1590 Z. Janssen Holland
M ot or car, pet r ol K ar l Benz Ger many
M ot or cycle 1884 Edwar d Butler England
Penicillin 1928 Sir Alexander Fleming England
Photogr aphy (film) 1888 H ohn Car but t U.S.A
Radar 1922 Dr. A.H . Taylor and L .C.Young U.S.A
Radium 1898 M ar ie and Pier r e Cur ie Fr ance
Radio 1901 Guglielmo M ar coni I taly
Refr iger ator 1851 James H ar r ison Scotland
Revolver 1835 Samuel Colt U.S.A
Rubber (vulcanised) 1841 Char les Goodyear U.S.A
Safety lamp 1816 Sir H umphr y Davy England
Safet y pin 1849 William H ur st U.S.A
St eam engine 1639 Thomas Saver y Br itain
Submar ine 1776 David Bushnell U.S.A
Telegr aph code 1837 Samuel F.B. M or se U.S.A
Ther momet er 1608 H ans L ipper shey Nether lands
Televisi on 1926 John L ogie Bair d Scotland
Tel escope 1593 Galileo I taly
Typewr it er 1864 M it t er hofer Austria
Wat ch 1791 A.L . Br eguet Fr ance
X-ray 1895 Wilhelm Roent gen Ger many
 1.2 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

ELEM EN TS FOU N D I N N ORM AL H U M AN BODY

Element Percent Element Percent
Oxygen 65.0 Sodium 0.15
Car bon 18.0 Chlor ine 0.15
Hydr ogen 10.0 Magnesium 0.05
Nit r ogen 3.0 I r on 0.004
Calcium 2.0 I odine 0.00004
Phosphor ous 1.1 Manganese 0.00013
Pot assium 0.35 Copper 0.00014
Sulphur 0.25 Cobalt 0.00000016

VARI OU S SCI EN CES

Acoustics : St udy of sound (or science of sound)
Aerodynamics : Br anch of mechanics t hat deals wit h
t he mot ion of air and ot her gases.
Aeronautics : Science or ar t of flight .
Agronomy : Sci ence of soi l management and t he
pr oduct ion of field cr ops.
Agrostolgy : St udy of gr asses.
Anat omy : Sci ence deal i ng wi t h t he st r uct ur e of
animals, plant s or human body.
Ant hr opology : Sci ence deal i ng wi t h t he or i gi ns,
physical and cult ur al development of mankind.
Archaeology : St udy of ant iquit ies.
Ast rology : Ancient ar t of pr edict ing t he cour se of
human dest inies wit h t he help of indicat ions deduced
fr om t he posi t i on and movement of t he heavenl y
bodies.
Astronautics : Science of Space t r avel.
Astronomy : St udy of heavenly bodies.
Astrophysics : Br anch of ast r onomy concer ned wit h
t he physical nat ur e of heavenly bodies.
Bacteriology : St udy of Bact er ia.
Biochemistry : St udy of chemical pr ocesses of living
things.
Biology : St udy of living t hings.
Biometry : Applicat ion of mat hemat ics t o t he st udy
of living t hings.
Bionics : St udy of funct i ons, char act er i st i cs and
phenomena observed in the living world and application
of t his knowledge t o t he wor ld of machines.
Bionomics : St udy of t he r elat ion of an or ganism t o
it s envir onment .
Botany : A st udy of plant s.
Ceramics : Ar t and t echnology of making object s fr om
clay, et c.
Chemist r y : St udy of el ement s and t hei r l aws of
combinat ion and behaviour.
Chemot her apy : Tr eat ment of di seases by usi ng
chemical subst ances.
Conchology : Br anch of zool ogy deal i ng wi t h t he
shells of molluscs.
Cosmology : St udy of univer se as a whole and of it s
for m, nat ur e et c.
Cryptography : St udy of Cipher s (secr et wr it ings)
Crystallography : St udy of t he st r uct ur e, for ms and
pr oper t ies of cr yst als.
Cryogenics : Science deal i ng wi t h t he pr oduct ion,
cont r ol and applicat ion of ver y low t emper at ur es.
Cytology : St udy of cells, especially t heir for mat ion,
st r uct ur e and funct ions.
Dactylography : St udy of finger pr int s for the pur pose
of ident ificat ion.
Ecology : St udy of t he r elat ion of animals and plant s
t o t heir sur r oundings, animat e and inanimat e.
Economics : Sci ence deal i ng wi t h t he pr oduct i on,
dist r ibut ion and consumpt ion of goods and ser vices.
Embryology : St udy of development of embr yos.
Entomology : St udy of insect s.
E pidemiology : Br anch of medi ci ne deal i ng wi t h
epidemic diseases.
Epigraphy : St udy of inscr ipt ions.
Ethnology : Br anch of ant hr opology dealing wit h t he
or igin, dist r ibut ion and dist inguishing char act er istics
of t he r aces of mankind.
Ethology : St udy of animal behaviour.

Eugenics : St udy of t he pr oduct ion of bet t er offspr ing
by t he car eful select ion of par ent s.
Genealogy : St udy of family or igins and hist or y.
Genesiology : The science of gener at ion.
Genet i cs : B r an ch of bi ol ogy deal i n g w i t h t h e
phenomena of her edit y and t he laws gover ning it .
Geography : Development of science of t he ear t h’s
sur face, physical feat ur es, climat e, populat ion et c.
Geology : Science t hat deals wit h t he physical hist or y
of t he ear t h.
Geomorphology : St udy of t he char act er ist ics, or igin
and development of landfor ms.
Ger ont ology : St udy of ol d age, i t s phenomena,
diseases, et c.
H istology : St udy of t issues.
H or t i cu l t u r e : Cu l t i v at i on of f l ow er s, f r u i t s,
veget ables and or nament al plant s.
H ydr ology : St udy of wat er wi t h r efer ence t o i t s
occur r ence, and pr oper t ies in t he hydr ospher e and
at mospher e.
M etallurgy : Pr ocess of ext r act ing met als fr om t heir
or es.
M et eor ology : Sci ence of t he at mospher e and i t s
phenomena.
M etrology : Scient ific st udy of weights and measur es.
M icrobiology : St udy of mi nut e l i vi ng or gani sms,
including bact er ia, moulds, and pat hogenic pr ot ozoa.
M ycology : St udy of fungi and fungus diseases.
N eurology : St udy of the ner vous system, it s funct ions
and it s disor der s.
N umerology : St udy of number s.
Odontology : Scient ific st udy of t he t eet h.
Optics : St udy of nat ur e and pr oper t ies of light .
Ornithology : St udy of bir ds.
Osteology : St udy of bones.
Paleobotany : St udy of fossil plant s.
Paleontology : St udy of fossils.
Pathology : St udy of diseases.
P h on et i cs : St u dy of speech sou n ds an d t h e
pr oduct ion, t r ansmission, r ecept ion, et c.
Phrenology : St udy of t he facult ies and qualit ies of
minds fr om t he shape of t he skull.
Phthisiology : Scient ific st udy of t uber culosis.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 1.3
Phycology : St udy of Algae.
Physics : St udy of t he pr oper t ies of mat t er.
Physiology : St udy of t he funct ioning of t he var ious
or gans of living beings.
Pomology : Science t hat deals wit h fr uit s and fr uit
gr owing.
Psychology : St udy of human and animal behaviour.
Radiology : St udy of X-r ays and r adioact ivit y.
Rheology : St udy of t he defor mat i on and fl ow of
mat t er.
Sci en t ol ogy : St u dy of ear t h qu ak es an d t h e
phenomena associat ed wit h it .
Sericulture : Raising of silkwor ms for t he pr oduct ion
of r aw silk.
Sociology : St udy of human societ y.
Telepathy : Communicat ion bet ween minds by some
means ot her t han sensor y per cept ion.
Therapeutics : Ar t and science of healing.
Topography : A special descr ipt ion of a par t or r egion.
Virology : St udy of vir uses.
Zoology : St udy of animal life.
SCI EN CES
L owest melt ing point
Since M er cur y melt s at – 38.8C ( – 38 F), it is liquid
at r oom t emper at ur e.
M er cur y is used in t her momet er s because it expands
as it is heat ed.
H ighest melt ing point
The t emper at ur e must be 3,652C (6,606 F) befor e
car bon wi l l mel t . Two-t hi r d as hot as t he Sun ’s
sur face.
Rar est element s
Ast at ine is t he r ar est element on Ear t h
Rhodium is t he scar cest metal in t he wor ld just 3 t ones
ar e mined ever y year.
H eaviest met al
A 33-cm 3 (13-in 3) cube of osmium weighs 640 kgs.
Acid and Alkalis
The acid or alkali (or base) cont ent of a subst ance is
measur ed in pH (pot ent ial H ydr ogen) on a scale of 0 -
14. Aci ds di ssol ve i n wat er t o for m shar p-t ast i ng
solut ions, like lemon juice. Alkalis dissolve in wat er
t o for m soapy solut ions.
 1.4 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SCI EN TI FI C I N STRU M EN TS
Altimeter : I t is a special t ype of aner oid bar omet er, M agnetometer : used t o compar e magnet ic moment s
used in measur ing alt it udes. and fields.
Ammeter : used t o measur e st r engt h of an elect r ic M egaphone : u sed f or car r y i n g sou n d t o l on g
cur r ent . distances.
Anemometer : used t o measur e vel oci t y and find M icrophone : used for conver t ing sound waves int o
dir ect ion of t he wind. elect r ical ener gy which is t r ansmit t ed t hr ough wir es
Audiometer : used t o measur e differ ence in hear ing. and then r ecover ed into sound in a magnified intensity.
M icroscope : used for magnified view of ver y small
Barometer : used for measur ing atmospher ic pressur e.
object s.
Calorimeter : used for measur ing quant it ies of heat .
Photometer : used for compar ing luminous int ensit y
Chronometer : I t is a clock t o det er mine longit ude of of t he sour ces of light .
a vessel at sea.
Pyk nomet er : used t o measur e t he densi t y and
Clinical T her momet er : I t i s a t her momet er for coefficient of expansion of liquid.
measur ing t emper at ur e of human body.
Pyrheliometer : used for measur ing solar r adiat ions.
Colorimeter : used for compar ing int ensities of colour.
Pyrometers : used t o measur e high t emper at ur e.
Commutator : used t o change or r ever se t he dir ect ion
Radar : used for det ecting and finding r ange of moving
of an elect r ic cur r ent .
object s by t r ansmit t ing beams of r adio waves.
I n dynamo it is used t o conver t t he alt er nating cur r ent
Radio micrometer : used for measuring heat radiations.
int o dir ect cur r ent .
Rain gauge : used for measur ing r ainfall.
Dynamo : used for conver t ing mechanical ener gy int o
elect r ical ener gy. Refractometer : used t o measur e r efr act ive index of
a subst ance.
Dynamometer : used for measur ing elect r ical power.
Resist ance t her momet er : used for det er mi ni ng
Elect rocardiograph (ECG) : used for det ect i on of
elect r ical r esist ance of conduct or.
elect r ic pulses of t he hear t . I t gives a gr aphic pict ur e
of hear t beat s. Seismograph : used for r ecor ding int ensit y and or igin
of ear t hquake shocks.
Electroencephalograph (EEG) : used for r ecor ding
Sextant : used for measur ement of angular dist ances
of change in elect r ic pot ent ial in var ious ar ea of t he
bet ween t wo object s.
br ain by means of electr ode on the scalp or in the br ain
itself. Sphygmomanomet er : used for measur i ng bl ood
pr essur e.
Electrometer : used for measur ing elect r icit y.
Stethoscope : medical inst r ument used for hear ing
Electroscope : used for det ect ing pr esence of elect r ic
and analysing t he sound of hear t and lungs.
char ge.
Tel escope : used f or vi ewi ng di st ant obj ect s as
Galvanometer : used for measur ing elect r ic cur r ent .
magnified.
H ydrometer : used for measur ing t he r elative densit y
Television : used for t r ansmi t t i ng vi si bl e movi ng
of liquids.
images by means of wir eless makes.
H ydr oscope : opt i cal i nst r ument used for seei ng
Thermometer : used t o measur e t he t emper at ur e.
object s below t he sur face of wat er.
T hermost at : devi ce used for r egul at i ng const ant
H ygr omet er : u sed f or m easu r i n g t h e r el at i ve
t emper at ur es.
humidit y of t he at mospher e.
Viscomet er : used for measur i ng vi scosi t y i .e.,
H ygr oscope : u sed t o sh ow t h e ch an ges i n
pr oper t y of r esist ance of a fl ui d t o r elat i ve mot ion
at mospher ic humidit y.
wit hin it self.
Lactometer : used for measur ing t he r elat ive densit y Volt met er : used t o measur e pot ent i al di ffer ence
of milk. bet ween t wo point s.
M anometer : used measur e t he pr essur e of gases.
 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 1.5

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 9. Under I ndian space pr ogr amme, the abbr eviation
GSLV st ands for
1. The genome sequencing of which vir us has been
(a) Geosynchr onous Sat ellit e L aunch Vehicle
r ecent ly done by I ndian scient ist s ?
(b) Global Sat ellit e L ink Vehicle
(a) Hepatitis C (b) Hepatitis B
(c) Geost at ionar y Solar L ight Vehicle
(c) HIV (d) Flu Vir us
(d) None of t hese
2. Net gr owt h r at e of populat ion is det er mined by
10. Cent r e for DNA Finger pr int ing and Diagnost ics
(a) gr oss r epr oduct ion r at e
(CDFD) is locat ed at
(b) t he bir t h r at e and t he deat h r at e
(a) Delhi (b) Kolkata
(c) t he pr essur e of populat ion
(c) Hyderabad (d) Chennai
(d) t he bir t h r at e in a count r y
11. The Russi an nucl ear submar i ne, whi ch sunk
3. APSARA is t he name of I ndia’s fir st killing all on boar d, was called
(a) Nuclear r eact or (a) Slovik (b) L enin
(b) H elicopt er (c) Brodigaya (d) K ur sk
(c) Gr ound bat t le t ank
12. Richter scale is a/an ......... scale to measur e ear th
(d) Railway locomot ive t r emor s.
4. Which of the following parts of the sunlight makes (a) Exponential (b) L ogar it hmic
t he solar cooker hot ? (c) Geomet r i c (d) Physical
(a) Ult r aviolet (b) Red light r ays
13. Which of t he following compounds is commonly
(c) I nfrared (d) Cosmic r ays used as an ant isept ic in mout h washes and toot h
5. H uman Genome Pr oject endeavour s t o past es ?
(a) Decode DNA (a) Bor ax
(b) I nvent AI DS t r eat ment (b) Salt Pet r e
(c) St udy evolut ion of human (c) H ydr ogen per oxide
(d) Study finger pr int s (d) Sodium chlor ide

6. The Gr een r evolut ion in cr ops, Yellow r evolut ion 14. Ant hr ax i s one of t he most pot ent bi ol ogi cal
in oil seeds and Gol den r evolut ion i n ...... has weapons i n t he wor l d. I t i s spr ead by si ngl e
been an ample t est imony t o t he cont r ibut ions of bacter ium called
agr icul t ur al r esear ch and devel opment effor t s (a) Bacillus thur icide (b) Bacillus ant hr at um
under t aken in t he count r y. (c) Thiobacillus (d) Bacillus anthr acis
(a) H or t icult ur e 15. ‘Thr eat of global war ming’ is incr easing due t o
(b) Wheat incr easing concent r at ion of
(c) Pet r ol (a) Nit r ous oxide
(d) None of t hese (b) Ozone
7. Which of the following does not come as a pr oduct (c) Sulphur dioxide
of vehicular pollut ion ? (d) Car bon dioxide
(a) Sulphur dioxide LEVEL-1
(b) Nit r ogen oxide
1. Shant i Swar up Bhat nagar Awar d is given in t he
(c) Car bon monoxide field of
(d) H ydr ogen per oxide (a) liter atur e
8. Which one of t he fol lowi ng does a TV r emot e (b) science and t echnology
cont r ol unit use t o oper at e a TV set ? (c) jour nalism
(a) L ight waves (b) Sound waves (d) communit y leader ship
(c) Micr owaves (d) Radio waves
1.6 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

2. D epar t m en t of A t om i c E n er gy (D A E ) w as 10. ‘Bar ’ is t he unit of

est ablished on (a) heat
(a) 3rd August 1950 (b) t emper atur e
(b) 3rd August 1952 (c) cur r ent
(c) 3rd August 1954 (d) at mospher ic pr essur e
(d) 3rd August 1956
11. Elect r ic cur r ent is measur ed by
3. Dhr uva, CI RUS and Apsar a ar e (a) anemomet er (b) volt met er
(a) pr essur ized heavy wat er r eact or s (c) ammet er (d) commut at or
(b) r esear ch r eact or s 12. Fat hom is t he unit of
(c) boiling wat er r eact or s (a) sound (b) depth
(d) advanced heavy wat er r eact or s (c) distance (d) fr equency
4. Whi ch one of t he fol l owi ng i s pr esent i n t he 13. K ilowat t is a unit t o measur e
ur anium or e and is r ecover ed as a by pr oduct in (a) wor k (b) electr icit y
t he ur anium pr ocess plant ? (c) power (d) ener gy
(a) H aemat it e (b) Dolomi t e
14. Ver y sm al l t i m e i n t er v al s ar e accu r at el y
(c) Magnetite (d) Ber yllite
measur ed by t he
5. I n di an Pr essu r i zed H eavy Wat er React or s (a) Pulsar s (b) Quar t z clocks
(PH WR) use (c) At omic clocks (d) Whit e dwar fs
(a) ur anium based fuel 15. Decibel is t he unit used for
(b) t hor ium based fuel (a) speed of light
(c) bot h ur anium and t hor ium based fuel (b) int ensit y of heat
(d) ur anium and yt r ium based fuel (c) int ensit y of sound
6. Which one of t he foll owi ng is used mai nly for (d) r adio wave fr equency
r adiogr aphy of var ious mat er ials? LEVEL-2
(a) Dhruva (b) FBTR
1. The t er m ‘Black Box’ is mor e commonly used in
(c) Kamini (d) Apsara r elat ion t o which of t he following ?
7. I REMON is (a) I t is a box in which high gr ade ur anium is
kept t o pr event r adiat ion
(a) Fast br eeder r eact or
(b) I t i s a t i me capsul e i n whi ch r ecor ds of
(b) Pr essur ized heavy wat er r eact or impor t ant event s ar e kept t o be opened at a
(c) A n at i on wi de n et wor k of en vi r on m en t al lat er dat e
r adiat ion monit or ing st at ion (c) I t is a flight r ecor der in an aer oplane
(d) Weat her monit or ing syst em (d) None of t hese

8. Biot echnology par k is sit uat ed in which of t he
following cit ies of I ndia?
(a) Bhopal
(b) L uck now
(c) Bengalur u
(d) Nashik
9. H ydr omet er is an inst r ument
(a) for measur ing sound under wat er
(b) t o det ect t he pr esence of hydr ogen i n t he
at mospher e
(c) for measur ing t he specific gr avit y of liquids
(d) to detect the changes in atmospher ic humidity
2. The lightning conductor used in building, pr otects
t he building by
(a) dissipating the elect r ic char ge away fr om t he
building
(b) conduct ing t he light ning safely t o t he gr ound
(c) absor bing t he elect r ic char ge
(d) none of t hese
3. The pr inciple of wor king of per iscope is based on
(a) r eflect ion only
(b) r efr act ion only
(c) r eflect ion and r efr act ion
(d) r eflect ion and int er fer ence
 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 1.7
4. The wor king of t he quar t z cr yst al in t he wat ch is 10. A comput er can be fr eely pr ogr ammable
based on (a) if it is of a digit al t ype
(a) Johnson effect (b) Phot oelect r ic effect (b) if it is cont r olled synchr onously
(c) Edison effect (d) Piezo elect r ic effect (c) if it cont ains a r ead only memor y (ROM )
5. Jet engines ar e (d) if it cont ains a r andom access memor y (RAM )
(a) r ot ar y engines 11. L ife appear ed about
(b) t ur bine engines (a) 2.6 billion year s ago
(c) ext er nal combust ion engines (b) 3.6 billion year s ago
(d) r eact ion engines (c) 4.6 billion year s ago
6. The conver sion of elect r ical ener gy into chemical (d) 5.6 billion year s ago
ener gy is obser ved in 12. Alber t Einst ein was a
(a) fan (b) st or age bat t er y (a) physician (b) chemist
(c) heat er (d) incandescent bulb (c) physicist (d) biologist
7. Gr eenhouse is 13. The mass-ener gy r elat ion is t he out come of
(a) a bu i l di ng chi efl y of gl ass i n wh i ch t he
(a) Quant um t heor y
t emper at ur e is ver y low
(b) Gener al t heor y of r elat ivit y
(b) a building in which gr een plants are cultivated
(c) Field t heor y of ener gy
(c) a bu i l di ng chi efl y of gl ass i n wh i ch t he
temper atur e is maintained within the desir ed (d) Special t heor y of r elat ivit y
r ange 14. Who invent ed Radar ?
(d) none of t hese
(a) Rober t Wat son wat t (b) M ax Planck
8. The mixed oxide fuel is used for which of t he (c) H umphr y Davy (d) H enr y Becquer el
following ?
15. The I ndian scient ist whose name is associat ed
(a) Nuclear React or s (b) Aer oplanes
wi t h t h e measur ement of gr owt h i n pl ant s
(c) Cr yogenic Engines (d) PSLV r ocket s is
9. The anode in a dr y cell consist s of (a) J.C. Bose (b) H .G. K hor ana
(a) gr aphite (b) zinc (c) Meghnad Saha (d) C.V. Raman
(c) copper (d) cadmium

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (d)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (c)


 2
CHAPTER SPORTS
SPORTS AN D RELATED TERM S
 Badmi nt on  Golf
Angled dr ive, ser ve, bir d, deuce, double dr op, fault , Bogey, bunker, caddie, dor my, fair way, four some,
let , lob, love all, smash gr eed holes, links, par, put t , t ee, t hr eesome.
 Gymnast ics
 Bask et ball
A-bar s, ar iel, bl ock s cone of swi ng, dish, giant s,
Ball, basket , blocking, dr ibbling, fr ee t hr ow, held inlocat e, kip, planche, t ar iff, t umble, wr ap.
ball, holding, jump ball, mult iple t hr ows, pivot .
 H ock ey
 Baseball
Bul ly, cor ner, fl ick, fr ee-hit , r oll i n, scoop, shor t
Base, bunt i ng, bat t er y, di amond, hi t t er, home, cor ner, st ick, st r iking cir cle, t ackle, t ie br eaker.
pit cher, pullout , st r ike.
 H or se-r acing
 Billiar ds Jockey, punt er, st eeplechase.
Baulk line, br eak, bolting, Cannon, cue, hazar d, in-  J u do
off, jigger, l ong jenney, pot , scr at ch, scr ew back, Chui, dan, dojo, gyaku, ippon, r andor i, yoshi, yuko.
shor t jenney, spot st r oke.
 K ar at e
 Boxi ng Dachi, gedan, jion, koka, shir o, ude, zen-no.
Auxiliar y point syst em, babit punch, defence, hook,  P ol o
jab, knock out , slam.
Bunker, chukker, mallet
 Br i dge
 Row i n g
Auct ion, Chi cane, declar er, dummy, gr and sl am, Bow, bucket , cow, feat her, paddle, r egat t a.
nor t r umps, r evoke, r uff, suit .
 Ru gby
 Chess Tr ackle, lines, scr um, t ouch, t r y.
Bishop, capt ur e, cast ling, checkmat e, en passant ,
 Shoot i ng
gambit , king, knight , pawn, queen, r ook, stalemat e.
Bag, bull’s eye, mar ks- manship, muzzle, plug.
 Cr ick et
 Swi mmi ng
Ashes, boundar y, bowling, cat ch, chinaman, cr ease,
Back-st r oke, br east -st r oke, but ter fly-st r oke, cr awl,
duck, follow on, googly, gully, hat -t r ick, hit wicket , fr ee st r oke.
l.b.w., no ball, off br eak, on dr ive, pitch, r ubber, silly
 Table Tennis
point , squar e leg, st one walling, yor ker, wicket .
Ant i l oop, back spi n, chop, l oop, penhol d, gr i p,
 Cr oquet t widdle.
H oops, mallet , peg out .
 Tenni s
 D r aught s Ace, backhand, st r oke, deuce, fault , let, love, volley.
Huff.  Volleyball
 F oot ball Ace, bl ock i ng, doubl i ng, heave, hol di ng, spi k e,
Advant age clause, blind side, cor ner kick, dr ibble, ser vice.
fr ee kick, mar king, off side, penalt y kick, t hr ow in  Wr est ling
t r ipping. Half nelson, head lock, heave, hold, r ebouts, scissor.
 2.2 SPORTS

CU PS AN D TROPH I ES ASSOCI ATED WI TH SPORTS AN D GAM ES

 Air Racing  Cricket
Jawahar lal Challenge Tr ophy Ant hony Demellow Tr ophy
K ing’s Cup Ashes
Schneider Cup (Sea plane r ace in UK )
Asia Cup
 Archery Benson and H edges Cup
Feder ation Cup
Champions Tr ophy
 Athletics Char minar Challenge Cup
Char minar Tr ophy
C.K . Nayudu Tr ophy
Wor ld Cup
Deodhar Tr ophy
 Badminton
Duleep Tr ophy
Agar wal Cup
G.D.Bir la Tr ophy
Amr it Diwan Cup
Gillett e Cup
Austr alasia Cup
Chadha Cup Ghulam Ahmed Tr ophy

Eur opean Cup I r ani Tr ophy

Nar ang Cup Jawahar lal Nehr u Cup
K onica Cup M er chant Tr ophy
Thomas Cup Nat west Tr ophy
Uber Cup Pr udential Cup (Wor ld Cup)
Wor ld Cup Ranji Tr ophy
Yonex Cup
Shar jah Cup
 Basketball Sheesh M ahal Tr ophy
Basalat Jha Tr ophy
Vijay H azar e Tr ophy
B.C.Gupta Trophy
Vijay M er chant Tr ophy
Todd Memor ial Tr ophy
 Football
William Jones Cup
Feder ation Cup Bandodkar Tr ophy
B.C.Roy Tr ophy
 Boat Rowing
Amer ican Cup (H acht r acing) DCM Cup

Wellington Tr ophy (I ndia) Dur and Cup

 Boxing Eur opean Cup

Aspy Adjahia Tr ophy Feder ation Cup
Feder ation Cup Gover nor ’s Cup
 Bridge Gr eat Wall Cup
H olkar Tr ophy I FA Shield
Ruia Gold Cup Jules Rimet Tr ophy (Wor ld Cup)
Singhania Tr ophy Kings Cup
 Chess L al Bahadur Shast r i Tr ophy
Naidu Tr ophy Mer deka Cup
K hait an Tr ophy Nat ions Cup
L imca Tr ophy Nehr u Gold Cup
Wor ld Cup
 SPORTS 2.3

Nizam Gold Cup Rangaswami Cup

Rover s Cup Rene Fr ank Tr ophy
Santosh Tr ophy Scindia Gold Cup
Staffor d Cup Shr ir am Tr ophy
Subr ot o Cup Wor ld Cup
Todd M emor ial Tr ophy Yadavindr a Cup
UEFA Cup
 Kabaddi
Vittal Tr ophy
Feder ation Cup
Air lines Cup
 Kho-Kho
Asia Cup
Feder ation Cup
Amer ica Cup
Winner ’s Cup  Shooting
I ndir a Gandhi Tr ophy Nor t h Wales Cup
Rajiv Gandhi Tr ophy Welsh Gr and Pr ix

 Golf  Table Tennis

Canada Cup Asian Cup
Eisenhower Tr ophy Ber na Bellack Cup
Muthiah Gold Cup Cor billion Cup (Women)
Nomur a Tr ophy Elect r a Gold Cup
Ryder Cup Gasper -Giest Pr ize
Walker Cup Jayalaxmi Cup (Women)
U.S. Open Pet hapur am Cup (M en)
Br it ish Open Swaythling Cup (M en)
 H ockey Wor ld Cup
Agha Khan Cup
 Tennis
Allwyn Asia Cup
Davis Cup
Azian Shah Cup
Feder ation Cup
Beight on Cup
Wimbledon Tr ophy
Bombay Gold Cup
U.S.Open
Champions Tr ophy
Fr ench Open
Clar ke Tr ophy
Austr alian Open
Dhyan Chand Tr ophy
Hopman Cup
Gur u Nanak Cup
I ndir a Gandhi Gold Cup  Volleyball
I nt er continental Cup Feder ation Cup
Kuppuswamy Naidu Cup Shivant hi Gold Cup
M ahar aja Ranjit Singh Gold Cup Wor ld Cup
M odi Gold Cup  Yacht Racing
Nehr u Tr ophy Amer ica Cup
Obaidullah Gold Cup
 2.4 SPORTS

OLYM PI C GAM ES
 The fir st moder n Olympic Games t ook place in 1896, founded by t he Fr enchman Bar on de couber t in.
 They ar e held ever y four year s.
 Women fir st compet ed in 1900.
 The fir st separ at e wint er games celebr at ion was in 1924, beginning in 1994, t he wint er games will t ake place
bet ween summer games celebr at ion.
 The Olympic mot t o is Cit ius, Allius, For t ivs meaning Sur fer H igher and st r onger composed by Fat her Dixon
in 1897, and int r oduced in 1920 for t he fir st t ime.

Venues
Year Summer Games Winter Games Year Summer Games Wint er Games
1896 At hens, Gr eece - 1968 M exico Cit y, M exico Gr enoble, Fr ance
1900 Par is, Fr ance - 1972 M unich, Ger many Sapporo Japan
1904 St . L ouis, USA - 1976 Montr eal, Canada I nnsbr uck, Aust r ia

1908 L ondon, UK - 1980 M oscow, Russia L ake Placid, USA

1912 St ockholm, Sweden - 1984 L os Angeles, USA Sar ajevo Yugoslavia

1988 Seoul Sout h K or ea Calgar y, Canada
1920 Ant wer p, Belgium -
1992 Bar celona, Spain Alber t ville, Fr ance
1924 Par is, Fr ance Chamonix Fr ance 1994 - L illehammer Nor way
1928 Amst er dam, St . M or t iz 1996 At lanta, USA -
The Net her lands Switzerland 1998 - Nagano, Japan
2000 Sydney, Aust r alia -
1932 L os Angeles, USA L ake Placid, USA
2002 - Salt L ake Cit y, USA
1936 Ber lin, Ger many Gar misch 2004 At hens, Gr eece -
Par t enkir chen 2006 - Tur in, I t aly
Ger many 2008 Beijing, China -
1948 L ondon, UK St. Moritz, Switzerland 2010 - Vancouver, Canada
2012 L ondon, UK -
1952 H elsinki, Finland Oslo, Nor way
2014 - Sochi, Russia
1956 M ellbour ne, Aust r alia Cor t ina, I t aly
2016 Rio de Janeir o -
1960 Rome, I t aly Valley, USA 2018 - Pyeonghchang,
1964 Tokyo, Japan I nnsbr uck, Aust r ia Sout h K or ea

COM M ON WEALTH GAM ES Emblem

 Fir st held as t he Br it ish Empir e Games in 1930. A br ight full r ising Sun wit h int er locking r ings.

 They t ak e pl ace ever y four year s and bet ween WORLD CU P (FOOTBALL)
Olympic celebr at ions.  The lar gest single spor t ing event in t he wor ld is
 T h ey becam e t h e B r i t i sh E m pi r e an d t he Wor ld Cup Foot ball t our nament .
commonwealt h Games in 1954  The fir st edit ion was held in 1930.

The cur r ent t it le was adopt ed in 1970.  The 2018 Wor ld Cup, t he lat est edit ion was held in
Russi a ; Fr ance emer ged wi nner by defeat i ng
ASI AN GAM ES Cr oatia.
M ot t o
 T h e Wor l d Cu p i s n ow of f i ci al l y cal l ed t h e
Ever onwar d (coined by Pt . Jawahar lal Nehr u) Jules-Rimet Cup.
 SPORTS 2.5

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 10. Tr ipping is associated wit h
1. Who was t he fi r st I ndi an t o wi n t he Wor l d (a) Snooker (b) Foot ball
Amat eur Billiar ds t itle? (c) Cr icket (d) L awn Tennis
(a) Geet Set hi (b) Wilson Jones 11. The Olympic Symbol compr ises of five r ings or
(c) M ichael Fer r eir a (d) M anoj K ot har i cir cles linked t oget her t o r epr esent
2. Rangaswami Cup is associat ed wit h which of t he (a) spor t ing fr iendship of all people
following ? (b) five cont inent s
(a) H ock ey (b) Pol o (c) both (a) and (b)
(c) Badminton (d) Basket ball (d) none of t hese
3. Gr and Slam in Tennis means a player has t o win 12. The fi ve i nt er t wi ned r i ngs or ci r cl e son t he
(a) Australian open, French open and Wimbledon Olympic Flag made of whit e (fr om left t o r ight )
(b) Aust r alian open, U.S. open and wimbledon ar e
(c) Austr alian open, Fr ench open, U.S. open and (a) blue, yellow, black, gr een, and r ed
Wimbledon (b) yellow, r ed, gr een, black and blue
(d) None of t hese (c) r ed, gr een, black, yellow, and blue
4. Which of t he following is a pair of names of t he (d) yellow, gr een, black, blue and r ed
same game ? 13. Which of the following cups/tr ophies is associated
(a) Golf-Polo (b) Billiar ds-Snooker wit h foot ball ?
(c) Volleyball-Squash (d) Soccer -Football (a) Davis Cup (b) Deodhar Tr ophy
5. Whi ch of t he fol lowi ng i s a set of fi ve event s (c) Champions Tr ophy (d) Santosh Tr ophy
included in M oder n Pent at hlon ? 14. I ndia won it s fir st Olympic hockey gold in...?
(a) Cycl i ng, Sk at i ng, Shoot i ng, Gymnast i cs, (a) 1928 (b) 1932
Running
(c) 1936 (d) 1948
(b) Judo, Shooting, Swimming, Cycling, Running
15. I f you scor ed a cannon, which game would you
(c) Hor se r iding, Fencing, Shooting, Gymnastics, be playing ?
Running
(a) Foot ball (b) Cr icket
(d) Hor se Riding, Fencing, Shoot ing, Swimming,
(c) Billiar ds (d) H ock ey
Running
6. The famous player Pele is associdated with which LEVEL-1
of t he following games ? 1. Who r ecei ved t he fir st Nobel pr i ze in Physics in
(a) Table Tennis (b) Foot ball I ndia?
(c) H ock ey (d) Volleyball (a) Dr. C.V. Raman
7. H ow many pl ayer s ar e t her e i n a wat er pol o (b) Dr. H ar gobind K hur ana
t eam ? (c) Pr of. C.N .R. Rao
(a) 4 (b) 5 (d) Pr of. N ar l ik ar
(c) 6 (d) 7 2. Which country won the FIFA world cup, 2014 in
8. Who is t he fir st I ndian woman t o win an Asian Football ?
Games gold in 400m r un? (a) Germany (b) Argentina
(a) M.L.Valsamma (c) Brazil (d) France
(b) P.T.U sha 3. Who is the winner of Mens Singles Title in Tennis
(c) Kamaljit Sandhu in US open, 2014 ?
(d) K.Malleshwar i (a) Roger Federer (b) Kei Nishikori
9. Which of t he following place is called t he M ecca (c) Marin Cilic (d) Rafael Nadal
of I ndian Foot ball ? 4. Who is the winner of Nobel Prize, 2014 in the
(a) Delhi (b) Mumbi field of Economics ?
(c) Kolkata (d) Ambala (a) Patrick Modiano (b) Malala Yousafzai
(c) Jean Tirole (d) Kailash Satyarthi
2.6 SPORTS

5. UBER Cup is related to 14. The latest Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to two
(a) International Badminton (Men) people, a man and a woman. To which countries
do they belong?
(b) International Volleyball (Men)
(a) China
(c) International Volleyball (Women)
(b) India and Pakistan
(d) International Badminton (Women)
(c) US and Greece
6. First Sportsperson to be conferred with Award
(d) India and Indonesia
"Bhart Ratna"
15. The tournament that takes place in Roland
(a) Sachin Tendulkar
Garros in Paris is associated with
(b) Dhyan Chand
(a) Lawn tennis (b) Table tennis
(c) Balbir Singh
(c) Basketball (d) Bowling
(d) Vijay Amritraj
LEVEL-2
7. Next Asian Games in2018 shall be held in
1. Who is the Winner of Pr o Kabaddi league in 2014?
(a) Seoul (b) Bangkok
(a) U M umba
(c) Kualalumpur (d) Jakarta
8. Who among the following did not win a medal in (b) Jai pur Pink Pant her s
Asian Games 2014 ? (c) Pat na Pir at es
(a) Yogeshwar Dutt (b) Sushil Kumar (d) Bengalur u Bulls
(c) Abhinav Bindra (d) Jitu Rai 2. Who is t he wi nner of Nobel Pr i ze, 2014 in
9. What is common amongst Mahesh Bhupathi, t he field of L it er at ur e ?
Ivan Lendl, Roger Federer ? (a) Phil ip Rot h
(a) They are all Arjun Award winners (b) Pat r ick M odiano
(b) They all International Tennis players (c) H ar uki M ur akami
(c) They are all Social Activists
(d) Ngugi Wa Thiong'o
(d) They are all Asian Games medal winners
3. Ji t u Rai won Gol d M edal i n t he r ecent Asi an
10. Which of the following pairs was announced Games i n t he fol lowing field :
recently as Joint Noble Peace Prize winner.
(a) Ar cher y (b) Wr est li ng
(a) Kailash Satyarthi and Malala
(b) Amartya Sen and Benazir (c) Boxing (d) Shoot ing
(c) Morkel and Hosni Mubarak 4. Shant i Swar up Bhat nagar Awar d i s given for
out st andi ng cont r i but ion in t he fol lowi ng fi el d:
(d) Anwar Sadat and Begin
11. The UN Public service award 2015 for eliminating (a) Science (b) L it er at ur e
open defecation has been given to (c) Economy (d) Per for ming Ar t s
(a) Surat in Gujarat 5. Who i s t he wi nner of M en 's Si ngl es Ti t l e i n
(b) Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh Wi mbledon, 2014 in Tennis ?
(c) Nadia in West Bengal (a) Roger Feder er (b) Rafael Nadal
(d) Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra (c) M ar in Cilic (d) Novak Djok ovic
12. The Champion’s League Trophy is given for 6. M er deka Cup is associ at ed wi t h
(a) the best club in Soccer (a) I nt er nat i onal Table Tennis
(b) best player of team in Basket ball (b) Badmint on
(c) maximum goal maker in Hockey (c) H ock ey
(d) man of the match in Cricket (d) I nt er nat ional Foot ball
13. Cricket batsman has to leave the field for “hit 7. M at ch Col . X (Spor t sper son) and Col. Y (Spor t s):
wicket” when Col. X Col. Y
(a) Ball hits leg before bat P. Jitu Rai 1. Badmint on
(b) Keeper removes the bail Q. H eena Sidhu 2. Wr est li ng
(c) Bat hits any fielder R. Jwala Gut t a 3. Shoot ing
(d) Wicket is touched by bat or body of the S. Yogeshwar Dut t
batsman
 SPORTS 2.7
(a) P-3; Q-3, R-1, S-2 11. Wher e will Commonwealt h Games 2018 be held?
(b) P-2. Q-3, R-1, S-2 (a) Glasgow, Scot l and
(c) P-2. Q-2. R-1. S-3 (b) I nchon, Sout h K or ea
(d) P-3, Q-1. R-1. S-2 (c) Gol d Coast , Queensl and ,Aust r al ia
8. The slogan of Asian Games I ncheon 2014 was (d) Abuja, Niger ia
(a) Gr een, Cl ean and Fr iendship 12. To par t icipat e i n t he Olympi cs at Rio de Janei r o
(b) We Cheer, We Shar e, We Win in 2016 whi ch game di d I ndian t eam quali fy i n?
(c) Di ver si t y Shines her e (a) M en's H ock ey (b) Swimming
(d) The Games of Your L i fe (c) Ar cher y (d) Boxing
9. What ar e t he t hr ee val ues cher i shed by t he 13. What was t he mascot for t he Commonweal t h
Commonweal t h Games? Games hel d i n I ndia i n 2010?
(a) Get Set , Go, and Pl ay . (a) Bison (b) Peacock
(b) Fast er, H igher, St r onger. (c) Deer (d) Tiger
(c) Di ver sit y Shi nes her e. 14. For t he 2016 Ol ympics, whi ch t eam defeat ed t he
(d) H umanit y, Equali t y, Dest iny. M en's I ndian H ockey t eam t o secur e t he pl ace?
10. For par t i ci pat ion in which i nt er nat ional games (a) Fr ance (b) Ger many
event has the Men's I ndian Hockey team qualified (c) England (d) I taly
aft er t he Wor l d H ockey L eague? 15. Whi ch i nt er nat i onal spor t s event wi l l be hel d
(a) Common weal t h Games i n Gol d Coast , Qu een sl an d , A u st r al i a i n
(b) Olympics 2018?
(c) Asian Games (a) Asian Games
(d) Wi nt er Ol ympi cs (b) Common wealt h Games
(c) Asia Paci fi c Games
(d) Wi nt er Ol ympics.

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (a)
LEVEL-2

1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (b)

 3
CHAPTER
I N DI A’S FREEDOM STRU GGLE
1885 F or m at i on of I n di an N at i on al
Congr ess. Fi r st sessi on hel d at
B om bay on 28t h D ecem ber
at t ended by 72 delegat es.
1905 Par t it ion of Bengal announced by
Cur zon.
1906 Muslim league founded at Dacca by
Aga K han t he Nawab of Dacca and
N aw ab M oh si n -u l -M u l k , I st
communal Par t y.
1907 Congr ess split at Sur at session.
1907 L al a L aj pat Rai and Aj i t Si ngh
depor t ed t o M andal ay fol l owi ng
r iot s in t he canal colony of Punjab.
1908 K hudir am Bose execut ed.
1908, July 22 T i l ak sen t en ced t o si x y ear s
i m pr i son m en t on ch ar ges of
sedit ion.
1909, M ay 21 M or l ey M i n t o Ref or m s or t h e
I ndian Council Act 1909 announced.
1911 Capit al of I ndia was shift ed fr om
Calcut t a t o Delhi.
1912, Dec. 23 Bomb t hr own on L or d H ar dinge in
Ch an di n i Ch ow k , D el h i by
Rashbehar i Bose and Sachi ndr a
Sanyal.
1913, Nov. 1 Gh adar par t y f or m ed at San
Fr ancisco t o or ganise a r ebellion
in I ndia t o over t hr ow t he Br it ish
r ule.
1914 Fir st Wor ld War st ar t ed.
1915, Jan. Gandhiji ar r ives in I ndia.
1916 Gandhi ji founded t he Sabar mat i
Ashr am at Ahmedabad.
INDIAN HISTORY
1916, Apr il 28 H ome Rul e l eague f ou nded by
Ti l ak wi t h i t s headquar t er s at
Poona (I ndian home r ule league of
I ndia).
1916, Sept . 25 A n ot h er H om e Ru l e L eagu e
st at r ed by Annie Besant .
1916 F ou n dat i on of B an ar as H i n du
U n i v er si t y by M adan M oh an
M alaviya, Lucknow pact .
1917, Apr il M ahat ma Gandhi l aunches t he
Champar an satyagr aha.
1917, Aug. 20 M ont ague, t he secr et ar y of St at e
for I ndia, declar es t hat t he goal of
t he Br it ish gover nment in I ndia is
t h e i n t r odu ct i n of r espon si bl e
gover nment .
1918, M ar ch 23 Fir st All-I ndia Depr essed Classes
confer ence was held.
1918, Apr il Row l at t (sedi t i on ) com m i t t ee
submi t s i t s r epor t . Rowl at t Bi l l
int r oduced on Febr uar y 16, 1919.
1919, Apr il 6 All I ndia har t al over Rowlat t Bill
cal l ed by Gandhi ji , I st N at i onal
agitation.
1919, Apr il 13 Jallianwala Bagh t r agedy and t he
gr eat Amr it sar massacr e.
1919, Dec. 25 M ont ague Chelmsfor d Refor m or
t he Gover nment of I ndia Act, 1919
announced.
1920 Fir st meet ing of All I ndia Tr ade
Union Congr ess (AI TUC) held at
Bombay pr esi ded over by L al a
Lajpat Rai.
1920, Dec. I ndi an N at i onal Congr ess (I NC)
adopt s t h e N on -cooper at i on
r esolut ion.
3.2 INDIAN HISTORY

1922, Feb. 5 Chaur i Chaur a incident which led 1930, Jan. 1 J aw ah ar l al N eh r u h oi st s t h e

t o t h e su spen si on of t h e N on - t r icolour of I ndia on t he banks of
Cooper at ion movement . Ravi in L ahor e.

1922 Second M oplah upr ising, M alabar 1930, Jan. 26 Fir st I ndependence Day obser ved.
coast , K er ala.
1930, Feb. 14 Wor king commit t ee of I NC meet s
1922, M ay Vishwa Bhar ati Univer sity st ar t ed at Sabar mat i and passed t he Civil
by Rabindr a Nat h Tagor e. Disobedience r esolut ion.

1923, Jan. 1 Swar ajist par ty founded by Motilal 1930, M ar ch 12 M ahat ma Gandhi l aunches t he
Nehr u and ot her s. Civil Disobedience Movement with

1925, June 16 Deat h of Deshbandhu his epic Dandi mar ch.

Chit t ar anjan Das. 1930, Nov. 12 F i r st Rou n d t abl e con f er en ce

1925, August L oot i ng of t r ai n near K akor i by begins in L ondon t o consider t he

r evolut ionar ies & K akor i r epor t of Si mon Commi ssi on for

conspir acy case. t he fut ur e const it ut ional set -up in

I ndia.
1927, Nov. 8 A ppoi n t m en t of t h e Si m on
Commission. 1931, M ar ch 5 Gandhi I r wi n pact si gned. Ci vi l
Disobedience movement suspended.
1928 Nehr u Repor t for a new
const it ut ion of I ndia. 1931, M ar ch 23 Bhagat Singh, Sukh Dev and Raj
Gur u execut ed (in L ahor e Case).
1929, M ar ch 9 Al l Par t i es M usl i m Confer ence
for mulat es t he “ four t een poi nt s” 1931, Sept . 7 Second Round Tabl e confer ence

under t he leader ship of Jinnah. begins Mahatma Gandhi ar r ives in

L ondon t o at t end it .
1929, Apr il 8 Bhagat Si ngh and Bat uk eshwar
Dut t dr op bomb i n t he cent r al 1932, Aug. 16 Br i t i sh Pr i me M i ni st er Ramsay

l egi sl at i ve Assembl y t o pr ot est M ac D on al d an n ou n ces t h e

against t he Public Safet y Bill. Communal Awar d giving separ at e

elect or at e t o H ar ijans.
1929, Sept . 13 Jat in Das dies in jain after 64 days
of fast . 1932, Sept . 20 Gandhi’s fast unt o deat h.

1929, Oct . 31 L or d I r win’s announcement t hat 1932, Sept . 26 Poona pact signed by which t he

t he goal of Br it ish policy in I ndia H ar i j ans get r eser ved seat s i n

was t he gr ant of dominion st at us. place of separ at e elect or at e.

1929, Dec. 31 L ahor e sessi on of t he Congr ess 1932, Nov. 17 Thi r d Round Tabl e Confer ence

under Jawahar L al Nehr u adopt s begins at L ondon.

t he goal of complet e independence 1935, Aug. 4 Gover nment of I ndia Act passed.
(Poor na swar aj) for I ndia.

1937 Elect ions held in I ndia under t he
A ct of 1935. T h e I N C f or m s
minist r ies in seven provinces.
1938, Feb. 19-20 H ar i pur an sessi on of t he I N C.
Subhash Chandr a Bose el ect ed
t he congr ess pr esident .
1939, Mar. 10-12 Tr ipur i session of I NC.
1939, Apr il Subhash Chandr a Bose r esigns the
pr esident ship of t he I NC.
1939, Sept . 3 Second wor ld war begins. Vicer oy
declar es t hat I ndia t oo is at war.
1939, Nov. 5 Con gr ess m i n i st r i es i n t h e
pr ovinces r esign against t he war
policy of t he Br it ish gover nment .
1939, Dec. 22 M u sl i m L eagu e obser v es t h e
r esi gn at i on of t h e con gr ess
minist r ies as Deliver ance day.
1940, M ar ch L ah or e sessi on of t h e M u sl i m
l eagu e passes t h e Pak i st an
Resolut ion.
1940, Aug. 10 Vicer oy Linlithglow announces the
August offer .
1940, Oct .17 Con gr ess l au n ch es I n di vi du al
Sat yagr aha movement .
1941 Deat h of Rabindr anat h Tagor e.
1941, Jan. 17 Subhash Chandr a Bose escapes
fr om I ndia t o Ger many.
1942, M ar ch 11 Chur chi l l announces t he Cr i pps
M ission.
1942, Aug. 8 I NC meet s at Bombay and adopt s
t he Quit I ndia r esolut ion.
1942, Aug. 11 Quit I ndia M ovement begins.
1942, Sept . 1 I ndian National Ar my (Azad H ind
Fauj) is for med at Singapor e.
INDIAN HISTORY 3.3
1943, Oct . Subhash Chandr a bose t akes over
t h e l eader sh i p of I N A an d
pr ocl ai ms t he for mat i on of t he
‘Pr ovi si onal Gover nment of fr ee
I ndia’ at Singapor e.
1943, Dec. K ar achi sessi on of t he M usl i m
L eagu e adopt s t h e sl ogan of
‘Divide and Quit ’.
1944, June 25 Wavell calls Simla confer ences in
a bid to for m the Executive Council
of I ndian polit ical leader s.
1946 Feb. 1-8 Rat ing M utiny.
1946, M ar ch 15 B r i t i sh Pr i m e M i n i st er A t t l ee
announces t he Cabinet M ission.
1946, Aug. 6 Wavell invit es Nehr u t o for m an
int er im gover nment .
1946, Dec. 9 Fi r st session of t he Const it uent
Assembly of I ndia st ar t s, but it is
boycot t ed by t he M uslim L eague.
1947, Feb. 20 B r i si t h Pr i m e M i n i st er A t t l ee
decl ar es t h at t he B r i t i sh
gover nment would leave I ndia by
June 1948.
1947, M ar ch 24 L oar d M ount bat t en, l ast Br it i sh
vi cer oy and gover nor gener al of
I ndia is swor n in.
1947, June 3 Mountbatten Plan for the partition
of I ndia is announced.
1947, July 4 I n di an I n depen den ce Bill
i n t r odu ced i n t h e H ou se of
Com m on s an d passed by t h e
Br it ish par liament (July 18).
1947, Aug. 15 I ndia won fr eedom.
3.4 INDIAN HISTORY
I M PORTAN T ORGAN I SATI ON S AN D PARTI ES
Parties and Organisations
M uslim L eague
H ome Rule L eague
Ant i Non-Cooper at ion Associat ion
Johr at Sar vajanik Sabha
Raja M undar i Social Refor m Associat ion
Ant i Cir cular Societ y
L ok Seva M andal
I ndependent Congr ess Par t y
Unit ed I ndia Pat r iot ic Associat ion
Br it ish Associat ion of Avadh
L iber al Associat ion
I ndian L iber al Feder at ion
H indust an Seval Dal
I ndependence of I ndia league
Pr aja Par t y
H indu Associat ion
K r ishak Pr aja Par t y
Sout h I ndia Feder at ion of peasant s
& Agr icult ur al labour
Unionist Par t y
Rasht r iya Swayam Sevak Sangh
All I ndia Unt ouchabilit y league or
H ar ijan Sevak Sangh
H indu M aha Sabha
Jana Sangh
National M ohammedan Association
Communit st Par t y of I ndia (CPI )
L abour Swar aj Par t y
K ir t i K isan Par t y
Wor ker ’s & Peasant s Par t y
Bihar Socialist Par t y
Congr ess Socialist Par t y
For war d Block
Congr ess L abour Par t y
Revolut ionar y Socialist Par t y
Radical Democr at ic Par t y
Bolshevik L eninist par t y
Revolut ionar y Communist Par t y
H indust an Socialist Republican
Association
Punjab Socialist Par t y
I ndependent Labour Part y
Founders, year and Place
Aga K ha, t he Nawab of Dacca M ohsin ul M ulk (1906, Dacca)
Bal Gangadhar Tilak (July 1916) , Annie Besant (Sept . 1916)
Pur ushott am Das Thakur das (1920-21)
Rash Behar i Ghose (1893, Assam)
Vir sallngam (1878)
K . K . M it r a
L ala L ajpat Rai, Punjab
Madan M ohan Malviya, (1926)
Sayyid Ahmed Khan
Raja Shiv Pr asad Sahu
Sapr u, Jayakar and Chint amani
Sur endr a Nat h Baner jee and ot her s (1919)
N. G. H ar dikar
Jawahar L al Nehr u and Subhas Chandr a Bose, (1928)
Akr am Khan, Fazi-ul-H uq and Abdur Rahim
Annie Besant
Faziul Haq
N.G. Ranga and Namboodir ipad (1935)
Fazl Hussain
Hedgewar (1925)
Gandhiji (1932)
Founded in 1917, Revived by M adan M ohan M alviya in 1925.
Shyam Pr asad M ukher jee
Amir Ali, 1878, Calcut t a
M .N. Roy, 1920 at Tashkent
M uzaffar Ahmmed & Qazi Nazr ul 1925 and Wor ker ’s Par t y
Sohan Singh Josh (Punjab)
S.S. M ir ajkar, K .N. Joglekar & S.V. Ghat e, 1927, Bombay
Jai Pr akash Nar ayan, Phulan Pr asad Ver ma, 1931
Nar endr a Dev, Jai Pr akash Nar ayan and M inoo M asani 1934
Subhas Chandr a Bose, 1939
1926, Bombay
1940
M .N. Roy, 1940
I ndr a Sen & Ajut Roy, 1941
Saumendr anat h Tagor e, 1942
Chandr a Shekhar Azad and ot her s, 1928
1932
B.R. Ambedkar
 INDIAN HISTORY 3.5

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
7. Who was t he fir st Englishman t o pr eside over
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
t he Congr ess session at Allahabad in 1908?
1. Which one of t he following leader s was elect ed (a) W. Wedder bur n (b) A.O. H ume
as Pr esident of t he All I ndia K hilafat Confer ence (c) Geor ge Yule (d) M r s. Annie Besant
held in Delhi in 1919?
8. Who was t he fir st M uslim pr esident of t he I NC?
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(a) H akim Ajmal K han (b) Rafi Ahmad Kidwai
(b) Shaukat Ali
(c) Abul Kalam Azad (d) Badr uddin Tayabjee
(c) M .A. Jinnah
(d) None of t hese 9. Which of the following did not have an impor tant
r ole in t he Swadeshi movement ?
2. Which movement was launched along wit h t he (a) Women (b) Peasants
K hilafat M ovement ?
(c) Students (d) Muslims
(a) Swadeshi M ovement
10. M.K. Gandhi applied his ‘Satyagr aha’ first against
(b) H ome Rule M ovement
t he
(c) Civil Disobedience M ovement
(a) Eur opean indigo plant er s.
(d) Non-cooper at ion M ovement
(b) M ill owner s of Ahmedabad.
3. The Swar aj Par t y st ood for (c) Br i t i sh gover nment t o pr ot est against t he
(a) Captur ing Legislatur e Councils by contest ing Rowlatt Act s
elect ions (d) Racist aut hor it ies of Sout h Afr ica.
(b) Boycot t ing t he elect ions 11. The car di nal pr i nci pl e of M ahat ma Gandhi ’s
(c) Over t hr ow of Gover nment by or ganising a Satyagr aha was
count r y wide st r ike (a) Fear lessness (b) Tr uthfulness
(d) None of t hese (c) Non-violence (d) All of t hese

4. Of t he followings who was not a member of t he 12. Fir st gr eat exper iment in sat yagr aha came in
K hilafat Committ ee? 1917 in
(a) Maulana Shaukat Ali (a) Ahmedabad (b) Champaran
(b) Maulana Muhammad Ali (c) Sabar mati (d) Bardoli
(c) M .A. Jinnah 13. Gandhiji’s Champar an Movement was for
(d) Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad (a) The secur it y of r ight s of H ar ijans
5. Who of t he fol lowi ng was not i nvol ved i n t he (b) Civil disobedience movement
incident r elating to thr owing of a bomb in Centr al (c) M aint aining t he unit y of H indu societ y
L egislat ive Assembly on Apr il 18, 1929? (d) Solving t he pr oblem of t he indigo wor ker s
(a) Sar dar Bhagat Singh 14. Who was t he polit ical gur u of Gandhiji ?
(b) Khudiram (a) Naur oji
(c) B.K . Dut t (b) Gokhale
(d) All t hese (c) Tilak
(d) L ala Lajpat Rai
6. The All I ndia Muslim League was founded under
t he leader ship of 15. Who gave t he call “ Do or Die” ?
(a) M aulana M ohmmed Ali (a) Jawahar lal Nehr u
(b) H asan I mam and M azhar -ul H aque (b) Mahatma Gandhi
(c) Agha Khan and Mohsinul-M ulk (c) L ala Lajpat Rai
(d) H akim Ajmal K han and Zafar Ali K han (d) Subhash Bose
3.6 INDIAN HISTORY

LEVEL-1 11. Goutam Buddha delivered his first sermons at :

1. A sh ok a i n t h e 13t h year of h i s cor on at i on , (a) Kusinagar (b) Sarnath
appoint ed a special t ype of offi cer who sur veyed (c) Pataliputra (d) Vaishali
the land, kept land r ecor ds and car r ied out justice.
12. The Governor General of India at the time of
These officer s wer e call ed
foundation of Indian National Congress was ?
(a) Amatyas (b) Samahar t as
(a) Lord Chelmsford (b) Lord Dalhousie
(c) Rajukas (d) Chalukyas
(c) Lord Dufferin (d) Lord Canning
2. Who bui lt t he Jagannat ha t emple of Pur i?
13. Who was the advocate at the famous trials of
(a) Anantavar mana Chodaganga three INA Soldiers ?
(b) Nar simahavar mana
(a) Bhulabhai Desai
(c) Aadiyavar mana
(b) Asaf Ali
(d) Par meshwar avar mana
(c) Subhash Chandra Bose
3. Sect i on 66 A has been i n medi a cont r over sy
(d) C. Rajagopalachari
r ecent l y. The sect i on per t ains t o
14. Match Column A (Dance type) and Column B
(a) Communal H ar mony
(State).
(b) Sexual Aggr ession
Column A Column B
(c) Company's Act
P. Bihu 1. Gujarat
(d) I nfor mat i on Technology
Q. Garba 2. UP
4. In which of the following movement did Gandhiji
make the first use of Hunger Strike as a weapon? R. Tamasha 3. Assam
(a) Ahmedabad strike, 1918 S. Nautanki 4. Maharashtra
(b) Rowlatt Satyagraha, 1919 (a) P-4, Q-1, R-2, S-3 (b) P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2
(c) Swadeshi Movement, 1905 (c) P-3, Q-1, R-2, S-4 (d) P-1, Q-4, R-2, S-3
(d) Champaran Satyagraha, 1917 15. The first capital of British Colonial India as
5. The famous Chinese pilgrim 'Hieun Tsang' visited (a) Delhi (b) Mumbai
India during the reign of: (c) Kolkata (d) Madras
(a) Harshavardhan (b) Chandragupta II LEVEL-2
(c) Ashoka (d) Kanishka
1. "Khalsa" was founded by-
6. Jama Masjid at Delhi was built by :
(a) Gur u Gobind Singh
(a) Akbar (b) Jahangir
(b) Gur u Ramdas
(c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb
(c) Gur u Nanak
7. The 'Quit India Movement' was launched in the
year : (d) Gur u Ar jun Dev

(a) 1920 A.D. (b) 1930 A.D. 2. "M ahabhar at a" t he epic was wr it t en by-
(c) 1942 A.D. (d) 1946 A.D. (a) Vyasa (b) Kalidasa
8. Who wrote 'Indica' ? (c) Tulsidasa (d) Valmiki
(a) Kautilya (b) Kalidasa 3. The famous queen Chand Bibi who fought against
Akbar, defended t he cit y of -
(c) Shudraka (d) Megasthenes
(a) Ber ar (b) Ahmad nagar
9. 'Giddha' is a folk dance of :
(c) Golconda (d) M ysor e
(a) Punjab (b) Uttar Pradesh
4. Ar ya samaj was founded by-
(c) Assam (d) Maharashtra
(a) Raja Ram M ohan
10. "The Servants of India Society' was founded by :
(b) Gopal K r ishna Gokhale
(a) Jyotiba Phule (b) G.K. Gokhale
(c) Swami Dayanand Sar aswati
(c) B.G. Tilak (d) B.R. Ambedkar
(d) Anne Besant
 INDIAN HISTORY 3.7
5. I ndi a's fi r st war of I ndependence (r el at ed t o 11. The r uler of which of t he following St at es was
M eer ut mut iny) was in: r emoved fr om power by t he Br it ish on the pr etext
(a) 1835 (b) 1857 of M isgover nance ?

(c) 1892 (d) 1905 (a) Awadh (b) Jhansi

(c) Satara (d) Nagpur
6. Fr ench power declined in I ndia aft er t he bat t le
of- 12. Palit ana Temples ar e locat ed near :
(a) Plassey (b) Buxar (a) Bhavnagar, Gujar at
(c) Talikota (d) Wandiwash (b) Ujjain, Madhva Pr adesh
7. The fir st I ndian r ailway t r ain jour ney bet ween (c) Nasik, M ahar asht r a
Bombay and Thane was in t he year - (d) Var anasi, Ut t ar Pr adesh
(a) 1857 13. K unwar Singh, a pr ominent leader of Upr ising of
1857, belonged t o :
(b) 1853
(a) Punjab (b) Rajasthan
(c) 1818
(c) Madhya Pr adesh (d) Bihar
(d) 1854
14. Wher e was t he Fir st Session of I ndian Nat ional
8. Wit h which one of t he following movement s is
Congr ess held in 1885 A.D. ?
t he slogan "Do or Die" associat ed ?
(a) Delhi (b) Calcutta
(a) Swadeshi M ovement
(c) Bombay (d) Sur at
(b) Non-Cooper at ionM ovement
15. The 1929 session of I ndian Nat ional Congr ess is
(c) Civil Disobedience M ovement
of si gni fi cance i n t he hi st or y of t he Fr eedom
(d) Quit I ndia M ovement M ovement because t he
9. Which one of t he following places was associat ed (a) at t ainment of Self-Gover nment was declar ed
wit h t he begi nni ng of Vinoba Bhave Bhoodan as t he object ive of t he Congr ess
M ovement ?
(b) at t ainment of Poor na Swar aj was adopt ed as
(a) Dandi (b) Kheda t he goal of t he Congr ess
(c) Pochampalli (d) Champaran (c) Non-Cooper at ion M ovement was launched
10. I den t i f y t h e M u gh al E m per or w h o gav e (d) deci si on t o par t i cipat e i n t he Round Tabl e
per mission t o East I ndia Company t o est ablish Confer ence in L ondon was t aken
t heir fact or y at Sur at :
(a) Akbar (b) Jahangir
(c) Shahjahan (d) Aurangzeb
3.8 INDIAN HISTORY

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (d)

11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (b)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (b)

 4
CHAPTER GEOGRAPHY

EARTH
ORI GI N  I t is believed t hat near ly 150 million year s ago,
One of the theories suggests that it is an outcome of a t her e was a si ngl e cont i nent on ear t h cal l ed
star formation . About 4,600 million year s ago, a giant Pangaea. This super -cont inent br oke int o sever al
cloud of gas and dust in space, having a swirling motion, pieces, which began t o dr ift apar t .
gr adually contracted under its own gr avity. As the gas
REALM S OF TH E EARTH
cloud or nebula shr ank in size, it spinned fast er t o
conser ve its angular moment um. The r apid r otat ion 1. L it hospher e (land masses)
pr evented it from total collapse into one object and a 2. At mospher e (air envelope)
large number of smaller units were formed. The core of 3. H ydr ospher e (wat er bodies)
nebula r otating slowly became new star– the Sun.
4. Biospher e (life for ms)
SU RFACE FEATU RES OF TH E EARTH
L I T H OSPH E RE
 M ajor sur face feat ur es of t he ear t h ar e cont inent s
and ocean basins. Layers of the Earth (according to volume) :

 L ess t han 1/3r d of t he whole sur face of t he ear t h is 1. Crust. I t for ms only 0.5 per cent of t he volume of
landmass, t he r est is cover ed by wat er. t he ear t h

 The cont inent s and ocean basins ar e ir r egular ly 2. M antle. I t for ms 16 per cent of t he volume of t he
ar r anged on t he ear t h. ear t h

 The nor t her n hemispher e has mor e land t han t he 3. Core : I t for ms 83 per cent of t he volume of t he
sout her n hemispher e. ear t h

 For sever al million year s, lar ge par ts of cont inents Ear t h being a spher ical body, it has it s cent r e at 6,400
wer e cover ed wit h t hick masses of ice. This per iod km viz., mean r adius of t he ear t h.
on t he ear t h is called I ce age.

SOM E N U M ERI CAL FACTS ABOU T TH E EARTH

L and Greatest known Oceans and Seas Greatest
height (in meters) known depth
(in meters)

M ount Ever est 8863 M ar iana Tr ench 11035

Aver age height 840 Aver age dept h 3808
Size and shape (in km) Ar ea (in millions sq. km.)
Equat or ial semi-axis, a 6378.2 L and (29.22 per cent ) 149
Polar semi-axis, b 6356.8 I ce sheet s and glacier s 15.6
Mean r adius 6371.0 Oceans and seas (70.78 per cent ) 361
Equat or ial cir cumfer ence 40076 L and plus cont inent al shelf 177.4
Polar (mer idian) cir cumfer ence 40009 Oceans and seas minus continental shelf 332.6
Ellipticit y, (a-b)/a 1/298 Tot al ar ea of t he Ear t h 510.0
 4.2 GEOGRAPHY
ROCKS
Cl assi f i cat i on of r ock s. On the basi s of the mode of
formati on, r ocks ar e usuall y classifi ed into three major
types :
1. I gn eou s r ock s
At one t ime, all par ent r ock mat er ial was liquid,
hot and a st icky t hing called magma. I t har dens
below or upon r eaching the ear t h’s sur face. When
it har dens, it for ms i gneous r ock.
I gneous r ocks ar e par ent s of all ot her r ocks and
ar e also called pr i mar y r ocks.
2. Sedi m en t ar y r ock s
They ar e for med by deposit ion and consolidat ion
of miner al and or ganic mat er ial fr om pr ecipat ion
of miner als fr om solut ion.
3. M et am or p h i c r ock s
When or iginal char act er of t he r ocks– t heir colour,
har dness, t ext ur e and mi ner al composit ion i s
par t l y or w h ol l y ch an ged, i t gi v es r i se t o
met amor phic r ocks, under favour able condit ions
of heat and pr essur e.
EART H M OVEM ENT S
About 120 mi ll ion year s ago, t he l andmass call ed
Gondwana land st ar ted br eaking because of the eart h
movement s, vol canic er upt i ons and sea fl oods al l
wor king t oget her.
T ect on i c M ovem en t
I t is t he ear t h movement s which br ing about t hese
vast changes.
The concent r at ion of gr eat int er nal for ces wit hin t he
ear t h r aise local areas upwar ds or cause them sinking
downwards.
Types of Tect on i c movem en t .
(i ) Su d d en m ov em en t s :
These are commonly noticed during an earthquake.
(i i ) Sl ow or Secu l ar m ov em en t s:
T h ese movemen t s con t i nu e much l on ger as
compar ed t o our life span.
L AN DFORM S
Ty p es of L an d f or m s
Ther e ar e thr ee major l andfor ms :
1. M OUNTAI NS
An uplift ed por t ion of t he ear t h’s sur face is called
hi l l or mountai n.
Cl assi f i cat i on of m ou n t ai n s
M ountains are classified on the basis of their or igin
or mode of for mati on as fol l ows :
(i ) St r u ct u r al m ou n t ai n s (Tect on i c)
All gr eat mount ain syst ems of t he ear t h ar e
of t his t ype.
Bot h t he fold and t he block mount ains ar e
included in t his t ype.
(i i ) Fold mount ains
Major mount ains of the present day including
Alps in Eur ope, Rockies of Nor t h Amer ica,
Andes of Sout h Amer ica and H imalayas of
Asia ar e fold mount ains.
Fold is r ecognised by t he bending of r ock-
st r at a, up and down or sideways.
(i i i ) B l ock mou n t ai n s
These mount ains ar e for med when gr eat
blocks of t he ear t h’s cr ust may be r aised or
lower ed dur ing t he lat e st ages of mount ain-
building.
e.g. Vosges in Fr ance
(i v Vol can i c m ou n t ai n s
As these are formed by t he accumulat ion of
vol can i c mat er i al , t h ey ar e al so cal l ed
mountai ns of accumulation.
e.g. Mt . Fuji Yama in Japan
(v) Resi d u al or D i ssect ed m ou n t ai n s
Since t hey owe t heir pr esent for m due t o
er osion by differ ent agencies, so t hey ar e also
cal l ed r el i ct moun t ai n s or moun t ai n s of
ci rcumdenudati on
e.g. Nilgir i, Par asnat h, Gir nar
2. PL ATEAUS
A plateau is an elevated area generally in contrast to
the nearby areas. It has a large area on its top unlike
a mountain and has an extensively even or undulating
surface. The great Deccan Plateau with itsslope towards
east is a tilted plateau in our country.
3. PL AI NS
A relat ively flat and a low-lying land sur face wit h
least differ ence bet ween it s highest and lowest
point s is called plain.
A plain may be as low as 30 met r es t o t he east of
M ississippi river near the Appalachian r ange and
as high as 1,500 met r es above sea level t o the west
of t he r iver.
VOL CANOES
Th e vol cani c ph enomen on i s a majest i c nat ur al
phenomenon.
Cl assi f i cat i on of v ol can oes
On the basis of fr equency of erupti on, vol canoes ar e
classi fi ed as :
1. Act i v e v ol can o
These er upt fair ly frequent ly as compared to others
2. D or m an t or sl eepi n g vol can o
I n t hese er uption has not occurr ed r ecent ly.
e.g. one in Bar ren I sland t o t he east of Andamans in
India
3. Ex t i n ct or An ci en t v ol can o
These have r ecorded no er uption in hist or ic times
ar e called extinct.

EARTH QUAK ES
 Any sudden disturbance below the eart h’s sur face,
may pr oduce vibr at ions or shakings at t he cr ust .
When r ocks br eak, t he par t icles next t o t he br eak
ar e set in mot ion. I t is t he movement of one r ock
mass against anot her t hat causes vibr ations. Some
of t hese vibrations r each t he sur face and ar e called
earthquakes.
 The place of or igin of an ear t hquake inside t he
ear t h is called it s focus.
 The point on t he ear t h’s sur face ver t ically above
t he focus is called epi centr e.
SOI L S
 Soil is a mixt ur e of many solid, liquid and gaseous
subst ances.
 I t for ms t he t opmost layer of ear t h’s cr ust .
 I t has bot h non-living and t he living mat t er like
miner al par t i cl es, decayi ng plant r emai ns and
insect s living t oget her wit h count less bact er ia on
it s or ganic mat t er.
 Soil holds wat er. This moist ur e is t aken in by t he
r oot s of plant s.
 Ther e is ai r in t he open spaces wi t hin t he soil
cont aining mor e of car bon dioxide and also oxygen
and nit r ogen.
 Soil is final pr oduct of t he int er act ions bet ween
weat her ing of under lying r ock, climat e, plant s and
act ivit ies of millions of insect s ear t hwor ms.
U ND ERGROU ND WATER
 Rain-wat er or snow-melt that neither runs off along
the sur face nor evaporat es but sinks into the ground
is called undergr ound water.
 Part of the surface water moves downwards thr ough
pores between mineral grains or cracks between rocks.
 The wat er -hol di ng capaci t y of a r ock mat er i al
depends on t he por e spaces called it s por osi ty.
 Per meabi l i ty is t he pr oper t y of r ocks which allow
wat er t o pass t hr ough t hem.
Wat er Tabl e
Th e l evel bel ow whi ch t he r ock s ar e compl et el y
sat ur at ed wit h wat er is called water tabl e.
Wel l s
Wells ar e man-made holes dug into t he ear t h’s sur face
in or der t o get under gr ound wat er for ir r igat ion or for
human consumpt ion.
A special type of well in which water rises automatically
under t he pr essure of a column of wat er t o t he ground
sur face, eit her t hr ough a nat ur al or man-made hole,
is called ar tesi an wel l .
GEOGRAPHY 4.3
Sp r i n gs
Spr ings ar e places wher e a flow of wat er r ises t o t he
sur face t hr ough nat ur al r ock opening under hydr aulic
pr essur e fr om t he dept h.
A spring or a chain of them are common at the junctions
of per meable and imper meable r ocks.
H ot sp r i n gs an d Gey ser s
The gr ound wat er comes in cont act with t he heat ed or
super heat ed st eam inside t he ear t h and emer ges at
t he sur face as a hot spr i ng.
Geyser is a hot spr ing in which wat er is for ced up by
st eam pr essur e at int er vals.
ATM OSPH ERE
The at mospher e ext ends t o t housands of kilomet er s,
but it has no clear upper limit and it gr adually mer ges
wit h t he out er space.
Comp osi t i on
The at mospher e is a mixt ur e of many discr et e gases,
in which var ying quant it ies of t iny solid par t icles ar e
suspended.
Pu r e d r y ai r con st i t u t es mai n l y of (by vol ume)
Nit r ogen – 78 %
Oxygen – 21%
Remaining one per cent is account ed for by gases
like ar gon (0.93 per cent ) car bon dioxide (0.03 per
cent ) hydr ogen, helium and ozone.
Wat er v ap ou r
 Wat er vapour absor bs par t s of t he insolat ion fr om
t he sun and t hus r educes it s amount r eaching t he
ear t h’s sur face.
 I t also pr eserves t he ear th’s r adiat ed heat . I t t hus,
act s like a blanket allowing t he ear t h neit her t o
become t oo cold nor t oo hot .
 Wat er vapour absor bs heat dur ing t he pr ocess of
evapor at ion.
 Winds transport latent heat along with water vapour
fr om one place t o anot her, wher e t his heat may be
r eleased t hr ough condensat ion and pr ecipit at ion.
D u st p ar t i cl es
 The movement s of the atmosphere ar e sufficient t o
keep a large quantity of tiny solid particles suspended
wit h in it .
 The amount of dust par ticles is more in subt ropical
and t emper at e ar eas because of dr y and wi ndy
conditions t han in t he equatorial and polar r egions.
 These dust par t icles are significant from met eoro-
logical st andpoint.
 Many of these act as hygroscopic nuclei around which
wat er vapour condenses t o produce clouds.
 4.4 GEOGRAPHY
Ot h er Gases
 Carbon dioxide constit utes only 0.03 per cent of t he
volume of t he air. Even so i t is ver y impor t ant
met eor ologically because it is t r anspar ent t o t he
incoming solar r adiat ion but opaque t o out going
t err est rial r adiat ion.
 Ozon e i s ot h er i m por t an t compon en t of t h e
at mospher e. I t act s as a filt er and absor bs ult r a-
violet r adiat ion fr om t he sun. I t is concent r at ed
mai nl y bet ween 10 t o 50 k i lomet r es above t he
ear t h’s sur face.
Atmospher e can br oadl y be di vi ded i nto four l ayer s :
(i ) Tr oposph er e
I t is t he lowest layer of t he at mospher e.
I t ext ends r oughly t o a height of kilomet r es near
t he poles and about 18 kilomet r es at t he equat or.
(i i ) St r at osp h er e
I t ext ends upt o a height of 50 kilomet r es.
I n t he lower par t of t his layer, i .e. upt o a height of
20 kilomet r es, t emper at ur e r emains const ant .
Above 20 km it gr adually incr eases upt o a height
of 50 kilomet r es because of t he pr esence of ozone
layer which absor bs sun’s ult r a-violet r ays.
(i i i )M esosph er e
I t ext ends upt o a height of 80 kilomet r es.
Temper at ur e decr eases wi t h hei ght agai n and
r each es u pt o – 100 ° C at t h e h ei gh t of
80 kilomet r es.
(i v) Th er mosph er e
I n it s lower par t , t her e is an elect r ically char ged
layer called i onospher e
Radi o waves t r ansmi t t ed f r om t he ear t h ar e
r eflect ed back t o t he ear t h by t his layer.
Temper at ur e again st ar t s incr easing wit h height
because of r adiat ion fr om t he sun.
(v) Exosp h er e
H er e at mospher ic gases ar e ver y t hin.
Thi s par t is ext r emely r ar efied and gr aduall y
mer ges wit h t he out er space.
ATM OSPH ERI C PRESSURE
 I t is weight of t he column of air at any given place
and t ime.
 I t is measur ed by means of an inst r ument called
bar ometer . I t is measur ed as a for ce per unit ar ea.
 I t is a ver y impor t ant fact or in pr oducing changes
in our weat her
 Cont r ast s in t emper at ur e cause changes in air
densit y, whi ch ar e r esponsible for var iat ions in
pr essu r e. Th ese var i at i on s cau se h or i zon t al
movement s of air called wi nds.
 I sobar
I t is is an imaginar y line dr awn t hr ough places
having equal at mospher ic pr essur e r educed t o sea
level.
The spacing of isobar s expresses r ate and direct ion
of t he pr essur e changes and is called pr essur e
gr adi ents.
Pr essur e gr adi ent may be defined as t he decr ease
in pr essur e per unit dist ance in t he dir ect ion in
which pr essur e decr eases most r apidly.
 Ther e ar e two types of pr essur e systems
(i) H igh pr essur e
(ii) L ow pr essur e
WI ND S
Ty p es of Wi n d s
(1) Pl an et ar y w i n d s.
 Winds which blow t hr oughout t he year fr om one
latitude to the other in r esponse to the latitudinal
differ ences in air pr essur e, ar e called prevai l ing
wi nds or planetary wi nds.
 These winds blow over vast area of the continents
and oceans.
 Winds for climat e and human act ivit ies
Ty p es of p l an et ar y w i n d s.
(i ) Tr ad e w i n d s : These winds blow fr om sub-
t r opi cal hi gh pr essur e ar ea (30° N and S)
t owar ds t he equat or ial low pr essur e belt and
ar e ext r emely st eady winds.
To blow t r ade means t o blow st eadily in t he
same dir ect ion and in a const ant cour se.
(i i ) West er l i es : These wi nds bl ow fr om sub-
t r opical high pr essur e belt s t owar ds sub-polar
low pr essur e belt s
These blow fr om sout h-west t o nor t h-east in
t he Nor t her n H emispher e and nor t h-west t o
sout h-east in t he Sout her n H emispher e.
(2) Per i od i c w i n d s.
 The winds changing t heir dir ect ion per iodically
w i t h ch ange i n season ar e cal l ed per i odi c
winds.
 M onsoons ar e t he best example of lar ge scale
modificat ion of t he planet ar y wind syst em.
Ty p es of Per i od i c w i n d s :
(i ) M o n so o n w i n d s : T h ese ar e season al
modifi cat ion of t he gener al pl anet ar y wi nd
syst em.
 GEOGRAPHY 4.5

(i i ) L an d an d Sea br eezes : These affect only a EVAPORATI ON

nar r ow str ip along the coast . During day t ime,
t he land get s mor e heat t han t he adjacent sea
and develops low air pr essur e. The sea being
cool, develops a comparatively higher pressur e.
The war m air of t he land being lighter ascends
and it s place is t aken by t he cooler air coming
fr om t he sea, which is called sea breeze. At t he
higher el evat ion, war m air get s cooled and
moves t owar ds t he sea. H ence, sea br eezes
blow during day at the lower level and moderate
the weather of the coastal fringe. At night, rapid
r adi at i on mak es t he l and cool er t han t he
adjoining sea. This r esult s in high pr essur e
over t he land and low pr essur e over t he sea.
Air star ts blowing from land to sea and is called
l and breeze.
(i i i ) M ou n t ai n an d Val l ey br eezes : Dur ing day
t ime, slope of t he mount ain is heat ed mor e
t han t he valley floor. The air fr om t he valley
flows up t he slope, and is called val l ey br eeze.
After sunset t he patt er n is r eversed. Rapid loss
of heat thr ough t er r est r ial r adiat ion along t he
mountain slopes result s in sliding of cold dense
air fr om higher elevat ions t o valleys. This is
called mountai n br eeze.
(3) L ocal w i n d s
L ocal winds develop as a result of local differ ences
in t emper at ur e and pr essur e.
H YD ROSPH ERE
H UM I DI TY
Humidit y is the gener al t erm which describes invisible
amount of wat er-vapour pr esent in t he air.
I t may be expr essed quanti tati vel y as fol l ows :
1. Absol u t e h u mi di t y
Weight of act ual amount of wat er-vapour pr esent
in a unit volume of air is called absolute humidi ty.
I t is usually expr essed as gr ams per cubic met r e of
air.
2. Sp eci f i c h u m i d i t y
Weight of wat er-vapour per unit weight of air, or
proport ion of t he mass of water -vapour t o t he t otal
mass of air is called speci fi c humi di ty.
I t is measur ed in unit s of weight (usually gr ams
per kilogr am),
Rel at i v e h u m i d i t y
I t is t he r at io of air ’s act ual wat er -vapour cont ent t o
it s wat er -vapour capacity at a given t emper at ur e.
I t is t he pr ocess by which wat er is t r ansfor med fr om
liquid t o gaseous for m.
Ra t e of evapor at i on
I t depends on
(i) t emper atur e
(ii) moist ur e cont ent or degr ee of dr yness of air
(i i i ) movement of air
CONDEN SATI ON
 I t is t he pr ocess of change of st at e fr om gaseous t o
liquid or solid st at e.
 When moist air is cooled, it may r each a level when
its capacity t o hold wat er -vapour is exceeded by the
act ual amount pr esent in it .
 I n free air, condensation r esult s from cooling around
ver y small par t icles called condensation nucl ei .
 Condensati on depends on
(i) amount of cooling
(i i ) r elat ive humidit y of t he air
Dew
When t he moist ur e is deposit ed in t he for m of wat er
dr oplets on cooler surface of solid objects such as st ones,
gr ass blades and plant leaves, it is called dew.
Wh i t e F r ost
When condensation takes place at a dew point which is
at or below fr eezing point (0C), excess moist ur e is
deposit ed in t he for m of minut e ice cr yst als inst ead of
dr oplet s of wat er. I t is called whi te fr ost.
Fog
I t is defined as a cloud wit h its base at or ver y near t he
gr ound.
M i st
I n t his t ype of fog, visibilit y is mor e t han 1 kilomet r e
but less t han 2 kilomet r es.
CL OUDS
I t is a mass of minut e dr oplet s of wat er or t iny cr ystals
of ice for med by condensat ion of t he wat er -vapour in
fr ee air at consider able elevat ions.
Cl assi f i cat i on of Cl ou d s on t h e basi s of t h ei r
appear an ce
(i .e. gener al shape, str uctur e and verti cal extent)
(i ) Ci r r u s cl ou ds.
T h ese ar e h i gh , w h i t e an d t h i n . T h ese ar e
composed of ice cr yst als.
(i i ) Cu mu l u s cl ou d s.
These exhibit a flat base and have t he appear ance
of r ising domes.
(i i i ) Str atus cl ouds.
These are best described as sheets of layers that cover
much or all of the sky.
 4.6 GEOGRAPHY
PRECI PI TATI ON
 Condensat ion of wat er -vapour in air in t he for m of
wat er dr oplet s and ice and t heir falling on t he
gr ound is called precipi tati on.
 The pr ecipit at ion in t he for m of dr ops of wat er is
called rai nfal l.
 When t emper at ur e is less t han 0C, pr ecipit at ion
t akes place in the for m of fine flakes of snow and is
called snow-fal l.
 Sl eet is fr ozen raindr ops and re-fr ozen melt ed snow
wat er. I t may be a mixt ur e of snow and r ain or
mer ely par t ially melt ed snow.
 Precipitat ion in t he for m of hard rounded pellet s is
called hai l.
OCEANS
Su bm ar i n e Tr en ch es or D eep s
 These are deepest par ts of the oceans with their
bottoms far below the average level of the ocean floors.
 A long, nar r ow and st eep sided depr ession on t he
ocean bot t om is called tr ench.
Su bmar i n e Can yon s
 These ar e deep gor ges on t he ocean floor.
 These ar e st rikingly deep valleys wit h st eep slopes
t hat for m long, concave pr ofiles.
Paci f i c Ocean
 I t is lar gest of all t he wat er bodies.
 Toget her wit h it s associat ed seas, it cover s about
one-t hir d of t he ear t h’s sur face and exceeds t ot al
land ar ea of t he wor ld in size.
 I t is t he deepest of all oceans.
 The major por t ion of t he basin has an aver age
dept h of about 7,300 met r es.
 This vast ocean is dot t ed wit h mor e t han 20,000
islands.
At l an t i c Ocean
 I t is r oughly half t he size of t he Pacific Ocean and
cover s about one-sixt h of t he ear t h’s t ot al ar ea.
 I t r esembles t he let t er S in shape.
 I t has numer ous mar gi nal seas on bot h sides,
especially in it s nor t her n par t .
 I t 's most st r i k i n g feat u r e i s t h e pr esence of
mid-At lant ic Ridge. I t ext ends fr om t he nor t h t o
the south paralleling the S shape of the ocean itself.
I n d i an Ocean
 I t is smaller t han t he At lant ic Ocean.
 I t aver age dept h i s 4,000 met r es w h i ch i s
compar at ively lesser t han t hat of ot her oceans.
 The floor has fewer ir regularities in compar ison to
the other two oceans. Linear deeps are almost absent.
The only except ion is the Sunda Trench, which lies
south of t he island of Java and runs parallel t o it.
OCEAN WATERS
 Temper at ur e and sal ini t y of t he ocean wat er,
det er mine movement s of lar ge masses of wat er.
 Temperature decreases according to the increasing
dept h of t he ocean.
 Gener ally, t emper at ur e in ocean wat er s var ies
fr om below – 5°C t o over 33°C.
 H eat i n g of ocean w at er
There are two main pr ocess of heati ng ocean water:
(i) By absor pt ion of r adiat ion fr om t he sun
(ii) By convect i on of heat t hr ou gh t he ocean
bot t om fr om int er ior of t he ear t h.
 Cool i n g of ocean w at er
Ther e ar e t hr ee main pr ocesses of cooling ocean
wat er.
(i) Back r adiat ion of heat fr om t he sea sur face
(ii) Convect ion
(iii) Evaporation
M OVEM ENT OF WATER
Facts r esponsi bl e for movement of water ar e fol l ows.
1. Sal i n i t y
 Sea wat er cont ains a number of dissolved salt s
which r esult in t he pr oper t y of salinit y.
 The salinity is expressed as the number of gr ams
of dissolved salt s in 1,000 gr ams of sea wat er.
 Aver age salinit y of t he sea wat er is about 35
per t housand or 35%, which means t hat in one
kilogr am of sea wat er t her e ar e 35 gr ams of
dissolved salts.
2. Wav es
 Waves ar e osci ll at or y movement s i n wat er,
manifest ed by an alt er nat e r ise and fall of t he
sea sur face.
 Top par t of a wave is called it s cr est and lower
par t bet ween t wo waves is called tr ough.
 The time t aken by two consecutive cr ests to pass
any fixed point is called wave per i od.
 The ver t ical dist ance bet ween a t r ough and a
cr est is called wave hei ght.
Wave length (L)
Velocit y of wave, C =
Period (T)
 Si ze and for ce of waves depend on three factor s:
(i) Velocit y of t he wind
(ii) Dur at ion of t he wind
(i i i ) Dist ance over which t he wind can blow
unhindered.
 As t he waves move away fr om t he winds t hat
dist ur b smoot hness of sea sur face, t hey begin
t o move in an unifor m pat t er n of equivalent
per iod and height . These t r ains of waves ar e
called swel ls.

3. Ocean cu r r en t s
I t is gener al movement of a mass of wat er in a
fair ly defined dir ect ion over gr eat dist ances.
I t can br oadl y di vi ded i nto two cl asses :
(i ) War m cu r r en t s :
These flow from low latit udes in Tr opical zones
t owar ds high lat it udes in t he Temper at e and
sub-polar zones.
(i i ) Col d cu r r en t s :
These flow fr om high lat it udes t owar ds low
latitudes.
TI D ES
 Sea-water rises regularly twice a day at constant
intervals. This is periodic phenomenon of alternate
rise and fall in the level of the seas is called tides.
 These are produced as a gravitational interaction of
the earth, moon and the sun.
 The sun by virt ue of its bigger size should at tr act
more but owing to its greater distance from the earth
it is unable t o exer t much influence. The moon
t hough much smal l er i n size t han t he sun, i s
relatively very close t o the ear th, and is thus able to
att ract more t han t he sun.
 On the full moon and the new moon, moon and the sun
are almost in a line with the earth. Hence they exert
their combined pull on the earth. Therefore, on these
two days tides are highest and are called as spring tides.
When t he moon is at fir st and last quar t er, t he sun
and t he moon make a r ight angle at t he ear t h’s
cent r e. The at t r act ion of t he sun and t he moon
t ends t o balance each ot her. As a r esult , t ides wit h
l owest ampli t ude occur. These t ides ar e cal led
neap ti des.
 Tides also occur in t he ar ms of t he sea called gulfs.
Gulfs wit h wide fr om and nar r ow r ears exper ience
higher t ides. The height of t hese t ides may be t en
met r es or mor e. When a gulf is connect ed wit h t he
open sea by a nar r ow channel, wat er flows int o t he
gulf at t he t ime of high t ide and comes out of t he
gulf at low t ide. This movement of wat er, inwar d
and out war d is called ti dal cur rent.
GEOGRAPHY 4.7
B I OSPH ERE
 I t r efer s t o t hat par t of t he ear t h in which all life
for ms exist .
 Organisms or life forms in the biosphere vary in size
from minut e bact eria t o large whales or huge tr ees.
 Al l or gani sms may br oadl y be gr ouped under two
categor i es :
(i) Plant kingdom
(i i ) Animal kingdom
 H u man bei ngs ar e one of t he speci es of t he
biospher e called H omo sapi ens.
 St udy of t he int er act ions bet ween or ganisms and
t heir envir onment is called ecol ogy.
 All l i fe for ms ar e made of pr i mari l y three most
abundant elements
Carbon, H ydrogen and Oxygen
Ot her element s such as ni t r ogen, i r on, sulfur,
phosphorus and manganese are required only in small
quantities. These elements are also called nutrients.
 Tr ansfer of ener gy in t he ecosyst em t akes place
in a ser ies of st eps or levels, called food chai n.
Fi r st l evel i n t he food chain ar e plant s call ed
pr oducers. They use light ener gy t o convert carbon
dioxide and wat er t o pr oduce car bohydr at es and
eventually to ot her biochemical molecules required
t o suppor t life. This pr ocess of ener gy conver sion
is called photosynthesi s.
Secon d l evel of t he food chai n ar e pr i mar y
con su mer. T h ese ar e pl an t eat i n g an i mal s
(her bivor es) such as insect s, mice and goat .
Third l evel are the secondar y consumer s, who feed
on t he pr imar y consumer s (car nivor es) such as
owl and lion.
Some of t he species ar e called omni vor es because
t hey ar e bot h her bivor es and car nivor es. H uman
beings come under t his cat egor y.
Decomposer s (microscopic organisms and bacteria)
feed on t he det r it us or decaying or ganic mat t er
der ived fr om all levels. They help in r ecycling
miner al nut r ient s int o ecosyst em and t hus food
chain is complet ed.
 4.8 GEOGRAPHY
I N DI AN GEOGRAPH Y
L OCATI ONAL SETTI NG
 I ndia is often described as a sub-conti nent and is a
par t of the Asian continent.
 I t sprawls between snowy height s of t he H imalaya
and shor es of the I ndian Ocean.
 The countr y get s an abundance of sunshine from
t he t ropical sun and moist ure from t he splashing
monsoon r ains.
 I ndia is sit uat ed in t he Nor t her n H emispher e.
 The Tropic of Cancer passes approximately through
t he middle r egion of t he count r y.
 The nor t her n-most fr inge of I ndia consist s of a
mount ain syst em which r adiat es fr om t he Pamir s,
r oof of t he wor ld, in t he hear t of Asia.
 The hot and humid K anyakumar i const it ut es t he
sout her n-most t ip wher e t he I ndian peninsula,
gett ing narr ower and nar rower, loses itself into t he
ocean.
 Distance from nor thern-most to the southern-most
point s in t he mainland of I ndia is about 3,200
kil omet r es.
 East t o w est , I n di a i s appr oxi mat el y 3,000
kilomet r es long.
 Acr oss t he east er n bor der s of I ndia and t he Bay of
Bengal lie Myanmar (Burma). M alaysia, I ndonesia,
Th ai l and, Cambodi a (K ampu chea), L aos and
Viet nam.
 Acr oss t he west er n bor der s of I ndia lie Pakist an,
I r an, I r aq and t he Ar ab count r ies.
PH YSI OGRAPH I C DI VI SI ON S
At the macr o l evel I ndi a may be di vi ded i nto thr ee
physiographi c uni ts :
1. H I M AL AYAN M OUN TAI N CH AI N
I t consist s of a ser ies of par allel mount ain r anges
wit h bold r elief and ar e char act er ised by highly
r ugged topography.
H i m al ay an M ou n t ai n
H i m al ayan m ou n t ai n ch ai n , al l al on g i t s
longi tudinal axis, is arranged into three main series
of a par al lel ranges :
(i) Great Himalayas
(ii) L esser Himalayas
(iii) Sub-Himalayas
Ot her s as inner, middle and t he out er H imalayas.
I nner H i mal ayas which have an aver age alt it ude
of 6,000 met r es h ave w i t hi n t hem al most al l
pr ominent H imalayan peaks such as
– Mt. Everest (8,848 m), called Sagarmatha in Nepal
and Chomol angma in China
– K anchenjunga (8, 598 m)
– Nanga Par bat (8, 126 m)
– Nanda Devi (7,817 m)
– K2 (8611 m)
– Namcha Bar wa (7,756 m).
2. PL AI N OF I N D I A
I t occupies t he space bet ween Plat eau and t he
nor t her n mountains.
Evolut ion of t he plain is at t r ibut ed t o a pr ocess of
gr adual filling of an init ial r ift valley st r et ched in
fr ont of t he nor t her n mount ains and for med as a
consequence of a fr act ur e in t he cr ust .
(a) Bhabar
(b) Tar ai
(c) Bhangar
(d) Khadar
(e) Deltaic plain
3. PENI N SUL AR PL ATEAU
I t is a block of old cr yst al r ocks lift ed above t he
level of sea in which t hese r ocks wer e deposit ed in
t he Pr e-Cambr ian t imes and never submer ged
again.
I SL A N D S
 I ndian islands in t he Bay of Bengal consist of t he
Andaman and t he Nicobar gr oups.
 Ther e ar e as many as 200 islands in t he Andaman
gr oup alone, ext ending for 350 kilomet r es.
 Ther e ar e 19 islands in t he Nicobar gr oup. Some
of the islands have a length of 60 to 100 km, forming
a clust er sout h of t he Andaman gr oup.
 Arabian Sea I slands consist of Lakshadweep group.
They ar e for med on a cor al deposit off t he K er ala
coast . The sout her most of t he t hese islands lies
just t o t he nor t h of t he M aldives.
REL I EF AN D D RAI N AGE
 The land of I ndia is char act er ised by great diversit y
in it s r elief and dr ainage.
 The H imalaya link t hese diver se cult ur e-gr oups in
a thread which runs invisibly all along the mountain
r ange.
 Nort h I ndian Plain is an ar ea of level and low r elief
an d i t s compar at i vel y u n i f or m su r f ace i s as
impr essive as it s vast ext ent .
 GEOGRAPHY 4.9

DRAI NAGE GEN ERAL I N F ORM AT I ON

On the basi s of or i gi n, the r i ver systems of I ndi a can
WORL D’S B I GGEST COU NT RI ES
be cl assi fi ed i nto two categor i es:
(i n or d er of p op u l at i on )
1. Himalayan r iver s
N ame Popu l at i on Con ti n en t
 These have lar ge basins, t heir cat chment ar eas
(i n Mi l l i on s)
extending over hundreds of t housands of squar e
kil omet r es. China 1, 264.5 Asia
 The I ndus dr ains over an ar ea of appr oximat ely India 1, 002.1 Asia
250,000 sqk m wi t hi n t he H i mal ayan r egi on USA 275.6 Nor t h Amer ica
alone.
I ndonesia 212.2 Asia
 H imalayan r ivers is per ennial.
Brazil 170.1 Sout h America
 H i mal ayan r i ver s whi ch have evol ved t hr ough
Pakist an 150.6 Asia
a l ong and chequer ed hi st or y, con si st of t he
t hr ee pr i nci pal syst ems : Russia 145.2 Europe-Asia
(i) Indus Bangladesh 28.1 Asia
(ii) Ganga Japan 126.9 Asia
(iii) Brahmaputra Nigeria 123.3 Africa
B asi c ar ea of H i m al ay an r i v er s. WORL D ’S SM AL L EST COU N TRI ES
Ri ver s Tot al ba si n Ba si n a r ea w i t h (i n or d er of p op u l at i on )
(km 2) a r ea i n I n d i a (k m 2) N ame Popu l at i on L ocat i on
Indus 1,165,000 321,290 Vatican City 900 Europe
Ganga 1,060,000 861,404 Tuvalu 10, 588 Sout h Pacific
Brahmaputra 580,000 187,110 Nauru 10, 605 Sout h Pacific
2. Pen i n su l ar r i ver s Palau 18, 467 West Pacific
 These flow t hr ough shallow valleys which ar e San Marino 25, 061 Europe
mor e or less complet ely gr aded in most cases. L iecht enst ein 32, 057 Europe
 A lar ge number of t hem ar e seasonal as t heir Manaco 32, 149 Europe
flow is mainly dependent on r ainfall.
St. K it t s-Nevis 45, 000 Eastern
 Many of the Peninsular rivers have, st raight and Caribbean
gener ally linear cour ses.
WORL D’S B I GGEST COU NT RI ES
East f l ow i n g p en i n su l ar r i v er s
(i n or d er of ar ea)
1. Kaveri
N ame Con ti n en t
2. Krishna Russia Europe-Asia
3. Godavari Canada Nor t h Amer ica
4. Mahanadi China Asia
West f l ow i n g p en i n su l ar r i v er s USA Nor t h Amer ica
1. Narmada Brazil Sout h America
Austr alia Austr alia
2. Tapi
India Asia
3. Sabar mati
Argentina Sout h America
4. Mahi
Kazakhstan Asia
5. Saravati Sudan Africa
4.10 GEOGRAPHY

WORLD SM ALLEST COU N TRI ES

(in order of area)

N ame Si ze(i n sq. k m.) L oca tion

Vat ican Ci ty 0.44 Eur ope
M onaco 1.95 Eur ope
N aur u 21.10 Sout h Paci fi c
T uval u 26.00 Sout h Paci fi c
San M ar i no 61.00 Eur ope
L iech t enst ei n 160.00 Eur ope
M ar shal l I sl an ds 181.00 Cen t ral Paci fi c
St . K i t ts-N evi s 269.00 East ern Car i bbean
M al dives 298.00 I ndi an Ocean
M al t a 316.00 M edi t err an ean

LON GEST RI VERS OF TH E WORLD

River Continent Approximate Length River Continent Approximate
Length
(miles) k m. miles k m.
Ni le Afr ica 4,000 6,400 Ob Asia 2,110 3,400
Amazon South 4,000 6,400 I ndus Asia 1,900 3,060
Amer ica
Yangtze Asia 3,430 5,488 San South 1,800 2,900
(Chang- Fr ancisco Amer ica
Jiang) Rio Gr ande Nor t h 1,800 2,900
Amer ica
Yel low Asia 2,900 4,700 Br ahmaputr a Asia 1,800 2,900
(Hwang Ho) Danube Eur ope 1,750 2,820
Cango Afr ica 2,900 4,700 Euphr ates Asia 1,700 2,740
Missour i Nor t h 2,710 4,360 Or inoco South 1,700 2,740
Amer ica Amer ica
Amur Asia 2,700 4,345 Zambezi Afr ica 1,600 2,575
L ena Asia 2,650 4,260 Murr ay Australia 1,600 2,575
Niger Afr ica 2,600 4,180 Ganges Asia 1,560 2,510
M ekong Asia 2,600 4,180 Arkanas Nor t h 1,450 2,330
Amer ica
Mackenzie Nor t h 2,514 4,046 Dnieper Eur ope 1,420 2,290
Peace Amer ica
Mississippi Nor t h 2,350 3,780 Color ado Nor t h 1,400 2,250
Amer ica Amer ica
St . Nor t h 2,350 3,780 I rrawaddy Asia 1,300 2,090
L awr ence Amer ica
Volga Eur ope 2,290 3,685 Tigr is Asia 1,150 1,850
 GEOGRAPHY 4.11

LARGEST I SLAN DS OF TH E WORLD

I sland Location Ar ea
(sq.mi.) (sq.km.)

Gr eenland (int egr al par t of Denmar k) Atlant ic Ocean 840.000 2,166,086

New Guinea (west er n sect ion is called I r ian Jaya and is Pacific Ocean 312.000* 808,000
par t of I ndonesia; east er n sect ion for ms most of Papua
New Guinea, which gained it s independence in 1975)

Bor neo (sout her n par t is par t of I ndonesia; nor t her n par t is Pacific Ocean 287,000* 743,300
made up of Sult anat e of Br unei and t wo st at es of M alaysia)

Madagascar (independent countr y) I ndian Ocean 226,657 587,041

Baffin (par t of Canada) Ar ct ic Ocean 183,810 476,067
Sumat r a (par t of I ndonesia) I ndian Ocean 182,860 473,607

Gr eat Br it ain (consist ing of England, Scot land, and Wales) Atlant ic Ocean 88,760 229,885

H onshu (one of t he main islands of Japan) Pacific Ocean 88,000* 228,000

Ellesmer e (par t of Canada) Ar ct ic Ocean 82,119 212,688

Vict or ia (par t of Nor t hwest Ter r it or ies, Canada) Ar ct ic Ocean 81,930 212,199

Sulawesi or Celebes (par t of I ndonesia) Pacific Ocean 72,987 189,036

Sout h I sland (par t of New Zealand) Pacific Ocean 58,093 150,461

Java (par t of I ndonesia) Pacific Ocean 48,000* 126,392

Nor t h I sland (par t of New Zealand) Pacific Ocean 44,281 114,688

Cuba (independent countr y) Car ibbean Sea 44,218 114,525

Newfoundland (par t of Canada) Atlant ic Ocean 43,359 112,300

L uzon (one of t he main island of Philippines) Pacific Ocean 41,000* 106,200

I celand (independent count r y) Atlant ic Ocean 39,768 103,000

M indanao (one of t he main islands of Philppines) Pacific Ocean 37,000* 95,800

I r eland (sout her n par t is an independent count r y; nor t her n Atlant ic Ocean 32,597 84,426
par t is par t of t he Unit ed K ingdom)

H okkaido (one of t he main islands of Japan) Pacific Ocean 30,077 77,899

H ispaniola (east er n par t is t he Dominican Republic; Car ibbean Sea 29,530 76,484
west er n par t is H ait i)

Sr i L anka (independent count r y) I ndian Ocean 25,332 65,610

Tasmania (Aust r alian st at e) Pacific Ocean 24,450 63,326

* Appr oximate ar ea.

4.12 GEOGRAPHY

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 11. To which count r y does t he t r adi t ional mar t ial
1. Which of t he following count r ies is not adjacent for m Taekwondo belong ?
t o Afghanist an ? (a) K or ea (b) Japan
(a) Uzbekistan (b) Tur kmenist an (c) China (d) Cuba
(c) Tajikistan (d) Russia 12. I ndian por t t hat bagged t he I SO 9002 awar d is
2. Which is not a neighbour ing st ate of Jhar khand ? (a) Paradip (b) Visakhapatnam
(a) Madhya Pr adesh (b) Bihar (c) Haldia (d) Tut icor in
(c) West Bengal (d) Or issa 13. Which US rice gr owing company has been granted
t he pat ent of I ndian Basmat i ?
3. Tamil Nadu coast r eceives r ains bot h in summer
(a) Kasmati (b) Tax Rice
and wint er due t o t he influence of
(c) Rice Tec (d) Texmat i
(a) L and and sea br eezes
14. Which of t he following count r ies has t he second
(b) Fr equent cyclones fr om t he Bay of Bengal
lar gest r ail net wor k in t he wor ld ?
(c) S. W. monsoon in summer and N. E. t r ade (a) India (b) U.S.A.
winds in wint er
(c) Russia (d) China
(d) Near ness t o equat or
15. Hindi is wr itten in the Devanagr i Scr ipt. I n which
4. H BJ pipelines car r y nat ur al gas fr om of t he following scr ipt s is Punjabi wr it t en ?
(a) H at hr as t o Bat hinda and Jhansi (a) Sanskr it (b) I ndo-I ranian
(b) Hoshangabad t o Bilaspur and Jabalpur (c) Gur mukhi (d) Devnagr i
(c) H azir a t o Bijaipur and Jagdishpur LEVEL-1
(d) H issar t o Bar mer and Jaisalmer
1. H i r akud dam has been buil t on t he r iver
5. Whi ch one of t he fol l owi ng shi pyar ds bui l ds
war ships for I ndian Navy ? (a) Cauver y (b) Mahanadi
(a) M azgaon Docks, M umbai (c) Kr ishna (d) Yamuna
(b) Cochin Shipyar d, Kochi 2. Wi t h r efer ence t o wat er poll ut ion, BOD means
(c) Hindustan Shipyar d, Visakhapatnam (a) Bi ochemical Oxygen Di lut i on
(d) Gar den Reach Wor kshop, K olkat a (b) Bi ochemical Oxygen Demand
6. The r ank of I ndia in t he cat egor y of The Best (c) Bi o Or ganic Dissol ut es
Educat ion Syst em in Asia is
(d) Basic Or gani c Dissolut es
(a) 4 (b) 3
3. A pp r ox , p er cen t age of ox y gen i n E ar t h 's
(c) 5 (d) 2
at mospher e is
7. The fir st air line to allow flyer s to sur f the net was
(a) 17% (b) 21%
(a) United Air lines
(c) 25% (d) 33%
(b) Singapor e Air lines
(c) Emir at es Air lines 4. L unar Ecl ipse occur s only on a
(d) Air Canada (a) Fi r st quar t er day (b) New moon day
8. Which country is geographically in Nor th America (c) Full moon day (d) L ast quar t er day
but polit ically a par t of Eur ope ? 5. M i r ages gener ally occur in
(a) I celand (b) Gr eenland (a) mount ai ns (b) for est s
(c) Canar y I sland (d) Cuba (c) deser t s (d) sea
9. Wi t h whi ch count r y woul d you associ at e t he 6. I n Oct ober 2014 a cyclone hit Vishak hapat nam.
r eligion Shint oism ?
The name of t he cyclone was
(a) Japan (b) Tibet
(a) K at r ina
(c) Malaysia (d) Vietnam
(b) Hudhud
10. Which cit y is known for it s chiken embr oider y ?
(c) L ai la
(a) Ujjain (b) L uck now
(c) Pune (d) Sur at (d) H el en
 GEOGRAPHY 4.13

7. Which National Park is known for the 'Asiatic 2. Aver age Albedo (over all) of t he Ear t h is:
Lions' ? (a) 5 × 106 candela/day
(a) Corbett National Park (b) 5 × 107 candela/day
(b) Kanha National Park (c) 30 t o 35%
(c) Bandipur National Park
(d) 60 t o 65%
(d) Gir National Park
3. T he i l l u mi n at i on of a beam of l i gh t due t o
8. The Indian Standard Time (I.S.T.) is ahead of scat t er ing on collision wit h par t icles suspended
Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.) by : in a fluid, is called:
(a) 6 hours (a) Raman effect (b) Tyndall effect
(b) 5 hours (c) Snell's effect (d) H uygens effect
(c) 6 hours 30 minutes
4. I nt ensit y of ear t hquake is measur ed in -
(d) 5 hours 30 minutes
(a) Bar omet er scale (b) Pyr omet er scale
9. Red rot is a plant disease which affects :
(c) Tachomet er scale (d) Richt er scale
(a) Wheat (b) Rice
5. Sever al nat ions ar e following a pr ot ocol which
(c) Sugarcane (d) Cotton bi nds t hem t o r educe emi ssi on t ar get s. Thi s
10. Which one of the following is also known as Red pr ot ocol was adopt ed in:
Planet ?
(a) K yoto, Japan (b) Geneva, Swit zer land
(a) Mercury (b) Venus
(c) New Yor k, USA (d) Par is, Fr ance
(c) Earth (d) Mars
6. Which of these r ocks would have alumina as their
11. Galena is an ore of : main component ?
(a) Lead (b) Copper (a) Siliceous (b) Ar gillaceous
(c) Aluminium (d) Iron
(c) Calcar eous (d) I gneous
12. Identify the city which faced large scale
7. Which of t he following phenomenon is r elat ed t o
destructions due to 'Hudhud' cyclone recently ?
t he for mat ion of clouds?
(a) Chennai (b) Vishakhapatnam
(a) Condensation
(c) Kolkata (d) Hyderabad
(b) Evapor ation
13. The most effective farming method for returning
(c) Sublimation
minerals to the soil is
(a) Contour ploughing (d) Vulcanization

(b) Terracing 8. El Nino effect is:

(c) Crop rotation (a) Development of low pr essur e ar eas in sout h
east Asian r egion
(d) Furrowing
(b) Reduct ion in ice caps r esult ing in var iat ion in
14. Winter rains in North-Western India are caused
in solat ion absor pt ion
by
(c) Prolonged warming in the Pacific Ocean surface
(a) Western Disturbances
ar ea
(b) South West Monsoon
(d) Sust ained t or nados in t he east er n coast of
(c) South Easterly Disturbances Nor t h Amer ica
(d) Easterly Disturbances 9. River Damoder is called t he 'Sor r ow of ' .
15. Kaziranga National Park is in (a) Assam (b) Bengal
(a) Uttar Pradesh (b) Tamil Nadu (c) Or issa (d) Ut t ar Pr adesh
(c) Assam (d) Kerala 10. Woollen clot hes keep t he body war m in wint er
LEVEL-2 because-
1. Appr oximat e quant it y of CO2 in t he at mospher e (a) Wool is a bad conduct or of heat
in PPM (par t s per million) is: (b) Wool is a good conduct or of heat
(a) 2 (b) 20 (c) Wool incr eases body t emper at ur e
(c) 200 (d) 400 (d) Wool decr eases body t emper at ur e
4.14 GEOGRAPHY
11. Age of a Tr ee may be ascer t ained by : 13. I dent i fy t he cycl one whi ch caused l ar ge scal e
(a) Radius of it s St em dest r uct i ons i n Vi shak hapat nam t hi s year i n
Oct ober ?
(b) Number of Annual Rings
(a) Phailin (b) Katr ina
(c) Number of Br anches
(c) Hudhud (d) Nilofar
(d) Cir cumfer ence of it s St em
14. Which one of t he following is r enewable r esour ce?
12. The ozone layer is useful for living beings because:
(a) Coal (b) Pet r ol eum
(a) I t ser ves as t he sour ce of oxygen
(c) Natur al Gas (d) Wind
(b) I t maint ains t he t emper at ur e of t he ear t h
15. Which of t hese will not he oxidised by Ozone ?
(c) I t maint ains t he Nit r ogen cycle of t he ear t h
(a) KI (b) FeSO4
(d) I t pr otects t hem fr om har mful ult r aviolet r ays
of t he sun (c) KMnO4 (d) K 2MnO4

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (c)
 5
CHAPTER
CON STI TU EN T ASSEM BLY
 Accor ding t o t he r ecommendat ions of t he Cabinet
M ission in 1946, t he Const it uent Assembly was
elect ed indir ect ly by t he Pr ovincial Assemblies in
July 1946.
 Constit uent Assembly had 389 member s including
93 r epr esent at ives of t he Pr incely st at es.
 Congr ess had 211 members and the Muslim League
had 73 member s.
 On 11t h December 1946, t he Assembly elect ed
Dr. Rajendr a Pr asad as it s Pr esident .
 Aft er par tit ion, the Constit uent Assembly was left
wit h only 299 member s.
 On 29t h August , 1947 it appoint ed a Dr aft ing
Commit t ee under t he Chair manship of Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar.
 Ot her member s of t he Dr aft ing Commit t ee wer e
N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar, Alladikr ishan Swami
Ayy ar , K .M . M u n sh i , Sayy i d M d. Saadu l l a,
N. M adhava Rao and D.P. K hait an.
 Const i t ut i on was publ i shed i n Feb. 1948 and
received President’s signature on 26 Nov. 1949 and
was declar ed as passed
 Const it ut ion was officially implement ed on 26t h
Januar y 1950 (dat ed of commencement ).
TH E PREAM BLE
The Preamble as amended in 1976 reads
We t he people of I ndia having solemnly r esolved t o
const it ut e I ndia int o a sover eign Socialist Secular
Democr at ic Republic, and t o secur e t o all it s cit izens.
Just ice social , economic and poli t i cal . L i ber t y of
thought expression, belief, faith and worship. Equality
of st at us and of oppor t unit y; and t o pr omot e among
t hem al l . Fr at er ni t y assur i ng t he di gni t y of t he
individual and t he unit y & int egr it y of t he Nat ion.
“ I n our Constit uent Assembly t his twent y sixt h day of
November 1949 do her eby adopt , enact and give t o
our selves t his Const it ut ion” .
INDIAN POLITY
M eaning and Words in the Preamble
 We the People of I ndia
I t si gn i f i es t h at t h e con st i t u t i on of I n di a i s
or di nat ed by t he peopl e of I ndi a t hr ough t hei r
r epr esen t at i v es assem bl ed i n a sov er ei gn
Const it ut ion Assembly. Thus it declar es t hat t he
ult imat e sover eignt y lies wit h t he people of I ndia.
 Sover eign
I t means t hat t he count r y is fr ee or independent in
i t s ext er nal and i nt er nal mat t er s, t her e i s no
ext er nal subor dination.
 Social ist
I nser t ed in t he Pr eamble by t he 42nd Amendment
Act 1976 it int ended t o give a posit ive dir ect ion t o
the gover nment in for mulating its policies. I t meant
r educing in equalit y in societ y.
 Secular
I t was inser t ed by t he 42nd Amendment Act 1976.
I t means
(i ) t her e is no official r eligion of I ndia
(ii ) t he St at e wi l l not favour or pr omot e any
par t icular r egion.
 D emocr at i c
I t en v i sages n ot on l y a dem ocr at i c f or m of
gover nment but also a democr atic society. As a for m
of gover nment it envisages r epr esent at ive for m of
government.
 Republ i c
I t implies that head of the I ndian state shall neither
be her edit ar y nor dict at or. H e shall be elect ed by
t he people dir ect ly or indir ect ly.
 L iber t y
I t means fr eedom of t hough, expr ession, beli ef,
fait h and wor ship.
 E qualit y
I t means making all discr imination illegal by stat e.
 F r at er nit y
I t means secur ing t he dignity of t he individual and
unit y and int egr it y of t he nat ion.
5.2 INDIAN POLITY

PRESI DEN TS OF I N DI A
N ame Term of PRI M E M I N I STERS OF I N DI A
Office
N ame Term of Office
Dr. Rajendr a Pr asad 1950 - 1962
Jawahar lal Nehr u Aug 15, 1947 - M ay 27, 1964
Dr. Sar vapalli Radhakr ishnan 1962-1967
Guljar i L al Nanda M ay 27, 1964 - June 9, 1964
Dr. Zakir H usain 1967-1969
Var ahagir i Venkat a Gir i May-July L al Bahadur Shastr i June 9, 1964 - Jan 11, 1966
1969 (Acting) Gulijar i L al Nanda Jan 11, 1966 - Jan 24, 1966
Justice Mohammed H idayat ullah July - Aug I ndir a Gandhi Jan 24, 1966 - M ar 24, 1977
1969 (Acting)
M or ar ji Desai M ar 24, 1977 - July 28, 1977
V.V.Gir i 1969-1974
Fakhr uddin Ali Ahmed 1974-1977 Char an Singh July 28, 1979 - Jan 14, 1980

B.D.Jatti Feb-July 1977 I ndir a Gandhi Jan 14, 1980 - Oct 31,1984
(Acting)
Rajiv Gandhi Oct 31, 1984 - Dec 2, 1989
Neelam Sanjeev Reddy 1977-1982
V.P.Singh Dec 2 , 1989 - Nov 9, 1990
Giani Zail Sing 1982- 1987
Chandr asekar Nov 10, 1990 - June 21, 1991
R. Venkat ar aman 1987-1992
P.V. Nar asimha Rao June 21, 1991 - May 15, 1996
Dr. Shankar Dayal Shar ma 1992-1997
K .R. Nar ayanan 1997-2002 A.B. Vajpayee May 16, 1996 - M ay 31, 1996

A.P.J. Abdul K alam 2002-2007 H .D. Deve Gowda June 1, 1996 - Apr il 20, 1997

Pr at ibha Patil 2007-2012 I .K.Gujr al April 21, 1997 - March 19,1998

Pr anab M ukher ji 2012-2017 At al Bihar i Vajpayee M ar ch 19, 1998 -Oct . 13,
Ram Nat h K ovind Fr om 2017 1999

At al Bihar i Vajpayee Oct . 13, 1999 - 22 M ay 2004

VI CE PRESI DEN TS OF I N DI A
Dr. M anmohan Singh M ay 22, 2004 – 26 M ay 2014
N ame Term of
Office Nar endr a M odi Fr om M ay 26, 2014
Dr. S. Radha K r ishnan 1952-1962
Dr. Zakir H usain 1962-1967
V.V.Gir i 1967-1969
Gopal Swar up Pat hak 1969-1974
B.D.Jatti 1974-1979
Mohammed Hidayatullah 1979-1984
R. Venkat ar aman 1984-1987
Dr. Shankar Dayal Shar ma 1987-1992
K .R. Nar ayanan 1992-1997
K r ishan K ant 1997-2002
Bhair on Singh Shekhawat 2002-2007
Shr i M ohammad H amid Ansar i,
also r e-elect ed in 2012 2007 -2017
Shr i Venkaiah Naidu 2017 t ill dat e
 INDIAN POLITY 5.3

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 9. I n which one of the following ar eas does the St ate
Gover nment not have cont r ol over i t s l ocal
1. N am e t h e com m i t t ee f or t he fr amewor k of
bodies ?
r est r uct ur ed r ailways.
(a) Citizen’s grievances
(a) Jain Commit t ee
(b) Financial mat t er s
(b) Venkat achelliah Commit t ee
(c) L egislat ion
(c) Rakesh M ohan Commit t ee
(d) Per sonnel mat t er s
(d) Dines Goswami Commit t ee
10. Dur ing I ndian Decennial Census Oper at ions
2. Who i s l egal l y compet ent under t he I ndi an
Const it ut ion t o declar e war or conclude peace ? (a) Only I ndians on I ndian soil ar e count ed
(a) The pr esident (b) Both I ndians and for eigner s on I ndian soil ar e
(b) The Pr ime M inist er counted
(c) The Council of M inist er s (c) Bot h I ndians by bir t h and by domicile only
(d) The Par liament ar e count ed
3. What i s t he maxi mum number of mi ni st er s (d) None of t hese
allowed in t he union Cabinet ? 11. As per t he last I ndian Decennial Census, ...... is
(a) 15 (b) 28 t he most lit er at e St at e in t he count r y.
(c) 39 (d) Ther e is no such limit (a) Delhi (b) Mahar ashtr a
4. What is t he minimum age laid down for a per son (c) Ker ala (d) Tamilnadu
t o seek elect ion t o t he L ok Sabha ? 12. As per the Constitut ion of I ndia, a citizen of I ndia
(a) 18 Year s (b) 21 Year s should not be less t han ......... of age t o become
(c) 25 Year s (d) 30 Year s t he Pr esident of I ndia.
5. Which ar t icle of t he Const it ut ion of I ndia gives (a) 30 year s (b) 35 year s
pr ecedence t o const it ut ional pr ovisions over t he (c) 40 year s (d) 50 year s
l aws m ade by t h e U n i on Par l i am en t /St at e
L egislat ur es? 13. Elect r onic Vot ing M achines (EVM s) wer e fir st
used in t he elect ions held in t he year
(a) 13 (b) 32
(a) 1996 (b) 1997
(c) 245 (d) 326
(c) 1998 (d) 1999
6. The meet ings of Rajya Sabha ar e pr esided over
by t he 14. The official language as per t he const it ut ion is
(a) Pr esident (a) Sanskr it (b) Hindi
(b) Vice Pr esident (c) English (d) None of t hese
(c) Pr ime M inist er 15. Who elect s t he Vice-pr esident of I ndia?
(d) Speaker of L ok Sabha (a) M ember s of Rajya Sabha
7. Who is t he Supr eme Commander of t he I ndian (b) M ember s of L ok Sabha
Ar med For ces ?
(c) The union Cabinet
(a) Pr ime M inist er
(d) M ember s of bot h H ouses of Par liament
(b) Defence M inist er
(c) Pr esident LEVEL-1
(d) Chief of t he Ar my St aff 1. An individual who is not a member of either house
8. Accor ding to t he I ndian Constitution, what is the of t he par l iament can be appoi nt ed as a member
minimum educat ional qualificat ion r equir ed for of t he Council of M ini st er s, but he has t o become
cont est ing t he L ok Sabha elect ions ? t he member of t he eit her house in
(a) Post Gr aduat ion (a) 3 mont hs
(b) Graduation (b) 6 mont hs
(c) H igher Secondar y (c) one year
(d) No such qualificat ion is r equir ed (d) 2 year s
5.4 INDIAN POLITY

2. The t er m 'Republ ic' used i n t he pr eamble of t he 9. How long can a Presidential Ordinance remain
Const it ut i on of I ndia impli es in force ?
(a) That t he head of t he st at e is her edi t ar y (a) One year
(b) That t he head of t he st at e i s a const it ut i onal (b) Two months
r ul er (c) Till the President revokes it
(c) That t he h ead of t he st at e i s an el ect ed (d) Six months
r epr esent at ive
10. A freedom not granted to citizens by the Indian
(d) None of t he above Constitution is
3. I n I ndi a, what i s t he mi ni mum per missi ble age (a) to reside and settle in any part of India
for employment i n a fact or y?
(b) move freely throughout Indian territory
(a) 14 year s (b) 16 year s
(c) assemble peacefully even with arms
(c) 18 year s (d) 21 year s
(d) form associations and Unions
4. Who is the speaker of present Lok Sabha ? (As
11. Which out of the following is incorrect regarding
on 01.11.2014)
Lok Sabha?
(a) Smt. Sumitra Mahajan
(a) 530 members are elected from states
(b) Smt. Sushma Swaraj
(b) 20 members are elected from Union
(c) Smt. Meira Kumar Territories
(d) None of these (c) 2 members from Anglo lndian community are
5. The Fundamental Duties of the Indian citizens elected by the community
are incorporated in the following Article of our (d) 2 members of Anglo Indian community are
constitution ? nominated by the President if there is no
(a) Article 21 A member from the Anglo Indian community
(b) Article 51 A 12. Which democratic country has an unwritten
(c) Article 370 A constitution?
(d) Article 1. A (a) United States
6. To be eligible for elected as President, a candidate (b) England
must be : (c) India
(a) Over 25 years of age (d) Canada and America
(b) Over 30 years of age 13. Who presides over the present Lok Sabha when
parliament session is on?
(c) Over 35 years of age
(a) President, Pranab Mukherji
(d) Over 60 years of age
(b) Vice President, Hamid Ansari
7. The Consolidated Fund of India is a fund in which
(c) Prime Minister, Narendra Modi
(a) All taxes except Income Tax collected by the
Union as well as State Governments are (d) Speaker, Sumitra Mahajan
deposited 14. The Indian constitution was written on 26/11/
(b) All money received by or on behalf of the 1949 and came into force on
Government of India is deposited (a) Same day (b) 26.01.1950
(c) The Union as wel1 as state Governments (c) 15.08.1950 (d) 26.01.1952
make equal contribution to this fund 15. A few children between ages 8 and 14 were
(d) Savings of Union and State Governments are rescued from a factory where they worked under
deposited inhuman conditions. Which fundamental right
of the constitution made this possible?
8. Which part of the lndian Constitution reflects the
mind and ideals of the farmers? (a) Right to Education
(a) Preamble (b) Right to Freedom of Speech
(b) Fundamental Rights (c) Right against exploitation
(c) Directive Principles (d) Right to Freedom of Religion
(d) Emergency Provisions
 INDIAN POLITY 5.5
10. The Oat h of Office is conduct ed t o t he Pr esident
LEVEL-2 of I ndia by
1. By whi ch const i t ut i onal amendment di d t he (a) The Speaker of L ok Sabha
Par l i am en t acqu i r e t h e r i gh t t o am en d (b) The Chief Just ice ofIndia
Fundamental Rights? (c) The Vice-Pr esident of I ndia
(a) 23r d (b) 24th (d) The Pr ime-M inist er of I ndia
(c) 25 th
(d) 26 th
11. Which one is a par t of t he Dir ect ive Pr inciple of
2. H ow many Fundament al Right s ar e guar ant eed St at e Policy ?
by t he Const it ut ion of I ndia? (a) Right t o equalit y befor e law
(a) 7 (b) 3 (b) Right t o adult fr anchise
(c) 5 (d)6 (c) Or ganisat i on of Tr ade U nions and wor ker s
rights
3. An int er pr et at ion of t he I ndian Const it ut ion is
based on t he spir it of t he- (d) Or ganisat ion of Village Panchayat s
(a) Fundament al r ight s 12. The implement of which one of t he following does
not need any legislat ion?
(b) Fundament al dut ies
(a) Fundament Right s and Dut ies
(c) Pr eamble
(b) Dir ect ive pr inciples of St at e Policy.
(d) Dir ective pr inciples
(c) Pr omot ion of communit y welfar e
4. To be eligible for member ship of t he L ok Sabha,
(d) Suggest ion t o St at es for cit izen welfar e.
a per son should be at least :
13. Which special ar ea r elat ed t o childr en is included
(a) 18 year s of age (b) 30 year s of age
in t he Dir ective Pr inciples of St ate Policy in I ndia
(c) 35 year s of age (d) 25 year s of age (a) Ear ly child ood car e and educat ion
5. Who is t he Chair man of Rajya Sabha ? (As on (b) Compulsor y educat ion for all
01.11.2014)
(c) Educat ion upt o age of 14
(a) Sumit r a Mahajan (b) Hamid Ansar i
(d) Fr ee edu cat i on for Economi cal l y weak er
(c) Ar un Jait ley (d) Thambi Dur ai sect ions
6. Who of t he following is r egar ded as t he ar chit ect 14. Which amendment added Fundamental Duties to
of t he I ndian Const it ut ion ? t he I ndian Const it ut ion?
(a) Pandit Nehr u (b) B.R. Ambedkar (a) 37t h Amendment act in 1975
(c) Mahatma Gandhi (P) Rajendr a Pr asad
(b) 41 Amendment act in 1976
7. What was t he over all vot ing per cent age in t he
(c) 38t h Amendment act in 1975
r ecent l y hel d Gener al El ect i ons for 16t h L ok
Sabha ? (d) 42nd Amendment Act in 1976
(a) About 60% 15. Which aspect would need r egulat ion if t her e is
mor e For eign Dir ect I nvest ment in hor t icult ur e?
(b) About 55%
(c) About 66% (a) Consumpt ion of wat er and r ight s of far mer s
t o wat er
(d) About 78%
(b) Soil conser vat ion , and r enewal using nat ur al
8. M oney can be spent out of t he Consolidated Fund
pr ocesses
of I ndia
(a) wit h t he appr oval of t he Pr esident (c) Subsidy t o far mer s, for spending t ime away
fr om t heir far ms
(b) wit h t he appr oval of t he Par liament
(d) Education of far mer s on advantages of growing
(c) wit h t he appr oval of t he CAG
ot her cr ops
(d) wit h t he appr oval of t he above aut hor it ies
9. Whi ch of t he fol l owi ng i s not a condi t i on for
becoming a Cit izen of I ndia ?
(a) Birth (b) Descent
(c) Acquiring property (d) Natur alisation
5.6 INDIAN POLITY

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (d)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (a)

 6
CHAPTER CURRENT AFFAIRS
I M PORTAN T DATES
May 31 Wor ld No Tobacco Day
Jan 1 Ar my M edical Cor ps Est ablishment Day June 5 Wor ld Envir onment Day
Jan 8 Afr ican National Congr ess Foundation Day June 21 I nt er nat ional Yoga Day
Jan 10 Wor ld L aught er Day July 1 Doct or 's Day
Jan 12 Nat ional Yout h Day (Bi r t hday of Swami July 4 Amer ican I ndependence Day
Vivekanand)
July 11 Wor ld Populat ion Day
Jan 15 Ar my Day July 26 K ar gil Vict or y Day
Jan 23 N et aj i Subh ash Ch andr a B ose's bi r t h Aug 9 Quit I ndia M ovement Day
anniver sar y
Aug 12 I nt er nat ional Yout h Day
Jan 25 I nt er nat i onal Cust oms Dut y Day, I ndi a
Tour ism Day Aug 14 Pakist an's I ndependence Day
Jan 26 Republic Day Aug 15 I ndia's I ndependence Day
Jan 28 Bir t h anniver sar y of L ala L ajpat Rai Aug 19 Wor ld Phot ogr aphy Day
Jan 30 (M ar t y r 's day ) M ah at m a Gan dh i 's Aug 20 Sadbhavna Divas
Martyr dom Day; World Leprosy Er adication Aug 29 Spor ts Day (Dhyanchand's bir thday)
Day Sept 5 Teacher 's Day
Feb 2 Nat ional day of Sr ilanka Sept 7 For giveness Day
Feb 5 K ashmir Day (Or ganised by Pakist an) Sept 8 I nt er nat ional L it er acy Day
Feb 13 Sar ojini Naidu's Bir th Anniver sar y Sept 14 H indi Day, Wor ld Fir st Aid Day
Feb 14 St . Valent ine's Day Sept 16 Wor ld Ozone Day
Feb 24 Cent r al Excise Day Sept 25 Social Just ice Day
Feb 28 Nat ional Science Day Sept 27 Wor ld Tour ism Day
M ar 3 Nat ional Defence Day Oct 2 Gandhi Jayanti
M ar 4 Nat ional Secur it y Day Oct 3 Wor ld Nat ur e Day
M ar 8 I nt er nat ional Women's Day Oct 4 Wor ld Animal Day
M ar 12 Maur itius Day; Cent r al I ndustr ial Secur ity Oct 5 Wor ld H abit at Day; Wor ld Teacher 's Day
For ce Day Oct 6 Wor ld Wildlife Day
M ar 15 Wor ld Consumer Day Oct 8 I ndian Air for ce Day
M ar 16 National Vaccinat ion Day Oct 9 Wor ld Post al Day
M ar 19 Wor ld Disabled Day Oct 10 Wor ld M ent al H ealt h Day,
M ar 21 Wor ld For est r y Day Nat ional Post Day
M ar 22 Wor ld Day for Wat er Oct 17 I nt er nat ional Pover t y Er adication Day
M ar 23 Wor ld M et er ological Day Oct 20 Nat ional Solidar ity Day
M ar 24 Wor ld TB Day Oct 24 Unit ed Nat ions Day
M ar 26 Bangladesh L iber at ion Day Nov 7 I nfant Pr ot ect ion Day,
Apr il 1 Or issa Day Wor ld Cancer Awar eness Day
Apr il 5 Nat ional M ar it ime Day Nov 9 Pravasiya Bharatiya Divas , Legal Services Day
Apr il 7 Wor ld H ealt h Day Nov 10 Tr anspor t Day
Apr il 14 B .R. A m bedk ar Rem em ber an ce D ay ; Nov 14 Childr en's Day, Wor ld Diabet ics day
Fir e Ext inguishing Day Nov 17 Gur u Nanak Dev's Bir t h Anniver sar y
Apr il 18 Wor ld H er it age Day Nov 26 L aw Day
Apr il 22 Wor ld Ear t h Day Nov 30 Flag Day
Apr il 23 Wor ld Books Day Dec 1 Wor ld AI DS Day
M ay 1 I nt er nat ional L abour Day (M ay Day) Dec 4 Navy Day
M ay 3 I nter nat ional Ener gy Day Dec 7 Ar med For ces Flag Day
M ay 8 I nt er nat ional Red Cr oss Day Dec 10 H uman Right s Day
May 11 Nat ional Technology Day Dec 11 UNI CEF Day
May 15 I nt er nat ional Family Day Dec 14 Nat ional Ener gy Conser vat ion Day
May 17 Wor ld Telecom Day Dec 19 Goa's L iber at ion Day
May 24 Commonwealt h Day Dec 23 K isan Divas (Far mer 's day)
 6.2 CURRENT AFFAIRS

FI RST I N TH E WORLD
The fir st per son t o r each M ount Ever est Sher pa Tenzing, Edmund H illar y
The fir st per son t o r each Nor t h Pole Rober t Pear y
The fir st per son t o r each Sout h Pole Amundsen
The fir st r eligion of t he wor ld H induism
The fir st count r y t o pr int book China
The fir st count r y t o i ssue paper cur r ency China
The fir st count r y t o commence compet it ive examinat ion China
in civil ser vices
The fir st Pr esident of t he U.S.A. Geor ge Washingt on
The fir st Pr ime M inist er of Br it ain Rober t Walpole
The fir st Gover nor Gener al of t he Unit ed Nat ions Tr igveli (Nor way)
The fir st count r y t o win foot ball Wor ld cup Ur uguay
The fir st count r y t o pr epar e a const it ut ion U.S.A.
The fir st Gover nor Gener al of Paki st an M ohd. Ali Jinnah
The fir st count r y t o host NAM summit Belgr ade (Yugoslavia)
The fir st Eur opean t o at t ack I ndia Alexander , The Gr eat
The fir st Eur opean t o r each China M ar co Polo
The fir st per son t o fly aer oplane Wr ight Br ot her s
The fir st per son t o sail r ound t he wor ld M agellan
The fir st count r y t o send man t o t he moon U.S.A.
The fir st count r y t o l aunch Ar t ificial sat ellit e in t he space Russia
The fir st count r y t o host t he moder n Olympics Gr eece
th
The fir st ci t y on which t he atom bomb was dr opped H ir oshima (Japan) (6 Aug. 1945)
The fir st per son t o l and on t he moon Neil Ar mst r ong followed by Edwin E. Aldr in
The fir st shut t le t o go in space Columbia
The fir st spacecr aft t o r each on M ar s Viking-1
The fir st woman Pr ime M i nist er of England M ar gar et That cher
The fir st muslim Pr ime M inist er of a count r y Benazir Bhut t o (Pakist an)
The fir st woman Pr ime M i nist er of a count r y M r s. S. Bhandar nai ke (Sr i L anka)
The fir st woman t o climb M ount Ever est M r s. Junko Tabei (Japan)
The fir st woman cosmonaut of t he wor ld Velent ina Ter eshkova (Russi a)
The fir st woman Pr esi dent of t he U.N. Gener al Assembly Vijaya Lak shmi Pandi t
The fir st man t o fly I nt o space Yur i Gagar in (Russia)
The fir st bat sman t o scor e t hr ee t est cent ur y in t hr ee M ohd. Azhar uddin
successive t est s on debut
The fir st man t o have climbed M ount Ever est t wice Nawang Gombu
The fir st U.S. Pr esident t o r esign Pr esidency Richar d Nixon
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.3
FI RST I N I N DI A
M ale
The fir st Pr esident of I ndian Republic Dr. Rajendr a Pr asad
The fir st Pr ime M inist er of fr ee I ndia Pt . Jawahar L al Nehr u
The fir st I ndian t o win Nobel Pr ize Rabindr anath Tagor e
The fir st Pr esident of I ndian Nat ional Congr ess W. C. Baner jee
The fir st M uslim Pr esident of I ndian Badr uddin Tayyabji
Nat ional Congr ess
The fir st M uslim Pr esident of I ndia Dr. Zakir H ussain
The fir st Br it ish Gover nor Gener al of I ndia L or d William Bent inck
The fir st Br it ish Vicer oy of I ndia L or d Canning
The fir st Gover nor Gener al of fr ee I ndia L or d M ount bat t en
The fir st and t he last I ndian t o be Gover nor Gener al C. Rajgopalachar i
of fr ee I ndia
The fir st man who I nt r oduced pr int ing pr ess in I ndia James H icky
The fir st I ndian t o join t he I .C.S. Sat yendr a Nat h Tagor e
I ndia's fir st man in space Rakesh Shar ma
The fir st Pr ime M inist er of I ndia who r esigned wit hout M or ar ji Desai
complet ing t he full t er m
The fir st I ndian Commander -in-Chief of I ndia Gener al Car iappa
The fir st Chief of t he Ar my St aff Gen. M ahar aj Rajendr a Singhji
The first I ndian member of the Viceroy's executive council S. P. Sinha
The fir st Pr esident of I ndia who died while in office Dr. Zakir H ussain
The fir st Pr ime M inist er of I ndia who did not face Char an Singh
t he Par liament
The fir st Field M ar shal of I ndia S. H . F. M anekshaw
The fir st I ndian t o get Nobel pr ize in Physics C. V. Raman
The fir st I ndian t o r eceive Bhar at Rat na awar d Dr. Radhakr ishnan
The fir st I ndian t o cr oss English channel M ihir Sen
The fir st per son t o r eceive Gynanpit h awar d Sr i Shankar K ur up
The fir st Speaker of t he L ok Sabha Ganesh Vasudeva M avalankar
The fir st Vice-pr esident of I ndia Dr. Radhakr ishnan
The fir st Educat ion M inist er Abul Kalam Azad
The fir st H ome M inist er of I ndia Sar dar Vallabh Bhai Patel
The fir st I ndian Air Chief M ar shal S. M ukher jee
The fir st I ndian Naval Chief Vice Admir al R. D. K at ar i
The fir st judge of int er nat ional Cour t of Just ice Dr. Nagendr a Singh
The fir st per son t o r eceive Par amveer Chakr a M ajor Somnat h Shar ma
The fir st per son t o r each M ount Ever est wit hout oxygen Sher pa Anga Dor jee
The fir st Chief Elect ion Commissioner Sukumar Sen
The fir st per son t o r eceive M agsaysay Awar d Achar ya Vinoba Bhave
The fir st per son of I ndian or igin t o r eceive Har govind K hur ana
Nobel Pr ize in M edicine
The fir st Chinese t r aveller t o visit I ndia Fahein
The fir st per son t o r eceive St alin Pr ize Saifuddin Kitchlu
The fir st per son t o r esign fr om t he cent r al cabinet Shyama Pr asad M ukher jee
The fir st for eigner t o r eceive Bhar at Rat na Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
The fir st per son t o r eceive Nobel Pr ize in Economics Amar t ya Sen
The fir st Chief Just ice of Supr eme Cour t Just ice H ir alal J. K ania
F emale
The fir st lady t o become ‘‘M iss Wor ld’’ Rit a Far ia
The fir st woman judge in Supr eme Cour t M r s. M eer a Sahib Fat ima Bibi
The fir st woman Ambassador M iss C.B. M uthamma
The fir st woman Gover nor of a St at e in fr ee I ndia M r s. Sar ojini Naidu
The fir st woman Pr ime M inist er M r s. I ndir a Gandhi
The fir st woman t o climb M ount Ever est Bachhendr i Pal
The fir st woman t o climb M ount Ever est t wice Sant osh Yadav
 6.4 CURRENT AFFAIRS

The fir st woman Pr esident of t he M r s. Annie Besant

I ndian National Congr ess
The fir st woman chief just ice of a H igh Cour t M r s. L eela Set h
The fir st woman pilot in I ndian Air For ce H ar it a Kaur Dayal
The fir st woman Pr esident of t he M r s. Vijaya L axmi Pandit
Unit ed Nat ions Gener al Assembly
The fir st woman Chief M inist er of an I ndian St at e M r s. Suchet a Kr ipalani
The fir st woman chair man of Roze M illian Bet hew
Union Public Ser vice Commission
The fir st woman Dir ect or Gener al of Police (DGP) Kanchan Chaudhar y Bhattachar ya
The fir st woman L ieut enant Gener al Puneet a Ar or a
The fir st woman Air vice M ar shal P Bandopadhyaya
The fir st woman chair per son of I ndian Air lines Sushma Chawla
The fir st woman I .P.S. Officer M r s. K ir an Bedi
The fir st and t he last M uslim woman r uler of Delhi Razia Sultan
The fir st woman t o r eceive Ashoka Chakr a Nir ja Bhanot
The fir st woman t o cr oss English Channel Aar ti Saha
The fir st woman t o r eceive Nobel Pr ize M ot her Ter esa
The fir st woman t o r eceive Bhar at Rat na M r s. I ndir a Gandhi
The fir st woman t o r eceive Gyanpit h Awar d Ashapur na Devi
POPU LAR N AM ES OF PERSON ALI TI ES
Popular N ame Personality Popular N ame Personality
L ady wit h t he lamp Flor ence Night ingale L okmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Gr and Old man of I ndia Dadabhai Naor oji Bapu Mahatma Gandhi
I r on Duke Duke of Wellingt on Apost le of Fr ee Tr ade Richar d Cobden
Gur u Ji M .S. Golwalkar Netaji Subhash Chandr a Bose
John Bull England and Deser t Fox Gen. Rommel
Night ingle of I ndia Sar ojini Naidu
t he English people
L al, Bal, Pal L ala L ajpat Rai,
CR Chakravarti Rajagopalachari Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
K ing M aker Ear l of War wick Bipin Chandr a Pal
JP Jayapr akash Nar ayan Fat her of English Poetr y Geoffer y Chaucer
L it t le Cor por al Napoleon Feuhr er H itler
Mahamana Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya I r on man Sar dar Vallabh Bhai Patel
Gurudev Rabindr anath Tagor e I ke Gen. Eisenhower
M aid of Or leans Joan of Ar c Tomy At kins English soldier
Desh Bandhu C.R. Das Jawan I ndian soldier
Pool u Fr ench soldier
Deen Bandhu C.F. Andr ews
Vizzy Mahar aja K umar
Yank ee I nhabit ants of U.S.A
of Vizianagar a
L ion of t he Punjab L ala Lajpat Rai G.I . Amer ican soldier
(Sher -e-Punjab) Wizar d of t he Nor t h Sir Walt er Scot
Bar d of Avon Shakespear e Samuel Clemens M ar k Twain
Panditji Jawahar lal Nehr u Spar r ow Major Gen.Rajender Singh
M an of Blood Bismar k Shastr iji L al Bahadur Shastr i
Andhr a K esr i T. Pr akasam Babuji Jagjiwan Ram

GEOGRAPH I CAL DI SCOVERI ES

Discovery Discoverer Discovery Discoverer
Amer ica Chr ist opher Columbus New Foundland Gobot Sebastian
Sea r out e t o I ndia via Vasco-de-Gama H udson Bay H enr y H udson
Cape of Good H ope Sailor of t he wor ld Magellan
Solar syst em Coper nicus M ount Ever est Edmund Hillar y
Planet s Kepler Fir st per son t o set Neil Ar mst r ong
Sout h Pole Amundsen foot on t he moon
Nor t h Pole Rober t Pear y Tasmania island Tasman
China M ar co Polo Cape of t he Good H ope Baur t ho Romeiodeis
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.5
CAPI TALS AN D CU RREN CI ES OF COU N TRI ES
Count r y Capit al Cur r ency Count r y Capital Cur r ency
ASI A E U ROPE
Afghanistan Kabul Afghani Andorr a Andorr a Eur o
Bahr ain Manama Bahr aini Dinar la- vella
Bangladesh Dhaka Taka Ar menia Yer evan Dr am
Bhutan Thimpu Ngult r um Austria Vienna Eur o
China Beijing Yuan Azerbaijan Baku Manat
India New Delhi I ndian Rupee Belar us Minsk Russian Rouble
I ndonesia Djakar ta Rupiah Belgium Br ussels Eur o
Bosnia Her jegovina Sar ajevo Dinar
I r an Tehr an Riyal
Nor way Oslo Norwegian Krone
I raq Baghdad I r aqi Dinar
Croatia Zagr eb Kuna
I sr ael Tel Aviv Shekel
Por tugal L isbon Eur o
Japan Tok yo Yen
Cyprus Nicosia Eur o
Jor dan Amman Jor dan Dinar
Czech Republic Pr ague Kor una
Taiwan Taipei New Taiwan
Denmar k Copenhagen Danish K r one
Philippines Manila Piso Estonia Tallinn Eur o
Qatar Doha Qatar i Riyal Finland H elsinki Eur o
Saudi Ar abia Riyadh Riyal (SAR) Fr ance Par is Eur o
Singapor e Singapor e Singapor e Dollar Geor gia Tbilisi L ar i
Sr i L anka Sr i Jaya Sr i L ankan Rupee Ger many Ber lin Eur o
wordenapur a Gr eece Athens Eur o
K ot le Hungar y Budapest For int
Syria Damascus Syr ian Pound I celand Reykavik Kr ona
Cambodia Phnom Penh Riel I r eland Dublin Eur o
Kazakhstan Akmola Tenge Lithuania Vilnius Lit as
K or ea (Nor t h) Pyongyang Won (K PW) L uxembur g L uxembur g Eur o
K or ea (Sout h) Seoul Won (K RW) Macedonia Skopje Dinar
L ebanon Beir ut L ebnanese Pound Malta Valletta Eur o
Moldova Chisinau L eu
Malaysia K uala L umpur Malaysian Ringgit
M onaco M onaco Eur o
Maldives Male Rufiyaa
M ont enegr o Podogor ica Eur o
Mangolia Ulan-Bator Tugr ik
Nether lands Amster dam Eur o
Myanmar Yangoon Kyat
Bulgar ia Sofia L ev
Nepal Kathmandu Nepalese Rupee
Poland Warsaw Zlot y
Oman Muscat Omani Rial
Romania Buchar est L ei
Pakist an I slamabad Pakistani Rupee
Russia M oscow Rouble
Tajikistan Dushambe Tajik Rouble San M ar ino San M ar ino I talian L ir a
Thailand Bangkok Baht Slovakia Br atislava Eur o
Tur k ey Ankara Tur kish L ir a Slovenia Ljubljana Eur o
Turkemenistan Ashkabad Manat Spain Madrid Eur o
(TMM) Sweden St ock holm Krona(SEK)
United Ar ab Abu Dhabi Dir ham Switzerland Ber ne Swiss Fr anc
Emir at es Ukr aine Kiev Kar bovanets
Uzbekistan Tashkent Som (UK S) United Kingdom L ondon Pound St er ling
Vietnam Hanoi Dong Vatican City Vatican City I talian L ir a
Yemen Sana Riyal (YER) I taly Rome Eur o
6.6 CURRENT AFFAIRS

Count r y Capit al Cur r ency Count r y Capit al Cur r ency

AF RI CA N ORTH AM ERI CA
Botswana Gabor one Pula Antigua and St . Johns Dollar
Burkina Barbuda
Faso Ouagadougou Fr anc (CFA) Bahamas Nassau Dollar
Burundi Bujumbur a Bur undi Fr anc Barbados Br idgetown Dollar
Camer oon Yaoundi Fr anc (CFA) Belize Belmopan Dollar
Cape Ver de Pr aia Cape Verde Escudo Canada Ottawa Canadian Dollar
Centr al Bangui Fr anc (CFA) Panama Panama Cit y Balboa
African Costa Rica San Jose Colon
Republic Cuba Havana Peso
The Gambia Banjul Dalasi Dominica Roseau St er ling
Ghana Accr a Cedi Unit ed St at es Washington D.C. Dollar
Guinea Conakr y Guinean Fr anc of Amer ica
Guinea Bissau Bissau Peso Guatemala Guat emala City Quetzal
Haiti Por t -au-Pr ince Gour de
Kenya Nair obi K enya Shilling
Hondur as Tegucigalpa Lempir a
L esot ho Maser u L ot i
Jamaica Kingst on Dollar
Chad N' D' Jamena Fr anc (CFA)
M exico M exico Cit y Peso
Comor os M or oni Comor ian Fr anc
Nicar agua Managua Cor doba
Madagascar Antananrivo Malagasy Fr anc
St . K it s and Basset er r e Dollar
Congo Br azzaville Fr anc (CFA)
Nevis
I vor y Coast Yamoussoukro Fr anc (CFA)
Tr inidad and Por t-of-Spain Dollar
Djibouti Djibouti Djibout i Fr anc
Tobago
Egypt Cair o Egyptian Pound El Salvador San Salvador Colon
Maur itius Por t L ouis Maur it ius Rupee Gr enada St . Geor ge Dollar
M or occo Rabat Dir ham
SOU TH AM ERI CA
Mozambique Maputo Metical
Namibia Windhock Rand Ar gentina Buenos Air es Austr al (Pesu)
Bolivia L a Paz Boliviano
Niger Niamey Fr anc
Brazil Br asilia Cr uzeir o
Niger ia L agos Nair a
Chile Santiago Peso
Rwanda Kigali Fr anc
Colombia Bogota Peso
Senegal Dakar Fr anc
Ecuador Quit o S-or e
Seychelles Victor ia Rupee
Guyana Geor get own Dollar
Sier r a L eone Fr eet own L eone
Par aguay Asuncion Guar ani
Liber ia M onor ovia L iber ian Dollar
Per u L ima Nuevosol
Libya Tr ipoli L ibyan Dinar
Sur inam Par amar ibo Guilder
Malawi L ilongwe Kwacha
Ur uguay M ontevideo Peso
Mali Bamako Fr anc (CFA) Venezuela Caracas Boliver
Maur itania Nouakchot t Ouguiya Fr ench Guyana K oenne Fr anc
Somalia Mogadishu Shilling
OCEAN I A
Sout h Afr ica Cape Town Rand
Australia Canberr a Australian Dollar
Sudan K har t oum Pound Fiji Suva Fiji Dollar
Swaziland Mbabane Lilangeni Naur u Naur u Dollar
Tanzania Dar -es-Salaam Shilling New Zealand Willingt on New Zealand
Togo L ome Fr anc Dollar
Tunisia Tunis Dinar Papua Por t M or esby Kina
Uganda Kampala Shilling New Guinea
Zambia Lusaka Kwatcha Solomon I sland H oniar a Dollar
Zimbabwe H ar ar e Zimbabwe Dollar Tonga Nukualofa Panga
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.7
U N I TED N ATI ON ORGAN I SATI ON
• Wor ld's lar gest int er nat ional or ganisat ion and a successor of L eague of Nat ions. (L eague of Nat ions was
for med aft er t he I Wor ld War, but it failed).
• The Char t er of t he UN was signed at San Fr ancisco on June 26, 1945, at a meet ing of t he r epr esent at ives of
50 st at es, r epr esent ing 2/3r d of t he wor ld populat ion.
• The Char t er or Const it ut ion was for med at Dumbar t on Oaks (Washingt on DC) Confer ence by USSR, UK ,
US and China.
• For mally came int o exist ence on Oct 24, 1945.
• Fir st r egular session was held in L ondon in Jan,1946 and Tr ygve Le (Nor way) was elect ed the fir st Secr et ar y
Gener al.
• H eadquar t er s locat ed at Fir st Avenue, UN Plaza, New Yor k Cit y, New Yor k, US.
• The pr esent member ship of UN is 192. Swit zer land was The 190t h (in 2002), East Timor was t he 191st (in
2002), while M ont enegr o became t he 192nd member in 2006.
• US, UK , China, Fr ance and Russia ar e t he per manent member s of t he Secur it y Council.
• The pr esent Secr et ar y Gener al of UN is Ant onio Gut er r es of Por t ugal.
SOM E I M PORTAN T U .N . AGEN CI ES
N ame of Agency E st d.in H eadquar t er s Pur pose
I nter national L abour 1919 Geneva To impr ove living condit ions and
Or ganisation (I L O) st andar d of wor ker s.
Wor ld H ealt h Or ganisat ion 1948 Geneva At t ainment of highest possible level
(WHO) of healt h by all people.
Unit ed Nat ions Educat ional, 1946 Par is To pr omot e collabor at ion among
Scientific and Cultur al nat ions t hr ough educat ion, science
Or ganisation (UNESCO) and cult ur e.
I nter national At omic 1957 Vienna To pr omot e peaceful Ener gy uses of
Ener gy Agency (I AEA) at omic ener gy.
Unit ed Nat ions I nt er nat ional 1946 New Yor k To pr omot e childr en's welfar e all
Childr en's Emer gency over t he wor ld.
Fund (UNI CEF)
Unit ed Nat ions Confer ence on 1964 Geneva Pr omot es int er nat ional t r ade t o
Tr ade and Development . acceler at e economic gr owt h of
(UNCTAD) developing count r ies.
I nt er national Civil Aviat ion 1947 Mont r eal Pr omot es safet y of int er nat ional
Or ganisation (I CAO) aviation.
I nt er nat ional M onet ar y Fund 1945 Washingt on D.C. Pr omot es int er nat ional monet ar y
(I MF) cooper at ion.
Unit ed Nat ions Envir onment al 1972 Nair obi Pr omot es int er nat ional co-oper at ion
Pr ogr amme (UNEP) in human envir onment .
Unit ed Nations I ndust r ial 1967 Geneva Set s int er nat ional r egulat ions for
Development Or ganisation r adio, t elegr aph, t elephone and
(UNI DO) space r adio communicat ion.
I nt er nat ional Bank for 1945 Washingt on D.C. Development of economies of
Reconst r uct ion and Development member s by facilit at ing invest ment
(IBRD) of capit als by pr oviding loans.
Wor ld M et eor ological 1950 Geneva Pr omot e int er nat ional exchange of
Or ganisat ion (WM O) weat her r epor t s.
Wor ld Tr ade Or ganisat ion 1995 Geneva Set t ing r ules for wor ld t r ade t o
(WTO) r educe t ar iffs.
Unit ed Nat ions Development 1965 New Yor k H elp developing count r ies incr ease
Pr ogr amme (UNDP) t he wealt h pr oducing capabilit ies of
t heir nat ur al and human r esour ces.
 6.8 CURRENT AFFAIRS

OT H E R I N T E RN AT I ON AL ORGAN I SAT I ON S I nt er nat i on al Cr i m i n al P ol i ce O r gan i sat i on

AN D GROU PS (I N T ERPOL )
T he Common Wealt h • Est ablished : 1914
• I t w as or i gi n al l y k n ow n as T h e B r i t i sh • Object ive : To pr omot e int er nat ional cooper at ion
Commonwealt h of Nat ions'. I t is an associat ion of among cr iminal police aut hor it ies
sover eing and independent st at es which for mally • M ember s : 190
made up t he Br it ish empir e. • H eadquar t er s : Fr ance
• H eadquar t er s : L ondon. I nt er nat ional Olympic Commit t ee (I OC)
• M ember s : 54 • Est ablished : June 23, 1894
• The Br it ish M onar ch (Queen Elizabet h I I ) is t he • Object i ve: To pr omot e t he Ol ympi c i deal s and
symbolic head of t he commonwealt h. administ er Olympic games.
• Com m on w eal t h h eads of gov er n m en t m eet • M ember s : 204
(CH OGM ) is held in ever y 2 year s. • H eadquar t er s : Switzer land
Asia Pacific E conomic Co-operat ion (APEC) I nt ernat ional Organisat ion F or St andardisat ion
• Est ablished : Nov, 1989 (I SO)
• Object ive : To pr omot e t r ade and invest ment in • Est ablished : Feb: 1947
t he Pacific basin. • Obj ect i v e : To pr om ot e t h e dev el opm en t of
• M ember s : 21 inter nat ional standar ds
• M ember s : 163
Asian Development Bank (ADB)
• H eadquar t er s : Switzer land
• Est ablished : Dec 19, 1966
I n t er n at i on al Red Cr oss an d Red Cr escen t
• Obj ect i v e : To pr om ot e r egi on al econ om i c
M ovement
co-oper ation.
• Est ablished : 1928
• M ember s : 67
• Objective : To promote wor ldwide humanitarian aid
• H eadquar t er s: M anila
• H eadquar t er s : Geneva
Associ at i on of Sou t h - E ast Asi an N at i on s
E ur opean U nion
(ASEAN )
• Established : Apr. 8, 1965. Effective on July 1. 1967.
• Est ablished : Aug. 8, 1967
• Object ive : To cr eat e a unit ed Eur ope in which
• Object ive : Regional, economic, social and cult ur al m em ber cou n t r i es w ou l d h av e su ch st r on g
cooper at ion among t he non-communist count r ies economic and political bonds that war would cease
of Sout h-East Asia. t o be a r ecur r ing fact .
• M em ber s : B r u n ei , I n don esi a, M al ay si a, • M ember s : 27 (The t en new count r ies which joined
Philippines, Singapor e, Thailand, Viet nam, L aos, i n 2004 ar e Cypr us, Czech Republ i c, Est oni a,
Myanmar, Cambodia. H u ngar y, L at vi a, L i t hu an i a. M al t a, Pol an d,
• H eadquar t er s : Djakar t a Slovakia and Slovania).
Group of 7 or G-7 (Formerly, G8) • H eadquar t er s : Br ussels (Belgium). The common
• Est ablished : Sept . 22. 1985 Eur opean, cur r ency. Eur o, was launched on Jan.
1, 1999.
• Object ive : To pr omot e co-oper at ion among major
non-communist economic power s. N orth At lantic Treaty Organisat ion (N AT O)
• Est ablished : Apr il 4, 1949
• M ember s : Fr ance, Ger many, Japan, U K , U S,
Canada, I taly. • Object ive : M ut ual defence and co-oper at ion
Group of 15 (G-15) • M ember s : 28
• Est ablished : 1989 • H eadquar t er s : Br ussels
Organisat ion of Pet roleum Export ing Count ries
• Obj ect i ve : To pr omot e economi c co-oper at i on
(OPE C)
among developing nat ions.
• Est ablished : Sept ., 1959
• M ember s :18
• Obj ect i ve : A t t em pt s t o set wor l d pr i ces by
Group of 77 (G-77)
con t r ol l i ng oi l pr oduct i on an d al so per sues
• Est ablished : Oct ., 1967 member int er est in t r ade and development .
• Obj ect i ve: To pr omot e economi c co-oper at i on • Members : 12 (Algeria, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, UAE,
among developing nat ions. Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Ecuador and Venezuela).
• M ember s : 132 • H eadquar t er s : Vienna (Aust r ia)
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.9
Sou t h Asi a n Associ at i on f or Regi on al • M ember s : 188
Co-oper at ion (SAARC) • H eadquar t er s : Geneva
• Est ablished : Dec. 8, 1985 Shanghai Cooperat ion Or ganisat ion (SCO)
• Obj ect i ve : To pr om ot e econ omi c, soci al and • Est ablished : June 7, 2002.
cult ur al cooper at ion • Object ive : To develop mut ual cooper at ion.
• M ember s : Bangladesh, Bhut an, I ndia, M aldives, • M em ber s : Ru ssi a, Ch i n a, K azak h i st an ,
Nepal, Pakist an. Sr ilanka & Afghanist an. Uzbekistan, K yr ghizt an and Tajikistan.
• H eadquar t er s : K at hmandu BRI CS (Brazil, Russia, I ndia, China, South Africa)
Wor ld M et eor ological Or ganisat ion (WM O) • Established : 2010 befor e inclusion of Sout h Afr ica
• Est ablished : Oct . 11, 1947, Effect ive fr om Apr il 4, i t i s k n ow n as B RI C, w h i ch i s est abl i sh ed
1951. in 2009.
• Objective : Specialised UN Agency concer ned wit h • Object ive : To encour agi ng commer cial polit ical
met eor ological cooper at ion. and cult ur al cooper at ion bet ween BRI CS nat ions.

WORLD: M I SCELLAN EOU S

N at ional Emblems of F amous Count r ies

Countr y Emblem Countr y Emblem

Austr alia Kangar oo I taly White Lily
Bangladesh Wat er Lily Japan Chr ysant hemum
Canada White Lily Nor way Lion
Denmark Beach Pakistan Cr escent
Fr ance Lily Spain Eagle
Ger many Corn Flower Sr i L anka Sword & L ion
I ndia Lion Capit al Russia Sickle & H ammer
I r an Rose United Kingdom Rose
I r eland Shamrock U.S.A. Golden Rod

Parliament ’s N ame of t he F amous Count ries

Coun tr y P ar liam en t Cou ntr y P ar lia ment

Afghan ist an Shor a Mal aysi a M aj l is
Aust rali a Par l iament Mal dive M aj l is
Bangl adesh Jati a Par li am ent Mangol ia K hur al
Bhut an Tasongadu Nepal Rast ht r iya Panchayat
Canada Par l iament Neth er l ands States Gener al
Chi na Nati onal People Congress Norway Stort i ng
Denm ar k Folk eti ng Pak i st an Nati onal Assem bly
Egypt People's Assembly Pol an d Scym
Fr ance Nati onal Assembly Spai n Cr ot es
Ger man y Bundest ag Sweden Ri k sdag
Great Br it ai n Par l iament Sout h Afr ica Par l i ament
I ndi a Par l iament (San sad) Swi tzer land Federal Assembl y
I r an Maj l is Russia Duma
I r el an d Dai l Ei r eann Tai wan Yuan
I sr ael K nesset Tur key Grand Nat i onal Assembl y
Japan Diet U.S.A. Congress
6.10 CURRENT AFFAIRS
Wonders of the World • I n di an n avy i s or gan i sed i n t o t h r ee
commands :
Ancient M edieval
Commands H eadquar ter s
H anging Gar dens of Colosseum of Rome
Babylon East er n Command Vishakhapat nam
Temple of Diana at Gr eat Wall of China Sout her n Command Kochi
Ephesus (Rome) West er n Command Mumbai
St at ue of Jupit er at Por celain Tower of Ranks of Commissioned Officer s
Olympia Nanking
M ausoleum of St onehange of England Ar my Air F or ces N avy
M ausolus (Rular of Gener al Air Chief M ar shal Admir al
H alicar nassus)
L t . Gener al Air M ar shal Vice Admiral
Pyr amids of Egypt M osque at St . Sophia
M ajor Air Vice M ar shal Rear Admir al
(Const ant inople)
Gener al
L ight H ouse at Cat acombs of
Br igadier Air Commodor e Commodore
Alexandr ia Alexandr ia
Colonel Gr oup Capt ain Capt ain
Colossus of Rhodes L eaning Tower of Pisa,
Taj M ahal (I ndia) L t . Colonel Wing Commander Commander
M ajor Squadr on L eader L t . Commander
I N DI AN DEFEN CE
• The Pr esident of I ndia is t he supr eme commander Capt ain Flt . L ieut enant L ieut enant
of t he I ndian Defence Syst em. L ieut enant Flying Officer Sub-L ieut enant
• The whole administ r at ive cont r ol of t he Ar med PARAM I LI TARY AN D RESERVED F ORCES
for ces lies in t he M inist r y of Defence. I ndo-T ibet an Border Police (I T BP)
• I ndian Defence System has been divided into thr ee • I t was established in 1962, after the Chinese attack.
ser vices-Ar my, Navy and Air For ce. • I t is basically employed in t he Nor t her n bor der s
• T h e I n di an Ar m y i s or gan i sed i n t o sev en f or mon i t or i n g t he bor der s and al so t o st op
commands : smuggling and illegal immigr at ion.
N at ional Securit y Guar ds (N SG)
Commands H eadquar ter s • I t was est ablished in 1984.
1. West er n Command Chandi M andir • I t has been est ablished t o count er t he sur ge of
milit ancy in t he count r y.
2. East er n Command K olk at a
• I t is a highly t r ained for ce which deals wit h t he
3. Nor t her n Command Udhampur milit ant s effect ively.
4. Sout her n Command Pune Cent ral I ndust rial Securit y F orce (CI SF )
5. Cent r al Command L ucknow • I t was set -up in 1969 aft er t he r ecommendat ions
of Just ice B. M ukher ji.
6. Ar my Tr aining Command Shimla
• I t s objective is to monitor t he indust r ial complexes
7. Sout h West er n Command Jaipur of Cent r al Gover nment .
• I n di an ai r f or ce i s or gani sed i n t o seven Assam Rifles
commands : • I t was est abl i shed i n 1835 and i s t he ol dest
par amilit ar y for ce in t he count r y.
Com m an ds H eadqu ar t er s • I t s m ai n obj ect i v e i s t o k eep v i gi l an ce of
1. West er n Com m and N ew Del hi inter national bor der s in Nor th East and counter ing
2. Cent r al Com m and A l l ahabad i nsur gency oper at i ons i n Ar unachal Pr adesh,
3. E ast er n Com m and Shi l l ong M anipur, M izor am and Nagaland.
4. Sout h West er n Jodhpur Border Securit y F orce (BSF )
Com m and • I t was est ablished in 1965.
5. Tr ai ni ng Com m and B angal ur u • I t keeps a vi gi l over t he int er nat ional bor der s
6. M ai nt enance N agpur against t he int r usion in t he count r y
Com m and Cent ral Reserve Police F orce (CRPF )
7. Sout her n Com m and Thi r uvanant h apur am • I t was set -up in 1939.
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.11

• I t s main object ive is t o assist t he St at e / Union FOLK AN D TRI BAL DAN CES
Ter r it or y Police in maint enance of law and or der. St at e D ance
• The 88t h Bat t alion of CRPF, known as ‘M ahila Assam Bihu, Khel Gopal, Rakhal Leela, Tabal
Batt alion' (commissioned on Mar ch 30,1986) is the Chongli, Canoe, Nongkr em.
wor ld's fir st par amilitar y for ce compr ising entir ely AP Ghanta Mar dala, Bur r akatha, Veedhi
of women. Natakam, K uchipudi
N at ional Cadet Corps (N CC) Bihar Jata Jatin, Chhau, Bakho, Kathaputli,
• I t was est ablished in 1948. (came int o exist ence J h i j h i y a, Sam o Ch ak w a, J at r a,
on 16t h july 1948) K ar ma.
• I ts main objective is to stimulate interest among Gujar at D an di y a Raas, Gar ba, Gom ph ,
the youth in the defence of the country in order to Tippani, Bhavia, Zer iyun.
build up a reserve man power to expand armed forces. Haryana Ghumar, Phag Dance, Daph, Dhamal,
Terr it orial Army (TA) K hor ia.
• I t was est ablished in 1948. HP Jhor a, Thali, M ahasu, Jadda
• I t is a volunt ar y, par t -t ime for ce (bet ween 18 and J& K Rouf, H ikat , Damali.
35 year s), not pr ofessional soldier s, but civilians, Kar nataka Yakshagana, H ut t ar i
who wish t o assist in defence of t he count r y. Kerala Kaikottikali, Kaliyattam, Tappatikkali.
H ome Guards MP M aach, Gher o, Gafa, K at ha-K eer t an.
• I t was est ablished in 1962, t o assist t he police in Mahar ashtr a L ezim, Tamasha
maint aining secur it y, t o help defence for ces and Punjab Gi ddha (women), Bhangr a (men),
t o help local author it ies in case of any event ualit y. Naqual, Bhand.
Coast Guar d Rajasthan Sui si ni , Chak r i , Ter aht aal , Gi nad,
• I t was set -up in 1978. (18t h Aug. 1978) K hyal, Gangor e.
• I ts object ive is to pr otect the mar itime and other Tamil Nadu K olat t am, Pinnal, K ar agam
national inter ests in the mar itime zones of I ndia. I t UP J h or a, K aj r i , K ar an , N ou t an k i ,
was set-up in 1920. Chappeli, Raasleela and Ramleela
I nt elligence Bureau (I B) WB K ahi, Jat r a.
• I t s obj ect i ve i s t he col l ect secr et i nfor mat i on
I M PORTAN T I N STRU M EN T PLAYERS
r elat ing t o count r y's secur it y.
I nst r ument Pl ayer
• I t was or iginally set-up as Cent r al Special Br anch
(CSB) in 1887. Sitar I nvent ed by Ami r K husr au; N i k hi l
Banner ji, Pt . Ravi Shankar, Vilayat
Cent ral Bureau of I nvest igat ion (CBI ) K han, H ar i Shank ar Bhat t achar ya,
• The CBI was est ablished in 1941 as t he special Devbr at Choudhar y
pol i ce est abl i sh m en t , t ask ed wi t h dom est i c Tabla Allah Rakha K han, K ishan M ahar aj,
secur i t y. I t was r enamed t he cent r al Bur eau of Nikhil Ghosh, Zakir H ussain, Shaafal
invest igat ion on 1 Apr il 1963. Ahmed K han
• I t s object ive is t o invest igat e cases of misconduct Sarod Al i Ak bar K han, Al l auddi n K han,
by public servants, cases of cheating, embezzlement A m j ad A l i K h an , B u ddh adev
and fr aud. Dasgupt a, Bahadur K han, Shar an
• CBI i s also ent r ust ed wi t h t he invest igat i on of Rani, Zar in S. Shar ma
i nt er nat ional cr ime cases in coll abor at ion wit h Violin Baluswamy Dikshit ar, Gujanan Rao
I NTERPOL. Joshi, L al gudi G. Jayar aman, M .S.
N at ional Crime Records Bureau (N CRB) Gopal a-K r i sh n an , M y sor e T.
• I t was est ablished in 1986. Ch ow di ah , T.N . K r i sh n an ,
• I t s object ive is t o collect cr i me st at ist i cs at t he L . Subr amaniam
nat i onal l evel , i nfor mat i on of i nt er st at e and Sant oor Pt . Shiv K umar Shar ma
i nt er nat i onal cr i mi nal s t o hel p i nvest i gat i on Shehnai Ust ad Bismillah K han
agencies. Flut e Pt .H ar i Pr asad Chaur asiya, Pannalal
Rapid Act ion F orce (RAF ) Ghose, T.R. M ahalingam
• I t was est ablished in 11 december 1991. Veena K.R. Kumar aswami lyer, Dor aiswamy
• Under t he oper at ional command of CRPF. lyengar
• 10 bat t alions of t he CRPF have been r eor ient ed Dhrupad Har idas Swami
for t ackling communal r iot s in t he count r y. Mandolin V. Sr inivas
6.12 CURRENT AFFAIRS
CABI N ET M I N I STERS
N AM E
Shr i Raj Nath Singh
Smt . Sushma Swar aj
Shr i Ar un Jait leyPiySush Goel
Smt . Nir mala Sithar aman
Shr i Nit in Jair am Gadkar i
Shr i Mukht ar Abbas Naqvi
Shr i Piyush Goyal
Shr i D.V. Sadananda Gowda
Smt . Uma Bhar at i
Shr i Ramvilas Paswan
Shr i Gir ir aj Singh
Smt. Maneka Sanjay Gandhi
Shr i Ravi Shankar Pr asad
Shr i Jagat Pr akash Nadda
Shr i Sur esh Pr abhu
Shr i Anant Geet e
Smt. H ar simr at K aur Badal
Shr i Nar endr a Singh Tomar
Shr i Chaudhar y Bir ender Singh
Shr i Jual Or am
Shr i Radha Mohan Singh
Shr i Thaawar Chand Gehlot
Smt . Smr i t i I r ani
Dr. H ar sh Var dhan
Shr i Pr akash Javadekar
M I N I STERS OF STATE (I N DEPEN DEN T CH ARGES)
Rao I nder jit Singh
Shr i Sant osh K umar Gangwar
Shr i Gir ir aj Singh
Shr i Shr ipad Yesso Naik
Col. Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore M inister of State (I ndependent Char ge) of t he Ministr y of Yout h Affair s and
Dr. Jitendr a Singh
PORTFOLI O
M inister of H ome Affair s.
Minist er of Exter nal Affair s.
M inist er of Finance, M inist er of Cor por ate Affair s
M inist er of Defence
M inist er of Road Tr anspor t and H ighways; and M inist er of Shipping.
River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation.
Minist er of Minor ity Affair s
M inister of Railways and M inist er of Coal
M inist er of Statistics and Pr ogr amme I mplement ation and M inister
of Chemicals & Fer t ilizer s
M inister of Dr inking & Sanitation.
M inist er of Consumer Affair s, Food and Public Distr ibution.
M inister of Micr o, Small and Medium Enter pr ises.
M inist er of Women and Child Development .
M i n i st er of L aw an d J u st i ce; an d M i n i st er of E l ect r on i cs
and I nfor mat ion Technology.
M inist er of H ealth and Family Welfar e.
M inister of Civil Aviation & Mini ster of Commer ce & I ndustr y
M inist er of H eavy I ndustr ies and Public Enter pr ises.
M inister of Food Pr ocessing I ndust r ies.
M i ni st er of Rur al Devel opment ; M i ni st er of Panchayat i Raj and
M inister of Par liament ar y Affair s.
M inist er of Steel.
Minist er of Tr ibal Affair s.
M inister of Agr icult ur e and Far mer s Welfar e.
M inist er of Social Just ice and Empower ment .
M inister of Textiles
M inist er of Science and Technology; and Minister of Ear t h Sciences,
M inist er of Envir onment , For est and Climat e Change
M inist er of H uman Resour ce Development .
M inister of State, Chemical & Fer t ilizer
Minister of State (Independent Charge) of the Ministry of Labour and Employment.
M inist er of State (I ndependent Char ge) of the M inist r y of M icr o, Small and
Medium Enter pr ises.
M inist er of State (I ndependent Char ge) of the M inist r y of Ayur veda, Yoga
and Natur opathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH ).
Spor t s; and M i ni st er of St at e (I ndependent Char ge) of t he M i ni st r y of
I nfor mat ion and Br oadcasting..
M inist er of State (I ndependent Char ge) of the M inist r y of Development of
Nor t h East er n Regi on; M inist er of St at e in t he Pr ime M inist er ’s Office;
Minister of State in the Ministry of Personnel, Public Gr ievances and Pensions;
M inister of State in t he Depar t ment of At omic Ener gy; and Minister of St at e
in the Depar tment of Space.

Sur esh R. K. Singh
Dr. M ahesh Shar ma
Shr i M anoj Sinha
Shr i H ar deep Singh Pur i
Shr i Alphons Kannanthanam
M I N I STERS OF STATE
Gener al (Ret d.) V.K . Singh
Shr i Shiv Pr atap Shukla
Shr i S.S. Ahluwalia
Shr i Ramdas Athawale
Shr i Ram K r ipal Yadav
Shr i Har ibhai Par thibhai Chaudhar y
Shr i H ansr aj Gangar am Ahir
& Shr i K ir en Rijiju
Shri Babul Supriyo
Shr i Ramesh Chandappa Jigajinagi
Shr i Rajen Gohain
Shr i Par shott am Rupala
Shr i Radhakr ishnan P.
Shr i K r ishan Pal
Jaswantsingh Sumanbhai Bhabhor
Shr i Vishnu Deo Sai
Shr i Sudar shan Bhagat
Shr i Jayant Sinha
Y. S. Chowdar y
Sadhvi Nir anjan Jyoti
Shr i Vijay Sampla
Shr i Ar jun Ram Meghwal
Shr i Ajay Tamt a
Smt . K r ishna Raj
Shr i Anant K umar Hegde
Smt . Anupr iya Patel
Shr i C. R. Chaudhar y
Shr i P.P. Chaudhar y
Dr. Subhash Ramr ao Bhamr e
CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.13
Minister of State (I ndependent Charge) of the Ministr y of Power; and Minister
of State (I ndependent Char ge) of the Ministr y of New and Renewable Ener gy.
Minister of State (I ndependent Charge) of the Ministry of Culture; and Minister
of St ate (I ndependent Char ge) of t he Ministr y of Tour ism & Civil Aviation.
M inister of State (I ndependent Char ge) of t he Ministr y of Communicat ions;
and M inist er of St at e in the M inist r y of Railways.
Minister of State (I ndependent Char ge) of the Ministr y of Housing and Ur ban
Affairs..
M inist er of State (I ndependent Char ge) of the Ministr y of Tour ism.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Exter nal Affair s.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Finance.
Minister of State in the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
M inister of State in t he Minist r y of Social Just ice and Empower ment .
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Rur al Development .
M inister of St ate for Coal and Mines
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Home Affair s.
M i ni st er of St at e i n t he M inist r y of H eavy I ndust r ies and Publ ic
Ent er pr ises.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Dr inking Wat er and Sanit ation.
M inister of State in t he M inist r y of Railways.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Agr icultur e and Far mer s Welfar e;
and M inist er of Stat e in the Ministr y of Panchayati Raj.
M inister of State in t he M inist r y of Road Tr anspor t and H ighways;
and M inist er of St at e in the M inist r y of Shipping.
M inister of State in t he Minist r y of Social Just ice and Empower ment .
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Tr ibal Affair s.
M inist er of Stat e in t he Ministr y of Steel.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Agr icultur e and Far mer s Welfar e.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Civil Aviation.
Minister of State in the Ministry of Science and Technology; and Minister
of St ate in t he Minist r y of Ear t h Sciences.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Food Pr ocessing I ndust r ies.
M inister of State in t he Minist r y of Social Just ice and Empower ment .
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Wat er Resour ces
M inister of State in t he M inist r y of Text iles.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Agr icult ur e & Far mer s Welfar e.
M i n i st er of St at e i n t h e M i n i st r y of Sk i l l Devel opm en t an d
Entr epr eneur ship.
M inister of State in t he Minist r y of H ealth and Family Welfar e.
Minister of State in the Ministr y of Consumer Affair s, Food and Public
Distr ibution.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Law and Just ice; and M inist er of
State in t he Ministr y of Cor por at e Affair s.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Defence.
 6.14 CURRENT AFFAIRS

CH I EF M I N I STERS & GOVERN ORS OF I N DI AN STATES

S. N o. N ame of States Chief M inister Governor
1 Andhra Pradesh Shr i N. Chandr ababu Naidu Shr i. E. S. L. Nar asimhan
2 Arunachal Pr adesh Shr i Pema Khandu Brigadier BD Mishr a (Retd)
3 Assam Shr i Sar bananda Sonowal Jagdish Mukhi
4 Bihar Shr i Nitish Kumar L alji Tandon. Ram Nat h Kovind
5 Chhattisgarh Shr i Bhupesh Baghel Anandiben Pat el
6 Goa Shr i Manohar Par r ikar Mridula Sinha
7 Gujarat Shri Vijay Rupani Shr i Om Pr akash K ohli
8 Haryana Shr i Manohar Lal Khat tar Satyadev Nar ayan Ar ya
9 Himachal Pr adesh Shr i Jayr am Thakur Achar ya Dev Vr at
10 Jammu Kashmir – Sat ya Pal Malik
11 Jharkhand Shr i Raghubar Das Draupadi Murmu
12 Karnataka Shr i H. D. Kumar aswamy Vajubhai Rudhbhaivala
13 Kerala Shr i Pinar ayi Vijayan P. Sathasivam
14 Madhya Pradesh Shr i Kamalnath Anandiben Patel
15 Maharashtra Shr i Devendr a Fadnavis C. Vidhyasagar Rao
16 Manipur Shr i N. Bir en Singh Najma Heptulla
17 Meghalaya Shr i Conrad Sangma Tathagat a Roy
18 Mizoram Shri Zor amt hanga K . Rajasekhar an
19 Nagaland Shr i Neiphiu Rio Shr i Acharya Padmanabha
20 Odisha Shr i Naveen Patnaik Shr i Ganeshi L al
21 Punjab Captain Amarinder Singh V. P. Singh Badnor e
22 Rajasthan Shr i Ashok Gehlot Kalyan Singh
23 Sikkim Shr i Pawan Chamling Ganga Pr asad
24 Tamil Nadu Shri Edappadi K. Palaniswami Banwar ilal Pur ohit
25 Telangana Shr i K. Chandr asekhar Rao Shr i. E. S. L. Nar asimhan
26 Tripura Shr i Biplab Kumar Deb K aptan Singh Solanki
27 Uttar Pr adesh Shr i Yogi Adityanath Shr i Ram Naik
28 Uttarakhand Shr i Tr ivendr a Singh Rawat Baby Rani Maur ya
29 West Bengal Shr i Mamat a Baner jee Shr i Keshr i Nath Tr ipathi
U N I ON TERRI TORI ES
Union Territory Chief M inister Lieutenant
Governors/Administrators
1 Andaman & Nicobar Admir al (Retd) Devendr a Kumar Joshi
2 Chandigarh V. P. Sing Badnor e
3 Dadr a and Nagar Haveli Shr i Pr aful Patel
4 Daman and Diu Shr i Pr aful Patel
5 Lakshadweep Shr i Far ooq K han
6 Puducher r y Shr i V. Nar ayanswami Kir en Bedi
7 New Delhi Shr i Ar vind Kejar iwal Anil Baijal

N EW JU DI CI ARY
Mr. Ranjan Gogoi : Chief Justice of I ndia
Mr. K.K. Venugopal : Attor ney Gener al of I ndia
Mr. Ranjit Kumar : Solicitor Gener al of I ndia
Mr. Nar endr a M odi : Chair man, NI TI Aayog
Mr. Sunil Ar or a : Chief Election Commissioner
Mr. Rajiv Mehr ishi : Compt r oller and Audit or -Gener al of I ndia.
Mr. Just ice H.L. Dattu : Chair per son, National Human Right Commission (NHRC)
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.15

Mr. Pr adeep Kumar Sinha : Cabinet Secr etar y.

Mr. Nr ipendr a Mishr a : Pr incipal Secr et ar y to Pr ime Minist er .
Mr. Justice Vangala Eshwaraiah : Chair man, National Commission for Backwar d Classes.
Ms. Stuti Nar ain Kacker : Chair per son, National Commission for Pr otection of Child Rights
Dr. P.L. Punia : Chair man, National Commission for Scheduled Castes
Mr. Nand Kumar Sai : Chair man, National Commission for Scheduled Tr ibes.
Mr. Vinay Mittal : Chair man, UPSC.
Dr. M. S. Swaminathan : Chair man, National Commission on Far mer s (NCF).
Mr. Ajit Doval : Nat i onal Secur it y Advi ser and Special Adviser t o PM (I nt er nal
Security).
Mr. Shar ad K umar : Dir ector -Gener al, Nat ional I nvest igation Agency (NI A).
Ashwani Lohani : Chairman, Railway Board.
Mr. Desh Dipak Ver ma : Secretar y-Gener al, Rajya Sabha
Mr s. Snehlata Sr ivastav : Secr etar y-Gener al, L ok Sabha.
Mr. Sanjeev Tr ipathi : Secr etar y, Resear ch and Analysis Wing.
Mr. RC Tayal : Dir ector -Gener al, NSG.
Mr. Rajiv Rai Bhatnagar : Dir ector-Gener al, CRPF.
Mr. K.K. Shar ma : Dir ector -Gener al, Bor der Secur ity For ce (BSF).
Mr. Rajesh Ranjan : Dir ector -Gener al, Centr al I ndust r ial Secur it y For ce (CI SF).
Mr. Dhar mendr a K umar : Dir ector -Gener al, Railway Pr otection For ce.
Mr. R.K. Pachnanda : Dir ector -Gener al, I ndo-Tibetan Bor der Police.
Mr s. Rajni Kant : Dir ector -Gener al, Sashastr a Seema Bal.
Mr. Rajendr a Singh : Dir ector -Gener al, I ndian Coast Guar d.
Lt. Gen. Avtar Singh : Dir ector-Gener al, Defence I ntelligence Agency.
Mr. D.P. Singh : Chair man, UGC.
Mr. K. Vijay Raghavan : Pr inciple Scient ific Adviser to the Gover nment of I ndia.
Mr. K. Sivan : Chair man, Space Commission and I SRO.
Mr. Sekhar Basu : Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission and Secretary, Dept. of Atomic
Ener gy.
Mr. Gair ul Hasan Rizvi : Chair per son, National Commission for Minor ities.
Mr. Radha Krishna Mathur : Chief I nfor mation Commissioner.
Mr. Soumya Swaminathan : Dir ector -Gener al, I ndian Council of Medical Resear ch.
Mr. C. Chandr amouli : Registr ar-Gener al of I ndia and Census Commissioner.
Mr. Just ic Balbir Singh Chauhan : Chair man, Law Commission.
Mr. Baldev Raj : Pr esident , I ndian National Academy of Engineer ing (I NAE).
Mr. Justice (Ret d.) B. N. Kir pal : Chair man, National For est Commission.
Mr. Dilip Rath : Chair per son, National Dair y Development Boar d (NDDB).
Lt. Gen. Sanjeev Kumar Shr ivastav : Dir ector -Gener al, Bor der Roads Or ganisat ion.
Ur jit Patel : Gover nor, RBI
Mr. Justice Chandr amauli Kumar Pr asad : Chair man, Pr ess Council of I ndia.
Mr. Shashidhar Sinha : Chairman, Audit Bur eau of Cir culations (ABC).
Mr. Pr akash Chandr a : Chair per son, Centr al Boar d of Dir ect Taxes (CBDT).
Vanaja N. Seena : Chair man, Centr al Boar d of Excise & Cust oms.
Justice Sudhansu Jyoti Mukhopadhaya : Chair per son, Competition Appellate Tr ibunal
Balr aj Joshi : CMD, NH PC.
Shashi Shanker : CMD, ONGC.
6.16 CURRENT AFFAIRS
Mr. B.C. Tr ipathi
Mr. Sanjiv Singh
Mr. Utpal Bor a
Anita Kar wal
Ajay Tyagi
Mr. Har sh Kumar Bhanwala
Mr. Rajnish Kumar
Mr. M S Raghavan
Mr. Mahesh Mit tal Kumar
Rajiv Kumar Chander
Mr. S.K. Roy
Mr. Ashwin B. Pandya
Ms. Lalitha K umar amanglam
Dr. Y.V. Reddy
Mr. Pr onab Sen
Ms. Pahlav Nihalani
Dr. Budha Rashmi Mani
Mr. Rashesh Shah
Mr. R.S. Shar ma
Mr. Hemant
Mr. K.V. Chowdar y
Mr. K.S. Vyas
Nar inder Dhr uv Batr a
Hr ushikesh Senapaty
Ajay S. Shr ir am
Mr. Sam Pit r oda
Mr. Jawhar Sir car
Mr. Rishad Pr emji
Mr. Sandeep Jajodia
Mr. Sur esh Gopi
Viveck Goenka
N.K . Singh
: CMD, GAI L.
: Chair man, I OCL.
: CMD, Oil I ndia L td.
: Chair man, CBSE.
: Chair man, Secur ities & Exchange Boar d of I ndia.
: Chair man, National Bank for Agr icultur e and Rur al Development
(NABARD).
: Chairman, SBI
: Chairman, I DBI .
: Chair man, Company Law Boar d.
: I ndia's Per manent Repr esentat ive to UN.
: Chair man, LI C
: Chair man, Centr al Water Commission.
: Chair per son, Nat ional Commission for Women.
: Chair man, 14th Finance Commission.
: Chair man, National St atistical Commission.
: Chair per son, Centr al Boar d of Film Cer tification.
: Dir ector -Gener al, Ar chaeological Sur vey of I ndia.
: Pr esident, FI CCI .
: Chairman, TRAI
: Chair man, Pension Fund Regulator y & Development Author ity.
: Centr al Vigilance Commissioner (CVC).
: Dir ector, Bhabha Atomic Resear ch Cent r e.
: Pr esident, I ndian Olympic Association.
: Dir ector, NCERT.
: Pr esident, CI I .
: Chair man, National K nowledge Commission.
: CEO, Pr asar Bhar ti Boar d.
: Chair man, NASSCOM.
: Pr esident, ASSOCHAM.
: Chair man, National Film Development Cor por ation (NFDC).
: Chair man, PTI .
: Chair man, 15th Finance Commission
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.17

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 9. Which gas is r eleased fr om paddy fields?

1. Whi ch of t he fol l owi ng count r i es has began (a) Car bon dioxide (b) Methane
labor ator y tests of A(H1N1) flu vaccine? (c) Ammonia (d) Hydr ogen Sulphide
(a) China (b) Canada 10. Which of the following companies has r olled out
the Jaguar and Land Rover (JLR) in I ndia?
(c) The US (d) Mexico
(a) Tat a Mot or s (b) For d Motor Co.
2. T h e Sou t h A si an A ssoci at i on f or Regi on al
Cooper at i on (SA A RC) is r egi on al (c) Por sche (d) Mer cedes
int er gover nment al or ganization and geopolitical 11. Who has been appoint ed as the FI FA pr esident ?
union in South Asia. SAARC was founded in ______
(a) Sepp Blatter (b) I ssa H ayatou
in 1985.
(c) Gianni I nfantino (d) Joao Havelange
(a) Dhaka, Bangladesh (b) New Delhi, I ndia
12. What is the main Chemical component of Vinegar?
(c) Kathmandu, Nepal (d) Male, Maldives
(a) Acetic acid (b) Citr ic acid
3. Wor ld Senior Cit izen’s Day is celebr ated on
(c) Tar t ar ic acid (d) Nitr ic acid
(a) August 6 (b) August 8
13. ______ basically r efer s to a section of the financial
(c) July 7 (d) July 9 mar ket wher e financial instr ument s wit h high
4. Which business house has pr omoted Essar gr oup liquidity and shor t-t er m matur it ies ar e tr aded.
of companies ? (a) Tr ade Mar ket (b) Capital Market
(a) Ruias (b) Ambanis (c) Money Mar ket (d) Expor t Market
(c) Goenkas (d) Kanor ias 14. The new centr al vigilence commissioner of I ndia

5. Nor th Kor ea, officially the Democr atic people’s (a) Pr adeep Kumar (b) KV Chowdar y
Republic of Kor ea, is a countr y in East Asia, in (c) Shar ad Kumar (d) Shanta Sinha
the nor ther n par t of the K or ean Peninsula what
15. Mont er o 09, the newly launched pr emium spor t
is t he capital of Nor t h Kor ea ?
utility vehicle by H indust an Motor s and Japan-
(a) Pyongyang (b) Seoul based Mitsubishi Motor s, is
(c) Tokyo (d) Beijing (a) impor ted fr om Japan

6. The New identit y of softwar e ser vices pr ovider (b) made in I ndia
Satyam Computer Ser vices Ltd. is (c) assembled in I ndia
(a) Satyam Mahindra (b) Mahindra Satyam (d) None of these
(c) Tech Sat yam (d) Sat yam Tech 16. I t is pr oposed t o set up an I I T in Jaipur with the
collabor at ion of which count r y?
7. Cor sica is an island in t he M editer r anean Sea
belonging to Fr ance. What is capital of Cor sica? (a) Germany
(a) Paris (b) Ajaccio (b) Fr ance

(c) Zagreb (d) Hawana (c) Australia

8. At which of the following places will Coimbator e- (d) Japan

based Elgi Equipments limited set up a subsidiary? 17. Who is the Pr esident of Wor ld Bank?
(a) Sao Paolo in Br azil (a) Jim Yong Kim
(b) Rio de Janeir o in Br azil (b) Pascal L amy
(c) Santiago in Chile (c) Raul Castr o

(d) Car acas in Venezuela (d) None of these

6.18 CURRENT AFFAIRS

18. Gr een Banking means 26. Which par t y in Russia does Mr. Put in heads ?
(a) financing of ir r igat ion pr oject s by bank (a) One Russia (b) Victor ious Russia
(b) development of for estr y by banks (c) Unified Russia (d) United Russia
(c) financing of envir onment fr iendly pr oject by 27. Wher e is Titicaca , the highest lake in the wor ld,
banks located?
(d) None of these (a) Russia and Cent r al Asian countr ies
19. Vijay Kelkar Committ ee r epor t deals with (b) US and Canada bor der
(a) Centr al-State financial r elations (c) South Afr ica
(b) Tax r efor ms (d) Per u and Bolivia bor der
(c) Tr ade r efor ms 28. The I ndian Space Resear ch Or ganisat ion (I SRO)
is the space agency of the I ndian gover nment .
(d) Refor ms in public sector enter pr ises
I SRO headquar ter is locat ed in?
20. Which spor t is Lin Dan associated wit h ?
(a) New Delhi (b) Chennai
(a) Table Tennis (b) Mahesh Bhupati
(c) Mumbai (d) Bengaluru
(c) M ar k Knowles (d) Tr avis Par r ot t
29. Whi ch i s t he onl y st at e t hat has appl i ed t he
21. Jnanpith Awar d was pr esented t o whom among elect r onic payment facilit y for it s tr ader s so t hat
t he following? t hey coul d mak e t heir VAT payment t hr ough
(a) H indi poet Sat ya Vr at Shastr i e-payment ?

(b) Sanskr it poet Sat ya Vr at Shastr i (a) Gujar at (b) Maharashtra

(c) Ur du poet Ghulam Azad (c) Tamil Nadu (d) Ker ala

(d) Hindi wr iter Ramakant Tr ipat hi 30. What was t he name of t he ship t hat sank near
t he Par adip por t causing oil spill ?
22. At which point of Ear t h t her e is no gr avity?
(a) Red Rose (b) Black Rose
(a) At Nor th and Sout h Pole
(c) White Rose (d) Gr een Rose
(b) At equat or
31. Oceansat -2 has been inject ed int o or bit at an
(c) On the ocean sur face alt it ude of about
(d) At cent r e of t he Ear t h (a) 238 km (b) 526 km
23. I n t he Panchayat s, women r eser vat i on has (c) 728 km (d) 936 km
incr eased fr om 33% t o
32. Th e I n t er n at i onal Day of Ol der Per son s i s
(a) 40 % (b) 50 % obser ved on?
(c) 51 % (d) 49 % (a) 2nd Oct ober (b) 24t h October
24. Who star ted the ‘Yellow Revolut ion’ in 1980’s in (c) 16t h October (d) 1st October
I ndia ?
33. The fir st non-stop air -conditioned ‘Dur ant o’ tr ain
(a) Sam Pit r oda (b) Nar ayan Mur this was flagged off between
(c) Nandan Nilekani (d) Swaminathan (a) Sealdah-New Delhi
25. I nt er nat ional L iter acy Day is celebr at ed on (b) Mumbai-Howr ah
(a) 6th Sept ember (b) 1st August (c) Bangalor e-Howrah
(c) 8th Sept ember (d) 1st October (d) Chennai-New Delhi
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.19

34. Which of t he foll owing is t he lat est Advanced 42. The Feder al Reser ve Syst em also known as the
Landing Gr ound (ALG) oper ationalised by I AF in Federal Reserve or simply as the Fed is the central
L adakh ? banking syst em of?
(a) Daulat Beg (b) Fuk Che (a) China (b) Fr ance
(c) Nyoma (d) None of these (c) UK (d) USA
LEVEL-1 43. Guwahat i is sit uated on which of t he following
35. Wit h which of t he following countr ies has I ndia bank of the r iver ?
si gn ed i t s si x t h ci v i l n u cl ear cor por at i on (a) Sone (b) H ooghly
agr eement ?
(c) Brahmaputra (d) Teest a
(a) Kazakhstan (b) Namibia
44. The second war shi p l aunched under Pr oj ect
(c) Mongolia (d) Nepal
15-A is named
36. I n which of the following islands, massive tsunami
(a) I NS Kolkata (b) I NS K ochi
wave killed at least 113 people ?
(c) I NS Chennai (d) I NS Coimbat or e
(a) Java (b) Samoan I slands
45. On Apr il 6, 1896, the first modern Olympic Games
(c) Fiji (d) Philippines
wer e hel d i n _________ wi t h at hlet es fr om 14
37. For t he fir st t ime, t he tot al number of account s count r ies par ticipating.
held by women in public sect or banks in I ndia
has cr ossed (a) L ondon, UK (b) Athens, Gr eece

(a) 50 lakh (b) 80 lakh (c) Tokyo, Japan (d) New Yor k, USA

(c) 1 cr or e (d) 1.5 cr or e 46. Which of the following countries has the lowest ratio
of external debt to Gross National I ncome ?
38. Which of the following count r ies has dr opped the
wor d ‘communism’ fr om its Constitut ion ? (a) China (b) India

(a) Cuba (b) Nor th Kor ea (c) I ndonesia (d) Malaysia

(c) China (d) none of these 47. I CI CI Bank is an I ndian mult inat ional banking
and financial ser vices company headquar ter ed in
39. The MahabodhiVihar, a UNESCO World Heritage
Mumbai, M ahar asht r a, I ndia, with it s r egist er ed
Sit e, is a Buddhist temple locat ed at which of the
office in Vadodar a. I CI CI st ands for ?
following place?
(a) Guwahati, Assam (b) Deoghar, Jhar khand (a) I ndustr ial Cr edit and I nvestment Corpor ation
of I ndia Bank
(c) Pat na, Bihar (d) Dar bhanga, Bihar
(b) I n du st r i al Cu st om er an d I n su r an ce
40. Wh at i s t h e si gn i f i can ce of Ozon e l ayer i n Cor por ation of I ndia Bank
atmospher e?
(c) I n t er n at i on al Cr edi t an d I n v est m en t
(a) I t maint ains t he cycle of seasons. Cor por ation of I ndust r ial Bank
(b) I t causes timely ar r ival of M onsoon
(d) I ndian Cr edit and I ndustr ial Cor por at ion of
(c) I t filter s t he ult r aviolet r ays of t he sun I ndia Bank
(d) I t pr event s t he global war ming 48. The "God of Small Things" is t he debut novel
41. The National Rur al Employment Guar ant ee Act narr ating a story about the childhood exper iences
(NREGA) has been r enamed after of fr ater nal twins whose lives ar e dest r oyed by
t he "Love Laws" t hat lay down "who should be
(a) Lal Bahadur Shastr i loved, and how. And how much". I t is wr it ten by?
(b) Sar dar Vallabhbhai Patel (a) Chetan Bhagat (b) Amish Tr ipathi
(c) Mahatma Gandhi (c) Pr anab M ukher jee (d) Arundhati Roy
(d) Rajiv Gandhi
6.20 CURRENT AFFAIRS
49. What does NSAB stand for in I ndian context ? 58. Which count r y’s l ower house of Par l iament is
(a) Nat ional Societ y for Animal Br eeder s known as Wolesi Jir ga?

(b) Nat ional Suppor t Activity for Bhutan (a) Afghanistan (b) Bangladesh

(c) Nat ional Spir itual Assembly of Buddhists (c) Pakist an (d) I r an

(d) National Secur it y Advisor y Boar d 59. Which of t he following companies is posing a stiff
competit ion t o Sweden’s Er icsson t o become the
LEVEL-2
wor ld’s lar gest telecom equipment manufactur er ?
50. Which of t he following cit ies will host t he 2020
Olympics ? (a) Samsung (b) Huawei

(a)Chicago (b) Rio de Janeir o (c) Nokia (d) Panasonic

(c) Madr id (d) Tokyo 60. What is the pr esent per missible power densit y
value for mobile tower s oper ating at 1800 M Hz?
51. 'Follow-on' is used which of the following game?
(a) 4.5 wat t /met r e2 (b) 9 wat t/met r e2
(a) Badminton (b) Tennis
(c) Foot ball (d) Cr icket (c) 13.5 wat t/met r e2 (d) 18 wat t/met r e2

52. Which family owns the H er o gr oup of Companies 61. I n which countr y is the headquar t er s of Nestle
in I ndia? company located ?

(a) Hindujas (b) Fir odias (a) Sweden (b) Switzerland

(c) Munjals (d) Mansingh (c) Ger many (d) Nether lands
53. What is t he name of I ndia’s fir st indigenously 62. Wher e ar e Cent r e for Cell ul ar and molecular
developed nuclear submar ine? Biology, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
(a) I NS Sindhughosh (b) K 15 and Vik r am Sar abhai Space Resear ch Cent r e
r espectively locat ed?
(c) I NS Ar ihant (d) I NS Vikr amditya
(a) Hyder abad, Tar apur and Shr ihar ikota
54. Per iyar Tiger Reser ve locat ed in Thekkady at the
distr ict of I dukki is one of t he 27 t iger r eser ves in (b) Chennai, Tar apur and Thir u-vananthapur am
I ndia is located in which state?
(c) H y der abad, K al pak k am an d Thir u-
(a) Ker ala (b) New Delhi vananthapuram
(c) Odisha (d) Karnataka (d) Chennai, Tar apur and Sr ihar ikota
55. Which of t he following countr ies in the M iddle 63. What is Wakhan Cor r idor ?
East is facing a civil war between the Gover nment
for ces and r ebed insur gent s ? (a) Nor th East er n extr emit y of Afghanistan

(a) Syria (b) Egypt (b) Par t of the bor der bet ween I ndia and China
in Ladakh r egion
(c) Tunisia (d) Jor don
(c) A passage bet ween I r an and Afghanist an
56. SARFAESI Act is an I ndian law. I t allows banks
and ot h er f i nan ci al i n st i t ut i on s t o au ct i on (d) N ar r ow st r i p j oi n i n g B an gl adesh w i t h
r esident ial or commer cial pr oper ties to r ecover Myanmar
loans. I n SARFAESI , F stands for ?
64. Who is t he pr esent Gover nor of Kar nataka?
(a) Fol low (b) Financial
(a) Hans Raj Bhar dwaj
(c) Fill-up (d) For um
(b) Mridula Sinha
57. H ow do you obser ve ever y year t he fir st M onday
of October ? (c) Vajubhai Rudabhai Vala
(a) Envir onment Day (b) Wor ld H abitat Day (d) Sathasivam
(c) Wor ld Diabet es Day(d) UNO Day
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.21

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12 (a) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (d) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (c) 32. (d) 33. (a) 34. (c)
LEVEL-1
35. (c) 36. (b) 37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (c) 41. (c) 42. (d) 43. (c) 44. (b)
45. (b) 46. (a) 47. (a) 48. (d) 49. (d)
LEVEL-2
50. (d) 51. (d) 52. (c) 53. (c) 54. (a) 55. (a) 56. (b) 57. (b) 58. (a) 59. (b)
60. (a) 61. (b) 62. (a) 63. (a) 64. (c)
CBT – II
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 1

BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND

POLLUTION CONTROL
DEFINITION
Environmental pollution is “the contamination of the physical and biological components of the earth/atmosphere system
to such an extent that normal environmental processes are adversely affected”.
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that cause harm or discomfort  to humans or other
living organisms, or that damage the environment” which can come “in the form of chemical substances, or energy
such as noise, heat or light”. “Pollutants can be naturally occurring substances or energies, but are considered contaminants
when in excess of natural levels.
TYPES OF POLLUTION:
There are several types of pollution, and while they may come from different sources and have different consequences,
understanding the basics about pollution can help environmentally conscious individuals minimize their contribution to
these dangers.
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is defined as any contamination of the atmosphere that disturbs the natural composition and chemistry of
the air. This can be in the form of particulate matter such as dust or excessive gases like carbon dioxide or other vapors
that cannot be effectively removed through natural cycles, such as the carbon cycle or the nitrogen cycle.
Air pollution comes from a wide variety of sources. Some of the most excessive sources include:
 Vehicle or manufacturing exhaust
 Forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dry soil erosion, and other natural sources
 Building construction or demolition
Depending on the concentration of air pollutants, several effects can be noticed. Smog increases, higher rain acidity,
crop depletion from inadequate oxygen, and higher rates of asthma. Many scientists believe that global warming is also
related to increased air pollution.
Pollutant Sources Effects
Ozone. A gas that can be found in Ozone is not created directly, but is formed Ozone near the ground can cause a
when nitrogen oxides and vo latile organic number of health prob lems. Ozone can
two places. Near the ground (the
compounds mix in sunlight. That is why ozone lead to more frequent asthma attacks in
tropo sphere), it is a major part of is mostly found in the summer. Nitrogen oxides people who have asthma and can cause
smog. The harmful ozo ne in the come from burning gasoline, coal, or other sore throats, coughs, and breathing
fossil fuels. There are many types of volatile difficulty. It may even lead to premature
lower atmosphere should not be
organic compounds, and they come from death. Ozone can also hurt plants and
confused with the protective layer sources ranging from factories to trees. crops.
of ozone in the upper atmosphere
(stratosphere), which screens out
harmful ultraviolet rays
Ca rbo n monoxide. A gas that Carbon mono xide is released when engines Carbo n monoxide makes it hard for body
comes from the burning of fossil burn fossil fuels. Emissions are higher when parts to get the oxygen they need to run
fuels, mostly in cars. It cannot be engines are not tuned properly, and when fuel co rrectly. Exposure to carbon monoxid e
seen or smelled is not completely burned. Cars emit a lot of the makes people feel dizzy and tired and
carbon monoxide found outdoors. Furnaces gives them headaches. In high
and heaters in the home can emit high co ncentrations it is fatal. Elderly people
concentrations of carbo n monoxide, too, if they with heart disease are hospitalized more
are not properly maintained. often when they are exposed to higher
amounts of carbon monoxide.
 2 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Nitrogen dio xide.  A reddish- Nitrogen dioxide mostly comes from po wer High levels of nitrogen dioxide exposure
brown gas that comes from the plants and cars. Nitrogen dioxide is formed in can give people coughs and can make
burning of fossil fuels. It has a two ways-when nitrogen in the fuel is burned, them feel short of breath. People who are
strong smell at high levels. or when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen exposed to nitrogen dioxide for a long
at very high temperatures. Nitrogen dioxide time have a higher chance of getting
can also react in the atmosphere to form ozone, respiratory infections. Nitro gen dioxid e
acid rain, and particles. reacts in the atmosphere to form acid
rain, which can harm plants and animals.

Particulate matter. Solid or Particulate matter can be divided into two Particulate matter that is small enough
liquid matter that is suspended in types-coarse particles and fine particles. can enter the lungs and cause health
the air. To remain in the air, Coarse particles are formed from sources like prob lems. Some of these problems
particles usually must be less than road dust, sea spray, and construction. Fine include more frequent asthma attacks,
0.1-mm wide and can be as small particles are formed when fuel is burned in respiratory problems, and premature
as 0.00005 mm. automobiles and power plants. death.
Sulphur dio xide.  A corrosive gas Sulfur dioxide mostly comes from the burning Sulfur d ioxide exposure can affect
that cannot be seen or smelled at of coal or oil in power plants. It also comes people who have asthma or emphysema
low levels but can have a “rotten from factories that make chemicals, paper, or by making it more difficult for them to
egg“ smell at high levels. fuel. Like nitrogen dio xide, sulfur dioxide breathe. It can also irritate people's eyes,
reacts in the atmosp here to form acid rain and noses, and throats. Sulfur dioxide can
particles. harm trees and crops, damage b uildings,
and make it harder for people to see long
distances.

Lead. A blue-gray metal that is Outside, lead comes from cars in areas where High amounts of lead can be dangerous
very toxic and is found in a unleaded gasoline is not used. Lead can also for small children and can lead to lower
number of forms and locations. come from power plants and other industrial IQs and kidney prob lems. For adults,
sources. Inside, lead paint is an important exposure to lead can increase the chance
source of lead, especially in houses where paint of having heart attacks or strokes.
is peeling. Lead in old pipes can also be a
source of lead in drinking water.

Toxic air pollutants. A large
number of chemicals that are
known or suspected to cause
cancer. Some imp ortant pollutants
in this category include arsenic,
asbestos, benzene, and dioxin.
Each toxic air pollutant comes from a slightly Toxic air pollutants can cause cancer.
different source, but many are created in Some toxic air pollutants can also cause
chemical plants or are emitted when fossil fuels birth defects. Other effects depend on the
are burned. Some toxic air pollutants, like pollutant, but can include skin and eye
asbestos and formaldehyde, can be found in irritation and breathing problems.
building materials and can lead to indoor air
problems. Many toxic air pollutants can also
enter the food and water supplies.

Stratospheric ozone CFCs are used in air conditioners and If the ozone in the stratosphere is
depleters.Chemicals that can refrigerators, since they work well as coolants. destro yed, people are exposed to more
destroy the ozone in the They can also be fo und in aerosol cans and fire radiation fro m the sun (ultraviolet
stratosphere. These chemicals extinguishers. Other stratospheric ozone radiation). This can lead to skin cancer
include chlorofluorocarbons depleters are used as so lvents in industry. and eye problems. Higher ultraviolet
(CFCs), halons, and other radiation can also harm plants and
compounds that include chlorine animals.
or bromine
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 3

Greenhouse gases. Gases that Carbon dioxide is the most important The greenhouse effect can lead to
stay in the air for a long time and greenhouse gas. It comes from the burning of changes in the climate of the planet.
warm up the planet by trapping fossil fuels in cars, p ower plants, houses, and Some of these changes might includ e
sunlight. This is called the industry. Methane is released during the more temperature extremes, higher sea
“greenhouse effect“ b ecause the processing of fossil fuels, and also comes from levels, changes in forest compositio n,
gases act like the glass in a natural sources like cows and rice paddies. and damage to land near the coast.
greenhouse. Some of the Nitrous oxide comes from ind ustrial sources Human health might be affected by
important greenhouse gases are and decaying plants. diseases that are related to temperature or
carbon dioxide, methane, and by damage to land and water.
nitrous oxide.
WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution involves any contaminated water, whether from chemical, particulate, or bacterial matter that degrades
the water’s quality and purity. Water pollution can occur in oceans, rivers, lakes, and underground reservoirs, and as
different water sources flow together through the water cycle the pollution can spread.
Causes of water pollution include:
 Increased sediment from soil erosion
 Improper waste disposal and littering
 Leaching of soil pollution into water supplies
 Organic material decay in water supplies
The effects of water pollution include decreasing the quantity of drinkable water available, lowering water supplies for
crop irrigation, and impacting fish and wildlife populations that require water of a certain purity for survival.
Ground water is being polluted by percolation of contaminated surface water through the layers of the earth. Release of
raw sewage in unlined soak-pits and release of toxic effluents by the industries into surface water bodies, are the main
causes of ground water pollution.
Major water pollutants, examples and sources
Category Examples Sources
I. Affecting health
Infectious agents Bacteria, viruses and parasites Sewage, human and animal excreta
Organic chemicals Pesticides, plastics, detergents. oil Agricultural, industrial and domestic wastes
Inorganic chemicals Acids, caustics, salts, metals Industrial and domestic effluents
Radioactive materials Uranium, thorium, randon, etc Mining, power plants, natural sources
2. Affecting ecossslcm
Plant nutrients Nitrates, phosphates, etc Chemical fertilisers, sewage, manure
Sediments Silt, soil Soil erosion
Thermal Heat Industries, power plants
Oxygen demanding Agricultural waster, manure Sweage, agricultural runoff
Indiscriminate and overuse of fertilizers, chemicals and pesticides have also caused ground water pollution through the
seepage of irrigation water into ground water reserves.
The hazards of ground water pollution depend on several factors such as:
 Concentration or toxicity of the pollutant
 The level of ground water if the level is higher chances of contamination are more
 Conditions of ground water recharge
Marine Pollution: Marine pollution is the matter of International concern from the point of view of conservation of
living resources. All coastal nations dispose of millions of gallons of untreated sewage, millions of tonnes of garbage,
unlimited amount of low level radioactive wastes etc. into the seas.
In addition to the marine environment, areas along the coasts, such as, estuaries, reefs, wetlands, mangroves, etc. are
adversely affected due to enormous dumping of pollutants into the ocean. This problem is further aggravated due to the
fact that about 40% of the world’s population lives near the sea.
 4 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

The main sources of marine pollution are:

1. Municipal wastes and sewage
2. Industrial effluents
3. Runoff agricultural wastes
4. Oil spills from tankers
5. Offshore drilling and mining
6. Submarine nuclear testing
7. Dumping of radioactive wastes
The consequences of marine pollution are as follows:
 The pollutants adversely affect the productive ocean regions, thus causing huge losses of fish populations and coral
reefs. This results in economic losses amounting to billions of dollars per year.
 Eutrophication, due to the influx of organic pollutants, results in the formation of red tides. These are blooms
(massive growth) of red algae, which inhibit the movement of ships and also kill marine fauna.
 Dumping of huge amounts of toxic wastes in a short duration of time, creates areas of oxygen-depleted zones in the
coastal waters. In these zones, most of the aquatic lives die or migrate elsewhere.
 Discarded garbage, sewage, plastic refuse, etc. that are dumped in the oceans sometimes accumulate in the beaches.
This spoils the aesthetic beauty of the region and results in loss of tourism.
Water Pollutants and their Effects:
Most of the rivers and fresh water streams in India are badly polluted by industrial wastes or effluents. The major
sources of pollution of some Indian rivers are listed in table below:
Indian rivers and sources of their pollution
Name of river Sources of pollution
1. Kali Sugar mills: distilleries: paint, soap, rayon, silk. Yarn, tin and glycerine
2. Yamuna D.D.T. factory, sewage, Indraprastha Power Station, Delhi.
3. Ganga Jute, chemical, metal and surgical industries: tanneries, textile mills and great
bulk of domestic sewage of highly organic nature.
4. Gomti Paper and pulp mills sewage.
5. Dajora Synthetic rubber factories.
6. Damodar Fertilizers, fly ash from steel mills, suspended coal particles from washeries,
and thermal power station.
7. Hoogly Power stations: paper pulp, jute textiles, chemical mills, paint, varnishes, metal,
steel, hydrogenated vegetable oil, rayon, soap, match, shellac, and polyethene
industries and sewage.
8. Sone Bhadra Cement, pulp and paper mills.
9. Cooum, Adyar and Buckinghum Domestic sewage, automobile workshops.
canal (Chennai)
10. Kaveri Sewage, tanneries, distilleries, paper and rayon mills.
11. Godavari Paper, mills.
12. Siwan Paper, sulphur, cement, and sugar mills.
13. Kulu Chemical factories, rayon mills and tanneries.
14. Suwao Sugar industries.
Contamination of water with industrial wastes is most dangerous. The sewage of big cities is often drained into rivers.
This sewage promotes the growth of phytoplankton’s. The excessive growth depletes the oxygen of water. This
reduction of oxygen and the presence of poisonous wastes affect the fish population. Besides these, rivers, lakes and
ponds are also used directly by people for bathing or washing. This contaminates the water with the germs of various
diseases- like cholera, dysentery and hepatitis.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 5

Type or Industry Inorganic pollutants Organic pollutants

Mining Mine wastes : Chlorides, various metals,
ferrous sulphate, sulpluric acid hydrogen
—
sulphide, ferric hydroxide, surface wash offs,
suspended solids, chlorides and heavy metals.
Iron and steel Suspended solids, iron cyanide, thiocy-anate, Oil, phenol and naptha
sulphides, oxides, of copper, chromium,
cadmium, and mercury.
Chemical plants Various acids and alkalies, sulphates, nitrates of Aromatic compound solvents, organic acids,
metals, phosphorus, fluorine, silica, and nitro compound dyes, etc.
suspended particles.
Pharmaceuticals Proteins, carbohydrates, organic solvents,
—
intermediate products, drugs and antibiotics.
Soap and detergent Tertiary ammonia compounds, alkalies. Fats and fatty acids, glycerol, polyphosphates,
sulphonated hydrocarbons.
Food processing Highly putrescible organic matter and
—
pathogens.
Paper and pulp Sulphides, bleaching liquors Cellulose fibres, bark, wood, sugars and
organic acids.
Some pollutants produce only temporary effects in water whereas others have long standing effects. There are several
types of physical and chemical effects produced by pollutants.
These are:
 Addition of poisonous substances
 Addition of suspended particles
 Addition of non-toxic salts
 Water de-oxygenation
 Heating of water.
SOIL POLLUTION
Soil, or land pollution, is contamination of the soil that prevents natural growth and balance in the land whether it is used
for cultivation, habitation, or a wildlife preserve. Some soil pollution, such as the creation of landfills, is deliberate, while
much more is accidental and can have widespread effects.
Soil pollution sources include:
 Hazardous waste and sewage spills
 Non-sustainable farming practices, such as the heavy use of inorganic pesticides
 Strip mining, deforestation, and other destructive practices
 Household dumping and littering
Soil contamination can lead to poor growth and reduced crop yields, loss of wildlife habitat, water and visual pollution,
soil erosion, and desertification.
NOISE POLLUTION
Noise pollution refers to undesirable levels of noises caused by human activity that disrupt the standard of living in the
affected area. Noise pollution can come from:
 Traffic
 Airports
 Railroads
 Manufacturing plants
 Construction or demolition
 Concerts
 6 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Some noise pollution may be temporary while other sources are more permanent. Effects may include hearing loss,
wildlife disturbances, and a general degradation of lifestyle.
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
Radioactive pollution is rare but extremely detrimental, and even deadly, when it occurs. Because of its intensity and the
difficulty of reversing damage, there are strict government regulations to control radioactive pollution.
Sources of radioactive contamination include:
 Nuclear power plant accidents or leakage
 Improper nuclear waste disposal
 Uranium mining operations
Radiation pollution can cause birth defects, cancer, sterilization, and other health problems for human and wildlife
populations. It can also sterilize the soil and contribute to water and air pollution.
THERMAL POLLUTION
Thermal pollution is excess heat that creates undesirable effects over long periods of time. The earth has a natural
thermal cycle, but excessive temperature increases can be considered a rare type of pollution with long term effects.
Many types of thermal pollution are confined to areas near their source, but multiple sources can have wider impacts
over a greater geographic area.
Thermal pollution may be caused by:
 Power plants
 Urban sprawl
 Air pollution particulates that trap heat
 Deforestation
 Loss of temperature moderating water supplies
As temperatures increase, mild climatic changes may be observed, and wildlife populations may be unable to recover
from swift changes.
LIGHT POLLUTION
Light pollution is the over illumination of an area that is considered obtrusive. Sources include:
 Large cities
 Billboards and advertising
 Night time sporting events and other night time entertainment
Light pollution makes it impossible to see stars, therefore interfering with astronomical observation and personal enjoyment.
If it is near residential areas, light pollution can also degrade the quality of life for residents.
ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE INDEX 2018
In news 2018:
The 2018 Environmental Performance Index (EPI) finds that air quality is the leading environmental threat to public
health. Now in its twentieth year, the biennial report is produced by researchers at Yale and Columbia Universities in
collaboration with the World Economic Forum. The tenth EPI report ranks 180 countries on 24 performance indicators
across 10 issue categories covering environmental health and ecosystem vitality. Switzerland leads the world in sustainability,
followed by France, Denmark, Malta, and Sweden.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 7

Key findings:
 Switzerland’s top ranking reflects strong performance across most issues, especially air quality and climate protection.
 In general, high scorers exhibit long-standing commitments to protecting public health, preserving natural resources,
and decoupling greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from economic activity.
 India and Bangladesh come in near the bottom of the rankings, with Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and
Nepal rounding out the bottom five.
 Low scores on the EPI are indicative of the need for national sustainability efforts on a number of fronts, especially
cleaning up air quality, protecting biodiversity, and reducing GHG emissions.
 Some of the lowest-ranking nations face broader challenges, such as civil unrest, but the low scores for others can
be attributed to weak governance, they note.
EPI and Global Sustainability Data
The EPI builds on the best available global data from international research entities, such as the Institute for Health
Metrics and Evaluation, the World Resources Institute, and the Sea Around Us Project at the University of British
Columbia, as well as international organizations such as the World Bank and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization.
Nevertheless, serious data gaps limit the ability to measure results – and particularly changes in performance – on a
number of important issues. “As the EPI project has highlighted for two decades, better data collection, reporting, and
verification across a range of environmental issues are urgently needed,”.
The world needs better data on sustainable agriculture, water resources, waste management, and threats to biodiversity.
Supporting global data systems is one of the most important steps the world community can take to achieving sustainable
development goals.
DUST MITIGATION PLAN
Centre had notified dust mitigation norms.
The norms mandate that:
 No building or infrastructure project requiring Environmental Clearance shall be implemented without approved
Environmental Management Plan inclusive of dust mitigation measures.
 Roads leading to or at construction sites must be paved and blacktopped (i.e. metallic roads).
 No excavation of soil shall be carried out without adequate dust mitigation measures in place.
 No loose soil or sand or Construction & Demolition Waste or any other construction material that causes dust shall
be left uncovered,
 Wind-breaker of appropriate height i.e. 1/3rd of the building height and maximum up to 10 meters shall be provided.
 Water sprinkling system shall be put in place.
 Dust mitigation measures shall be displayed prominently at the construction site for easy public viewing.
How it works? (Steps taken)
The teams are empowered to take on-the-spot action against violators and if necessary, issue “stop-work” orders.
The campaign will also include enforcement of pollution-control measures for vehicles, driving discipline, inspection of
power plants in Delhi to ensure compliance with the norms on pollution.
Besides field surveys by empowered teams of officials, a series of seminars on mitigation of pollution will also be
organised during the period. These include - a workshop on Environmental and Health; Air Pollution Abatement Technologies;
enlisting support from NGOs, Civil Society, citizens; Clean Air Day in Universities, Colleges and Schools; a Mini Marathon
for Clean Air; enhancing the role of PSUs and industries, apex industrial bodies; launching a national digital forum for
discussions on air pollution; Indoor Air Pollution Management and a conference of Environment Ministers of States and
Union Territories.
 8 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

MINAMATA CONVENTION
In news
Recently, the Union Cabinet approved the proposal for ratification of Minamata Convention on Mercury enabling India to
become a Party of the Convention.
About
 The approval entails ratification of the Minamata Convention on Mercury along with flexibility for continued use of
mercury based products and processes involving mercury compound up to 2025.
 The first Conference of the Parties (CoP) under the Minamata Convention took place in Geneva, Switzerland in 2017
which India attended as observer.
It is financed through Global Environment Facility.
Details about the convention
 The Minamata Convention on Mercury is first global legally binding treaty to protect human health and the environment
from the adverse effects of mercury.
 It was agreed in Geneva, Switzerland in January 2013 and came into force in August, 2017.
The Minamata Convention has put party nations to:
 Reduce and eliminate the use and release of mercury from artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM).
 Control mercury air emissions from coalfired power plants, coal-fired industrial boilers, certain non-ferrous metals
production operations, waste incineration and cement production.
 Phase-out or take measures to reduce mercury use in certain products such as batteries, switches, lights, cosmetics,
pesticides and measuring devices, and create initiatives to reduce the use of mercury in dental amalgam.
 Phase out or reduce the use of mercury in manufacturing processes such as chloralkali production, vinyl chloride
monomer production, and acetaldehyde production.
 It also puts a ban on new mercury mines.
 The Convention also addresses interim storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste, sites contaminated
by mercury as well as health issues.
Waste management
Waste management involves collecting, transporting, disposing, recycling and monitoring waste generated through
human activities.
General waste management techniques are:
Landfill: It involves having the waste buried off in empty, deserted locations outside the city. Dumped waste is made
to undergo compression to enhance the density and make the fill stable. It is later covered to discourage vermin
growth. A gas extraction system is customarily installed to exact the gas (arising out of decomposition) through a
burrow pit.
Incineration: Waste is exposed to high temperature to trigger combustion and ultimately reduce to ash, gas and heat
energy. Toxic wastes from industry are thermally treated in furnace and boiler to extract energy. This method is
useful where land is scarce. Gasification and Pyrolysis methods involve heating waste in short supply of oxygen at
high temperature inside a pressurized and sealed vessel. The resultant residue is used for energy generation.
Recycling: Paper, plastic, PVC and other homogenous products can be recycled to put them in use in a new garb.
This also rids the environment of non-biodegradable, chemical wastes that significantly disturb the ecological balance.
Biological reprocessing: Wastes of organic origin are made to undergo biological decomposition and re-used as
compost or mulch for agriculture and landscaping. Gas collected is used for electricity generation.
Waste Reduction and Avoidance: The stress is on increased use of second hand products, repaired products and
reducing the use of complex disposable items to keep a tab on waste generation in abundance.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 9
Recycling Solutions: Recycling is a superlative way to capitalize on accumulated waste by chemically treating it to
make it fit for re-use. Recycling equipment make the waste processing method streamlined and cost-effective.
Global warming
Global warming which is also referred to as climate change, is the observed rise in the average temperature of the
Earth's climate system the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C in the lowest emissions
scenario, and 2.6 to 4.8 °C in the highest emissions scenario .These readings have been recorded by the “national
science academies of the major industrialized nations”. Future climate change and impacts will differ from region to
region. Expected effects include increase in global temperatures, rising sea levels, changing precipitation, and expansion
of deserts.
Causes: Global warming is a serious environmental issues. The causes are divided into two categories include
"natural" and "human influences" of global warming.
Natural Causes of Global Warming:
 rotation of the sun that changes the intensity of sunlight and moving closer to the earth
 greenhouse gases
 Volcanic eruption.
Human Influences on Global Warming:
 industrial revolution
 Mining
 Deforestation
Effects:
 heat waves,
 droughts,
 heavy rainfall with floods,
 heavy snowfall ,
 ocean acidification,
 species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes
Acid rain
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic components, such as
sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain, snow,
fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.
Causes of Acid Rain : This image illustrates the pathway for acid rain in our environment.Acid rain results when
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air
currents. The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These
then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground.
While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as volcanoes, most of
it comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:
 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere come
from electric power generators.
 Vehicles and heavy equipment.
 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a problem for everyone and
not just those who live close to these sources.
Ozone depletion
Ozone depletion, gradual thinning of Earth’s ozone layer in the upper atmosphere caused by the release of chemical
compounds containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from industry and other human activities. The thinning is most
pronounced in the polar regions, especially over Antarctica. Ozone depletion is a major environmental problem
because it increases the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches Earth’s surface, which increases the rate of
 10 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

skin cancer, eye cataracts, and genetic and immune system damage. The Montreal Protocol, ratified in 1987, was the
first of several comprehensive international agreements enacted to halt the production and use of ozone-depleting
chemicals. As a result of continued international cooperation on this issue, the ozone layer is expected to recover over
time.

Important terminologies:
· Garbage Pollution: Mismanagement of solid waste by households, waste collectors and waste disposal contractors.
· Plastic Pollution: Waste of all types of non-biodegradable plastic of both hard and soft material.
· Pollution by Hospitals: Mismanagement of all types of waste generated by the hospitals instead of its environment
friendly disposal.
· Indoor Pollution: Kitchen emissions, smoking in home, loud music, spillage of sewerage.
· Industrial Pollution: Smoke from chimney, waste and effluent from manufacturing process in factories.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 11

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
6. There is some concern regarding the nanoparticles of
1. Consider the following: some chemical elements that are used by the industry
1. Carbon dioxide in the manufacture of various products. Why?
2. Oxides of Nitrogen 1. They can accumulate in the environment, and
3. Oxides of Sulphur contaminate water and soil.
Which of the above is/are the emission/ emissions 2. They can enter the food chains.
from coal combustion at thermal power plants? 3. They can trigger the production of free radicals.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
2. Human activities in the recent past have Caused the (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the 7. Which of the following are some important pollutants
atmosphere, but a lot of it does not remain in the released by steel industry in India?
lower atmosphere because of :
1. Oxides of sulphur
1. Its escape into the outer stratosphere.
2. Oxides of nitrogen
2. The photosynthesis by phyto-plankton in the
oceans. 3. Carbon monoxide
3. The trapping of air in the polar ice caps. 4. Carbon dioxide
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only (c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1,2, 3 and 4
3. Consider the following statements: 8. Brominated flame retardants are used in many
Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-depleting household products like mattresses and upholstery.
substances, are used Why is there some concern about their use?
1. In the production of plastic foams 1. They are highly resistant to degradation in the
environment.
2. In the production of tubeless tyres
3. In cleaning certain electronic components 2. They are able to accumulate in humans and
animals.
4. As pressurizing agents in aerosol cans
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 4 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
9. The scientific view is that the increase in global
4. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of environment
temperature should not exceed 2 °C above pre-
by
industrial level. If the global temperature increases
(a) carbon dioxide and nitrogen beyond 3°C above the pre-industrial level, what can
(b) carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide be its possible impact/impacts on the world?
(c) ozone and carbon dioxide 1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon
(d) nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide source
5. Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction 2. Widespread coral mortality will occur.
among: 3. All the global wetlands will permanently disappear.
(a) NO2, 03 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence 4. Cultivation of cereals will not be possible anywhere
of sunlight in the world.
(b) CO, 02 and0 peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence Select the correct answer using the code given below.
of sunlight (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) CO, CO2 and N02 at low temperature (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4,
(d) High concentration of N02, O3 and CO in the
evening
12 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL
10. In the context of mitigating the impending global
warming due to anthropogenic emissions of carbon
dioxide, which of the following can be the potential
sites for carbon sequestration?
1. Abandoned and uneconomic coal seams
2. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs
3. Subterranean deep saline formations
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
11. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard
criterion for
(a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude regions
12. In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/
are the advantage/advantages of bioremediation
technique?
1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by
enhancing the same biodegradation process that
occurs in nature.
2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as
cadmium and lead can be readily and completely
treated by bioremediation using microorganisms.
3. Genetic engineering can be used to create
microorganisms specifically designed for
bioremediation. Select the correct answer using
the code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
13. I n potable water, the dissolved oxygen is stipulated
as-
(a) <6g/l (b) >6g/l
(c) <6mg/l (d) >6mg/l
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
14. I n r ef er en ce t o A ci d r ai n , w h at i s cor r ect
st at ement
(a) The pH value i s bel ow 5.6
(b) I t occur s due t o pr esence of sul phur i c aci d or
ni t r ic acid i n t he at mospher e
(c) M axi mum acid i s due t o st r ong Car bonic Acid
(d) Acid r ain affect s ecosyst em
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
15. The wor king pr inciple of tur bidimeter is based on
(a) r efl ect ion of l ight
(b) r efr act ion of l ight
(c) scat t er ing of l ight
(d) adsor pt ion of light
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
LEVEL-1
1. The major sour ce of car ci nogenic hydr ocar bon,
benzo () pyr ene pr esent i n ur ban at mospher e is
(a) const r uct ion act ivit i es
(b) r oad t r affic
(c) bur st i ng of cr acker s
(d) domest i c bur ni ng
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
2. The pr escr i bed per missible noise level , L eq for
commer cial ar ea at day t ime is
(a) 75 dBA (b) 50 dBA
(c) 55 dBA (d) 65 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
3. The gl obal war mi ng i s caused by gr een house
gases, which ar e
(a) CO, N 2O, CH 4 and CFC
(b) CO2, NO2, CH 4 and H 2O
(c) CO2, N 2O, CH 4 and H 2O
(d) CO2, N O2, CH 4 and CFC
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
4. Which of t he fol lowing r ol es fl y ash does not pl ay
in concr et e
(a) I mpr ovi ng t he wor kabi li t y
(b) Acceler at ing t he st r engt h gain
(c) Delaying t he set t ing t i me of concr et e
(d) H elps in long-t er m st r engt h gain
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
5. One t ur bi di t y unit NTU is equal t o
(a) 1.0 mg/l far mazin (b) 1.0 meq/l Si O2
(c) 1.0 mg/l Si O2 (d) 1.0 meq/l kaol in
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
6. The pr escr i bed per missible noise level , L eq for
r esi dent i al ar ea at day t ime is
(a) 65 dBA (b) 45 dBA
(c) 50 dBA (d) 55 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 13
7. W h i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g i s n ot u sed as a (c) gast r oint est inal pr oblem
suppl ement ar y cement at ions mat er ial? (d) t he ir r it at i on in alveol i of t he l ungs
(a) Fl y ash (b) Gypsum [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) Ri ce husk ash (d) Si li ca fume 15. The machi ne ‘A' and machine ‘B' pr oduce equal
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ] noise l evel s, i.e., 60 dBA each. The summat ion of
8. Accor di ng t o I S 456, if t he maximum aggr egat e t hese t wo noise level s is
si ze i s i ncr eased fr om 20 mm t o 40 mm, t he (a) 100 dBA (b) 66 dBA
mi ni mum cement cont ent r equi r ement changes
(i n kg/cum) by (c) 63 dBA (d) 55 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(a) – 20 (b) 20
(c) – 30 (d) 30 LEVEL-2
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ] 1. I n st r at ospher e, t he t emper at ur e incr eases wi t h
9. The t ur bi di t y in sur face wat er is due t o pr esence al t i t ude due t o pr esence of
of (a) r adicals (b) chlor ofluor ocar bons
(a) dissolved or ganics (c) HCFCs (d) Ozone
(b) col loidal mat er ial [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) di ssolved i n or gani cs 2. N uclear densi t y guage can be used for al l t he
(d) di ssolved color s foll owi ng pur poses, except
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ] (a) M oist ur e cont ent
10. T h e pr escr i bed per m i ssi bl e n oi se l evel , f or (b) Wet densi t y
r esi dent i al ar ea at night t ime is
(c) Dr y densi t y
(a) 45 dBA (b) 50 dBA
(d) St andar d penetr at ion r eading
(c) 40 dBA (d) 55 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
3. A wat er bor ne di sease pol iomyeli t is i s caused by
11. The cont i nuous exposur e of hi gh concent r at i on
of r epar able suspended par t icul at e mat t er may (a) vir uses (b) pr ot ozoa
cause (c) bact er ia (d) hel mi nt hes
(a) eye ir r it at i on [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
(b) kidney damage 4. I n pot abl e wat er, t he per missible li mi t of nit r at e
(c) fail ur e of r espi r at or y syst em ni t r ogen is
(d) car diac disease (a) 10 mg/l (b) 25 mg/l
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd
SEP 1 SH I FT ]
st (c) 40 mg/l (d) 15 mg/l
12. The pr escr i bed per missible noise level , L eq for [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
commer cial ar ea at ni ght t ime is 5. Car bon monoxi de for ms car boxyhemogl obi n i n
(a) 45 dBA (b) 65 dBA human blood t hat may cause
(c) 50 dBA (d) 55 dBA (a) incr eased oxygen car r yi ng capaci t y
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] (b) decr eased oxygen car r ying capaci t y
13. The pH of acid r ai n shoul d always be less t han (c) damage in cent r al ner vous syst em
(a) 5.6 even aft er pr ecipit at i on (d) damage in ci r cul at or y syst em
(b) 7.0 aft er pr ecipit at ion [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
(c) 6.5 aft er pr ecipit at ion
6. Tw o m ach i n es ar e w or k i n g i n a n oi sy
(d) 4.2 aft er pr ecipit at ion envi r onment and joint ly pr oduct 55 dBA noi se
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] level. I f t he envir onment al noi se level i s also 55
14. The exposur e of gaseous pollut ant sulphur dioxide dBA, t he summat i on of noise level s is
may cause (a) 110 dBA (b) 56 dBA
(a) br onchi t is and pul monar y emphysema (c) 55 dBA (d) 58 dBA
(b) lungs fai lur e and k idney damage [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
14 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

(b) car bon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, water vapour s

7. The aver age concent r at i on of ozone pr esent i n
and chl or ofl uor ocar bons
t he st r at ospher e is appr oximat ely
(c) car bon monoxide, nit r ous oxide, met hane and,
(a) 5 ppm (b) 0.05 ppm
hydr o-chlor ofluor ocar bons
(c) 10 ppm (d) 15 ppm
(d) car bon di ox i de, n i t r ogen di ox i de, w at er
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
vapour s , met hane and ozone
8. The t ot al col ifor m bact er ia ar e r epor t ed as most [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
pr obabl e number (M PN) per
12. The desir able amount of fluor i de ions i n pot able
(a) 10 ml of wat er wat er s for opt imal dent al heal t h i s:
(b) 1000 ml of wat er
(a) 1.5 mg/l (b) 1.0 mg/l
(c) 100 ml of wat er
(c) 0.5 mg/l (d) 0.05 mg/l
(d) 1ml of wat er [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] 13. Wh i ch of t he f ol l owi ng i s n ot con si der ed as
9. The ant hr opogenic sour ces of air pollut ion in well secondar y pollut ant ?
pl anned ci t y is (a) Phot ochemical smog
(a) constr uction activities, r oad tr affics, r ail tr affic, (b) Per oxy acet yl nit r at e
fugi t ive emissions
(c) Acid mi st
(b) const r uct ion act ivi t i es, r oad t r affi c, domest ic
(d) Car bon monoxi de
burning
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) const r uct ion act ivit ies, r oad t r affi cs, bur st ing
of cr acker s, dust st or ms 14. I n t he st at ist ical di st r ibut ion of noi se levels, t he
back gr ound noise l evel is r epr esent ed by:
(d) const r uct ion act ivit ies, r oad t r affics, domest ic
bur ni ng, i ndust r ial emissions (a) L 90 (b) L 50
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] (c) L 10 (d) L 1
10. When t he measur ed and st andar d r efer ence [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
pr essur e level becomes equal, t he sound pr essur e 15. Acid r ain i s caused due t o for mat ion of:
level (SPL ) is equi valent t o (a) su l ph u r i c aci d an d car bon i c aci d i n t h e
(a) 1 dBA (b) 10 dBA at mospher e
(c) 0 dBA (d) 1.012 dBA (b) sulphur ic acid and nitric acid in the atmosphere
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd
SEP 1 SH I FT ]
st
(c) nitr ic acid and car bonic acid in the atmospher e
11. The major gr een house gases cont r i but i ng i n (d) sulphur ic acid, nit r ic acid and car bonic acid in
gl obal war ming ar e t he at mospher e
(a) car bon di oxide, nit r ous oxide, met hane and [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
wat er vapour s

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (b)
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 15

EXPLAN ATI ON S
LEVEL-1 7. Gypsum is not used as a supplementary
cementations material.
1. Road traffic is the major source of carcinogenic
hydrocarbon present in urban atmosphere. 9. Turbidity in surface water is due to colloidal
material.
2. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq for
commercial area at day time is 65 dBA. 10. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq is 45
According to Central Pollution Control Board, dBA.
According to Central Pollution Control Board,
Area Limits in dB(A), Leq
Category of Area
Code Day time Night time Area Limits in dB(A), Leq
Category of Area
A Industrial area 75 70 Code Day time Night time
B Commercial area 65 55 A Industrial area 75 70
C Residential area 55 45 B Commercial area 65 55
D Silence Zone 50 40 C Residential area 55 45
D Silence Zone 50 40
3. Green house gases are the gas mixed in the
atmosphere that absorbs the infrared radiation 11. Continuous exposure to suspended particles are
emitted by the earth’s surface. harmful to the lungs and can cause failure of
respiratory system.
12. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq for
commercial area at night time is 55 dBA.
According to Central Pollution Control Board,

Area Limits in dB(A), Leq

Category of Area
Code Day time Night time
A Industrial area 75 70
B Commercial area 65 55
C Residential area 55 45
D Silence Zone 50 40

13. pH of acid rain should always be less than 5.6

We are not accustomed to these gases because even after precipitation.
neither nitrogen nor oxygen, the two most 14. The exposure of gaseous pollutant sulphur dioxide
abundant gases of the atmosphere (78% and 21%, may cause bronchitis and pulmonary emphysema.
respectively), that many of us have heard of, have
this ability to intercept infrared radiation. LEVEL-2
4. Fly ash never improves strength of concrete. 1. In the stratosphere, temperature increases with
The advantages of using fly ash far outweigh the altitude. The reason is that the direct heat source
disadvantages. The most important benefit is for the stratosphere is the Sun. A layer of ozone
reduced permeability to water and aggressive molecules absorbs solar radiation, which heats
chemicals. Properly cured concrete made with fly the stratosphere. The amount of ozone present
in the ozone layer is tiny, only a few molecules
ash creates a denser product because the size of
per million air molecules.
the pores are reduced.
5. One turbidity unit NTU is equal to 1.0 mg/l SiO2. 2. Nuclear density gauge can be used for all the
following purposes except standard penetration
6. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq is 55
reading.
dBA.
3. A virus that may cause paralysis and is easily
According to Central Pollution Control Board,
preventable by the polio vaccine.
Area Limits in dB(A), Leq
Category of Area 4. The permissible limit of nitrate nitrogen in potable
Code Day time Night time
water is 10 mg/l .
A Industrial area 75 70
B Commercial area 65 55 7. The average concentration of ozone present in
C Residential area 55 45 the stratosphere is approximately 10 ppm.
D Silence Zone 50 40
16 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Sulfure dioxide (SO 2 Photochemical oxidants

carbon monoxide (ozone, nitrogen dioxide,
(CO 2 ),nitrogen oxides sulfur trioxide) and
(No x ), and particulate secondary particular
matter (PM). matter.
Chemical reactants
characterized with a direct Chemical products, highly
pollution effect on living reactive when
beings and ecosystems, photoactivation is involved
and with an indirect effect in the chemical process of
through the formation of their formation
secondary pollutants.

8. Total or fecal coliform bacteria are reported as
most probable number per 100 mL
9. Anthropogenic sources of air pollution in well
planned city are construction activities, road
traffics, and domestic burning
10. When the measured and standard reference
pressure level becomes equal, the sound pressure
level (SPL) is equivalent to 0 dBA
11. The major green house gases contributing in
global warming are carbon dioxide , nitrous
oxide,methane and water vapor.
12. The desirable amount of flue le ions in potable
waters for optimal dental health is 1.0 mg/l
13. Primary Pollutants
Versus
Secondary Pollutants
Air pollutant formed in
the atmosphere as a result
of the chemical or physical
Air pollutant emitted interactions between the
direclty from a source into primary pollutants
the atmosphere. themselves or between the
primary pollutants and
other atmospheric
components.
Complicated control
Direct control through the process: understanding
reduction of anthropogenic and interrupting the
emissions. chemical reactions leading
to their generation.
14. L90 is frequently taken as the Lp of the background
level. L10-L90 is often used to give a quantitative
measure as to the spread or “how choppy” the
sound was. L10 is the noise level exceeded for
10% of the time of the measurement duration.
15. Scientists have discovered that air pollution from
burning of fossil fuels is the major cause of acid
rain. The main chemicals in air pollution that
create acid rain are sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and
nitrogen (NOx). Acid rain usually forms high in
the clouds where sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides react with water, oxygen, and oxidants.
this mixture forms a mild solution of sulfuric acid
and nitric acid. Sunlight increases the rate of most
of these reactions. Rainwater, snow, fog, and other
forms of precipitation containing those mild
solutions of sulfuric and nitric acids fall to earth
as acid rain.
 Basics of Computers and Applications
PERSON AL COM PU T ERS
Per sonal comput er s can be cat egor ized by size and
por t abilit y as :
1. Deskt op comput er s
2. L apt op or not ebooks
3. Per sonal Digit al Assist ants (PDAs)
4. Por t able comput er s
5. Tablet comput er s
6. Wear able comput er s
U ses.
Per sonal computers ar e normally operated by one user
at a time to perform such general purpose tasks as word
pr ocessing, I nter net br owsing, I nternet faxing, e-mail
and other digit al messaging , multimedia playback,
computer game play, computer pr ogr amming, etc. The
user of modern personal computer may have significant
knowledge of the operating environment and application
pr ogr am s, bu t i s n ot n ecessar i l y i n t er est ed i n
pr ogr amming not even able to wr ite pr ogr ams for the
computer. Ther efore, most software written primarily
for per sonal comput er s t ends t o be desi gned wi t h
simplicity of use, or “user-friendliness” in mind. However,
the software industry continuously provide a wide range
of new products for use in personal computer s, tar geted
at both the exper t and the non-expert user.
COM PU T ER COM PON EN TS
1. Comput er case wit h power supply (usually sold
t oget her )
2. Mother boar d
3. Pr ocessor wit h fan (usually sold t oget her )
4. At least one memor y car d
5. M ass st or age
6. K eyboar d and mouse for input
7. M onit or for out put
The mot her boar d connect s ever t hing t oget her. The
memory card(s), graphics card and processor are mounted
directly onto the motherboard (the processor in a socket
an the memory and graphics cards in an expansion slot).
The mass storage is connected to it with cables. Same for
keyboard and mouse, except that they are external and
connect to the back plate. The monitor is also connected
to the back plate, except not (usually) dir ectly to the
motherboard, but to a connector in the graphics card.
M ass st orage.
I t can be
(i ) H ar d disk
(ii ) Floppy dr ive or zip dr ive (bot h wit h media)
(iii )Opt ical dr ive (CD or DVD)
The oper at ing syst em (e.g., M icr osoft Windows, Linux
or many ot her s) can be locat ed on eit her of t hese, but
t ypically it son one of t he har d disks. Alive CD is also
possible, but ver y slow and used for eit her inst allation
of t he OS or pr oblem solving.
A typical computer also has
(i ) Sound car d (ii ) Net wor k car d
(iii )M oder n and possibly r out er
Common addit i ons, connect ed on t he out si de
(per ipher als).
Pr i nt er ; Scanner ; Webcam; Speak er s; M i cr ophone;
Headset; Car d reader ; Gaming devices such as a joystick
Sever al funct ions (implement ed by chipset s) can be
integr ated into the mother boar d, such as typically USB
and net wor k, but also gr aphics and sound. But even if
these ar e pr esent, a separ ate car d can be added if what
is available isn’t sufficient .
The gr aphics and sound car d can have a br eak out box
to keep the analog par ts away fr om the electr omagnetic
r adiat ion inside t he comput er case. For r eally lar ge
amount s of dat a, a t ape dr ive can be used or (ext r a)
har d disks can be put t oget her in an ext er nal case.
These component s can usually be put t oget her wit h
lit t le k nowledge, t o build a comput er. I f somet hing
shouldn’t go somewher e, it usually doesn’t fit (this used
t o not always be t he case in t he past ) and if it does fit
it can usually do lit t le har m.
Most per sonal computer s ar e standar dized to the point
t hat pur chased soft war e is expect ed t o r un wit h lit t le
or no customizat ion for the par t icular comput er. M any
PCs ar e also user -upgr adeable, especially desktop and
wor kst at ion class comput er s. Devices such as main
memor y, mass st or age, even t he mot her boar d and
cent r al pr ocessing unit may be easily r eplaced by an
end user. This upgr adeabilit y is, however, not idefinit e
due t o r api d ch anges i n t h e per sonal compu t er
indust r y, A PC that was consider ed t op-of-the-line five
or six year s pr ior may be impr act ical t o upgr ade due
t o changes in indust r y st andar ds. Such a comput er
 2 Basics of Computers and Applications
usually must be t ot ally r eplaced once it ’s no longer
suitable for its pur pose. This upgr ade and replacement
cycle is par tially r elated to new r eleases of the pr imar y
mass-mar ket oper at ed syst em, which t ends t o dr ive
t he acquisition of new har dwar e and t ends of obsolet e
pr ev i ou sl y ser v i ceabl e h ar dw ar e (see pl an n ed
obsol escence).
The har dwar e capabilit ies of per sonal comput er s can
somet imes be ext ended by t he addit ion of expansion
car ds connect ed via an expansion bus. Some standar d
per ipheral buses often used for adding expansion cards
in personal computers as of 2005 ar e PCI , AGP (a high-
speed PCI bus dedicat ed t o gr aphics adapt er s), and
PCI Expr ess. Most per sonal computer s as of 2005 have
mul t i pl e physi cal PCI expansi on sl ot s. M any al so
i ncl ude an AGP bus and expansi on sl ot or a PCI
Expr ess bus and one or mor e explansion slot s, but
few PCs cont ain bot h buses.
M ot her boar d.
The mother boar d (or mainboar d) is the pr imar y cir cuit
boar d wi t hi n a per sonal com put er. M an y ot h er
component s connect di r ect l y or i ndi r ect l y t o t he
mot her boar d. M ot her boar ds usually cont ain one or
mor e CPUs, suppor t ing cir cuit r y - usually int egr at ed
cir cuits (I Cs) pr oviding the inter face between the CPU
memor y and input /out put per ipher al cir cuit s, main
memor y, and facilities for init ial setup of the computer
immediat ely aft er being power ed on (often called boot
fi r mwar e or, i n I BM PC compat i bl e comput er s, a
BI OS). I n many por t abl e and embedded per sonal
comput er s, t he mot her boar d houses near ly all of t he
PC’s cor e component s. Oft en a mot her boar d will also
cont ain one or mor e per ipher al buses and physical
connect or s for expansi on pur poses. Somet i mes a
secondar y daught er boar d i s connect ed wi t h t he
mot her boar d t o pr ovide fur t her expandibilit y or t o
sat isfy space constr aint s.
M ain M emory.
A PC’s main memor y (i.e., it s pr imar y st or e) is fast
st or age t hat is dir ect ly accessible by t he CPU, and is
used t o st or e t he cur r ent ly execut ing pr ogr am and
i mmi di at el y needed dat a. PCs use semi conduct or
Random Access Memor y (RAM ) of var ious kinds such
as DRAM or SRAM as t heir pr imar y st or age. Which
exact kind depends on cost /per for mance issues at any
par t icular t ime. M ain memor y is much fast er t han
mass st or age devices like har d disks or opt ical discs,
but is usually volat ile, meaning it does not r et ain it s
contents (inst r uctions or data) in the absence of power,
and is much mor e expensive for a given capacit y t han
is most mass st or age. M ain memor y is gener ally not
suit able for long-t er m or ar chival dat a st or age.
M ass st or age devices st or e pr ogr ams and dat a even
when t he power i s off; t hey do r equi r e power t o
per for m r ead/wr it e funct ions dur ing usage. Although
semiconductor flash memor y has dr opped in cost, the
pr evailing for m of mass stor age in personal computers
is st ill t he elect r omechanical har d disk.
The disk dr ives use a sealed H ead/Disk Assembly
(H D A ) w h i ch w as f i r st i n t r odu ced by I B M ’s
“ Wi nchest er ” di sk syst em. The use of a seal ed
assembly allowed t he use of t he positive air pr essur e
t o dr ive out par t icles fr om t he sur face of t he disk,
which impr oves r eliabilit y.
Video Car d.
The video car d- ot her wise cal led a gr aphics car d,
gr aphics adapt er or video adapt er - pr ocessor s and
r ender s t he gr aphics out put fr om t he comput er t o
t he comput er display, also called t he Visual Display
Unit (VDU), and is an essent ial par t of t he moder n
comput er.
M I CROPROCE SSOR.
A micr opr ocessor is a mult ipur pose pr ogr ammable
logic device t hat r eads binar y inst r uct ions fr om a
st or age device called memor y, accept s binar y dat a
as i n pu t an d pr ocess dat a accor di n g t o t h ose
instr uctions and pr ovides r esults as output. A typical
pr ogr ammable machine can be r epr esent wit h t hr ee
component s : micr opr ocessor, memor y, and I /O.
Memory
Micro
processor
I/O
These t hr ee component s wor k t oget her or int er act
wit h each ot her t o per for m a given t ask, t hus t hey
compr ise a syst em
H ARD WARE .
The physical component s of t his syst em ar e called
har dwar e.
SOF TWARE
A set of inst r uct ions wr it t en for t he micr opr ocessor
t o per for m a t ask is called a pr ogr am and a gr oup of
pr ogr ams is called soft war e.
APPL I CAT I ON S.
Th e mi cr opr ocessor appl i cat i ons ar e cl assi fi ed
pr imar ily in t wo cat egor ies
( i ) I n Re-programmable syst ems.
Such as micr ocomput er s, t he micr opr ocessor is
used for comput ing and dat a pr ocessing. These
systems, include gener al pur pose micr opr ocessor
capabl e of handl i ng l ar ge dat a. M ass st or age
device (disks), and per ipher als such as I /O device
(pr inter ).

( ii ) Embedded syst em.
I n embedded syst ems, t he micr opr ocessor is par t
of a f i n al pr odu ct an d i s n ot av ai l abl e f or
r epr ogr ammabl e t o t he end user. A copyi ng
machine is a t ypi cal example of an embedded
syst em . Th e mi cr opr ocessor s u sed i n t hese
syst ems ar e gener ally cat egor ised as
( a ) M i cr ocon t r ol l er s t h at i n cl u de al l t h e
components like micr opr ocessor, memor y and
I /O.
( b) I ntegrated microprocessor that include various
devices such as timers and various types of I /O
on a chip.
( c) Gener al pur pose micropr ocessor with discr ete
component s such as micr opr ocessor, memor y
and I /O.
Embedded syst ems can also be incr eased as pr oducts
t hat use micr opr ocessor t o per for m t heir oper at ions
t hey ar e called as micr opr ocessor based pr oduct s.
e.g. washing machines, dish washer s, aut omobi le
dashboar d cont r ol s, t r affi c l i ght cont r ol l er s, and
aut omat ic t est ing inst r ument s.
BI N ARY DI GI T.
The micr opr ocessor oper at es in binar y digit s 0 and
1, also known as bit s. Bit is an abbr eviat ion for t he
t er m binar y digit . Those digit s ar e r epr esent ed in
ter ms of electr ical voltages in the machine : gener ally
0 r epr esent s one vol t age l evel and 1 r epr esent s
anot her. The digit s 0 and 1 ar e also synonyms wit h
low and high r espect ively.
Each mi cr opr ocessor r ecogni zes and pr ocesses a
gr oup of bit s called t he wor d and micr opr ocessor ar e
classified accor ding t o t heir wor d lengt h.
M emor y.
M emor y is like t he pages of a not ebook wit h space
for a fixed number of binar y number s on each line.
H owever t hese pages ar e gener ally made of semi-
conduct or mat er ial. Each line in 8 bit r egist er t hat
can st or e 8 bi t bi nar y bi t s, and sever al of t hese
r egist er s ar e ar r anged in a sequence called memor y.
I nput /Out put .
The user can enter instructions and data into memor y
thr ough devices such as keyboar d or simple switches.
These devices ar e called input devices.
The mi cr opr ocessor r eads i nst r uct i ons fr om t he
memor y and pr ocesses t he dat a accor ding t o t hose
inst r uct ions. The r esult can be displayed by a device
such as seven segment L ED (light emit t ing diodes)
or pr i nt ed by a pr i nt er. These devi ces ar e call ed
out put devices.
M I CROPROCESSOR AS A CPU .
The cent r al pr ocessing unit (CPU) consist s of t he
Ar ithmet ic Logic Unit (ALU) and Cont r ol Unit (CU).
Basics of Computers and Applications 3
The CPU cont ains var ious r egist er s t o st or e dat a,
AL U t o per for m Ar it hmet ic and logical, oper at ions,
inst r uction decoder s, count er s and cont r ol lines. The
CPU r eads i n st r uct i on s fr om t h e memor y and
per for m t he t asks specified. I t communicat es wit h
input /out put devices eit her t o accept or to send dat a.
These devices ar e also known as per ipher als. The
CPU i s t h e pr i m ar y an d cen t r al pl ay er i n
communicat ing wit h devices such as memor y, input
an d ou t pu t . H ow ev er , t h e t i m i n g of t h e
communicat ion pr ocess is cont r olled by t he gr oup of
cir cuit called cont r ol unit . CPU on single chip called
mi cr opr ocessor.
Arithmetic
Logic Unit
(ALU)
Control
Input Output
Unit
Memory
Fig. (a) Traditional block diagram of
Micro
processor
Input Output
as CPU
Memory
F i g. (b) Bl ock di agr am of a compu t er w i t h t he a
comput er micr oprocessor as CPU
1. bit micr opr ocessor.
The I nt el 4004 was t he fir st 4 bit pr ogr ammable
device t hat was pr imar ily used in calculat or s.
2. bit micr opr ocessor.
The int el 8008 is 8 bit micr opr ocessor, which was
in t ur n super seded by t he I nt el 8080. I nt el 8080
wi dely used i n cont r ol applicat ions, and small
comput er s also wer e designed using t he 8080 as
t he CPU. Wit hin a few year s aft er t he emer gence
of t he 8080, t he M ot or ola 6800 and Zilog Z80 and
I nt el 8085 mi cr opr ocessor wer e devel oped as
impr ovement s
3. 16 bit microprocessor. 8086/88
4. 32 bit microprocessor. 80380/486 and Pent ium
5. 64 bit microprocessor. M ot or ola 68000 ser ies
 4 Basics of Computers and Applications
M I CROCOM PU T E RS.
M icr ocomput er is classified in four gr oups.
1. Per sonnel comput er s.
These micr ocomputer s ar e single user systems and
being used for var iety of pur poses, such as payr oll,
busi ness account s, wor d pr ocessi ng, l egal and
medi cal r ecor d k eepi ng, per sonnel fi nance and
inst r uctions. A typical configur ation includes a 16
or 32 bit micr opr ocessor, 2 to 4 M B (megabyte) of
system memory, a video screen, a dot matrix pr inter.
2. Work st at ions.
These ar e high per for mance cousi ns of t he PC.
T hey ar e used i n en gi n eer i n g an d sci en t i fi c
applications such as computer -aided design (CAD),
computer aided engineer ing (CAE), and computer -
aided manufacturing (CAM), they generally include
syst em memor y l ar ger t han 200 M B, st or age
memor y in giga byt es and high r esolut ion scr een.
The wor k st at i ons ar e desi gned ar ound RI SC
pr ocessor s. The RI SC pr ocessor s t end t o be fast er
and mor e effi ci ent t han t he pr ocessor s used i n
per sonnel comput er.
3. Single boar d micr ocomput er s.
These mi cr ocomput er s ar e pr i mar i l y used i n
college, labor atories and industr ies for instr uctional
pur poses or t o evaluate the per for mance of a given
mi cr opr ocessor. They can al so be par t of some
lar ger syst ems. Typical ly t hese micr ocomput er s
include 8 or 16 bit micr opr ocessor.
e.g. These computers include such systems as Intel
SDK85, SDK86, Motorola Evaluation kits, these are
generally used to write and execute assembly language
programs and to perform interfacing experiments
4. Si n gl e ch i p m i cr ocom pu t er s ( m i cr o-
cont r ol l er s)
These micr ocomput er s ar e designed on a single
chip, which t ypically includes a chip of 64 byt es of
R/W memor y fr om 4K t o 2K byt es of ROM and
sever al si ngl e l i nes t o connect I /Os. These ar e
complet e micr ocomput er s on a chip, t hey ar e also
k n ow n as m i cr ocon t r ol l er s. T h ese ar e u sed
pr i m ar i l y f or su ch f u n ct i on s as con t r ol l i n g
appliances and t r affic light s. e.g. Zilog Z8, I nt el
M CS51 and 96 ser ies, and M ot or ola 68H C11.
COM PU TER LAN GU AGES. N ibble.
I t is a gr oup of four bit s
M nemonic : A combinat ion of let t er s t o suggest t he
oper at ion of an inst r uct ion.
Compiler : A pr ogr am t hat t r anslat es english like
wor ds of high language in t he machine language of a
comput er. A complier r eads a given pr ogr am, called a
sour ce code and t hen t r anslat es t he pr ogr am int o t he
machine language which is called an object code.
Assembler : A comput er pr ogr am t hat t r anslat es an
assembly language pr ogr am fr om mnemonics t o t he
binar y machine code of a comput er.
M onit or program : A pr ogr am t hat int er pr et s t he
input fr om a keyboar d and conver t s t he input int o it s
binar y equivalent .

COM PU TER SYSTEM .

8085 Programming M odel.
The 8085 pr ogr amming model includes six r egist er s, one accumulat or and one flag r egist er. I t has t wo 16 bit
r egist er t he st ack point er and t he pr ogr am count er.
Registers : The 8085 has six gener al pur pose r egist er s t o st or e 8 bit dat a. These ar e ident ical as B, C, D, E, H
and L . They can be combined as Regist er s pair s BC, DE, and H L t o per for m some 16 bit oper at ions. The
pr ogr ammer can use t hese r egist er s t o st or e or copy dat a int o t he r egist er s by using dat a copy inst r uct ions.

Accumulator A (8) Flag Register

B (8) C (8)
D (8) E (8)
H (8) L (8)
Stack pointer (SP) (16)
Program counter (PC) (16)

Data Bus Address Bus

Lines Lines

Bidirectional Unidirectional
F ig. (a) Progr amming model
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
S Z AC P CY
F ig. (b) F lab Register

Accumulat or.
The Accumulat or is an 8 bit r egist er t hat is par t of t he
ar it hmet ic/logic unit (AL U). This r egist er is used t o
st or e 8 bit dat a and t o per for m ar it hmet ic/logic unit
(AL U). This r egist er is used t o st or e 8-bit dat a and t o
per for m ar it hmet ic and logical oper at ions. The r esult
of an oper at i on i s st or ed i n t he accumul at or. The
accumulat or is also ident ified as r egist er A.
FLAGS.
The ALU includes five flip-flops, which ar e set or r eset
aft er an oper at ion accor ding t o dat a condit ions of t he
r esult in t he accumulat or and ot her r egist er s. They
ar e called zer o (Z), car r y (CY); sign (S), par it y (P) and
Auxiliar y car r y (AC) flags.
The most commonly used flags ar e zer o, car r y, and
sign. The micr opr ocessor uses t hese flags t o t est dat a
condit ions.
Aft er an addit ion of t wo number s, if t he sum in t he
accumulat or is lar ger t han eight bits, the flip-flop used
t o indicat e a car r y called car r y flag (CY) is set t o one.
When an ar ithmetic oper ation is zer o the flip flop called
t he zer o (Z) flag is set t o one.
The fl ags have cr i t i cal i mpor t ance i n t he deci si on
making pr ocess of t he micr opr ocessor. The condit ions
(set or r eset ) of t he flags ar e t est ed t hr ough soft war e
inst r uct ions.
PROGRAM COU N TER (PC).
T h i s 16 bi t r egi st er deal s wi t h sequ en ci n g t h e
execut ion of inst r uct i on. Thi s r egi st er i s a memor y
point er. M emor y locat ions have 16 bit addr esses, and
that is why t his is a 16-bit r egister. The micr opr ocessor
uses t hi s r egi st er t o sequence t he execut i on of t he
inst r uct ions. The funct ion of t he pr ogr am count er is
t o point t o t he memor y addr esses fr om which t he next
byt e is t o be fet ched. When a byt e (machine code) is
being fet ched, t he pr ogr am count er is incr ement ed by
one t o point t o t he next memor y locat ion.
STACK POI N TER (SP).
The stack pointer is also a 16 bit register used as memory
poi n t er. I t poi n t s t o a m em or y l ocat i on i n
R/W memor y, called t he stack. The beginning of st ack
is defined by loading a 16-bit address in the stack pointer.
OPCODE FORM AT.
I n t he desi gn of t he 8085 mi cr opr ocessor chi p, al l
oper ations, registers and status flags are identified with
a specific code.
All int er nal r egist er s ar e ident ified as follows :
Code Regist er s Code Regist er pair s
000 B 00 BC
001 C 01 DE
010 D 10 HL
011 E 11 A F or S P
100 F
101 G
110 Reser ved for M emor y Relat ed Oper at ion
111 A
Basics of Computers and Applications 5
I N STRU CTI ON CODES.
An inst r uct ion code is a gr oup of bit s t hat inst r uct t he
comput er t o per for m a specific oper at ion. I t is usually
divided i nt o par t s, each havi ng it s own par t i cular
int er pr et at ion. The most basic par t of an inst r uct ion
codes is it s oper at ion par t .
Oper at ion Code.
The oper at ion code of an inst r uct ion is a gr oup of bit s
that define such oper ations as add, subt r act , mult iply,
shift and complement . The number of bit s r equir ed
for t he oper at ion code of an inst r uct ion depends on
t he t ot al number of oper at i ons avai l abl e i n t he
comput er. The oper at ion code must consist of at least
n bit s for a given 2n (or less) dist inct oper at ions.
OP Code.
What t ask t o be per for med, called t he oper at ion code
(OPcode).
Oper and.
When dat a t o be oper at ed on called t he oper and. The
oper and (or dat a) can be specified in var ious ways. I t
may include 8-bit or (16 bit) data, an int er nal r egist er,
a memor y location, or 8 bit (or 16 bit) addr ess. I n some
inst r uct ions, t he oper and is implicit .
ADDRESSI N G M ODES.
The control unit of a computer is designed to go through
an inst r uct ion cycle t hat is divided int o t hr ee major
phases.
(i) Fet ch t he inst r uct ion fr om memor y
(ii ) Decode t he inst r uct ion
(iii) Execut e t he inst r uct ion
I mplied mode.
A l l r egi st er r ef er en ce i n st r uct i on s t h at u se an
accumul at or ar e i mpl i ed mode i nst r uct i ons. Zer o
addr ess inst r uct ions in a st ack-or ganized comput er
ar e implied mode inst r uct ions since t he oper ands ar e
implied t o be on t op of t he st ack.
I mmediat e mode.
The operand is specified in the instruction itself. In other
words, an immediate mode instruction has an operand
field r ather than an addr ess field. The operand field
contains the actual operand to be used in conjunction
with the operation specified in the instr uctions.
Regist er mode.
I n t his mode t he oper ands ar e in r egist er s, that r eside
wit hin t he CPU. The par t icular r egist er is select ed
fr om a r egist er field in t he inst r uct ion. A K bit field
can specify any one of 2k r egist er s.
Regist er indir ect mode.
I n this mode t he inst r uct ion specifies a r egist er in t he
CPU, whose cont ent gives t he addr ess of t he oper and
in memor y. The advant age of a r egist er indir ect mode
inst r uct ion is t hat t he addr ess field of t he inst r uct ion
uses fewer bit s t o select a r egist er t han would have
been r equir ed t o specify a memor y addr ess dir ect ly,
 6 Basics of Computers and Applications
Aut o I ncrement or Decrement mode.
This is similar t o r egist er indir ect mode except t hat
t he r egist er is incr ement ed or decr ement ed aft er or
befor e it s value is used t o access memor y. When t he
addr ess st or ed in t he r egist er r efer s t o a t able of dat a
in memor y, it is necessar y t o incr ement and decr ement
t he r egist er s aft er ever y access t o t he t able
D ir ect addressing mode.
I n t hi s mode t he effect i ve addr ess i s equal t o t he
addr ess par t of t he inst r uct ion. The oper and r esides
in memor y and it s addr ess is given dir ect ly by t he
addr ess field of t he inst r uct ion.
I ndir ect addr essing mode.
I n t his mode t he addr ess field of t he inst r uct ion gives
t he addr ess wher e t he effect ive addr ess is st or ed in
memor y.
Effect ive addr ess = addr ess par t of inst r uct ion
+ cont ent of CPU r egist er
I N PU T AN D OU TPU T SYSTEM
I nput /out put devices ar e t he means t hr ough which
t he M PU communicat es wit h t he out side wor ld. The
M PU accept s binar y dat a as input fr om devices such
as keyboar ds and A/D conver t er s and send dat a t o
out put devices such as L EDs or pr int er s. Ther e ar e
t wo differ ent met hods by which I /O devices can be
ident ified. One uses an 8 bit addr ess and t he ot her
uses a 16 bit addr ess.
PERI PH ERAL M APPED I /O.
I n this type of I /O, the MPU uses eight addr ess lines to
identify an input or an output device; t his is known as
per ipher al mapped I /O. The eight addr ess lines can
have 256 (28 combinat ions) addr esses; t hus the MPU
can identify 256 input devices and 256 output devices
with addresses ranging fr om 00H to FFH input and
output devices are differentiated by the contr ol signals.
The MPU uses the I /O Read Contr ol Signal for input
devices and the I /O Wr ite Contr ol Signal for output
devices. The entir e r ange of I /O addr esses fr om 00 to
FF is known as an I /O map, and individual addr esses
ar e r efer r ed t o as I /O devices addr esses 8 I /O por t
number s.
M E M ORY M APPE D I /O (I /O W I T H 16 BI T
ADDRESSES).
I /O is connect ed as if it is memor y r egist er. This is
known as memor y mapped I /O. The M PU uses t he
same cont r ol signal (M emor y Read or M emor y Wr it e)
an d i n st r u ct i on s as t h ose of m em or y. I n som e
micr opr ocessor such as mot or ola 6800, all I /O have
16 bit addr esses. I /Os and memor y shar e t he same
memor y map (64K). I n memor y mapped I /O, the MPU
follows the same steps as if it is accessing a memor y
r egist er.
I N PU T DEVI CES
These include a mouse, tr ack ball, space ball, joyst ick,
digit izer s, dials and but t on boxes. Some ot her input
devices used in par t icular applicat ions ar e dat a glove,
t ouch panels, image scanner s and voice syst ems.
1. K eyboar ds.
An alphanumer ic keyboar d on a gr aphics syst em
i s used pr i mar i l y as a devi ce for ent er i ng t ext
st r i ngs. The k eyboar d i s an effi ci ent devi ce for
input t ing such non gr aphics dat a as pict ur e labels
associated with graphics display. Keyboar ds can also
be pr ovided with featur e to facilitate entr y of scr een
coor dinat es, menu select or s or gr aphics funct ions.
2. M ouse.
A mouse is small hand held box used t o posit ion
t he scr een cur sor. Wheels or r oller s on t he but t on
of t he mouse can be used t o r ecor d t he amount
and dir ect ion of movement s. Anot her met hod for
det ect ing mouse mot ion is wit h an opt ical sensor.
For t hese syst ems, t he mouse i s moved over a
special mouse pad t hat has gr id of hor izont al and
v er t i cal l i n es. T h e opt i cal sen sor det ect s
movement s acr oss t he l i nes i n t he gr i d. Si nce
mouse can be picked up and put down at anot her
posit ion wit hout change in cur sor movement . I t is
used for making r elat ive changes in t he posit ion of
t he scr een cur sor. One, t wo or t hr ee but t ons ar e
usual l y i ncl uded on t he t op of t he mouse for
signalling t he execut ion of some oper at ion, such
as r ecor ding cur sor position or invoking a funct ion.
Most gener al pur pose graphics system now included
a mouse and keyboar d as major input devices.
3. Track Ball and Space Ball.
A t r ack ball is a ball t hat can be r ot at ed wit h t he
fi nger s or pal m of t he hand t o pr oduce scr een-
cur sor movement , pot ent iomet er s at t ached t o t he
ball measur e t he amount and dir ect ion of r ot at ion.
Tr ackballs are often mounted on keyboar ds or other
devices such as t he mouse.
While a track ball is two dimensional posting device,
a space ball pr ovides six degr ee of fr eedom. Unlike
t he t r ack ball, space ball does not act ually move.
St r ain gauges measur e t he amount of pr essur e
applied to t he spaceball to pr ovide input for spat ial
posit ioning and or ient at ion as t he ball is pushed or
pulled in var ious dir ect ions. Space balls ar e used
for t hr ee-di mensi onal posi t i oni ng and sel ect i on
oper at ions in vir t ual r ealit y syst ems, modelling,
animat ion, CAD, and ot her applicat ions.
4. Joyst i ck s.
A joyst ick consist s of a small, ver t ical lever called
st ick mount ed on a base t hat is used t o st eer and
scr een cur sor ar ound. M ost joyst icks select scr een
posi t i on wi t h act ual st i ck movem ent . Ot her s
r espond t o pr essur e on t he st ick. Some joyst icks
ar e mount ed on keyboar d, ot her s funct ion as st and
alone unit s. Pot ent iomet er mount ed at t he base of
joyst ick measur es t he amount of movement , and
spr ings r etur n the stick to the center position when
i t i s r el eased on e or m or e bu t t on s can be

pr ogr ammed t o act as input swi t ches t o si gnal
cer t ai n act ions once a scr een posi t i on has been
select ed.
5. Dat a Glove.
Dat a glove t hat can be used t o gr asp a “ vir t ual”
object . The glove is const r uct ed wit h a ser ies of
sensor s t hat det ect hand and fi nger mot i ons.
Elect r omagnet ic coupl ing bet ween t r ansmi t t ing
antennas and r eceiving antennas is used to pr ovide
infor mat ion about t he posit ion and or ient at ion of
the hand. The tr ansmitting and r eceiving antennas
can each be st r uct ur ed as a set of t hr ee mut ually
per pendicular coils, for ming a t hr ee dimensional
car t esian co-or dinat e syst em.
6. D igit izer s.
A com m on dev i ce f or dr aw i n g, pai n t i n g or
int er act ively select ing co-or dinat e posit ions on an
object is a digit izer. These devices can be used t o
i n pu t co-or di n at e v al u es i n ei t h er a t w o
dimensional or t hr ee dimensional space. Typically,
a digit izer is used t o scan over a dr awing or object
and t o input a set of discr et e co-or dinat e posit ions,
which can be joined wit h st r aight -line segment s t o
appr oximat e the cur ve or sur face shapes. One t ype
of digit izer is t he gr aphics t ablet , also r efer r ed t o
as a dat a t abl et wh i ch i s u sed t o i n pu t t wo
dimensional coor dinates by activating a hand cursor
or st yles at select ed posit ions on a flat sur face.
7. I mage Scanners.
Dr awing, gr aphs, color and black and whit e photos
or t ext can be st or ed for comput er pr ocessing wit h
an image scanner by passing an opt ical scanning
mechanism over t he infor mat ion t o be st or ed. The
gr adat ions of gr ay scale or color ar e t hen r ecor ded
and st or ed in an ar r ay. Once we have t he int er nal
r epr esen t at i on of a pi ct u r e, w e can appl y
t r ansfor mat ions t o r ot at e, scale or cr op the pict ur e
t o a par t i cul ar scr een ar ea. We can al so appl y
var ious image pr ocessing met hods t o modify t he
ar r ay r epr esent at ion of t he pict ur e. For scanned
t ext i nput , var i ous edi t i ng oper at i ons can be
per for med on st or ed document s. Some scanner s
ar e able t o scan eit her gr aphical r epr esent at ion or
t ext , and t hey come i n a var i et y of si zes and
capabilities.
8. Touch Panels.
Touch panel s al l ow di spl ayed object s or scr een
posit ions t o be select ed wit h t he t ouch of a finger.
A t ypi cal appl i cat i on of t ouch panels i s for t he
selection of pr ocessing options that ar e r epr esented
wit h gr aphical icons. Some syst ems, such as t he
plasma panels ar e designed wit h t ouch scr eens.
Ot her syst em can be adapt ed for t ouch input by
fit t ing a t r anspar ent device wit h a t ouch-sensing
mechanism over t he video monit or scr een. Touch
Basics of Computers and Applications 7
input can be r ecor ded using opt ical, elect r ical or
acoust ical met hods.
9. L ight Pens.
Light pen is pencil-shaped devices ar e used to select
scr een posit ions by detect ing the light coming fr om
point s on t he CRT scr een. They ar e sensit ive t o
t he shor t bur st of light emit t ed fr om t he phosphor
coat ing at t he inst ant t he elect r on beam st r ikes a
par t icular point . Ot her light sour ces, such as t he
back gr ound l i ght i n t he r oom, ar e usual l y not
det ect ed by a light pen.
PRI N T E RS.
Pr inter s pr oduce output by either impact or non-impact
methods. I mpact pr inter s pr ess for med char acter faces
against an inked r ibbon ont o t he paper. A line pr int er
is an example of impact device wit h t he t ype faces
mount ed on bands, chai ns, dr ums or wheels. Non-
i mpact pr int er s and pl ot t er s use l aser t echniques,
i nk j et spr ays, xer ogr aphi c pr ocesses as used i n
phot ocopyi ng machi ne, el ect r ost at i c met hods and
elect r ot her mal met hods t o get images on t o paper.
Char acter impact printers often have a dot matrix print
head containing a r ectangular ar r ay of pr otr uding wir e
pins, with the number of pens depending on the quality
of t he pr int er.
I n a l aser devi ce, l aser beam cr eat es a ch ar ge
di st r i but i on on a r ot at i n g dr um coat i ng wi t h a
phot oel ect r i c mat er i al , such as sel eni um. Toner i s
applied t o t he dr um and t hen t r ansfer r ed t o paper.
I nkjet met hods pr oduce out put by squir t ing i nk in
hor izont al r ows acr oss a r oll of paper wr apped on a
dr um. The electr ically char ged ink st r eam is deflected
by an elect r ic field t o pr oduce dot mat r ix pat t er ns. A
deskt op inkjet plot t er wit h r esolut ion of 360 dot s per
inch.
An elect r ost at ic device places a negat ive char ge on
t he paper, one complet e r ow at a t ime along t he lengt h
of t he paper. Then t he paper is exposed t o a t oner.
The t oner is posit ively char ged and so it is at t r act ed
t o t he negat ively char ged, ar eas, wher e it adher es t o
pr oduce the specified output . Elect r other mal met hods
use heat in a dot mat r ix pr int head t o out put pat t er ns
on heat sensi t i ve paper. We can get l i mi t ed col or
out put on an impact pr int er by using differ ent color ed
r ibbons.
Non impact devices use var ious techniques to combine
thr ee color pigments (cyan, magneta and yellow) to
pr oduce a r ange of color pat t er ns.
Par allel pr int er s use :
(a) RS-232C interface
(b) Cent r onics int er face
(c) H andshake mode
 8 Basics of Computers and Applications
STORAGE U N I T
I t consist s of main memor y and secondar y memor y.
M ain M emory :
1. A fl i p-fl op made of el ect r oni c semi conduct or
devices is used t o fabr icat e a memor y cell. These
memor y cel l s or gani zed as a Random Access
Memor y (RAM). Each cell has a capabilit y to stor e
one bit of infor mat ion. A main memor y or st or e
of a comput er is or ganized using a lar ge number
of cells. Each cell st or es a binar y digit .
2. A memor y cell, which does not loose the bit st or ed
i n i t when no power is suppl ied t o t he cell , i s
known as a non-volat ile cell.
3. A wor d is a gr oup of bit s, which ar e st or ed and
r etr ieved as a unit. A memor y system is or ganized
t o st or e a number of wor ds.
4. A Byt e consist s of 8 bit s. A wor d may st or e one or
mor e byt es.
5. The st or age capacit y of a memor y is t he number
of byt es it can st or e.
6. The addr ess of t he locat ion fr om wher e a wor d is
t o be r et r i eved or t o be st or ed i s ent er ed i n a
M emor y Addr ess Register (M AR).
7. The dat a r et r ieved fr om memor y or t o be st or ed
in memor y ar e placed in a M emor y Dat a Regist er
(MDR).
8. The t ime t aken t o wr it e a wor d is known as t he
Wr it e t ime.
9. The t ime t o r et r ieve i nfor mat i on i s cal led t he
Access t ime of t he memor y.
10. The t ime t aken t o access a wor d in a memor y is
independent of the addr ess of t he wor d and hence
it is know as a Random Access M emor y (RAM ).
 The main memor y used t o st or e pr ogr ams and
dat a in a comput er is a RAM .
11. A RAM may be fabricated with per manently stor ed
i nfor mat i on, whi ch cannot be er ased. Such a
memor y is called a Read Only M emor y (ROM ).
 For mor e specialized uses, a user can st or e his
won special funct ions or pr ogr ams in a ROM .
Such ROM 's ar e called Pr ogr ammable ROM
(PROM).
12. A ser ial access memor y is or ganized by ar r anging
memor y cells in a linear sequence.
 I nfor mat ion is r et r ieved or st or ed in such a
memor y by using a r ead/wr it e head.
 Dat a is pr esent ed ser ially for wr it ing and is
r et r ieved ser ially dur ing r ead.
Secondary / Auxiliary storage devices : M agnet ic
sur face r ecor ding devices used in comput er s as H ar d
disks, Floppy disks, CD-ROM s and M agnet ic t apes.
1. F loppy Disk Drive (F DD) : I n t hi s devi ce, t he
medium used t o r ecor d t he dat a is called as floppy
disk. I t is a flexible cir cular disk of diamet er 3.5
i nches made of pl ast i c coat ed wi t h a magnet i c
mat er ial. This is housed in a squar e plast ic jacket .
Dat a r ecor ded on a floppy disk is r ead and st or ed in
a comput er 's memor y by a device called a floppy
disk is r ead and st or ed in a comput er 's memor y by
a device called a floppy disk dr ive (FDD). A floppy
disk is inser t ed in a slot of t he FDD. Floppy Disks
wit h var ious capacit ies ar e as follow:
 51/4 dr ive- 360KB, 1.2MB (1 KB= 210 = 1024 bytes)
 31/2 dr ive- 1.44 M b, 2.88 M B (1M B= 220 byt es)
2. Compact Disk Drive (CDD) : CD-ROM (Compact
Disk Read Onl y M emor y) used a l aser beam t o
r ecor d and r ead dat a along spir al t r acks on a 51/4
di sk . A di sk can st or e ar ou n d 650 M B of
infor mat ion. CD-ROM s ar e nor mally used t o st or e
massive t ext dat a. Recent ly CD wr it er s have come
in the mar ket . Using a CD wr it er, lot of infor mation
can be wr it t en on CD-ROM and st or ed for fut ur e
r efer ence.
3. H ard Disk Drive (H DD) : Unlike a floppy disk
t hat is flexible and r emovable, t he har d disk used
in t he PC is per manent ly fixed. The dat a t r ansfer
r ate between the CPU and har d disk is much higher
as compar ed to the between the CPU and the floppy
disk dr ive. The CPU can use t he har d disk t o load
pr ogr ams and dat a as well as t o st or e dat a.
CLASSI FI CATI ON OF COM PU TERS
Comput er s come in sizes fr om t iny t o monst r ous, in
bot h appear ance and power. The size of a comput er
t hat a per son or an or ganizat ion needs depends on
t he comput ing r equir ement s.
Supercomputers : The might iest comput er s-and, of
cou r se, t h e m ost ex pen si v e-ar e k n ow n as
super comput er s. Super comput er s pr ocess billions of
inst r uct ions per second. One uses super comput er s for
t asks t hat r equir e mammoth dat a manipulation, such
as wor l dwi de weat h er f or ecast i ng and weapons
r esear ch.
M ainframes : I n t he jar gon of t he comput er t r ade,
lar ge comput er s ar e called mainfr ames. M ainfr ames
ar e capable of pr ocessing dat a at ver y high speeds-
millions of inst r uct ions per second-and have access t o
billions of char act er s of dat a. Their pr incipal use of it
is for pr ocessing vast amount s of dat a quickly, some
of t h e obvi ou s cu st om er s ar e ban k s, i n su r an ce
companies, and manufact ur er s.
Personal Computers : Per sonal comput er s ar e oft en
called PCs. A PC usually comes wit h a tower that holds
the main cir cuit boar ds and disk dr ives of the computer,

and a collect ion of per ipher als, such as a keyboar d,
mouse, and moni t or. The t er m "PC" oft en means
machines t hat ar e compat ible t o I BM ot her t han a
Macint osh.
Personal Computers (PC) and M AC : A PC is based
on a mi cr opr ocessor or i gi nal l y made by t he I nt el
Company (I ntel's Pentium) with other companies such
as AM D. The comput er s made by M acint oshes which
uses, Power PC pr ocessor, made by M ot or ol a ar e
r efer r ed as M ac. Also, t he oper at ing syst em soft war e
t hat r uns t hese t wo kinds of comput er s is differ ent .
PCs usual l y use an Oper at i ng Syst em made by
M icr osoft , i.e., Windows. M acint oshes use oper at ing
syst em, called M ac OS, made by Apple.
N ot ebook Comput ers : A comput er t hat fi t s i n a
br i efcase?. N ot ebook compu t er s, al so k nown as
L apt op comput er s, ar e por t abl e and popul ar wit h
tr aveler s who need a comput er that can go with them.
M ost n ot ebook s accept di sk et t es or n et w or k
connect i ons, so i t i s easy t o move dat a fr om one
comput er t o anot her.
I N TERN ET
The I nt ernet i s a global syst em of int er connect ed
comput er net wor ks t hat use t he st andar d I nt er net
Pr ot ocol Sui t e (TCP/I P) t o ser ve bi l l i ons of user s
wor ldwide. I t is a net wor k of net wor ks t hat consist s
of millions of pr ivat e, public, academic, business, and
gover nment net wor ks, of local t o global scope, t hat
ar e li nked by a br oad ar r ay of elect r onic, wir eless
and opt ical net wor king t echnologies. The I nt er net
car r ies a vast r ange of infor mat ion r esour ces and
ser v i ces, su ch as t h e i n t er -l i n k ed h y per t ex t
document s of t he Wor ld Wide Web (WWW) and t he
infr ast r uct ur e t o suppor t elect r onic mail.
N ET WORKS
A computer network, oft en simply r efer r ed t o as a
net wor k , i s a col l ect i on of comput er s and devi ces
i nt er connect ed by communi cat i ons channel s t hat
faci l i t at e communi cat i ons and al l ows shar i ng of
r esour ces and i nfor mat i on among i nt er connect ed
devices. Computer networking or Data communi-
cat ions (D at acom) i s t he engi neer i ng di sci pl i ne
concer ned wit h t he comput er net wor ks.
The t hr ee t ypes of net wor ks ar e:
(i ) t he I nt er net
(ii ) t he int r anet
(iii ) t he ext r anet .
Examples of differ ent net wor k met hods ar e:
1. Local ar ea networ k (LAN), which is usually a small
net wor k const r ained t o a small geogr aphic ar ea.
Basics of Computers and Applications 9
An exampl e of a L A N woul d be a comput er
net wor k wit hin a building.
2. M et r opolit an ar ea net wor k (M AN), which is used
for medi um si ze ar ea. exampl es for a cit y or a
st at e.
3. Wide ar ea net wor k (WAN) t hat is usually a lar ger
net wor k t hat cover s a lar ge geogr aphic ar ea.
4. Wir eless L ANs and WANs (WL AN & WWAN) ar e
t he wir eless equivalent of t he L AN and WAN.
I P ADDRESS
An I nt ernet Prot ocol addr ess (I P addr ess) i s a
n u m er i cal l abel assi gn ed t o each dev i ce (e.g.,
comput er, pr i n t er ) par t i ci pat i ng i n a comput er
n et w or k t h at u ses t h e I n t er n et Pr ot ocol f or
communicat ion.[1] An I P addr ess ser ves t wo pr incipal
funct ions: host or networ k inter face identification and
locat ion addr essing. I t s r ole has been char act er ized
as follows: “ A name indicates what we seek. An address
indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there.
I mport ant Devices U sed in N et work
1. M odem : A modem (modulat or -demodulat or ) is a
device t hat modulat es an analog car r ier signal t o
encode digit al infor mat ion, and also demodulat es
such a car r ier signal t o decode t he t r ansmit t ed
infor mat ion. The goal is t o pr oduce a signal t hat
can be tr ansmitted easily and decoded to repr oduce
the or iginal digit al data. M odems can be used over
any means of t r ansmit t ing analog signals, fr om
light emit t ing diodes t o r adio.
2. Router : A router is a device t hat for war ds dat a
pack et s acr oss compu t er n et wor k s. Rou t er s
per for m t he dat a “ t r affic dir ect ing” funct ions on
t he I nt er net . A r out er is connect ed t o t wo or mor e
dat a lines fr om di ffer ent net wor ks. When dat a
comes in on one of t he lines, t he r out er r eads t he
addr ess infor mat ion in t he packet t o det er mine
it s ult imat e dest inat ion.
3. Bridge : A net work bridge connect s mul t i pl e
net wor k segment s. Br idging i s a for war di ng
t echni que used i n pack et -swi t ched comput er
net wor k s. U nl i k e r out i ng, br i dgi ng mak es no
assumptions about where in a networ k a par ticular
addr ess is locat ed. I nst ead, it depends on flooding
and examinat ion of sour ce addr esses in r eceived
packet header s t o locat e unknown devices. Once
a device has been locat ed, it s locat ion is r ecor ded
in a t able wher e t he M AC addr ess is st or ed so as
t o pr eclude t he need for fur t her br oadcast ing.
4. H ub : hub is a device for connecting multiple twisted
pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and
making them act as a single segment. The device is
a for m of multiport repeater.
 10 Basics of Computers and Applications
5. Repeater : A repeater is an elect r onic device t hat
r eceives a signal and r et r ansmit s it at a higher
level and/or higher power, or ont o t he ot her side
of an obst r uct i on, so t hat t he si gnal can cover
longer dist ances.
6. Server : A ser ver comput er i s a comput er, or
ser ies of comput er s, t hat link ot her comput er s or
el ect r oni c devi ces t oget her. They oft en pr ovi de
essent i al ser vi ces acr oss a net wor k , ei t her t o
private user s inside a lar ge or ganization or to public
users via the inter net. For example, when you enter
a quer y in a sear ch engine, t he quer y is sent fr om
your computer over t he int er net to t he ser ver s t hat
st or e all t he r elevant web pages. The r esult s ar e
sent back by t he ser ver t o your comput er.
EM AI L
E l ect r on i c m ai l , com m on l y cal l ed em a i l or
e-mail, is a met hod of exchanging digit al messages
fr om an aut hor t o one or mor e r ecipi ent s. M oder n
email oper at es acr oss t he I nt er net or ot her comput er
net wor ks. Some ear ly email syst ems r equir ed t hat
t he aut hor and t he r ecipient bot h be online at t he
same t ime, a la i nst ant messaging. Today’s email
syst ems ar e based on a st or e-and-for war d model .
Email ser ver s accept , for war d, del iver and st or e
messages. Neit her t he user s nor t heir comput er s ar e
r equi r ed t o be onl i ne si mul t aneousl y; t hey need
connect only br iefly, t ypically t o an email ser ver, for
as long as it t akes t o send or r eceive messages.
EM AI L ADDREES
An email address ident ifies an email box t o which
email messages ar e deliver ed. An example for mat of
an email addr ess is lewis @ example .com which is
r ead as lewis at example dot net . I t has two par t s. The
par t befor e t he @sign is t he local-par t of t he addr ess,
oft en t he user name of t he r ecipient lewis and the par t
aft er t he @ sign is a domain name i.e. example.com
t o which t he email message will be sent .
M S OFFI CE
M icrosoft Office is a proprietary commercial office suite
of inter-related desktop applications, servers and services
for the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X oper ating
systems, intr oduced by Micr osoft in 1989. I nitially a
marketing term for a bundled set of applications, the first
version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Micr osoft
Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint.
W ORD
Micr osoft Wor d is a wor d pr ocessor and was pr eviously
consi der ed t o be t he mai n pr ogr am i n Offi ce. I t s
pr opr i et ar y DOC for mat i s consi der ed a de fact o
standard, although Word 2007 can also use a new XML-
based, Micr osoft Office-optimized format called .DOCX
which has been st andar dized by Ecma I nt er nat ional
as Office Open XM L and it s SP2 updat e will suppor t
ODF and PDF. Wor d is also available in some edit ions
of M icr osoft Wor ks. I t is available for t he Windows
and M ac platfor ms. The fir st ver sion of Wor d, r eleased
in t he aut umn of 1983, was for t he M S-DOS oper at ing
system and had the distinction of introducing the mouse
t o a br oad populat ion. Wor d 1.0 could be pur chased
wit h a bundled mouse, t hough none was r equir ed.
Following t he pr ecedent s of L isaWr it e and M acWr it e,
Wor d for Macintosh attempted to add closer WYSI WYG
feat ur es int o it s package. Wor d for M ac was r eleased
in 1985. Wor d for M ac was t he fir st gr aphical ver sion
of M icr osoft Wor d. Despit e it s bugginess, it became
one of t he most popular M ac applicat ions.
EXCEL
M i cr osoft Excel i s a spr eadsheet pr ogr am whi ch
or iginally competed with the dominant Lotus 1-2-3, but
eventually outsold it . I t is available for the Windows
and Mac platfor ms. Micr osoft r eleased the fir st ver sion
of Excel for the Mac in 1985, and t he fir st Windows
ver sion (number ed 2.05 to line up with t he Mac and
bu n dl ed w i t h a st an dal on e Wi n dow s r u n -t i m e
envir onment) in November 1987.
OU TLOOK
M icr osoft Outlook (not t o be confused with Out look
Expr ess) is a per sonal infor mation manager and e-mail
communication softwar e. The replacement for Windows
Messaging, Micr osoft M ail and Schedule+ star ting in
Office 97, it includes an e-mail client, calendar, t ask
manager and addr ess book.
On t he M ac, M i cr osoft offer ed sever al ver si ons of
Outlook in the late 1990s, but only for use with Microsoft
Exchange Ser ver. I n Offi ce 2001, i t i nt r oduced an
alter nat ive application with a slightly differ ent featur e
set called Micr osoft Entour age. I t reintr oduced Outlook
in Office 2011, r eplacing Entour age.
POWE RPOI N T
M i cr osof t Power Poi n t i s a popu l ar pr esent at i on
pr ogr am for Windows and M ac. I t is used t o cr eat e
slideshows, composed of t ext , gr aphics, movies and
ot her object s, which can be displayed on-scr een and
navigat ed t hr ough by t he pr esent er or pr int ed out on
t r anspar encies or slides.
 Basics of Computers and Applications 11

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 8. I n a gener ic micr opr ocessor, inst r uct ion cycle time
1. Which of t he following is t he fast est ? is

(a) CPU (a) shor t er t han machine cycle t ime

(b) magnet ic t apes and disks (b) lar ger t han machine cycle t ime

(c) video t er minal (c) exact ly double t he machine cycle t ime

(d) sensor s, mechanical cont r oller s (d) exact ly t he same as t he machine cycle t ime

2. The input unit of a comput er 9. Pr ogr am St at us Wor d (PSW) cont ai ns var i ous
(differ ent) st atus of
(a) feeds dat a t o t he CPU or memor y
(a) CPU
(b) r et r ieves dat a fr om CPU
(b) ALU
(c) dir ect s all ot her unit s
(c) pr ogr am
(d) all of t hese
(d) r egist er s
3. Offline device is
10. When an int er r upt occur s, CPU saves t he value
(a) a device which is not connect ed t o CPU
of— — — in a st ack,
(b) a device which is connect ed t o CPU
(a) accumulator
(c) a dir ect access st or age device
(b) pr ogr am st at us wor d (PSW) only
(d) an I /O device
(c) I nstr uct ion Addr ess Counter (I AC)only
4. Which of t he following is a set of gener al pur pose
(d) bot h PWS and I AC
int er nal r egist er s ?
11. Bus Ar bit r at ion is
(a) Stack
(a) clear ing t he bus
(b) Scratchpad
(b) lat ching infor mat ion on t he bus
(c) Addr ess r egist er
(c) deciding t he cont r oller of t he bus
(d) St at us r egist er
(d) cont r olling t he bus
5. A single bus st r uct ur e is pr imar ily found in
12. Cont r ol M emor y Addr ess Regist er is pr esent in
(a) main fr ames
(a) ALU
(b) super comput er s
(b) I nst r uct ion Regist er Unit
(c) high per for mance machines
(c) Cont r ol Unit
(d) mini-and micr o-comput er s
(d) Disk Cont r ol I nt er face Unit
6. Which of t he following r egist er s is used t o keep
t r ack of addr ess of t he memor y locat ion wher e 13. Which of t he fol lowi ng is not one of t he t hr ee
t he next inst r uct ion is locat ed ? pr i mar y funct i ons t hat on-l i ne di r ect access
syst em can ser ve?
(a) M emor y Addr ess Regist er
(a) inquir y
(b) M emor y Dat a Regist er
(b) backup
(c) I nst r uct ion Regist er
(c) update
(d) Pr ogr am Count er
(d) pr ogr amming
7. Which of t he following r egist er s is loaded wit h
t he cont ent s of t he memor y locat ion point ed by 14. Which of the following is not tr ue of punched cards
t he PC ? as dat a ent r y media?

(a) M emor y Addr ess Regist er (a) They can be used as t ur n ar ound document s

(b) M emor y Dat a Regist er (b) They ar e inexpensive

(c) I nst r uct ion Regist er (c) I nput is slow compar ed wit h ot her media

(c) Pr ogr am count er (d) They ar e easily damaged

12 Basics of Computers and Applications

15. M agnet ic t ape can ser ve as 7. ASCI I coding all ocat ed bi nar y codes t o Engli sh
(a) input media al phabet s and symbols for comput er use. M or e
r ecent ly a new st andar d has been adopt ed which
(b) out put media
al locat es code t o almost all t he languages of t he
(c) secondar y st or age media wor l d and also t o symbols cover i ng mor e t han a
(d) all of t hese lakh char act er s. The new st andar d is call ed
LEVEL-1 (a) CCS
1. I n t he cont ext of I nfor mat ion Technology, OCR (b) Unicode
means (c) Standar d CCS code
(a) Opt ical Char act er Recognit i on
(d) Univer sal CCS code
(b) Oct agonal Cycl ic Rechar ge
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c) Oct adecimal Cycli c Regener at i on
8. For using passwor ds on t he I nt er net a soft war e
(d) Opt ical Char act er Regener at i on
is used so t hat t he passwor d is not int er cept ed
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
easi ly. I t is call ed

2. I n Boolean algebr a 1  1  0  0 = ? (a) Coding (b) Malwar e
(c) Virus (d) Encr ypt ion
(a) 0 (b) 1
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c) 2 (d) – 1
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
9. A soft war e, codi ng of which is available fr eely on
I nt er net and i s open for user s for fur t her use
3. Which of t he fol lowi ngis not an I /O devi ce of t he
an d i m pr ov em en t an d w h i ch i s gen er al l y
comput er ?
developed in a coll abor at i ve manner is call ed
(a) Keyboar d (b) Joy st i ck
(a) open sour ce soft war e
(c) ALU (d) Pr int er
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(b) unlicensed soft war e
4. W h at i s f l oat i n g poi n t w i t h r ef er en ce t o (c) fr ee soft war e
comput er s? (d) communi t y soft war e
(a) I t i s a soft war e subr out i ne ar ound whi ch [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
ot her subr out i nes ar e bui lt 10. Wh i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g ar e m ach i n e l ev el
(b) I t i s a r epr esent at i on of r eal number s t o languages?
facilit at e comput ing
(a) C++ (b) Java
(c) I t i s t h e m ai n al gebr ai c f or m u l a of t h e
(c) Python (d) None of t hese
soft war e
(d) I t i s t h e vol t age poi n t gi v en t o var i ou s [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

oper at i ng unit s of t he comput er 11. Which of t he fol lowing st at ement s is i ncor r ect ?
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (a) M i cr osoft windows is GUI
5. A syst em of di gi t al r u l es for exch an ge and (b) L i nux is GUI
pr ocessi ng of dat a bet ween var i ous devi ces i s
(c) M or e t han 5000 k B dat a can be st or ed in a
called
DVD
(a) soft war e pr ogr amme
(d) A 1 TB fl ash dr i ve can st or e 2 mi ll ion fil es
(b) algor it hm
each of size 1 M B
(c) pr ot ocol
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(d) infor mat ion pr ocessing
12. The t er ms AL U, CPU, I /O devi ces per t ai n t o
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) comput er s
6. A t heor et ical comput er wi t h infini t e t ype and
m em or y, u sed i n an al y si s of pr obl em s of (b) envi r onment al engineer i ng
comput at i on, is call ed (c) di esel engi ne
(a) Tape calculat or (b) Babbage machine (d) en gi n eer i n g dr aw i n g an d or t h ogon al
(c) Tur i ng machi ne (d) Theor et ical machi ne pr oject i ons
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
 Basics of Computers and Applications 13
13. I n a comput ing devi ce 'M H z' is ment i oned in t he 5. Who wr ot e/invent ed t he L inux soft war e?
specifi cat ions. I t r efer s t o (a) M i cr osoft (b) Apple I NC
(a) si ze of memor y (c) IBM (d) None of t hese
(b) speed of comput at i on [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]

(c) cl ock speed 6. A t echnique of anonymous communicat i on over

a computer networ k using encr yption of messages
(d) none of t he above
and spl it t ing bet ween t he nodes, i s cal led-
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) Spice r out i ng
14. The value of binary 1111 is :
(b) Onion r out i ng
(a) 23 (b) 23 – l (c) Cabbage r out ing
(c) 24 (d) 24 – l (d) Flower r out i ng
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
15. The term 'Operating System' means : 7. Pr ocessing speed of comput er i s measur ed i n-
(a) A set of programmes which controls computer (a) M I PS(M i lli on I nst r uct i on Per Second)
working (b) M H z of clock
(b) The way a computer operator works (c) Bot h (a) and (b)
(c) Conversion of high level language into (d) None of t hese [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SHIFT]
machine level language 8. To close a pr esent at ion and quit Power Point , one
(d) None of these must click t he close but t on on t he :
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (a) menu bar (b) t i t le bar
LEVEL-2 (c) st andar d t ool bar (d) common t ask s t oolbar
1. Which of t hese i s N OT an Oper at ing Syst em? [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]

(a) Android (b) iOS 9. Expr ession + + i is equi valent in ‘C’ t o :

(c) Linux (d) Power poi nt (a) i = i + l (b) i = i + 2
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT] (c) i = 2i (d) None of t hese
2. A soft war e user i nt er face feat ur e t hat allows t he [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
user t o view somet hing ver y si mi lar t o t he end 10. W h i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g r at i on al r el at i on
r esul t whi l e t he document i s bei ng cr eat ed i s oper at ions in 'C means "not equal t o" ?
called- (a) # (b) ==
(a) For mat cr eat or (b) For mat fideli t y
(c) ! = (d) < =
(c) WYSI WYG (d) WYGI WYS [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
11. M i cr osoft Windows is a/an :
3. I n a comput er syst em t her e ar e soft war es and
(a) Wor d-pr ocessing pr ogr am
l anguages at var i ous l evel s, l i k e H i gh l evel
L an gu age (H L ), M ach i n e L an gu age (M L ), (b) Dat abase pr ogr am
Compiler (C). Which of the following is the cor r ect (c) Oper at ing syst em
indi cat ive r epr esent at i on fr om user (U) t o t he (d) Gr aphics pr ogr am
comput er (COM P)? [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(a) U  H L  C  M L  Comp 12. __________wi ll t r ansl at e t he compl et e pr ogr am
(b) U  C  M L  H L  Comp at once fr om a H i gh L evel L anguage t o t he
M achine L anguage.
(c) U  C  H L  M L  Comp
(a) Compiler (b) Joy st i ck
(d) U  M L  H L  C  Comp
(c) Por t s (d) L i ght pen
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
4. Which of t hese devi ces per for ms t he funct ion of 13. The wor d funct ion t hat cor r ect s t ext as we t ype
bot h i n pu t dev i ce an d ou t pu t dev i ce f or a
is r efer r ed t o as :
comput er ?
(a) Aut o inser t (b) Aut o cor r ect
(a) Joy St i ck (b) M ouse
(c) Aut o summar i ze (d) Tr ack changes
(c) Modem (d) Pr int er
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
14 Basics of Computers and Applications
14. Pr imar y Stor age, in computer t er minology, r efer s 15. What does an elect r onic spr eadsheet consist of ?
to : (a) Rows (b) Columns
(a) H ar d Disc Dr i ve (c) Cells (d) Al l of t he above
(b) Random Access M emor y (RAM ) [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(c) Read Only M emor y (ROM )
(d) T he st or age devi ce wher e t h e oper at i n g
syst em is st or ed
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (d)

11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (d)

LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (d)

11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (a)

LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (c)

11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S

LEVEL-1 and r euse of t r ansl at ed dat a et c. ver y easy. Al so

it r epr esent s each char act er wi t h 16 bit s.
1. Opt i cal Char act er Reader i s ful l for m of OCR,
which can r ead a char acter and conver t its bitmap 8. To pr ot ect passwor ds et c. Encr ypt i on i s used
image t o equival ent ASCI I codes. which i s coding each dat a point i n a par t icul ar
pat t er n whi ch is not easy t o decode.
2. I t i s equivalent t o 0.1 = 0
9. Open sour ce soft war es l i k e U ni x have t hei r
3. Ar it hmet i c L ogical Unit i s not an I nput devi ce
sour ce code fr eely avai lable and t hese ar e devel-
whil e all t he ot her t hr ee ar e.
oped t hr ough collabor at ion of coder s fr om acr oss
4. Fl oat i ng point number s ar e used i n comput er s
t he wor ld. M any devel oper s as a pr inci ple use
t o r epr esent r eal number s. Si nce r eal number s
only open sour ce soft war es.
can not be accur at ely r epr esent ed i n comput er s
10. Al l t he l anguages ment ioned her e ar e high l evel
t hr ough binar y number s.
languages, in which i t i s easier t o wr it e code.
5. Pr ot ocols ar e r ules developed for exchanging and
11. 1 TB fl ash dr i ve can st or e appr oximat ely 1 mi l-
pr ocessing of dat a bet ween var i ous devices. Ex-
li on file sizes each of 1 M B.
ampl es incl ude H TTP, I P, FTTP et c.
12. Al l t hese devi ces ar e r elat ed t o comput er s. CPU
6. Tur i ng machi ne i s a mat hemat i cal model of a
is Cent r al Pr ocessi ng Unit , whi le AL U is Ar it h-
hypot het i cal comput ing machi ne which can use
met i c and L ogi cal uni t , whil e I /O is I nput Out -
a pr edefi ned set of r ules t o det er mi ne a r esult
put devi ces.
fr om a set of input var iables.
13. M H z is used t o measur e t he number of oper a-
7. The new st andar d which all ocat es codes t o al-
t i ons t hat can be done by t he CPU i n 1 second.
most al l languages and symbol s, t ot ali ng mor e
So i t r efer s t o clock speed.
t han a lakh i s cal led U ni code. I t mak es t r ansfer

14. 1111 of binar y i s 24 – 1. I t i s 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
15. An oper at ing system (OS) is syst em soft war e that
manages comput er har dwar e and soft war e r e-
sour ces and pr ovides common ser vices for com-
put er pr ogr ams.
LEVEL-2
1.Power point is not an oper at ing syst em but an appli-
cat ion t o make pr esent at ion slides.
2. When user s can see somet hing ver y similar t o
end r esult while document cr eat ion, it is called
WYSI WYG.
3. I t is t he cor r ect r epr esent at ion wher e user gives
input in high level language, it is t hen compiled
an d becom es m ach i n e l an gu age w h i ch i s
comput ed and t he out put is similar ly pr ovided t o
t he user.
4. The modem is an input and an out put device. I t
is used for sending and r eceiving infor mation and
dat a over t elephone lines.
5. L I NUX soft war e was invent ed by L inus Tor valds
while st udying comput er science at Univer sity of
H elsinki in 1991.
7. Pr ocessing speed is measur ed in MH z. Nowadays
i t i s even measur ed i n GH z i .e. Gi ga H er t z.
Basically it r epr esent s how many oper at ions can
be pr ocessed in 1 second.
Basics of Computers and Applications 15
8. To close applications such as Powerpoint, MS-word
et c. one must click t he close but t on on t he t it le
bar which is at t he t op r ight hand cor ner.
9. ++I in C means i = i + 2. This was a way developed
t o wr it e smaller lines in code.
10. != means not equal t o in C.
11. M icr osoft Windows is t he wor ld's most popular
commer cial oper at ing syst em for PCs.
12. Com pi l er s ar e u sed t o t r an sl at e en t i r e
pr ogr am s f r om H i gh l ev el l an gu age t o
m ach i n e l an gu age, so t h at com pu t er can
under st and and execut e it .
13. When we t ype t ext , Aut o cor r ect feat ur e cor r ect s
t he wor d's spelling or any ot her por t ion of t he
t ext .
14. Pr imar y st or age, also known as main st or age or
memor y, is t he ar ea in a comput er in which dat a
i s st or ed for qui ck access by t he comput er 's
pr ocessor. The t er ms r andom access memor y
(RAM ) and memor y ar e oft en used as synonyms
for pr imar y or main st or age.
15. An elect r onic spr eadsheet like M S-Excel consist s
of Cells which are ar r anged in Rows and Columns.
So all ar e pr esent .
CBT – II
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 1

BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND

POLLUTION CONTROL
DEFINITION
Environmental pollution is “the contamination of the physical and biological components of the earth/atmosphere system
to such an extent that normal environmental processes are adversely affected”.
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that cause harm or discomfort  to humans or other
living organisms, or that damage the environment” which can come “in the form of chemical substances, or energy
such as noise, heat or light”. “Pollutants can be naturally occurring substances or energies, but are considered contaminants
when in excess of natural levels.
TYPES OF POLLUTION:
There are several types of pollution, and while they may come from different sources and have different consequences,
understanding the basics about pollution can help environmentally conscious individuals minimize their contribution to
these dangers.
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is defined as any contamination of the atmosphere that disturbs the natural composition and chemistry of
the air. This can be in the form of particulate matter such as dust or excessive gases like carbon dioxide or other vapors
that cannot be effectively removed through natural cycles, such as the carbon cycle or the nitrogen cycle.
Air pollution comes from a wide variety of sources. Some of the most excessive sources include:
 Vehicle or manufacturing exhaust
 Forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dry soil erosion, and other natural sources
 Building construction or demolition
Depending on the concentration of air pollutants, several effects can be noticed. Smog increases, higher rain acidity,
crop depletion from inadequate oxygen, and higher rates of asthma. Many scientists believe that global warming is also
related to increased air pollution.
Pollutant Sources Effects
Ozone. A gas that can be found in Ozone is not created directly, but is formed Ozone near the ground can cause a
when nitrogen oxides and vo latile organic number of health prob lems. Ozone can
two places. Near the ground (the
compounds mix in sunlight. That is why ozone lead to more frequent asthma attacks in
tropo sphere), it is a major part of is mostly found in the summer. Nitrogen oxides people who have asthma and can cause
smog. The harmful ozo ne in the come from burning gasoline, coal, or other sore throats, coughs, and breathing
fossil fuels. There are many types of volatile difficulty. It may even lead to premature
lower atmosphere should not be
organic compounds, and they come from death. Ozone can also hurt plants and
confused with the protective layer sources ranging from factories to trees. crops.
of ozone in the upper atmosphere
(stratosphere), which screens out
harmful ultraviolet rays
Ca rbo n monoxide. A gas that Carbon mono xide is released when engines Carbo n monoxide makes it hard for body
comes from the burning of fossil burn fossil fuels. Emissions are higher when parts to get the oxygen they need to run
fuels, mostly in cars. It cannot be engines are not tuned properly, and when fuel co rrectly. Exposure to carbon monoxid e
seen or smelled is not completely burned. Cars emit a lot of the makes people feel dizzy and tired and
carbon monoxide found outdoors. Furnaces gives them headaches. In high
and heaters in the home can emit high co ncentrations it is fatal. Elderly people
concentrations of carbo n monoxide, too, if they with heart disease are hospitalized more
are not properly maintained. often when they are exposed to higher
amounts of carbon monoxide.
 2 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Nitrogen dio xide.  A reddish- Nitrogen dioxide mostly comes from po wer High levels of nitrogen dioxide exposure
brown gas that comes from the plants and cars. Nitrogen dioxide is formed in can give people coughs and can make
burning of fossil fuels. It has a two ways-when nitrogen in the fuel is burned, them feel short of breath. People who are
strong smell at high levels. or when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen exposed to nitrogen dioxide for a long
at very high temperatures. Nitrogen dioxide time have a higher chance of getting
can also react in the atmosphere to form ozone, respiratory infections. Nitro gen dioxid e
acid rain, and particles. reacts in the atmosphere to form acid
rain, which can harm plants and animals.

Particulate matter. Solid or Particulate matter can be divided into two Particulate matter that is small enough
liquid matter that is suspended in types-coarse particles and fine particles. can enter the lungs and cause health
the air. To remain in the air, Coarse particles are formed from sources like prob lems. Some of these problems
particles usually must be less than road dust, sea spray, and construction. Fine include more frequent asthma attacks,
0.1-mm wide and can be as small particles are formed when fuel is burned in respiratory problems, and premature
as 0.00005 mm. automobiles and power plants. death.
Sulphur dio xide.  A corrosive gas Sulfur dioxide mostly comes from the burning Sulfur d ioxide exposure can affect
that cannot be seen or smelled at of coal or oil in power plants. It also comes people who have asthma or emphysema
low levels but can have a “rotten from factories that make chemicals, paper, or by making it more difficult for them to
egg“ smell at high levels. fuel. Like nitrogen dio xide, sulfur dioxide breathe. It can also irritate people's eyes,
reacts in the atmosp here to form acid rain and noses, and throats. Sulfur dioxide can
particles. harm trees and crops, damage b uildings,
and make it harder for people to see long
distances.

Lead. A blue-gray metal that is Outside, lead comes from cars in areas where High amounts of lead can be dangerous
very toxic and is found in a unleaded gasoline is not used. Lead can also for small children and can lead to lower
number of forms and locations. come from power plants and other industrial IQs and kidney prob lems. For adults,
sources. Inside, lead paint is an important exposure to lead can increase the chance
source of lead, especially in houses where paint of having heart attacks or strokes.
is peeling. Lead in old pipes can also be a
source of lead in drinking water.

Toxic air pollutants. A large
number of chemicals that are
known or suspected to cause
cancer. Some imp ortant pollutants
in this category include arsenic,
asbestos, benzene, and dioxin.
Each toxic air pollutant comes from a slightly Toxic air pollutants can cause cancer.
different source, but many are created in Some toxic air pollutants can also cause
chemical plants or are emitted when fossil fuels birth defects. Other effects depend on the
are burned. Some toxic air pollutants, like pollutant, but can include skin and eye
asbestos and formaldehyde, can be found in irritation and breathing problems.
building materials and can lead to indoor air
problems. Many toxic air pollutants can also
enter the food and water supplies.

Stratospheric ozone CFCs are used in air conditioners and If the ozone in the stratosphere is
depleters.Chemicals that can refrigerators, since they work well as coolants. destro yed, people are exposed to more
destroy the ozone in the They can also be fo und in aerosol cans and fire radiation fro m the sun (ultraviolet
stratosphere. These chemicals extinguishers. Other stratospheric ozone radiation). This can lead to skin cancer
include chlorofluorocarbons depleters are used as so lvents in industry. and eye problems. Higher ultraviolet
(CFCs), halons, and other radiation can also harm plants and
compounds that include chlorine animals.
or bromine
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 3

Greenhouse gases. Gases that Carbon dioxide is the most important The greenhouse effect can lead to
stay in the air for a long time and greenhouse gas. It comes from the burning of changes in the climate of the planet.
warm up the planet by trapping fossil fuels in cars, p ower plants, houses, and Some of these changes might includ e
sunlight. This is called the industry. Methane is released during the more temperature extremes, higher sea
“greenhouse effect“ b ecause the processing of fossil fuels, and also comes from levels, changes in forest compositio n,
gases act like the glass in a natural sources like cows and rice paddies. and damage to land near the coast.
greenhouse. Some of the Nitrous oxide comes from ind ustrial sources Human health might be affected by
important greenhouse gases are and decaying plants. diseases that are related to temperature or
carbon dioxide, methane, and by damage to land and water.
nitrous oxide.
WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution involves any contaminated water, whether from chemical, particulate, or bacterial matter that degrades
the water’s quality and purity. Water pollution can occur in oceans, rivers, lakes, and underground reservoirs, and as
different water sources flow together through the water cycle the pollution can spread.
Causes of water pollution include:
 Increased sediment from soil erosion
 Improper waste disposal and littering
 Leaching of soil pollution into water supplies
 Organic material decay in water supplies
The effects of water pollution include decreasing the quantity of drinkable water available, lowering water supplies for
crop irrigation, and impacting fish and wildlife populations that require water of a certain purity for survival.
Ground water is being polluted by percolation of contaminated surface water through the layers of the earth. Release of
raw sewage in unlined soak-pits and release of toxic effluents by the industries into surface water bodies, are the main
causes of ground water pollution.
Major water pollutants, examples and sources
Category Examples Sources
I. Affecting health
Infectious agents Bacteria, viruses and parasites Sewage, human and animal excreta
Organic chemicals Pesticides, plastics, detergents. oil Agricultural, industrial and domestic wastes
Inorganic chemicals Acids, caustics, salts, metals Industrial and domestic effluents
Radioactive materials Uranium, thorium, randon, etc Mining, power plants, natural sources
2. Affecting ecossslcm
Plant nutrients Nitrates, phosphates, etc Chemical fertilisers, sewage, manure
Sediments Silt, soil Soil erosion
Thermal Heat Industries, power plants
Oxygen demanding Agricultural waster, manure Sweage, agricultural runoff
Indiscriminate and overuse of fertilizers, chemicals and pesticides have also caused ground water pollution through the
seepage of irrigation water into ground water reserves.
The hazards of ground water pollution depend on several factors such as:
 Concentration or toxicity of the pollutant
 The level of ground water if the level is higher chances of contamination are more
 Conditions of ground water recharge
Marine Pollution: Marine pollution is the matter of International concern from the point of view of conservation of
living resources. All coastal nations dispose of millions of gallons of untreated sewage, millions of tonnes of garbage,
unlimited amount of low level radioactive wastes etc. into the seas.
In addition to the marine environment, areas along the coasts, such as, estuaries, reefs, wetlands, mangroves, etc. are
adversely affected due to enormous dumping of pollutants into the ocean. This problem is further aggravated due to the
fact that about 40% of the world’s population lives near the sea.
 4 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

The main sources of marine pollution are:

1. Municipal wastes and sewage
2. Industrial effluents
3. Runoff agricultural wastes
4. Oil spills from tankers
5. Offshore drilling and mining
6. Submarine nuclear testing
7. Dumping of radioactive wastes
The consequences of marine pollution are as follows:
 The pollutants adversely affect the productive ocean regions, thus causing huge losses of fish populations and coral
reefs. This results in economic losses amounting to billions of dollars per year.
 Eutrophication, due to the influx of organic pollutants, results in the formation of red tides. These are blooms
(massive growth) of red algae, which inhibit the movement of ships and also kill marine fauna.
 Dumping of huge amounts of toxic wastes in a short duration of time, creates areas of oxygen-depleted zones in the
coastal waters. In these zones, most of the aquatic lives die or migrate elsewhere.
 Discarded garbage, sewage, plastic refuse, etc. that are dumped in the oceans sometimes accumulate in the beaches.
This spoils the aesthetic beauty of the region and results in loss of tourism.
Water Pollutants and their Effects:
Most of the rivers and fresh water streams in India are badly polluted by industrial wastes or effluents. The major
sources of pollution of some Indian rivers are listed in table below:
Indian rivers and sources of their pollution
Name of river Sources of pollution
1. Kali Sugar mills: distilleries: paint, soap, rayon, silk. Yarn, tin and glycerine
2. Yamuna D.D.T. factory, sewage, Indraprastha Power Station, Delhi.
3. Ganga Jute, chemical, metal and surgical industries: tanneries, textile mills and great
bulk of domestic sewage of highly organic nature.
4. Gomti Paper and pulp mills sewage.
5. Dajora Synthetic rubber factories.
6. Damodar Fertilizers, fly ash from steel mills, suspended coal particles from washeries,
and thermal power station.
7. Hoogly Power stations: paper pulp, jute textiles, chemical mills, paint, varnishes, metal,
steel, hydrogenated vegetable oil, rayon, soap, match, shellac, and polyethene
industries and sewage.
8. Sone Bhadra Cement, pulp and paper mills.
9. Cooum, Adyar and Buckinghum Domestic sewage, automobile workshops.
canal (Chennai)
10. Kaveri Sewage, tanneries, distilleries, paper and rayon mills.
11. Godavari Paper, mills.
12. Siwan Paper, sulphur, cement, and sugar mills.
13. Kulu Chemical factories, rayon mills and tanneries.
14. Suwao Sugar industries.
Contamination of water with industrial wastes is most dangerous. The sewage of big cities is often drained into rivers.
This sewage promotes the growth of phytoplankton’s. The excessive growth depletes the oxygen of water. This
reduction of oxygen and the presence of poisonous wastes affect the fish population. Besides these, rivers, lakes and
ponds are also used directly by people for bathing or washing. This contaminates the water with the germs of various
diseases- like cholera, dysentery and hepatitis.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 5

Type or Industry Inorganic pollutants Organic pollutants

Mining Mine wastes : Chlorides, various metals,
ferrous sulphate, sulpluric acid hydrogen
—
sulphide, ferric hydroxide, surface wash offs,
suspended solids, chlorides and heavy metals.
Iron and steel Suspended solids, iron cyanide, thiocy-anate, Oil, phenol and naptha
sulphides, oxides, of copper, chromium,
cadmium, and mercury.
Chemical plants Various acids and alkalies, sulphates, nitrates of Aromatic compound solvents, organic acids,
metals, phosphorus, fluorine, silica, and nitro compound dyes, etc.
suspended particles.
Pharmaceuticals Proteins, carbohydrates, organic solvents,
—
intermediate products, drugs and antibiotics.
Soap and detergent Tertiary ammonia compounds, alkalies. Fats and fatty acids, glycerol, polyphosphates,
sulphonated hydrocarbons.
Food processing Highly putrescible organic matter and
—
pathogens.
Paper and pulp Sulphides, bleaching liquors Cellulose fibres, bark, wood, sugars and
organic acids.
Some pollutants produce only temporary effects in water whereas others have long standing effects. There are several
types of physical and chemical effects produced by pollutants.
These are:
 Addition of poisonous substances
 Addition of suspended particles
 Addition of non-toxic salts
 Water de-oxygenation
 Heating of water.
SOIL POLLUTION
Soil, or land pollution, is contamination of the soil that prevents natural growth and balance in the land whether it is used
for cultivation, habitation, or a wildlife preserve. Some soil pollution, such as the creation of landfills, is deliberate, while
much more is accidental and can have widespread effects.
Soil pollution sources include:
 Hazardous waste and sewage spills
 Non-sustainable farming practices, such as the heavy use of inorganic pesticides
 Strip mining, deforestation, and other destructive practices
 Household dumping and littering
Soil contamination can lead to poor growth and reduced crop yields, loss of wildlife habitat, water and visual pollution,
soil erosion, and desertification.
NOISE POLLUTION
Noise pollution refers to undesirable levels of noises caused by human activity that disrupt the standard of living in the
affected area. Noise pollution can come from:
 Traffic
 Airports
 Railroads
 Manufacturing plants
 Construction or demolition
 Concerts
 6 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Some noise pollution may be temporary while other sources are more permanent. Effects may include hearing loss,
wildlife disturbances, and a general degradation of lifestyle.
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
Radioactive pollution is rare but extremely detrimental, and even deadly, when it occurs. Because of its intensity and the
difficulty of reversing damage, there are strict government regulations to control radioactive pollution.
Sources of radioactive contamination include:
 Nuclear power plant accidents or leakage
 Improper nuclear waste disposal
 Uranium mining operations
Radiation pollution can cause birth defects, cancer, sterilization, and other health problems for human and wildlife
populations. It can also sterilize the soil and contribute to water and air pollution.
THERMAL POLLUTION
Thermal pollution is excess heat that creates undesirable effects over long periods of time. The earth has a natural
thermal cycle, but excessive temperature increases can be considered a rare type of pollution with long term effects.
Many types of thermal pollution are confined to areas near their source, but multiple sources can have wider impacts
over a greater geographic area.
Thermal pollution may be caused by:
 Power plants
 Urban sprawl
 Air pollution particulates that trap heat
 Deforestation
 Loss of temperature moderating water supplies
As temperatures increase, mild climatic changes may be observed, and wildlife populations may be unable to recover
from swift changes.
LIGHT POLLUTION
Light pollution is the over illumination of an area that is considered obtrusive. Sources include:
 Large cities
 Billboards and advertising
 Night time sporting events and other night time entertainment
Light pollution makes it impossible to see stars, therefore interfering with astronomical observation and personal enjoyment.
If it is near residential areas, light pollution can also degrade the quality of life for residents.
ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE INDEX 2018
In news 2018:
The 2018 Environmental Performance Index (EPI) finds that air quality is the leading environmental threat to public
health. Now in its twentieth year, the biennial report is produced by researchers at Yale and Columbia Universities in
collaboration with the World Economic Forum. The tenth EPI report ranks 180 countries on 24 performance indicators
across 10 issue categories covering environmental health and ecosystem vitality. Switzerland leads the world in sustainability,
followed by France, Denmark, Malta, and Sweden.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 7

Key findings:
 Switzerland’s top ranking reflects strong performance across most issues, especially air quality and climate protection.
 In general, high scorers exhibit long-standing commitments to protecting public health, preserving natural resources,
and decoupling greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from economic activity.
 India and Bangladesh come in near the bottom of the rankings, with Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and
Nepal rounding out the bottom five.
 Low scores on the EPI are indicative of the need for national sustainability efforts on a number of fronts, especially
cleaning up air quality, protecting biodiversity, and reducing GHG emissions.
 Some of the lowest-ranking nations face broader challenges, such as civil unrest, but the low scores for others can
be attributed to weak governance, they note.
EPI and Global Sustainability Data
The EPI builds on the best available global data from international research entities, such as the Institute for Health
Metrics and Evaluation, the World Resources Institute, and the Sea Around Us Project at the University of British
Columbia, as well as international organizations such as the World Bank and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization.
Nevertheless, serious data gaps limit the ability to measure results – and particularly changes in performance – on a
number of important issues. “As the EPI project has highlighted for two decades, better data collection, reporting, and
verification across a range of environmental issues are urgently needed,”.
The world needs better data on sustainable agriculture, water resources, waste management, and threats to biodiversity.
Supporting global data systems is one of the most important steps the world community can take to achieving sustainable
development goals.
DUST MITIGATION PLAN
Centre had notified dust mitigation norms.
The norms mandate that:
 No building or infrastructure project requiring Environmental Clearance shall be implemented without approved
Environmental Management Plan inclusive of dust mitigation measures.
 Roads leading to or at construction sites must be paved and blacktopped (i.e. metallic roads).
 No excavation of soil shall be carried out without adequate dust mitigation measures in place.
 No loose soil or sand or Construction & Demolition Waste or any other construction material that causes dust shall
be left uncovered,
 Wind-breaker of appropriate height i.e. 1/3rd of the building height and maximum up to 10 meters shall be provided.
 Water sprinkling system shall be put in place.
 Dust mitigation measures shall be displayed prominently at the construction site for easy public viewing.
How it works? (Steps taken)
The teams are empowered to take on-the-spot action against violators and if necessary, issue “stop-work” orders.
The campaign will also include enforcement of pollution-control measures for vehicles, driving discipline, inspection of
power plants in Delhi to ensure compliance with the norms on pollution.
Besides field surveys by empowered teams of officials, a series of seminars on mitigation of pollution will also be
organised during the period. These include - a workshop on Environmental and Health; Air Pollution Abatement Technologies;
enlisting support from NGOs, Civil Society, citizens; Clean Air Day in Universities, Colleges and Schools; a Mini Marathon
for Clean Air; enhancing the role of PSUs and industries, apex industrial bodies; launching a national digital forum for
discussions on air pollution; Indoor Air Pollution Management and a conference of Environment Ministers of States and
Union Territories.
 8 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

MINAMATA CONVENTION
In news
Recently, the Union Cabinet approved the proposal for ratification of Minamata Convention on Mercury enabling India to
become a Party of the Convention.
About
 The approval entails ratification of the Minamata Convention on Mercury along with flexibility for continued use of
mercury based products and processes involving mercury compound up to 2025.
 The first Conference of the Parties (CoP) under the Minamata Convention took place in Geneva, Switzerland in 2017
which India attended as observer.
It is financed through Global Environment Facility.
Details about the convention
 The Minamata Convention on Mercury is first global legally binding treaty to protect human health and the environment
from the adverse effects of mercury.
 It was agreed in Geneva, Switzerland in January 2013 and came into force in August, 2017.
The Minamata Convention has put party nations to:
 Reduce and eliminate the use and release of mercury from artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM).
 Control mercury air emissions from coalfired power plants, coal-fired industrial boilers, certain non-ferrous metals
production operations, waste incineration and cement production.
 Phase-out or take measures to reduce mercury use in certain products such as batteries, switches, lights, cosmetics,
pesticides and measuring devices, and create initiatives to reduce the use of mercury in dental amalgam.
 Phase out or reduce the use of mercury in manufacturing processes such as chloralkali production, vinyl chloride
monomer production, and acetaldehyde production.
 It also puts a ban on new mercury mines.
 The Convention also addresses interim storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste, sites contaminated
by mercury as well as health issues.
Waste management
Waste management involves collecting, transporting, disposing, recycling and monitoring waste generated through
human activities.
General waste management techniques are:
Landfill: It involves having the waste buried off in empty, deserted locations outside the city. Dumped waste is made
to undergo compression to enhance the density and make the fill stable. It is later covered to discourage vermin
growth. A gas extraction system is customarily installed to exact the gas (arising out of decomposition) through a
burrow pit.
Incineration: Waste is exposed to high temperature to trigger combustion and ultimately reduce to ash, gas and heat
energy. Toxic wastes from industry are thermally treated in furnace and boiler to extract energy. This method is
useful where land is scarce. Gasification and Pyrolysis methods involve heating waste in short supply of oxygen at
high temperature inside a pressurized and sealed vessel. The resultant residue is used for energy generation.
Recycling: Paper, plastic, PVC and other homogenous products can be recycled to put them in use in a new garb.
This also rids the environment of non-biodegradable, chemical wastes that significantly disturb the ecological balance.
Biological reprocessing: Wastes of organic origin are made to undergo biological decomposition and re-used as
compost or mulch for agriculture and landscaping. Gas collected is used for electricity generation.
Waste Reduction and Avoidance: The stress is on increased use of second hand products, repaired products and
reducing the use of complex disposable items to keep a tab on waste generation in abundance.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 9
Recycling Solutions: Recycling is a superlative way to capitalize on accumulated waste by chemically treating it to
make it fit for re-use. Recycling equipment make the waste processing method streamlined and cost-effective.
Global warming
Global warming which is also referred to as climate change, is the observed rise in the average temperature of the
Earth's climate system the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C in the lowest emissions
scenario, and 2.6 to 4.8 °C in the highest emissions scenario .These readings have been recorded by the “national
science academies of the major industrialized nations”. Future climate change and impacts will differ from region to
region. Expected effects include increase in global temperatures, rising sea levels, changing precipitation, and expansion
of deserts.
Causes: Global warming is a serious environmental issues. The causes are divided into two categories include
"natural" and "human influences" of global warming.
Natural Causes of Global Warming:
 rotation of the sun that changes the intensity of sunlight and moving closer to the earth
 greenhouse gases
 Volcanic eruption.
Human Influences on Global Warming:
 industrial revolution
 Mining
 Deforestation
Effects:
 heat waves,
 droughts,
 heavy rainfall with floods,
 heavy snowfall ,
 ocean acidification,
 species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes
Acid rain
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic components, such as
sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain, snow,
fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.
Causes of Acid Rain : This image illustrates the pathway for acid rain in our environment.Acid rain results when
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air
currents. The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These
then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground.
While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as volcanoes, most of
it comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:
 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere come
from electric power generators.
 Vehicles and heavy equipment.
 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a problem for everyone and
not just those who live close to these sources.
Ozone depletion
Ozone depletion, gradual thinning of Earth’s ozone layer in the upper atmosphere caused by the release of chemical
compounds containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from industry and other human activities. The thinning is most
pronounced in the polar regions, especially over Antarctica. Ozone depletion is a major environmental problem
because it increases the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches Earth’s surface, which increases the rate of
 10 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

skin cancer, eye cataracts, and genetic and immune system damage. The Montreal Protocol, ratified in 1987, was the
first of several comprehensive international agreements enacted to halt the production and use of ozone-depleting
chemicals. As a result of continued international cooperation on this issue, the ozone layer is expected to recover over
time.

Important terminologies:
· Garbage Pollution: Mismanagement of solid waste by households, waste collectors and waste disposal contractors.
· Plastic Pollution: Waste of all types of non-biodegradable plastic of both hard and soft material.
· Pollution by Hospitals: Mismanagement of all types of waste generated by the hospitals instead of its environment
friendly disposal.
· Indoor Pollution: Kitchen emissions, smoking in home, loud music, spillage of sewerage.
· Industrial Pollution: Smoke from chimney, waste and effluent from manufacturing process in factories.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 11

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
6. There is some concern regarding the nanoparticles of
1. Consider the following: some chemical elements that are used by the industry
1. Carbon dioxide in the manufacture of various products. Why?
2. Oxides of Nitrogen 1. They can accumulate in the environment, and
3. Oxides of Sulphur contaminate water and soil.
Which of the above is/are the emission/ emissions 2. They can enter the food chains.
from coal combustion at thermal power plants? 3. They can trigger the production of free radicals.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
2. Human activities in the recent past have Caused the (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the 7. Which of the following are some important pollutants
atmosphere, but a lot of it does not remain in the released by steel industry in India?
lower atmosphere because of :
1. Oxides of sulphur
1. Its escape into the outer stratosphere.
2. Oxides of nitrogen
2. The photosynthesis by phyto-plankton in the
oceans. 3. Carbon monoxide
3. The trapping of air in the polar ice caps. 4. Carbon dioxide
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only (c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1,2, 3 and 4
3. Consider the following statements: 8. Brominated flame retardants are used in many
Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-depleting household products like mattresses and upholstery.
substances, are used Why is there some concern about their use?
1. In the production of plastic foams 1. They are highly resistant to degradation in the
environment.
2. In the production of tubeless tyres
3. In cleaning certain electronic components 2. They are able to accumulate in humans and
animals.
4. As pressurizing agents in aerosol cans
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 4 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
9. The scientific view is that the increase in global
4. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of environment
temperature should not exceed 2 °C above pre-
by
industrial level. If the global temperature increases
(a) carbon dioxide and nitrogen beyond 3°C above the pre-industrial level, what can
(b) carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide be its possible impact/impacts on the world?
(c) ozone and carbon dioxide 1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon
(d) nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide source
5. Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction 2. Widespread coral mortality will occur.
among: 3. All the global wetlands will permanently disappear.
(a) NO2, 03 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence 4. Cultivation of cereals will not be possible anywhere
of sunlight in the world.
(b) CO, 02 and0 peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence Select the correct answer using the code given below.
of sunlight (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) CO, CO2 and N02 at low temperature (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4,
(d) High concentration of N02, O3 and CO in the
evening
12 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL
10. In the context of mitigating the impending global
warming due to anthropogenic emissions of carbon
dioxide, which of the following can be the potential
sites for carbon sequestration?
1. Abandoned and uneconomic coal seams
2. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs
3. Subterranean deep saline formations
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
11. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard
criterion for
(a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude regions
12. In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/
are the advantage/advantages of bioremediation
technique?
1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by
enhancing the same biodegradation process that
occurs in nature.
2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as
cadmium and lead can be readily and completely
treated by bioremediation using microorganisms.
3. Genetic engineering can be used to create
microorganisms specifically designed for
bioremediation. Select the correct answer using
the code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
13. I n potable water, the dissolved oxygen is stipulated
as-
(a) <6g/l (b) >6g/l
(c) <6mg/l (d) >6mg/l
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
14. I n r ef er en ce t o A ci d r ai n , w h at i s cor r ect
st at ement
(a) The pH value i s bel ow 5.6
(b) I t occur s due t o pr esence of sul phur i c aci d or
ni t r ic acid i n t he at mospher e
(c) M axi mum acid i s due t o st r ong Car bonic Acid
(d) Acid r ain affect s ecosyst em
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
15. The wor king pr inciple of tur bidimeter is based on
(a) r efl ect ion of l ight
(b) r efr act ion of l ight
(c) scat t er ing of l ight
(d) adsor pt ion of light
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
LEVEL-1
1. The major sour ce of car ci nogenic hydr ocar bon,
benzo () pyr ene pr esent i n ur ban at mospher e is
(a) const r uct ion act ivit i es
(b) r oad t r affic
(c) bur st i ng of cr acker s
(d) domest i c bur ni ng
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
2. The pr escr i bed per missible noise level , L eq for
commer cial ar ea at day t ime is
(a) 75 dBA (b) 50 dBA
(c) 55 dBA (d) 65 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
3. The gl obal war mi ng i s caused by gr een house
gases, which ar e
(a) CO, N 2O, CH 4 and CFC
(b) CO2, NO2, CH 4 and H 2O
(c) CO2, N 2O, CH 4 and H 2O
(d) CO2, N O2, CH 4 and CFC
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
4. Which of t he fol lowing r ol es fl y ash does not pl ay
in concr et e
(a) I mpr ovi ng t he wor kabi li t y
(b) Acceler at ing t he st r engt h gain
(c) Delaying t he set t ing t i me of concr et e
(d) H elps in long-t er m st r engt h gain
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
5. One t ur bi di t y unit NTU is equal t o
(a) 1.0 mg/l far mazin (b) 1.0 meq/l Si O2
(c) 1.0 mg/l Si O2 (d) 1.0 meq/l kaol in
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
6. The pr escr i bed per missible noise level , L eq for
r esi dent i al ar ea at day t ime is
(a) 65 dBA (b) 45 dBA
(c) 50 dBA (d) 55 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 13
7. W h i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g i s n ot u sed as a (c) gast r oint est inal pr oblem
suppl ement ar y cement at ions mat er ial? (d) t he ir r it at i on in alveol i of t he l ungs
(a) Fl y ash (b) Gypsum [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) Ri ce husk ash (d) Si li ca fume 15. The machi ne ‘A' and machine ‘B' pr oduce equal
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ] noise l evel s, i.e., 60 dBA each. The summat ion of
8. Accor di ng t o I S 456, if t he maximum aggr egat e t hese t wo noise level s is
si ze i s i ncr eased fr om 20 mm t o 40 mm, t he (a) 100 dBA (b) 66 dBA
mi ni mum cement cont ent r equi r ement changes
(i n kg/cum) by (c) 63 dBA (d) 55 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(a) – 20 (b) 20
(c) – 30 (d) 30 LEVEL-2
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ] 1. I n st r at ospher e, t he t emper at ur e incr eases wi t h
9. The t ur bi di t y in sur face wat er is due t o pr esence al t i t ude due t o pr esence of
of (a) r adicals (b) chlor ofluor ocar bons
(a) dissolved or ganics (c) HCFCs (d) Ozone
(b) col loidal mat er ial [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) di ssolved i n or gani cs 2. N uclear densi t y guage can be used for al l t he
(d) di ssolved color s foll owi ng pur poses, except
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ] (a) M oist ur e cont ent
10. T h e pr escr i bed per m i ssi bl e n oi se l evel , f or (b) Wet densi t y
r esi dent i al ar ea at night t ime is
(c) Dr y densi t y
(a) 45 dBA (b) 50 dBA
(d) St andar d penetr at ion r eading
(c) 40 dBA (d) 55 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
3. A wat er bor ne di sease pol iomyeli t is i s caused by
11. The cont i nuous exposur e of hi gh concent r at i on
of r epar able suspended par t icul at e mat t er may (a) vir uses (b) pr ot ozoa
cause (c) bact er ia (d) hel mi nt hes
(a) eye ir r it at i on [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
(b) kidney damage 4. I n pot abl e wat er, t he per missible li mi t of nit r at e
(c) fail ur e of r espi r at or y syst em ni t r ogen is
(d) car diac disease (a) 10 mg/l (b) 25 mg/l
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd
SEP 1 SH I FT ]
st (c) 40 mg/l (d) 15 mg/l
12. The pr escr i bed per missible noise level , L eq for [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
commer cial ar ea at ni ght t ime is 5. Car bon monoxi de for ms car boxyhemogl obi n i n
(a) 45 dBA (b) 65 dBA human blood t hat may cause
(c) 50 dBA (d) 55 dBA (a) incr eased oxygen car r yi ng capaci t y
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] (b) decr eased oxygen car r ying capaci t y
13. The pH of acid r ai n shoul d always be less t han (c) damage in cent r al ner vous syst em
(a) 5.6 even aft er pr ecipit at i on (d) damage in ci r cul at or y syst em
(b) 7.0 aft er pr ecipit at ion [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
(c) 6.5 aft er pr ecipit at ion
6. Tw o m ach i n es ar e w or k i n g i n a n oi sy
(d) 4.2 aft er pr ecipit at ion envi r onment and joint ly pr oduct 55 dBA noi se
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] level. I f t he envir onment al noi se level i s also 55
14. The exposur e of gaseous pollut ant sulphur dioxide dBA, t he summat i on of noise level s is
may cause (a) 110 dBA (b) 56 dBA
(a) br onchi t is and pul monar y emphysema (c) 55 dBA (d) 58 dBA
(b) lungs fai lur e and k idney damage [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
14 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

(b) car bon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, water vapour s

7. The aver age concent r at i on of ozone pr esent i n
and chl or ofl uor ocar bons
t he st r at ospher e is appr oximat ely
(c) car bon monoxide, nit r ous oxide, met hane and,
(a) 5 ppm (b) 0.05 ppm
hydr o-chlor ofluor ocar bons
(c) 10 ppm (d) 15 ppm
(d) car bon di ox i de, n i t r ogen di ox i de, w at er
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
vapour s , met hane and ozone
8. The t ot al col ifor m bact er ia ar e r epor t ed as most [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
pr obabl e number (M PN) per
12. The desir able amount of fluor i de ions i n pot able
(a) 10 ml of wat er wat er s for opt imal dent al heal t h i s:
(b) 1000 ml of wat er
(a) 1.5 mg/l (b) 1.0 mg/l
(c) 100 ml of wat er
(c) 0.5 mg/l (d) 0.05 mg/l
(d) 1ml of wat er [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] 13. Wh i ch of t he f ol l owi ng i s n ot con si der ed as
9. The ant hr opogenic sour ces of air pollut ion in well secondar y pollut ant ?
pl anned ci t y is (a) Phot ochemical smog
(a) constr uction activities, r oad tr affics, r ail tr affic, (b) Per oxy acet yl nit r at e
fugi t ive emissions
(c) Acid mi st
(b) const r uct ion act ivi t i es, r oad t r affi c, domest ic
(d) Car bon monoxi de
burning
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) const r uct ion act ivit ies, r oad t r affi cs, bur st ing
of cr acker s, dust st or ms 14. I n t he st at ist ical di st r ibut ion of noi se levels, t he
back gr ound noise l evel is r epr esent ed by:
(d) const r uct ion act ivit ies, r oad t r affics, domest ic
bur ni ng, i ndust r ial emissions (a) L 90 (b) L 50
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] (c) L 10 (d) L 1
10. When t he measur ed and st andar d r efer ence [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
pr essur e level becomes equal, t he sound pr essur e 15. Acid r ain i s caused due t o for mat ion of:
level (SPL ) is equi valent t o (a) su l ph u r i c aci d an d car bon i c aci d i n t h e
(a) 1 dBA (b) 10 dBA at mospher e
(c) 0 dBA (d) 1.012 dBA (b) sulphur ic acid and nitric acid in the atmosphere
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd
SEP 1 SH I FT ]
st
(c) nitr ic acid and car bonic acid in the atmospher e
11. The major gr een house gases cont r i but i ng i n (d) sulphur ic acid, nit r ic acid and car bonic acid in
gl obal war ming ar e t he at mospher e
(a) car bon di oxide, nit r ous oxide, met hane and [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
wat er vapour s

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (b)
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 15

EXPLAN ATI ON S
LEVEL-1 7. Gypsum is not used as a supplementary
cementations material.
1. Road traffic is the major source of carcinogenic
hydrocarbon present in urban atmosphere. 9. Turbidity in surface water is due to colloidal
material.
2. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq for
commercial area at day time is 65 dBA. 10. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq is 45
According to Central Pollution Control Board, dBA.
According to Central Pollution Control Board,
Area Limits in dB(A), Leq
Category of Area
Code Day time Night time Area Limits in dB(A), Leq
Category of Area
A Industrial area 75 70 Code Day time Night time
B Commercial area 65 55 A Industrial area 75 70
C Residential area 55 45 B Commercial area 65 55
D Silence Zone 50 40 C Residential area 55 45
D Silence Zone 50 40
3. Green house gases are the gas mixed in the
atmosphere that absorbs the infrared radiation 11. Continuous exposure to suspended particles are
emitted by the earth’s surface. harmful to the lungs and can cause failure of
respiratory system.
12. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq for
commercial area at night time is 55 dBA.
According to Central Pollution Control Board,

Area Limits in dB(A), Leq

Category of Area
Code Day time Night time
A Industrial area 75 70
B Commercial area 65 55
C Residential area 55 45
D Silence Zone 50 40

13. pH of acid rain should always be less than 5.6

We are not accustomed to these gases because even after precipitation.
neither nitrogen nor oxygen, the two most 14. The exposure of gaseous pollutant sulphur dioxide
abundant gases of the atmosphere (78% and 21%, may cause bronchitis and pulmonary emphysema.
respectively), that many of us have heard of, have
this ability to intercept infrared radiation. LEVEL-2
4. Fly ash never improves strength of concrete. 1. In the stratosphere, temperature increases with
The advantages of using fly ash far outweigh the altitude. The reason is that the direct heat source
disadvantages. The most important benefit is for the stratosphere is the Sun. A layer of ozone
reduced permeability to water and aggressive molecules absorbs solar radiation, which heats
chemicals. Properly cured concrete made with fly the stratosphere. The amount of ozone present
in the ozone layer is tiny, only a few molecules
ash creates a denser product because the size of
per million air molecules.
the pores are reduced.
5. One turbidity unit NTU is equal to 1.0 mg/l SiO2. 2. Nuclear density gauge can be used for all the
following purposes except standard penetration
6. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq is 55
reading.
dBA.
3. A virus that may cause paralysis and is easily
According to Central Pollution Control Board,
preventable by the polio vaccine.
Area Limits in dB(A), Leq
Category of Area 4. The permissible limit of nitrate nitrogen in potable
Code Day time Night time
water is 10 mg/l .
A Industrial area 75 70
B Commercial area 65 55 7. The average concentration of ozone present in
C Residential area 55 45 the stratosphere is approximately 10 ppm.
D Silence Zone 50 40
16 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Sulfure dioxide (SO 2 Photochemical oxidants

carbon monoxide (ozone, nitrogen dioxide,
(CO 2 ),nitrogen oxides sulfur trioxide) and
(No x ), and particulate secondary particular
matter (PM). matter.
Chemical reactants
characterized with a direct Chemical products, highly
pollution effect on living reactive when
beings and ecosystems, photoactivation is involved
and with an indirect effect in the chemical process of
through the formation of their formation
secondary pollutants.

8. Total or fecal coliform bacteria are reported as
most probable number per 100 mL
9. Anthropogenic sources of air pollution in well
planned city are construction activities, road
traffics, and domestic burning
10. When the measured and standard reference
pressure level becomes equal, the sound pressure
level (SPL) is equivalent to 0 dBA
11. The major green house gases contributing in
global warming are carbon dioxide , nitrous
oxide,methane and water vapor.
12. The desirable amount of flue le ions in potable
waters for optimal dental health is 1.0 mg/l
13. Primary Pollutants
Versus
Secondary Pollutants
Air pollutant formed in
the atmosphere as a result
of the chemical or physical
Air pollutant emitted interactions between the
direclty from a source into primary pollutants
the atmosphere. themselves or between the
primary pollutants and
other atmospheric
components.
Complicated control
Direct control through the process: understanding
reduction of anthropogenic and interrupting the
emissions. chemical reactions leading
to their generation.
14. L90 is frequently taken as the Lp of the background
level. L10-L90 is often used to give a quantitative
measure as to the spread or “how choppy” the
sound was. L10 is the noise level exceeded for
10% of the time of the measurement duration.
15. Scientists have discovered that air pollution from
burning of fossil fuels is the major cause of acid
rain. The main chemicals in air pollution that
create acid rain are sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and
nitrogen (NOx). Acid rain usually forms high in
the clouds where sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides react with water, oxygen, and oxidants.
this mixture forms a mild solution of sulfuric acid
and nitric acid. Sunlight increases the rate of most
of these reactions. Rainwater, snow, fog, and other
forms of precipitation containing those mild
solutions of sulfuric and nitric acids fall to earth
as acid rain.
 Basics of Computers and Applications
PERSON AL COM PU T ERS
Per sonal comput er s can be cat egor ized by size and
por t abilit y as :
1. Deskt op comput er s
2. L apt op or not ebooks
3. Per sonal Digit al Assist ants (PDAs)
4. Por t able comput er s
5. Tablet comput er s
6. Wear able comput er s
U ses.
Per sonal computers ar e normally operated by one user
at a time to perform such general purpose tasks as word
pr ocessing, I nter net br owsing, I nternet faxing, e-mail
and other digit al messaging , multimedia playback,
computer game play, computer pr ogr amming, etc. The
user of modern personal computer may have significant
knowledge of the operating environment and application
pr ogr am s, bu t i s n ot n ecessar i l y i n t er est ed i n
pr ogr amming not even able to wr ite pr ogr ams for the
computer. Ther efore, most software written primarily
for per sonal comput er s t ends t o be desi gned wi t h
simplicity of use, or “user-friendliness” in mind. However,
the software industry continuously provide a wide range
of new products for use in personal computer s, tar geted
at both the exper t and the non-expert user.
COM PU T ER COM PON EN TS
1. Comput er case wit h power supply (usually sold
t oget her )
2. Mother boar d
3. Pr ocessor wit h fan (usually sold t oget her )
4. At least one memor y car d
5. M ass st or age
6. K eyboar d and mouse for input
7. M onit or for out put
The mot her boar d connect s ever t hing t oget her. The
memory card(s), graphics card and processor are mounted
directly onto the motherboard (the processor in a socket
an the memory and graphics cards in an expansion slot).
The mass storage is connected to it with cables. Same for
keyboard and mouse, except that they are external and
connect to the back plate. The monitor is also connected
to the back plate, except not (usually) dir ectly to the
motherboard, but to a connector in the graphics card.
M ass st orage.
I t can be
(i ) H ar d disk
(ii ) Floppy dr ive or zip dr ive (bot h wit h media)
(iii )Opt ical dr ive (CD or DVD)
The oper at ing syst em (e.g., M icr osoft Windows, Linux
or many ot her s) can be locat ed on eit her of t hese, but
t ypically it son one of t he har d disks. Alive CD is also
possible, but ver y slow and used for eit her inst allation
of t he OS or pr oblem solving.
A typical computer also has
(i ) Sound car d (ii ) Net wor k car d
(iii )M oder n and possibly r out er
Common addit i ons, connect ed on t he out si de
(per ipher als).
Pr i nt er ; Scanner ; Webcam; Speak er s; M i cr ophone;
Headset; Car d reader ; Gaming devices such as a joystick
Sever al funct ions (implement ed by chipset s) can be
integr ated into the mother boar d, such as typically USB
and net wor k, but also gr aphics and sound. But even if
these ar e pr esent, a separ ate car d can be added if what
is available isn’t sufficient .
The gr aphics and sound car d can have a br eak out box
to keep the analog par ts away fr om the electr omagnetic
r adiat ion inside t he comput er case. For r eally lar ge
amount s of dat a, a t ape dr ive can be used or (ext r a)
har d disks can be put t oget her in an ext er nal case.
These component s can usually be put t oget her wit h
lit t le k nowledge, t o build a comput er. I f somet hing
shouldn’t go somewher e, it usually doesn’t fit (this used
t o not always be t he case in t he past ) and if it does fit
it can usually do lit t le har m.
Most per sonal computer s ar e standar dized to the point
t hat pur chased soft war e is expect ed t o r un wit h lit t le
or no customizat ion for the par t icular comput er. M any
PCs ar e also user -upgr adeable, especially desktop and
wor kst at ion class comput er s. Devices such as main
memor y, mass st or age, even t he mot her boar d and
cent r al pr ocessing unit may be easily r eplaced by an
end user. This upgr adeabilit y is, however, not idefinit e
due t o r api d ch anges i n t h e per sonal compu t er
indust r y, A PC that was consider ed t op-of-the-line five
or six year s pr ior may be impr act ical t o upgr ade due
t o changes in indust r y st andar ds. Such a comput er
 2 Basics of Computers and Applications
usually must be t ot ally r eplaced once it ’s no longer
suitable for its pur pose. This upgr ade and replacement
cycle is par tially r elated to new r eleases of the pr imar y
mass-mar ket oper at ed syst em, which t ends t o dr ive
t he acquisition of new har dwar e and t ends of obsolet e
pr ev i ou sl y ser v i ceabl e h ar dw ar e (see pl an n ed
obsol escence).
The har dwar e capabilit ies of per sonal comput er s can
somet imes be ext ended by t he addit ion of expansion
car ds connect ed via an expansion bus. Some standar d
per ipheral buses often used for adding expansion cards
in personal computers as of 2005 ar e PCI , AGP (a high-
speed PCI bus dedicat ed t o gr aphics adapt er s), and
PCI Expr ess. Most per sonal computer s as of 2005 have
mul t i pl e physi cal PCI expansi on sl ot s. M any al so
i ncl ude an AGP bus and expansi on sl ot or a PCI
Expr ess bus and one or mor e explansion slot s, but
few PCs cont ain bot h buses.
M ot her boar d.
The mother boar d (or mainboar d) is the pr imar y cir cuit
boar d wi t hi n a per sonal com put er. M an y ot h er
component s connect di r ect l y or i ndi r ect l y t o t he
mot her boar d. M ot her boar ds usually cont ain one or
mor e CPUs, suppor t ing cir cuit r y - usually int egr at ed
cir cuits (I Cs) pr oviding the inter face between the CPU
memor y and input /out put per ipher al cir cuit s, main
memor y, and facilities for init ial setup of the computer
immediat ely aft er being power ed on (often called boot
fi r mwar e or, i n I BM PC compat i bl e comput er s, a
BI OS). I n many por t abl e and embedded per sonal
comput er s, t he mot her boar d houses near ly all of t he
PC’s cor e component s. Oft en a mot her boar d will also
cont ain one or mor e per ipher al buses and physical
connect or s for expansi on pur poses. Somet i mes a
secondar y daught er boar d i s connect ed wi t h t he
mot her boar d t o pr ovide fur t her expandibilit y or t o
sat isfy space constr aint s.
M ain M emory.
A PC’s main memor y (i.e., it s pr imar y st or e) is fast
st or age t hat is dir ect ly accessible by t he CPU, and is
used t o st or e t he cur r ent ly execut ing pr ogr am and
i mmi di at el y needed dat a. PCs use semi conduct or
Random Access Memor y (RAM ) of var ious kinds such
as DRAM or SRAM as t heir pr imar y st or age. Which
exact kind depends on cost /per for mance issues at any
par t icular t ime. M ain memor y is much fast er t han
mass st or age devices like har d disks or opt ical discs,
but is usually volat ile, meaning it does not r et ain it s
contents (inst r uctions or data) in the absence of power,
and is much mor e expensive for a given capacit y t han
is most mass st or age. M ain memor y is gener ally not
suit able for long-t er m or ar chival dat a st or age.
M ass st or age devices st or e pr ogr ams and dat a even
when t he power i s off; t hey do r equi r e power t o
per for m r ead/wr it e funct ions dur ing usage. Although
semiconductor flash memor y has dr opped in cost, the
pr evailing for m of mass stor age in personal computers
is st ill t he elect r omechanical har d disk.
The disk dr ives use a sealed H ead/Disk Assembly
(H D A ) w h i ch w as f i r st i n t r odu ced by I B M ’s
“ Wi nchest er ” di sk syst em. The use of a seal ed
assembly allowed t he use of t he positive air pr essur e
t o dr ive out par t icles fr om t he sur face of t he disk,
which impr oves r eliabilit y.
Video Car d.
The video car d- ot her wise cal led a gr aphics car d,
gr aphics adapt er or video adapt er - pr ocessor s and
r ender s t he gr aphics out put fr om t he comput er t o
t he comput er display, also called t he Visual Display
Unit (VDU), and is an essent ial par t of t he moder n
comput er.
M I CROPROCE SSOR.
A micr opr ocessor is a mult ipur pose pr ogr ammable
logic device t hat r eads binar y inst r uct ions fr om a
st or age device called memor y, accept s binar y dat a
as i n pu t an d pr ocess dat a accor di n g t o t h ose
instr uctions and pr ovides r esults as output. A typical
pr ogr ammable machine can be r epr esent wit h t hr ee
component s : micr opr ocessor, memor y, and I /O.
Memory
Micro
processor
I/O
These t hr ee component s wor k t oget her or int er act
wit h each ot her t o per for m a given t ask, t hus t hey
compr ise a syst em
H ARD WARE .
The physical component s of t his syst em ar e called
har dwar e.
SOF TWARE
A set of inst r uct ions wr it t en for t he micr opr ocessor
t o per for m a t ask is called a pr ogr am and a gr oup of
pr ogr ams is called soft war e.
APPL I CAT I ON S.
Th e mi cr opr ocessor appl i cat i ons ar e cl assi fi ed
pr imar ily in t wo cat egor ies
( i ) I n Re-programmable syst ems.
Such as micr ocomput er s, t he micr opr ocessor is
used for comput ing and dat a pr ocessing. These
systems, include gener al pur pose micr opr ocessor
capabl e of handl i ng l ar ge dat a. M ass st or age
device (disks), and per ipher als such as I /O device
(pr inter ).

( ii ) Embedded syst em.
I n embedded syst ems, t he micr opr ocessor is par t
of a f i n al pr odu ct an d i s n ot av ai l abl e f or
r epr ogr ammabl e t o t he end user. A copyi ng
machine is a t ypi cal example of an embedded
syst em . Th e mi cr opr ocessor s u sed i n t hese
syst ems ar e gener ally cat egor ised as
( a ) M i cr ocon t r ol l er s t h at i n cl u de al l t h e
components like micr opr ocessor, memor y and
I /O.
( b) I ntegrated microprocessor that include various
devices such as timers and various types of I /O
on a chip.
( c) Gener al pur pose micropr ocessor with discr ete
component s such as micr opr ocessor, memor y
and I /O.
Embedded syst ems can also be incr eased as pr oducts
t hat use micr opr ocessor t o per for m t heir oper at ions
t hey ar e called as micr opr ocessor based pr oduct s.
e.g. washing machines, dish washer s, aut omobi le
dashboar d cont r ol s, t r affi c l i ght cont r ol l er s, and
aut omat ic t est ing inst r ument s.
BI N ARY DI GI T.
The micr opr ocessor oper at es in binar y digit s 0 and
1, also known as bit s. Bit is an abbr eviat ion for t he
t er m binar y digit . Those digit s ar e r epr esent ed in
ter ms of electr ical voltages in the machine : gener ally
0 r epr esent s one vol t age l evel and 1 r epr esent s
anot her. The digit s 0 and 1 ar e also synonyms wit h
low and high r espect ively.
Each mi cr opr ocessor r ecogni zes and pr ocesses a
gr oup of bit s called t he wor d and micr opr ocessor ar e
classified accor ding t o t heir wor d lengt h.
M emor y.
M emor y is like t he pages of a not ebook wit h space
for a fixed number of binar y number s on each line.
H owever t hese pages ar e gener ally made of semi-
conduct or mat er ial. Each line in 8 bit r egist er t hat
can st or e 8 bi t bi nar y bi t s, and sever al of t hese
r egist er s ar e ar r anged in a sequence called memor y.
I nput /Out put .
The user can enter instructions and data into memor y
thr ough devices such as keyboar d or simple switches.
These devices ar e called input devices.
The mi cr opr ocessor r eads i nst r uct i ons fr om t he
memor y and pr ocesses t he dat a accor ding t o t hose
inst r uct ions. The r esult can be displayed by a device
such as seven segment L ED (light emit t ing diodes)
or pr i nt ed by a pr i nt er. These devi ces ar e call ed
out put devices.
M I CROPROCESSOR AS A CPU .
The cent r al pr ocessing unit (CPU) consist s of t he
Ar ithmet ic Logic Unit (ALU) and Cont r ol Unit (CU).
Basics of Computers and Applications 3
The CPU cont ains var ious r egist er s t o st or e dat a,
AL U t o per for m Ar it hmet ic and logical, oper at ions,
inst r uction decoder s, count er s and cont r ol lines. The
CPU r eads i n st r uct i on s fr om t h e memor y and
per for m t he t asks specified. I t communicat es wit h
input /out put devices eit her t o accept or to send dat a.
These devices ar e also known as per ipher als. The
CPU i s t h e pr i m ar y an d cen t r al pl ay er i n
communicat ing wit h devices such as memor y, input
an d ou t pu t . H ow ev er , t h e t i m i n g of t h e
communicat ion pr ocess is cont r olled by t he gr oup of
cir cuit called cont r ol unit . CPU on single chip called
mi cr opr ocessor.
Arithmetic
Logic Unit
(ALU)
Control
Input Output
Unit
Memory
Fig. (a) Traditional block diagram of
Micro
processor
Input Output
as CPU
Memory
F i g. (b) Bl ock di agr am of a compu t er w i t h t he a
comput er micr oprocessor as CPU
1. bit micr opr ocessor.
The I nt el 4004 was t he fir st 4 bit pr ogr ammable
device t hat was pr imar ily used in calculat or s.
2. bit micr opr ocessor.
The int el 8008 is 8 bit micr opr ocessor, which was
in t ur n super seded by t he I nt el 8080. I nt el 8080
wi dely used i n cont r ol applicat ions, and small
comput er s also wer e designed using t he 8080 as
t he CPU. Wit hin a few year s aft er t he emer gence
of t he 8080, t he M ot or ola 6800 and Zilog Z80 and
I nt el 8085 mi cr opr ocessor wer e devel oped as
impr ovement s
3. 16 bit microprocessor. 8086/88
4. 32 bit microprocessor. 80380/486 and Pent ium
5. 64 bit microprocessor. M ot or ola 68000 ser ies
 4 Basics of Computers and Applications
M I CROCOM PU T E RS.
M icr ocomput er is classified in four gr oups.
1. Per sonnel comput er s.
These micr ocomputer s ar e single user systems and
being used for var iety of pur poses, such as payr oll,
busi ness account s, wor d pr ocessi ng, l egal and
medi cal r ecor d k eepi ng, per sonnel fi nance and
inst r uctions. A typical configur ation includes a 16
or 32 bit micr opr ocessor, 2 to 4 M B (megabyte) of
system memory, a video screen, a dot matrix pr inter.
2. Work st at ions.
These ar e high per for mance cousi ns of t he PC.
T hey ar e used i n en gi n eer i n g an d sci en t i fi c
applications such as computer -aided design (CAD),
computer aided engineer ing (CAE), and computer -
aided manufacturing (CAM), they generally include
syst em memor y l ar ger t han 200 M B, st or age
memor y in giga byt es and high r esolut ion scr een.
The wor k st at i ons ar e desi gned ar ound RI SC
pr ocessor s. The RI SC pr ocessor s t end t o be fast er
and mor e effi ci ent t han t he pr ocessor s used i n
per sonnel comput er.
3. Single boar d micr ocomput er s.
These mi cr ocomput er s ar e pr i mar i l y used i n
college, labor atories and industr ies for instr uctional
pur poses or t o evaluate the per for mance of a given
mi cr opr ocessor. They can al so be par t of some
lar ger syst ems. Typical ly t hese micr ocomput er s
include 8 or 16 bit micr opr ocessor.
e.g. These computers include such systems as Intel
SDK85, SDK86, Motorola Evaluation kits, these are
generally used to write and execute assembly language
programs and to perform interfacing experiments
4. Si n gl e ch i p m i cr ocom pu t er s ( m i cr o-
cont r ol l er s)
These micr ocomput er s ar e designed on a single
chip, which t ypically includes a chip of 64 byt es of
R/W memor y fr om 4K t o 2K byt es of ROM and
sever al si ngl e l i nes t o connect I /Os. These ar e
complet e micr ocomput er s on a chip, t hey ar e also
k n ow n as m i cr ocon t r ol l er s. T h ese ar e u sed
pr i m ar i l y f or su ch f u n ct i on s as con t r ol l i n g
appliances and t r affic light s. e.g. Zilog Z8, I nt el
M CS51 and 96 ser ies, and M ot or ola 68H C11.
COM PU TER LAN GU AGES. N ibble.
I t is a gr oup of four bit s
M nemonic : A combinat ion of let t er s t o suggest t he
oper at ion of an inst r uct ion.
Compiler : A pr ogr am t hat t r anslat es english like
wor ds of high language in t he machine language of a
comput er. A complier r eads a given pr ogr am, called a
sour ce code and t hen t r anslat es t he pr ogr am int o t he
machine language which is called an object code.
Assembler : A comput er pr ogr am t hat t r anslat es an
assembly language pr ogr am fr om mnemonics t o t he
binar y machine code of a comput er.
M onit or program : A pr ogr am t hat int er pr et s t he
input fr om a keyboar d and conver t s t he input int o it s
binar y equivalent .

COM PU TER SYSTEM .

8085 Programming M odel.
The 8085 pr ogr amming model includes six r egist er s, one accumulat or and one flag r egist er. I t has t wo 16 bit
r egist er t he st ack point er and t he pr ogr am count er.
Registers : The 8085 has six gener al pur pose r egist er s t o st or e 8 bit dat a. These ar e ident ical as B, C, D, E, H
and L . They can be combined as Regist er s pair s BC, DE, and H L t o per for m some 16 bit oper at ions. The
pr ogr ammer can use t hese r egist er s t o st or e or copy dat a int o t he r egist er s by using dat a copy inst r uct ions.

Accumulator A (8) Flag Register

B (8) C (8)
D (8) E (8)
H (8) L (8)
Stack pointer (SP) (16)
Program counter (PC) (16)

Data Bus Address Bus

Lines Lines

Bidirectional Unidirectional
F ig. (a) Progr amming model
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
S Z AC P CY
F ig. (b) F lab Register

Accumulat or.
The Accumulat or is an 8 bit r egist er t hat is par t of t he
ar it hmet ic/logic unit (AL U). This r egist er is used t o
st or e 8 bit dat a and t o per for m ar it hmet ic/logic unit
(AL U). This r egist er is used t o st or e 8-bit dat a and t o
per for m ar it hmet ic and logical oper at ions. The r esult
of an oper at i on i s st or ed i n t he accumul at or. The
accumulat or is also ident ified as r egist er A.
FLAGS.
The ALU includes five flip-flops, which ar e set or r eset
aft er an oper at ion accor ding t o dat a condit ions of t he
r esult in t he accumulat or and ot her r egist er s. They
ar e called zer o (Z), car r y (CY); sign (S), par it y (P) and
Auxiliar y car r y (AC) flags.
The most commonly used flags ar e zer o, car r y, and
sign. The micr opr ocessor uses t hese flags t o t est dat a
condit ions.
Aft er an addit ion of t wo number s, if t he sum in t he
accumulat or is lar ger t han eight bits, the flip-flop used
t o indicat e a car r y called car r y flag (CY) is set t o one.
When an ar ithmetic oper ation is zer o the flip flop called
t he zer o (Z) flag is set t o one.
The fl ags have cr i t i cal i mpor t ance i n t he deci si on
making pr ocess of t he micr opr ocessor. The condit ions
(set or r eset ) of t he flags ar e t est ed t hr ough soft war e
inst r uct ions.
PROGRAM COU N TER (PC).
T h i s 16 bi t r egi st er deal s wi t h sequ en ci n g t h e
execut ion of inst r uct i on. Thi s r egi st er i s a memor y
point er. M emor y locat ions have 16 bit addr esses, and
that is why t his is a 16-bit r egister. The micr opr ocessor
uses t hi s r egi st er t o sequence t he execut i on of t he
inst r uct ions. The funct ion of t he pr ogr am count er is
t o point t o t he memor y addr esses fr om which t he next
byt e is t o be fet ched. When a byt e (machine code) is
being fet ched, t he pr ogr am count er is incr ement ed by
one t o point t o t he next memor y locat ion.
STACK POI N TER (SP).
The stack pointer is also a 16 bit register used as memory
poi n t er. I t poi n t s t o a m em or y l ocat i on i n
R/W memor y, called t he stack. The beginning of st ack
is defined by loading a 16-bit address in the stack pointer.
OPCODE FORM AT.
I n t he desi gn of t he 8085 mi cr opr ocessor chi p, al l
oper ations, registers and status flags are identified with
a specific code.
All int er nal r egist er s ar e ident ified as follows :
Code Regist er s Code Regist er pair s
000 B 00 BC
001 C 01 DE
010 D 10 HL
011 E 11 A F or S P
100 F
101 G
110 Reser ved for M emor y Relat ed Oper at ion
111 A
Basics of Computers and Applications 5
I N STRU CTI ON CODES.
An inst r uct ion code is a gr oup of bit s t hat inst r uct t he
comput er t o per for m a specific oper at ion. I t is usually
divided i nt o par t s, each havi ng it s own par t i cular
int er pr et at ion. The most basic par t of an inst r uct ion
codes is it s oper at ion par t .
Oper at ion Code.
The oper at ion code of an inst r uct ion is a gr oup of bit s
that define such oper ations as add, subt r act , mult iply,
shift and complement . The number of bit s r equir ed
for t he oper at ion code of an inst r uct ion depends on
t he t ot al number of oper at i ons avai l abl e i n t he
comput er. The oper at ion code must consist of at least
n bit s for a given 2n (or less) dist inct oper at ions.
OP Code.
What t ask t o be per for med, called t he oper at ion code
(OPcode).
Oper and.
When dat a t o be oper at ed on called t he oper and. The
oper and (or dat a) can be specified in var ious ways. I t
may include 8-bit or (16 bit) data, an int er nal r egist er,
a memor y location, or 8 bit (or 16 bit) addr ess. I n some
inst r uct ions, t he oper and is implicit .
ADDRESSI N G M ODES.
The control unit of a computer is designed to go through
an inst r uct ion cycle t hat is divided int o t hr ee major
phases.
(i) Fet ch t he inst r uct ion fr om memor y
(ii ) Decode t he inst r uct ion
(iii) Execut e t he inst r uct ion
I mplied mode.
A l l r egi st er r ef er en ce i n st r uct i on s t h at u se an
accumul at or ar e i mpl i ed mode i nst r uct i ons. Zer o
addr ess inst r uct ions in a st ack-or ganized comput er
ar e implied mode inst r uct ions since t he oper ands ar e
implied t o be on t op of t he st ack.
I mmediat e mode.
The operand is specified in the instruction itself. In other
words, an immediate mode instruction has an operand
field r ather than an addr ess field. The operand field
contains the actual operand to be used in conjunction
with the operation specified in the instr uctions.
Regist er mode.
I n t his mode t he oper ands ar e in r egist er s, that r eside
wit hin t he CPU. The par t icular r egist er is select ed
fr om a r egist er field in t he inst r uct ion. A K bit field
can specify any one of 2k r egist er s.
Regist er indir ect mode.
I n this mode t he inst r uct ion specifies a r egist er in t he
CPU, whose cont ent gives t he addr ess of t he oper and
in memor y. The advant age of a r egist er indir ect mode
inst r uct ion is t hat t he addr ess field of t he inst r uct ion
uses fewer bit s t o select a r egist er t han would have
been r equir ed t o specify a memor y addr ess dir ect ly,
 6 Basics of Computers and Applications
Aut o I ncrement or Decrement mode.
This is similar t o r egist er indir ect mode except t hat
t he r egist er is incr ement ed or decr ement ed aft er or
befor e it s value is used t o access memor y. When t he
addr ess st or ed in t he r egist er r efer s t o a t able of dat a
in memor y, it is necessar y t o incr ement and decr ement
t he r egist er s aft er ever y access t o t he t able
D ir ect addressing mode.
I n t hi s mode t he effect i ve addr ess i s equal t o t he
addr ess par t of t he inst r uct ion. The oper and r esides
in memor y and it s addr ess is given dir ect ly by t he
addr ess field of t he inst r uct ion.
I ndir ect addr essing mode.
I n t his mode t he addr ess field of t he inst r uct ion gives
t he addr ess wher e t he effect ive addr ess is st or ed in
memor y.
Effect ive addr ess = addr ess par t of inst r uct ion
+ cont ent of CPU r egist er
I N PU T AN D OU TPU T SYSTEM
I nput /out put devices ar e t he means t hr ough which
t he M PU communicat es wit h t he out side wor ld. The
M PU accept s binar y dat a as input fr om devices such
as keyboar ds and A/D conver t er s and send dat a t o
out put devices such as L EDs or pr int er s. Ther e ar e
t wo differ ent met hods by which I /O devices can be
ident ified. One uses an 8 bit addr ess and t he ot her
uses a 16 bit addr ess.
PERI PH ERAL M APPED I /O.
I n this type of I /O, the MPU uses eight addr ess lines to
identify an input or an output device; t his is known as
per ipher al mapped I /O. The eight addr ess lines can
have 256 (28 combinat ions) addr esses; t hus the MPU
can identify 256 input devices and 256 output devices
with addresses ranging fr om 00H to FFH input and
output devices are differentiated by the contr ol signals.
The MPU uses the I /O Read Contr ol Signal for input
devices and the I /O Wr ite Contr ol Signal for output
devices. The entir e r ange of I /O addr esses fr om 00 to
FF is known as an I /O map, and individual addr esses
ar e r efer r ed t o as I /O devices addr esses 8 I /O por t
number s.
M E M ORY M APPE D I /O (I /O W I T H 16 BI T
ADDRESSES).
I /O is connect ed as if it is memor y r egist er. This is
known as memor y mapped I /O. The M PU uses t he
same cont r ol signal (M emor y Read or M emor y Wr it e)
an d i n st r u ct i on s as t h ose of m em or y. I n som e
micr opr ocessor such as mot or ola 6800, all I /O have
16 bit addr esses. I /Os and memor y shar e t he same
memor y map (64K). I n memor y mapped I /O, the MPU
follows the same steps as if it is accessing a memor y
r egist er.
I N PU T DEVI CES
These include a mouse, tr ack ball, space ball, joyst ick,
digit izer s, dials and but t on boxes. Some ot her input
devices used in par t icular applicat ions ar e dat a glove,
t ouch panels, image scanner s and voice syst ems.
1. K eyboar ds.
An alphanumer ic keyboar d on a gr aphics syst em
i s used pr i mar i l y as a devi ce for ent er i ng t ext
st r i ngs. The k eyboar d i s an effi ci ent devi ce for
input t ing such non gr aphics dat a as pict ur e labels
associated with graphics display. Keyboar ds can also
be pr ovided with featur e to facilitate entr y of scr een
coor dinat es, menu select or s or gr aphics funct ions.
2. M ouse.
A mouse is small hand held box used t o posit ion
t he scr een cur sor. Wheels or r oller s on t he but t on
of t he mouse can be used t o r ecor d t he amount
and dir ect ion of movement s. Anot her met hod for
det ect ing mouse mot ion is wit h an opt ical sensor.
For t hese syst ems, t he mouse i s moved over a
special mouse pad t hat has gr id of hor izont al and
v er t i cal l i n es. T h e opt i cal sen sor det ect s
movement s acr oss t he l i nes i n t he gr i d. Si nce
mouse can be picked up and put down at anot her
posit ion wit hout change in cur sor movement . I t is
used for making r elat ive changes in t he posit ion of
t he scr een cur sor. One, t wo or t hr ee but t ons ar e
usual l y i ncl uded on t he t op of t he mouse for
signalling t he execut ion of some oper at ion, such
as r ecor ding cur sor position or invoking a funct ion.
Most gener al pur pose graphics system now included
a mouse and keyboar d as major input devices.
3. Track Ball and Space Ball.
A t r ack ball is a ball t hat can be r ot at ed wit h t he
fi nger s or pal m of t he hand t o pr oduce scr een-
cur sor movement , pot ent iomet er s at t ached t o t he
ball measur e t he amount and dir ect ion of r ot at ion.
Tr ackballs are often mounted on keyboar ds or other
devices such as t he mouse.
While a track ball is two dimensional posting device,
a space ball pr ovides six degr ee of fr eedom. Unlike
t he t r ack ball, space ball does not act ually move.
St r ain gauges measur e t he amount of pr essur e
applied to t he spaceball to pr ovide input for spat ial
posit ioning and or ient at ion as t he ball is pushed or
pulled in var ious dir ect ions. Space balls ar e used
for t hr ee-di mensi onal posi t i oni ng and sel ect i on
oper at ions in vir t ual r ealit y syst ems, modelling,
animat ion, CAD, and ot her applicat ions.
4. Joyst i ck s.
A joyst ick consist s of a small, ver t ical lever called
st ick mount ed on a base t hat is used t o st eer and
scr een cur sor ar ound. M ost joyst icks select scr een
posi t i on wi t h act ual st i ck movem ent . Ot her s
r espond t o pr essur e on t he st ick. Some joyst icks
ar e mount ed on keyboar d, ot her s funct ion as st and
alone unit s. Pot ent iomet er mount ed at t he base of
joyst ick measur es t he amount of movement , and
spr ings r etur n the stick to the center position when
i t i s r el eased on e or m or e bu t t on s can be

pr ogr ammed t o act as input swi t ches t o si gnal
cer t ai n act ions once a scr een posi t i on has been
select ed.
5. Dat a Glove.
Dat a glove t hat can be used t o gr asp a “ vir t ual”
object . The glove is const r uct ed wit h a ser ies of
sensor s t hat det ect hand and fi nger mot i ons.
Elect r omagnet ic coupl ing bet ween t r ansmi t t ing
antennas and r eceiving antennas is used to pr ovide
infor mat ion about t he posit ion and or ient at ion of
the hand. The tr ansmitting and r eceiving antennas
can each be st r uct ur ed as a set of t hr ee mut ually
per pendicular coils, for ming a t hr ee dimensional
car t esian co-or dinat e syst em.
6. D igit izer s.
A com m on dev i ce f or dr aw i n g, pai n t i n g or
int er act ively select ing co-or dinat e posit ions on an
object is a digit izer. These devices can be used t o
i n pu t co-or di n at e v al u es i n ei t h er a t w o
dimensional or t hr ee dimensional space. Typically,
a digit izer is used t o scan over a dr awing or object
and t o input a set of discr et e co-or dinat e posit ions,
which can be joined wit h st r aight -line segment s t o
appr oximat e the cur ve or sur face shapes. One t ype
of digit izer is t he gr aphics t ablet , also r efer r ed t o
as a dat a t abl et wh i ch i s u sed t o i n pu t t wo
dimensional coor dinates by activating a hand cursor
or st yles at select ed posit ions on a flat sur face.
7. I mage Scanners.
Dr awing, gr aphs, color and black and whit e photos
or t ext can be st or ed for comput er pr ocessing wit h
an image scanner by passing an opt ical scanning
mechanism over t he infor mat ion t o be st or ed. The
gr adat ions of gr ay scale or color ar e t hen r ecor ded
and st or ed in an ar r ay. Once we have t he int er nal
r epr esen t at i on of a pi ct u r e, w e can appl y
t r ansfor mat ions t o r ot at e, scale or cr op the pict ur e
t o a par t i cul ar scr een ar ea. We can al so appl y
var ious image pr ocessing met hods t o modify t he
ar r ay r epr esent at ion of t he pict ur e. For scanned
t ext i nput , var i ous edi t i ng oper at i ons can be
per for med on st or ed document s. Some scanner s
ar e able t o scan eit her gr aphical r epr esent at ion or
t ext , and t hey come i n a var i et y of si zes and
capabilities.
8. Touch Panels.
Touch panel s al l ow di spl ayed object s or scr een
posit ions t o be select ed wit h t he t ouch of a finger.
A t ypi cal appl i cat i on of t ouch panels i s for t he
selection of pr ocessing options that ar e r epr esented
wit h gr aphical icons. Some syst ems, such as t he
plasma panels ar e designed wit h t ouch scr eens.
Ot her syst em can be adapt ed for t ouch input by
fit t ing a t r anspar ent device wit h a t ouch-sensing
mechanism over t he video monit or scr een. Touch
Basics of Computers and Applications 7
input can be r ecor ded using opt ical, elect r ical or
acoust ical met hods.
9. L ight Pens.
Light pen is pencil-shaped devices ar e used to select
scr een posit ions by detect ing the light coming fr om
point s on t he CRT scr een. They ar e sensit ive t o
t he shor t bur st of light emit t ed fr om t he phosphor
coat ing at t he inst ant t he elect r on beam st r ikes a
par t icular point . Ot her light sour ces, such as t he
back gr ound l i ght i n t he r oom, ar e usual l y not
det ect ed by a light pen.
PRI N T E RS.
Pr inter s pr oduce output by either impact or non-impact
methods. I mpact pr inter s pr ess for med char acter faces
against an inked r ibbon ont o t he paper. A line pr int er
is an example of impact device wit h t he t ype faces
mount ed on bands, chai ns, dr ums or wheels. Non-
i mpact pr int er s and pl ot t er s use l aser t echniques,
i nk j et spr ays, xer ogr aphi c pr ocesses as used i n
phot ocopyi ng machi ne, el ect r ost at i c met hods and
elect r ot her mal met hods t o get images on t o paper.
Char acter impact printers often have a dot matrix print
head containing a r ectangular ar r ay of pr otr uding wir e
pins, with the number of pens depending on the quality
of t he pr int er.
I n a l aser devi ce, l aser beam cr eat es a ch ar ge
di st r i but i on on a r ot at i n g dr um coat i ng wi t h a
phot oel ect r i c mat er i al , such as sel eni um. Toner i s
applied t o t he dr um and t hen t r ansfer r ed t o paper.
I nkjet met hods pr oduce out put by squir t ing i nk in
hor izont al r ows acr oss a r oll of paper wr apped on a
dr um. The electr ically char ged ink st r eam is deflected
by an elect r ic field t o pr oduce dot mat r ix pat t er ns. A
deskt op inkjet plot t er wit h r esolut ion of 360 dot s per
inch.
An elect r ost at ic device places a negat ive char ge on
t he paper, one complet e r ow at a t ime along t he lengt h
of t he paper. Then t he paper is exposed t o a t oner.
The t oner is posit ively char ged and so it is at t r act ed
t o t he negat ively char ged, ar eas, wher e it adher es t o
pr oduce the specified output . Elect r other mal met hods
use heat in a dot mat r ix pr int head t o out put pat t er ns
on heat sensi t i ve paper. We can get l i mi t ed col or
out put on an impact pr int er by using differ ent color ed
r ibbons.
Non impact devices use var ious techniques to combine
thr ee color pigments (cyan, magneta and yellow) to
pr oduce a r ange of color pat t er ns.
Par allel pr int er s use :
(a) RS-232C interface
(b) Cent r onics int er face
(c) H andshake mode
 8 Basics of Computers and Applications
STORAGE U N I T
I t consist s of main memor y and secondar y memor y.
M ain M emory :
1. A fl i p-fl op made of el ect r oni c semi conduct or
devices is used t o fabr icat e a memor y cell. These
memor y cel l s or gani zed as a Random Access
Memor y (RAM). Each cell has a capabilit y to stor e
one bit of infor mat ion. A main memor y or st or e
of a comput er is or ganized using a lar ge number
of cells. Each cell st or es a binar y digit .
2. A memor y cell, which does not loose the bit st or ed
i n i t when no power is suppl ied t o t he cell , i s
known as a non-volat ile cell.
3. A wor d is a gr oup of bit s, which ar e st or ed and
r etr ieved as a unit. A memor y system is or ganized
t o st or e a number of wor ds.
4. A Byt e consist s of 8 bit s. A wor d may st or e one or
mor e byt es.
5. The st or age capacit y of a memor y is t he number
of byt es it can st or e.
6. The addr ess of t he locat ion fr om wher e a wor d is
t o be r et r i eved or t o be st or ed i s ent er ed i n a
M emor y Addr ess Register (M AR).
7. The dat a r et r ieved fr om memor y or t o be st or ed
in memor y ar e placed in a M emor y Dat a Regist er
(MDR).
8. The t ime t aken t o wr it e a wor d is known as t he
Wr it e t ime.
9. The t ime t o r et r ieve i nfor mat i on i s cal led t he
Access t ime of t he memor y.
10. The t ime t aken t o access a wor d in a memor y is
independent of the addr ess of t he wor d and hence
it is know as a Random Access M emor y (RAM ).
 The main memor y used t o st or e pr ogr ams and
dat a in a comput er is a RAM .
11. A RAM may be fabricated with per manently stor ed
i nfor mat i on, whi ch cannot be er ased. Such a
memor y is called a Read Only M emor y (ROM ).
 For mor e specialized uses, a user can st or e his
won special funct ions or pr ogr ams in a ROM .
Such ROM 's ar e called Pr ogr ammable ROM
(PROM).
12. A ser ial access memor y is or ganized by ar r anging
memor y cells in a linear sequence.
 I nfor mat ion is r et r ieved or st or ed in such a
memor y by using a r ead/wr it e head.
 Dat a is pr esent ed ser ially for wr it ing and is
r et r ieved ser ially dur ing r ead.
Secondary / Auxiliary storage devices : M agnet ic
sur face r ecor ding devices used in comput er s as H ar d
disks, Floppy disks, CD-ROM s and M agnet ic t apes.
1. F loppy Disk Drive (F DD) : I n t hi s devi ce, t he
medium used t o r ecor d t he dat a is called as floppy
disk. I t is a flexible cir cular disk of diamet er 3.5
i nches made of pl ast i c coat ed wi t h a magnet i c
mat er ial. This is housed in a squar e plast ic jacket .
Dat a r ecor ded on a floppy disk is r ead and st or ed in
a comput er 's memor y by a device called a floppy
disk is r ead and st or ed in a comput er 's memor y by
a device called a floppy disk dr ive (FDD). A floppy
disk is inser t ed in a slot of t he FDD. Floppy Disks
wit h var ious capacit ies ar e as follow:
 51/4 dr ive- 360KB, 1.2MB (1 KB= 210 = 1024 bytes)
 31/2 dr ive- 1.44 M b, 2.88 M B (1M B= 220 byt es)
2. Compact Disk Drive (CDD) : CD-ROM (Compact
Disk Read Onl y M emor y) used a l aser beam t o
r ecor d and r ead dat a along spir al t r acks on a 51/4
di sk . A di sk can st or e ar ou n d 650 M B of
infor mat ion. CD-ROM s ar e nor mally used t o st or e
massive t ext dat a. Recent ly CD wr it er s have come
in the mar ket . Using a CD wr it er, lot of infor mation
can be wr it t en on CD-ROM and st or ed for fut ur e
r efer ence.
3. H ard Disk Drive (H DD) : Unlike a floppy disk
t hat is flexible and r emovable, t he har d disk used
in t he PC is per manent ly fixed. The dat a t r ansfer
r ate between the CPU and har d disk is much higher
as compar ed to the between the CPU and the floppy
disk dr ive. The CPU can use t he har d disk t o load
pr ogr ams and dat a as well as t o st or e dat a.
CLASSI FI CATI ON OF COM PU TERS
Comput er s come in sizes fr om t iny t o monst r ous, in
bot h appear ance and power. The size of a comput er
t hat a per son or an or ganizat ion needs depends on
t he comput ing r equir ement s.
Supercomputers : The might iest comput er s-and, of
cou r se, t h e m ost ex pen si v e-ar e k n ow n as
super comput er s. Super comput er s pr ocess billions of
inst r uct ions per second. One uses super comput er s for
t asks t hat r equir e mammoth dat a manipulation, such
as wor l dwi de weat h er f or ecast i ng and weapons
r esear ch.
M ainframes : I n t he jar gon of t he comput er t r ade,
lar ge comput er s ar e called mainfr ames. M ainfr ames
ar e capable of pr ocessing dat a at ver y high speeds-
millions of inst r uct ions per second-and have access t o
billions of char act er s of dat a. Their pr incipal use of it
is for pr ocessing vast amount s of dat a quickly, some
of t h e obvi ou s cu st om er s ar e ban k s, i n su r an ce
companies, and manufact ur er s.
Personal Computers : Per sonal comput er s ar e oft en
called PCs. A PC usually comes wit h a tower that holds
the main cir cuit boar ds and disk dr ives of the computer,

and a collect ion of per ipher als, such as a keyboar d,
mouse, and moni t or. The t er m "PC" oft en means
machines t hat ar e compat ible t o I BM ot her t han a
Macint osh.
Personal Computers (PC) and M AC : A PC is based
on a mi cr opr ocessor or i gi nal l y made by t he I nt el
Company (I ntel's Pentium) with other companies such
as AM D. The comput er s made by M acint oshes which
uses, Power PC pr ocessor, made by M ot or ol a ar e
r efer r ed as M ac. Also, t he oper at ing syst em soft war e
t hat r uns t hese t wo kinds of comput er s is differ ent .
PCs usual l y use an Oper at i ng Syst em made by
M icr osoft , i.e., Windows. M acint oshes use oper at ing
syst em, called M ac OS, made by Apple.
N ot ebook Comput ers : A comput er t hat fi t s i n a
br i efcase?. N ot ebook compu t er s, al so k nown as
L apt op comput er s, ar e por t abl e and popul ar wit h
tr aveler s who need a comput er that can go with them.
M ost n ot ebook s accept di sk et t es or n et w or k
connect i ons, so i t i s easy t o move dat a fr om one
comput er t o anot her.
I N TERN ET
The I nt ernet i s a global syst em of int er connect ed
comput er net wor ks t hat use t he st andar d I nt er net
Pr ot ocol Sui t e (TCP/I P) t o ser ve bi l l i ons of user s
wor ldwide. I t is a net wor k of net wor ks t hat consist s
of millions of pr ivat e, public, academic, business, and
gover nment net wor ks, of local t o global scope, t hat
ar e li nked by a br oad ar r ay of elect r onic, wir eless
and opt ical net wor king t echnologies. The I nt er net
car r ies a vast r ange of infor mat ion r esour ces and
ser v i ces, su ch as t h e i n t er -l i n k ed h y per t ex t
document s of t he Wor ld Wide Web (WWW) and t he
infr ast r uct ur e t o suppor t elect r onic mail.
N ET WORKS
A computer network, oft en simply r efer r ed t o as a
net wor k , i s a col l ect i on of comput er s and devi ces
i nt er connect ed by communi cat i ons channel s t hat
faci l i t at e communi cat i ons and al l ows shar i ng of
r esour ces and i nfor mat i on among i nt er connect ed
devices. Computer networking or Data communi-
cat ions (D at acom) i s t he engi neer i ng di sci pl i ne
concer ned wit h t he comput er net wor ks.
The t hr ee t ypes of net wor ks ar e:
(i ) t he I nt er net
(ii ) t he int r anet
(iii ) t he ext r anet .
Examples of differ ent net wor k met hods ar e:
1. Local ar ea networ k (LAN), which is usually a small
net wor k const r ained t o a small geogr aphic ar ea.
Basics of Computers and Applications 9
An exampl e of a L A N woul d be a comput er
net wor k wit hin a building.
2. M et r opolit an ar ea net wor k (M AN), which is used
for medi um si ze ar ea. exampl es for a cit y or a
st at e.
3. Wide ar ea net wor k (WAN) t hat is usually a lar ger
net wor k t hat cover s a lar ge geogr aphic ar ea.
4. Wir eless L ANs and WANs (WL AN & WWAN) ar e
t he wir eless equivalent of t he L AN and WAN.
I P ADDRESS
An I nt ernet Prot ocol addr ess (I P addr ess) i s a
n u m er i cal l abel assi gn ed t o each dev i ce (e.g.,
comput er, pr i n t er ) par t i ci pat i ng i n a comput er
n et w or k t h at u ses t h e I n t er n et Pr ot ocol f or
communicat ion.[1] An I P addr ess ser ves t wo pr incipal
funct ions: host or networ k inter face identification and
locat ion addr essing. I t s r ole has been char act er ized
as follows: “ A name indicates what we seek. An address
indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there.
I mport ant Devices U sed in N et work
1. M odem : A modem (modulat or -demodulat or ) is a
device t hat modulat es an analog car r ier signal t o
encode digit al infor mat ion, and also demodulat es
such a car r ier signal t o decode t he t r ansmit t ed
infor mat ion. The goal is t o pr oduce a signal t hat
can be tr ansmitted easily and decoded to repr oduce
the or iginal digit al data. M odems can be used over
any means of t r ansmit t ing analog signals, fr om
light emit t ing diodes t o r adio.
2. Router : A router is a device t hat for war ds dat a
pack et s acr oss compu t er n et wor k s. Rou t er s
per for m t he dat a “ t r affic dir ect ing” funct ions on
t he I nt er net . A r out er is connect ed t o t wo or mor e
dat a lines fr om di ffer ent net wor ks. When dat a
comes in on one of t he lines, t he r out er r eads t he
addr ess infor mat ion in t he packet t o det er mine
it s ult imat e dest inat ion.
3. Bridge : A net work bridge connect s mul t i pl e
net wor k segment s. Br idging i s a for war di ng
t echni que used i n pack et -swi t ched comput er
net wor k s. U nl i k e r out i ng, br i dgi ng mak es no
assumptions about where in a networ k a par ticular
addr ess is locat ed. I nst ead, it depends on flooding
and examinat ion of sour ce addr esses in r eceived
packet header s t o locat e unknown devices. Once
a device has been locat ed, it s locat ion is r ecor ded
in a t able wher e t he M AC addr ess is st or ed so as
t o pr eclude t he need for fur t her br oadcast ing.
4. H ub : hub is a device for connecting multiple twisted
pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and
making them act as a single segment. The device is
a for m of multiport repeater.
 10 Basics of Computers and Applications
5. Repeater : A repeater is an elect r onic device t hat
r eceives a signal and r et r ansmit s it at a higher
level and/or higher power, or ont o t he ot her side
of an obst r uct i on, so t hat t he si gnal can cover
longer dist ances.
6. Server : A ser ver comput er i s a comput er, or
ser ies of comput er s, t hat link ot her comput er s or
el ect r oni c devi ces t oget her. They oft en pr ovi de
essent i al ser vi ces acr oss a net wor k , ei t her t o
private user s inside a lar ge or ganization or to public
users via the inter net. For example, when you enter
a quer y in a sear ch engine, t he quer y is sent fr om
your computer over t he int er net to t he ser ver s t hat
st or e all t he r elevant web pages. The r esult s ar e
sent back by t he ser ver t o your comput er.
EM AI L
E l ect r on i c m ai l , com m on l y cal l ed em a i l or
e-mail, is a met hod of exchanging digit al messages
fr om an aut hor t o one or mor e r ecipi ent s. M oder n
email oper at es acr oss t he I nt er net or ot her comput er
net wor ks. Some ear ly email syst ems r equir ed t hat
t he aut hor and t he r ecipient bot h be online at t he
same t ime, a la i nst ant messaging. Today’s email
syst ems ar e based on a st or e-and-for war d model .
Email ser ver s accept , for war d, del iver and st or e
messages. Neit her t he user s nor t heir comput er s ar e
r equi r ed t o be onl i ne si mul t aneousl y; t hey need
connect only br iefly, t ypically t o an email ser ver, for
as long as it t akes t o send or r eceive messages.
EM AI L ADDREES
An email address ident ifies an email box t o which
email messages ar e deliver ed. An example for mat of
an email addr ess is lewis @ example .com which is
r ead as lewis at example dot net . I t has two par t s. The
par t befor e t he @sign is t he local-par t of t he addr ess,
oft en t he user name of t he r ecipient lewis and the par t
aft er t he @ sign is a domain name i.e. example.com
t o which t he email message will be sent .
M S OFFI CE
M icrosoft Office is a proprietary commercial office suite
of inter-related desktop applications, servers and services
for the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X oper ating
systems, intr oduced by Micr osoft in 1989. I nitially a
marketing term for a bundled set of applications, the first
version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Micr osoft
Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint.
W ORD
Micr osoft Wor d is a wor d pr ocessor and was pr eviously
consi der ed t o be t he mai n pr ogr am i n Offi ce. I t s
pr opr i et ar y DOC for mat i s consi der ed a de fact o
standard, although Word 2007 can also use a new XML-
based, Micr osoft Office-optimized format called .DOCX
which has been st andar dized by Ecma I nt er nat ional
as Office Open XM L and it s SP2 updat e will suppor t
ODF and PDF. Wor d is also available in some edit ions
of M icr osoft Wor ks. I t is available for t he Windows
and M ac platfor ms. The fir st ver sion of Wor d, r eleased
in t he aut umn of 1983, was for t he M S-DOS oper at ing
system and had the distinction of introducing the mouse
t o a br oad populat ion. Wor d 1.0 could be pur chased
wit h a bundled mouse, t hough none was r equir ed.
Following t he pr ecedent s of L isaWr it e and M acWr it e,
Wor d for Macintosh attempted to add closer WYSI WYG
feat ur es int o it s package. Wor d for M ac was r eleased
in 1985. Wor d for M ac was t he fir st gr aphical ver sion
of M icr osoft Wor d. Despit e it s bugginess, it became
one of t he most popular M ac applicat ions.
EXCEL
M i cr osoft Excel i s a spr eadsheet pr ogr am whi ch
or iginally competed with the dominant Lotus 1-2-3, but
eventually outsold it . I t is available for the Windows
and Mac platfor ms. Micr osoft r eleased the fir st ver sion
of Excel for the Mac in 1985, and t he fir st Windows
ver sion (number ed 2.05 to line up with t he Mac and
bu n dl ed w i t h a st an dal on e Wi n dow s r u n -t i m e
envir onment) in November 1987.
OU TLOOK
M icr osoft Outlook (not t o be confused with Out look
Expr ess) is a per sonal infor mation manager and e-mail
communication softwar e. The replacement for Windows
Messaging, Micr osoft M ail and Schedule+ star ting in
Office 97, it includes an e-mail client, calendar, t ask
manager and addr ess book.
On t he M ac, M i cr osoft offer ed sever al ver si ons of
Outlook in the late 1990s, but only for use with Microsoft
Exchange Ser ver. I n Offi ce 2001, i t i nt r oduced an
alter nat ive application with a slightly differ ent featur e
set called Micr osoft Entour age. I t reintr oduced Outlook
in Office 2011, r eplacing Entour age.
POWE RPOI N T
M i cr osof t Power Poi n t i s a popu l ar pr esent at i on
pr ogr am for Windows and M ac. I t is used t o cr eat e
slideshows, composed of t ext , gr aphics, movies and
ot her object s, which can be displayed on-scr een and
navigat ed t hr ough by t he pr esent er or pr int ed out on
t r anspar encies or slides.
 Basics of Computers and Applications 11

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 8. I n a gener ic micr opr ocessor, inst r uct ion cycle time
1. Which of t he following is t he fast est ? is

(a) CPU (a) shor t er t han machine cycle t ime

(b) magnet ic t apes and disks (b) lar ger t han machine cycle t ime

(c) video t er minal (c) exact ly double t he machine cycle t ime

(d) sensor s, mechanical cont r oller s (d) exact ly t he same as t he machine cycle t ime

2. The input unit of a comput er 9. Pr ogr am St at us Wor d (PSW) cont ai ns var i ous
(differ ent) st atus of
(a) feeds dat a t o t he CPU or memor y
(a) CPU
(b) r et r ieves dat a fr om CPU
(b) ALU
(c) dir ect s all ot her unit s
(c) pr ogr am
(d) all of t hese
(d) r egist er s
3. Offline device is
10. When an int er r upt occur s, CPU saves t he value
(a) a device which is not connect ed t o CPU
of— — — in a st ack,
(b) a device which is connect ed t o CPU
(a) accumulator
(c) a dir ect access st or age device
(b) pr ogr am st at us wor d (PSW) only
(d) an I /O device
(c) I nstr uct ion Addr ess Counter (I AC)only
4. Which of t he following is a set of gener al pur pose
(d) bot h PWS and I AC
int er nal r egist er s ?
11. Bus Ar bit r at ion is
(a) Stack
(a) clear ing t he bus
(b) Scratchpad
(b) lat ching infor mat ion on t he bus
(c) Addr ess r egist er
(c) deciding t he cont r oller of t he bus
(d) St at us r egist er
(d) cont r olling t he bus
5. A single bus st r uct ur e is pr imar ily found in
12. Cont r ol M emor y Addr ess Regist er is pr esent in
(a) main fr ames
(a) ALU
(b) super comput er s
(b) I nst r uct ion Regist er Unit
(c) high per for mance machines
(c) Cont r ol Unit
(d) mini-and micr o-comput er s
(d) Disk Cont r ol I nt er face Unit
6. Which of t he following r egist er s is used t o keep
t r ack of addr ess of t he memor y locat ion wher e 13. Which of t he fol lowi ng is not one of t he t hr ee
t he next inst r uct ion is locat ed ? pr i mar y funct i ons t hat on-l i ne di r ect access
syst em can ser ve?
(a) M emor y Addr ess Regist er
(a) inquir y
(b) M emor y Dat a Regist er
(b) backup
(c) I nst r uct ion Regist er
(c) update
(d) Pr ogr am Count er
(d) pr ogr amming
7. Which of t he following r egist er s is loaded wit h
t he cont ent s of t he memor y locat ion point ed by 14. Which of the following is not tr ue of punched cards
t he PC ? as dat a ent r y media?

(a) M emor y Addr ess Regist er (a) They can be used as t ur n ar ound document s

(b) M emor y Dat a Regist er (b) They ar e inexpensive

(c) I nst r uct ion Regist er (c) I nput is slow compar ed wit h ot her media

(c) Pr ogr am count er (d) They ar e easily damaged

12 Basics of Computers and Applications

15. M agnet ic t ape can ser ve as 7. ASCI I coding all ocat ed bi nar y codes t o Engli sh
(a) input media al phabet s and symbols for comput er use. M or e
r ecent ly a new st andar d has been adopt ed which
(b) out put media
al locat es code t o almost all t he languages of t he
(c) secondar y st or age media wor l d and also t o symbols cover i ng mor e t han a
(d) all of t hese lakh char act er s. The new st andar d is call ed
LEVEL-1 (a) CCS
1. I n t he cont ext of I nfor mat ion Technology, OCR (b) Unicode
means (c) Standar d CCS code
(a) Opt ical Char act er Recognit i on
(d) Univer sal CCS code
(b) Oct agonal Cycl ic Rechar ge
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c) Oct adecimal Cycli c Regener at i on
8. For using passwor ds on t he I nt er net a soft war e
(d) Opt ical Char act er Regener at i on
is used so t hat t he passwor d is not int er cept ed
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
easi ly. I t is call ed

2. I n Boolean algebr a 1  1  0  0 = ? (a) Coding (b) Malwar e
(c) Virus (d) Encr ypt ion
(a) 0 (b) 1
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c) 2 (d) – 1
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
9. A soft war e, codi ng of which is available fr eely on
I nt er net and i s open for user s for fur t her use
3. Which of t he fol lowi ngis not an I /O devi ce of t he
an d i m pr ov em en t an d w h i ch i s gen er al l y
comput er ?
developed in a coll abor at i ve manner is call ed
(a) Keyboar d (b) Joy st i ck
(a) open sour ce soft war e
(c) ALU (d) Pr int er
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(b) unlicensed soft war e
4. W h at i s f l oat i n g poi n t w i t h r ef er en ce t o (c) fr ee soft war e
comput er s? (d) communi t y soft war e
(a) I t i s a soft war e subr out i ne ar ound whi ch [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
ot her subr out i nes ar e bui lt 10. Wh i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g ar e m ach i n e l ev el
(b) I t i s a r epr esent at i on of r eal number s t o languages?
facilit at e comput ing
(a) C++ (b) Java
(c) I t i s t h e m ai n al gebr ai c f or m u l a of t h e
(c) Python (d) None of t hese
soft war e
(d) I t i s t h e vol t age poi n t gi v en t o var i ou s [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

oper at i ng unit s of t he comput er 11. Which of t he fol lowing st at ement s is i ncor r ect ?
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (a) M i cr osoft windows is GUI
5. A syst em of di gi t al r u l es for exch an ge and (b) L i nux is GUI
pr ocessi ng of dat a bet ween var i ous devi ces i s
(c) M or e t han 5000 k B dat a can be st or ed in a
called
DVD
(a) soft war e pr ogr amme
(d) A 1 TB fl ash dr i ve can st or e 2 mi ll ion fil es
(b) algor it hm
each of size 1 M B
(c) pr ot ocol
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(d) infor mat ion pr ocessing
12. The t er ms AL U, CPU, I /O devi ces per t ai n t o
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) comput er s
6. A t heor et ical comput er wi t h infini t e t ype and
m em or y, u sed i n an al y si s of pr obl em s of (b) envi r onment al engineer i ng
comput at i on, is call ed (c) di esel engi ne
(a) Tape calculat or (b) Babbage machine (d) en gi n eer i n g dr aw i n g an d or t h ogon al
(c) Tur i ng machi ne (d) Theor et ical machi ne pr oject i ons
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
 Basics of Computers and Applications 13
13. I n a comput ing devi ce 'M H z' is ment i oned in t he 5. Who wr ot e/invent ed t he L inux soft war e?
specifi cat ions. I t r efer s t o (a) M i cr osoft (b) Apple I NC
(a) si ze of memor y (c) IBM (d) None of t hese
(b) speed of comput at i on [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]

(c) cl ock speed 6. A t echnique of anonymous communicat i on over

a computer networ k using encr yption of messages
(d) none of t he above
and spl it t ing bet ween t he nodes, i s cal led-
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) Spice r out i ng
14. The value of binary 1111 is :
(b) Onion r out i ng
(a) 23 (b) 23 – l (c) Cabbage r out ing
(c) 24 (d) 24 – l (d) Flower r out i ng
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
15. The term 'Operating System' means : 7. Pr ocessing speed of comput er i s measur ed i n-
(a) A set of programmes which controls computer (a) M I PS(M i lli on I nst r uct i on Per Second)
working (b) M H z of clock
(b) The way a computer operator works (c) Bot h (a) and (b)
(c) Conversion of high level language into (d) None of t hese [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SHIFT]
machine level language 8. To close a pr esent at ion and quit Power Point , one
(d) None of these must click t he close but t on on t he :
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (a) menu bar (b) t i t le bar
LEVEL-2 (c) st andar d t ool bar (d) common t ask s t oolbar
1. Which of t hese i s N OT an Oper at ing Syst em? [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]

(a) Android (b) iOS 9. Expr ession + + i is equi valent in ‘C’ t o :

(c) Linux (d) Power poi nt (a) i = i + l (b) i = i + 2
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT] (c) i = 2i (d) None of t hese
2. A soft war e user i nt er face feat ur e t hat allows t he [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
user t o view somet hing ver y si mi lar t o t he end 10. W h i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g r at i on al r el at i on
r esul t whi l e t he document i s bei ng cr eat ed i s oper at ions in 'C means "not equal t o" ?
called- (a) # (b) ==
(a) For mat cr eat or (b) For mat fideli t y
(c) ! = (d) < =
(c) WYSI WYG (d) WYGI WYS [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
11. M i cr osoft Windows is a/an :
3. I n a comput er syst em t her e ar e soft war es and
(a) Wor d-pr ocessing pr ogr am
l anguages at var i ous l evel s, l i k e H i gh l evel
L an gu age (H L ), M ach i n e L an gu age (M L ), (b) Dat abase pr ogr am
Compiler (C). Which of the following is the cor r ect (c) Oper at ing syst em
indi cat ive r epr esent at i on fr om user (U) t o t he (d) Gr aphics pr ogr am
comput er (COM P)? [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(a) U  H L  C  M L  Comp 12. __________wi ll t r ansl at e t he compl et e pr ogr am
(b) U  C  M L  H L  Comp at once fr om a H i gh L evel L anguage t o t he
M achine L anguage.
(c) U  C  H L  M L  Comp
(a) Compiler (b) Joy st i ck
(d) U  M L  H L  C  Comp
(c) Por t s (d) L i ght pen
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
4. Which of t hese devi ces per for ms t he funct ion of 13. The wor d funct ion t hat cor r ect s t ext as we t ype
bot h i n pu t dev i ce an d ou t pu t dev i ce f or a
is r efer r ed t o as :
comput er ?
(a) Aut o inser t (b) Aut o cor r ect
(a) Joy St i ck (b) M ouse
(c) Aut o summar i ze (d) Tr ack changes
(c) Modem (d) Pr int er
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
14 Basics of Computers and Applications
14. Pr imar y Stor age, in computer t er minology, r efer s 15. What does an elect r onic spr eadsheet consist of ?
to : (a) Rows (b) Columns
(a) H ar d Disc Dr i ve (c) Cells (d) Al l of t he above
(b) Random Access M emor y (RAM ) [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(c) Read Only M emor y (ROM )
(d) T he st or age devi ce wher e t h e oper at i n g
syst em is st or ed
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (d)

11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (d)

LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (d)

11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (a)

LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (c)

11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S

LEVEL-1 and r euse of t r ansl at ed dat a et c. ver y easy. Al so

it r epr esent s each char act er wi t h 16 bit s.
1. Opt i cal Char act er Reader i s ful l for m of OCR,
which can r ead a char acter and conver t its bitmap 8. To pr ot ect passwor ds et c. Encr ypt i on i s used
image t o equival ent ASCI I codes. which i s coding each dat a point i n a par t icul ar
pat t er n whi ch is not easy t o decode.
2. I t i s equivalent t o 0.1 = 0
9. Open sour ce soft war es l i k e U ni x have t hei r
3. Ar it hmet i c L ogical Unit i s not an I nput devi ce
sour ce code fr eely avai lable and t hese ar e devel-
whil e all t he ot her t hr ee ar e.
oped t hr ough collabor at ion of coder s fr om acr oss
4. Fl oat i ng point number s ar e used i n comput er s
t he wor ld. M any devel oper s as a pr inci ple use
t o r epr esent r eal number s. Si nce r eal number s
only open sour ce soft war es.
can not be accur at ely r epr esent ed i n comput er s
10. Al l t he l anguages ment ioned her e ar e high l evel
t hr ough binar y number s.
languages, in which i t i s easier t o wr it e code.
5. Pr ot ocols ar e r ules developed for exchanging and
11. 1 TB fl ash dr i ve can st or e appr oximat ely 1 mi l-
pr ocessing of dat a bet ween var i ous devices. Ex-
li on file sizes each of 1 M B.
ampl es incl ude H TTP, I P, FTTP et c.
12. Al l t hese devi ces ar e r elat ed t o comput er s. CPU
6. Tur i ng machi ne i s a mat hemat i cal model of a
is Cent r al Pr ocessi ng Unit , whi le AL U is Ar it h-
hypot het i cal comput ing machi ne which can use
met i c and L ogi cal uni t , whil e I /O is I nput Out -
a pr edefi ned set of r ules t o det er mi ne a r esult
put devi ces.
fr om a set of input var iables.
13. M H z is used t o measur e t he number of oper a-
7. The new st andar d which all ocat es codes t o al-
t i ons t hat can be done by t he CPU i n 1 second.
most al l languages and symbol s, t ot ali ng mor e
So i t r efer s t o clock speed.
t han a lakh i s cal led U ni code. I t mak es t r ansfer

14. 1111 of binar y i s 24 – 1. I t i s 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
15. An oper at ing system (OS) is syst em soft war e that
manages comput er har dwar e and soft war e r e-
sour ces and pr ovides common ser vices for com-
put er pr ogr ams.
LEVEL-2
1.Power point is not an oper at ing syst em but an appli-
cat ion t o make pr esent at ion slides.
2. When user s can see somet hing ver y similar t o
end r esult while document cr eat ion, it is called
WYSI WYG.
3. I t is t he cor r ect r epr esent at ion wher e user gives
input in high level language, it is t hen compiled
an d becom es m ach i n e l an gu age w h i ch i s
comput ed and t he out put is similar ly pr ovided t o
t he user.
4. The modem is an input and an out put device. I t
is used for sending and r eceiving infor mation and
dat a over t elephone lines.
5. L I NUX soft war e was invent ed by L inus Tor valds
while st udying comput er science at Univer sity of
H elsinki in 1991.
7. Pr ocessing speed is measur ed in MH z. Nowadays
i t i s even measur ed i n GH z i .e. Gi ga H er t z.
Basically it r epr esent s how many oper at ions can
be pr ocessed in 1 second.
Basics of Computers and Applications 15
8. To close applications such as Powerpoint, MS-word
et c. one must click t he close but t on on t he t it le
bar which is at t he t op r ight hand cor ner.
9. ++I in C means i = i + 2. This was a way developed
t o wr it e smaller lines in code.
10. != means not equal t o in C.
11. M icr osoft Windows is t he wor ld's most popular
commer cial oper at ing syst em for PCs.
12. Com pi l er s ar e u sed t o t r an sl at e en t i r e
pr ogr am s f r om H i gh l ev el l an gu age t o
m ach i n e l an gu age, so t h at com pu t er can
under st and and execut e it .
13. When we t ype t ext , Aut o cor r ect feat ur e cor r ect s
t he wor d's spelling or any ot her por t ion of t he
t ext .
14. Pr imar y st or age, also known as main st or age or
memor y, is t he ar ea in a comput er in which dat a
i s st or ed for qui ck access by t he comput er 's
pr ocessor. The t er ms r andom access memor y
(RAM ) and memor y ar e oft en used as synonyms
for pr imar y or main st or age.
15. An elect r onic spr eadsheet like M S-Excel consist s
of Cells which are ar r anged in Rows and Columns.
So all ar e pr esent .

 1
CHAPTER Engineering Mechanics
FRE E-BODY DI AGRAM W1

A fr ee-body diagr am consist s of a diagr ammat ic r epr esent at ion of a single body or a W2
subst yst em of bodies isolat ed fr om it s sur r oundings but shown under t he act ion of for ces 1
and moment s due t o ext er nal act ions.
Consider, for example, a book lying flat on a t able. The book exer t s it s weight on t he R 1 2
t able and t he t able exer t s it s own weight as well as t r ansmit s t he weight of t he book on
t he gr ound. A fr ee-body diagr am for t he book alone would consist of it s weight W act ing R 2A R 2B
t hr ough t he cent r e of gr avit y and t he r eact ion exer t ed on t he book by t he t able t op as
shown in t he figur e. F.B.D.
A fr ee-body diagr am may be dr awn for any single member of a syst em, any subsyst em of t he syst em or t he
ent ir e syst em ir r espect ive of whet her t he syst em is in equilibr ium: at r est , in unifor m mot ion or in a dynamic
st at e of mot ion.

U ses of Free Body Diagrams in Statics

(i ) The pr oblems involving equilibr ium of bodies under any syst em of for ces can be simplified by dr awing fr ee
body diagr am of each body separ at ely.
(ii ) All equat ions of equilibr ium can be applied t o each fr ee body diagr am.
(iii ) The unknown for ces for equilibr ium of each body can be obt ained ver y easily.

TYPES OF STRU CTU RE S

A st r uct ur e may consist of a t r uss or a fr ame pin-connect ed or r igidly secur ed. A t r uss is an assemblage of
slender bar s fast ened t oget her at t heir ends by smoot h bolt s or ball-and socket joint s act ing as hinges. A t r uss,
by definit ion, is a connect ed st r uct ur e. The bar member s, t her efor e, act as t wo-for ce member s which can eit her
be in t ension or in compr ession: t her e can be no t r ansver se for ce in a member of a t r uss. A fr ame str uct ur e, on
t he ot her hand, consist s of member s which may be subject ed t o a t r ansver se load in addit ion t o t he axial load.
A simple st r uct ur e is t hus a pin connect ed fr ame or t r uss. A t r uss consist s of slender -bar member s which can
car r y no t r ansver se loads. I t follows t hat t he loading in a t r uss must be at t he joint s only. A t r uss consist ing of
member s which lie in plane and ar e loaded in t he same plane is called plane t r uss. I f a t r uss is made of non-
coplanar member s, it is r efer r ed t o as space t r uss. Similar ly, a fr ame may be a plane fr ame or a space fr ame
depending upon it s st r uct ur e.
Tr usses ar e classified as just -r igid, over -r igid and non-r igid mechanism.
I f t he member s ar e allowed any r elat ive movement , t hen t he assemblage of member s is called a non-rigid
t r uss or mechanism.
I f t he member s ar e not allowed any r elat ive movement t hen it is called a rigid truss.
A j u st -r i gi d t r u ss i s t h at w h i ch , on t h e r em ov al of an y si n gl e m em ber , becom es n on -r i gi d. A n
over -r i gi d t r uss i s t he one t hat has r edundant member s whi ch may be r emoved t o r ender t he t r uss
just-r igid.
F C
D
C

D

A B
(a) Non-Rigid Truss — A Mechanism
 1.2 Engineering Mechanics

AN ALYSI S OF SI M PLE PLAN E TRU SS

Assumpt ions
(i ) Each t r uss is composed of r igid member s lying in one plane.
(ii ) Weight of t he member s ar e neglect ed because t hey ar e small in compar ison wit h t he loads.
(iii ) For ces ar e t r ansmit t ed fr om one member t o anot her t hr ough smoot h pins fit t ed in t he member s.

M et hods of Analysis of a F ramed St ruct ur e

(1) Analytical met hod (2) Gr aphical met hod
(1) Analyt ical M et hod
This met hod includes
(i ) M ethod of Joints : I n t his met hod, t he fr ee body diagr am of each joint is separ at ely analysed t o obt ain
the magnitude of str esses in the tr uss member s. The unknown forces ar e then deter mined by equilibr ium
equat ions viz. V = 0 and H = 0, i.e. sum of all t he ver t ical for ces as well as t he hor izont al for ces is
equat ed t o zer o. The analysis also yields nat ur e of st r esses (whet her compr ession or t ension).
The pr inciple of t r iangle of for ces, or r esolut ion of for ces is applied for analysis. L ogic is applied so t hat
isolat ed joint is in equilibr ium under t he act ion of ext er nal for ces and int er nal st r esses (called for ces in
t he member ). Car e should be t aken t o select a joint which does not have mor e t han t wo unknown
for ces.

(ii ) M ethod of Sections : This met hod is convenient , when t he for ces in t he few member s of a t r uss is
r equir ed t o be found out . Take such a sect ion t hat t he ext er nal for ces on one side of t he sect ion yi eld
t he for ces in t he member s cut by t he sect ion.
Use of Bow’s not at ion has been found convenient in t he analysis of fr ames.
I n t his met hod, eit her left or r ight side of t he sect ion is consider ed. While t aking moment s at a point , t he
appr opr iat e sign of t he moment should be used.
e.g. consider ing left hand side of t he sect ion X-X, t he for ces ae, ab and hi should be used for comput at ion and not
gf , dc, and hd
N ote : Only that joint can be solved eit her analytically or gr aphically which has not mor e t han two known for ces.
Bow’s N otation. Bow’s not at ions ar e used t o name t he differ ent member s of a t r uss.
Ever y member s of t r uss is denot ed by t wo capit al let t er s, placed in t he spaces on
eit her side of t he member of t he space diagr am as shown in t he figur e.
Ther efor e t he load W will be named as PQ, t he r eact ion R1 as RP and r eact ion R2 as
QR. The member s of t he fr ame will be named as PS, QS and RS r espect ively.
(2) Gr aphi cal M et hod
This met hod is based on
(a) L aw of t r iangle of for ces
(b) L aw of polygon of for ces
(c) Bow’s not at ion
(d) L ink or funicular polygon : The funicular or link polygon is used for t he gr aphical det er minat ion of
suppor t r eact ions.
Consider a hor izont al st r ing AB suppor t ed at A and B. I f a for ce PQ applied
at point ‘C’ of t he st r ing, t he st r ing will dist or t in t he shape shown by dot t ed
lines. This distor ted shape of the str ing is called ‘funicular st ring or link polygon.’
 Engineering Mechanics 1.3

VI RTU AL DI SPLACEM EN T AN D VI RTU AL WORK

For the solution of problems of mechanics, it is necessar y to conceive an infinitesimal (extr emely small) hypothetical
or imaginar y displacement of t he par t icle. Such an imaginar y infinit esimal displacement is known as Vir t ual
Displacement . I f such a displacement is r ect ilinear, it is called Vir tual r ect ilinear displacement . The pr oduct of a
for ce and vir t ual displacement caused by it is known as Vir t ual Wor k .
The pr inciple of vir t ual wor k st at es t hat if a par t icle or r igid body or mor e gener ally, a syst em of connect ed r igid
bodies, which is in equilibr ium under var ious ext er nal for ces, is given an ar bit r ar y displacement fr om t hat
posit ion of equilibr ium, t he t ot al wor k done by t he ext er nal for ces dur ing t he displacement is zer o.
Conversely, if the algebraic sum of the virtual works for every such displacement is zero, the system is in equilibrium.
Forces Omitt ed in t he F or mation of E quat ions for Virt ual Work
(i ) Tension in an inext ansible st r ing.
(ii ) React ions fr om t he sur faces.
(iii ) React ion bet ween a body and t he sur face on which it r olls wit hout sliding.
(iv) M ut ual act ion and r eact ion bet ween bodies whose equilibr ium is t o be consider ed t oget her.
Special Cases of Work Done
Initial tension  Final tension
(i ) Work done by an elastic string during stretching =  Extension
2
= M ean t ension × Ext ension
(ii ) Wor k done in r aising a body by a height h = mgh
(iii ) Wor k done in r ot at ion = Tor que × Angle t ur ned in r adian
(iv) Wor k done by a couple = M oment of t he couple × Angle t ur ned in r adians

LAWS OF M ECH AN I CS
Entity Law Statement M at hemat ical F or mulat ion

d
M ass L aw of
conser vat ion
M ass can neither by created nor destroyed
by any physical or chemical means. dt
b g
m =0
of mass
d
L inear
moment um Newt on's law
The rat e of change of momentum of a body
equals t he for ce impr essed upon it . F=
d
dt
b g
mV =
dt
bg
p = p

Angular The r at e of change of anular moment um d

moment um Euler 's law of a body about an or igin O equals t he M=
dt
b
r  mV g
moment i m pr essed upon i t about t he
origin. d
= H = H
dt
Energy L aw of The r at e of change of int er nal ener gy and
k inet ic ener gy of any mechanical syst em
conser vat ion
equals t he sum of t he r at es of wor k done
of energy by t he ext er nal for ces and t he ener gy flux –
acr oss t he boundar y as well as the energy
developed wit hin t he syst em.

E N E RGY
Ener gy is t he capacit y t o do wor k. I nfact ener gy is possessed by a body, wher eas wor k is done by a for ce.
Consider a par t icle which moves fr om a point A t o a neighbour ing point A (Fig.1)
  F
I f r denot es t he posit ion vect or cor r esponding t o point A t hen dr is t he d r A
displacement of par t icle fr om A t o A  A

The wor k of t he for ce F cor r esponding t o t he displacement dr is defined as
 
W  d F.dr r
This wor k done on t he body is st or ed in it in t he for m of ener gy and t he body in t his r  dr
posit ion is r eady t o do t he wor k W h , if it is allowed t o fall fr eely on t he gr ound.
Unit s : Unit s of ener gy is N.m and is same as t hat of wor k done.
 1.4 Engineering Mechanics

F or ms of E ner gy
(1) M echanical Energy
The ener gy possessed by a body due t o it s posit ion or mot ion is called mechanical ener gy.
Types. M echanical ener gy is of t wo t ypes
( i ) Kinetic Energy (K.E.). Ener gy possessed by a body by vir t ue of it s mot ion is called K inet ic Ener gy . I t
is measur ed by t he amount of wor k which t he body can do due t o it s mot ion. The t wo t ypes of K .E. ar e
as follows:
(a ) Kinetic Energy of Translation: K inet ic ener gy due t o r ect ilinear mot ion of a body is called kinet ic
ener gy of t r anslat ion.
e.g., a car moving on a r oad, a moving bullet , wat er moving in a st r eam et c.
Consider a mass ‘m ’ which is init ially at r est (i.e. u = 0). I f a const ant for ce F is applied, it st ar t s
moving and let t he mass at t ains t he velocit y v aft er t r avelling a dist ances, t hen
mv2
Wor k done on t he mass =
2
This wor k done is st or ed in t he body in t he for m of kinet ic ener gy of t r anslat ion.
mv2
 K inet ic ener gy of t r anslat ion =
2
(b) Kinetic Energy of Rotation. The kinet ic ener gy due t o r ot ar y mot ion of t he body is called kinet ic
ener gy of r ot at ion. e.g. a fly wheel r ot at ing about it s axis.
Consider a body of mass m , r ot at ing about an axis O. L et t he body is composed of element al masses
m 1, m 2, m 3, ..... et c. sit uat ed at dist ances r 1, r 2, r 3 ..... et c. fr om t he cent er O as shown in t he figur e
and let t he linear velocit ies of t hese masses be v 1, v 2, v 3, ..... r espect ively. L et  be t he angular
velocit y of t he body. Then
2
K .E. of mass, m = mr 2
2
I 2
 K .E. of r ot at ion =
2
wher e, I = mass moment of iner tia of the body about an axis passing t hr ough O.
4  2 N 2I
But = 2 N, t her efor e K .E. of r ot at ion =
2
(ii ) Potential Energy. The ener gy possessed by a body by vir t ue of t o it s posit ion is called pot ent ial ener gy.
The pot ent ial ener gy of a body is measur ed by t he wor k done against conser vat ive for ces act ing on t he
body in br inging t he body fr om some r efer ence or dat um posit ion t o t he posit ion in quest ion.
The most common for m of pot ent ial ener gy is t he gr avit at ional pot ent ial ener gy which is t he ener gy
possessed by a body due t o it s posit ion wit h r espect t o t he sur face of ear t h. All bodies on t he sur face of
ear t h have been suppossed t o possess zer o pot ent ial ener gy.
I f m is t he mass of a body held at a height of h fr om ear t h’s sur face, t hen t he pot ent ial ener gy possessed
by t he body is mgh.

LAW OF CON SERVATI ON OF EN ERGY

I f a par t icle (or body) is act ed upon by a conser vat ive for ce syst em, t he sum of t he kinet ic ener gy and pot ent ial
ener gy is const ant .

E ner gy St or ed in t he Spr ing

When a spr i ng i s st r et ched a for ce act i ng on a body does not r emai n const ant , but var i es wi t h t he
displacement under gone by t he spr ing. L et a body on a fr ict ional hor izont al plane is at t ached t o a spr ing wit h
st iffness k N/m.

(a) (b)
 Engineering Mechanics 1.5
When t he body is at S, a dist ance l fr om t he wall, t her e is no for ce in t he spr ing (kl = 0). This will be consider ed
t he st andar d position.
When t he body is at P, a dist ance (l + s) fr om t he wall, t her e is no change in t he pot ent ial ener gy of t he body
which is always on t he hor izont al plane. The for ce act ing on t he body in t his posit ion is pr opor t ional t o t he
defor mat ion of t he spr ing fr om t he st andar d unst r essed lengt h.
Ther efor e F = – k.s.
Wor k done by t his for ce for a differ ent ial change, ds = – k.s. ds

 Pot ent ial ener gy = –

o z s k s2
k.s. ds =
2
wher e k = spr ing const ant and s is change in lengt h of spr ing.
The body possesses t his pot ent ial ener gy because of t he pull of t he spr ing which var ies wit h t he defor mat ion.

I M PU L SE
I f a const ant for ce P act s for a t ime t on a body, t hen
impulse of t he for ce = P × t
I t t is var iable over t ime, for ce-t ime plot can be pr epar ed and t he ar ea under t he cur ve gives t he impulse of t he
var iable for ce.
Unit s : Unit of impulse is N. sec.

L inear M oment um
Pr oduct of t he mass m and t he velocit y v is t he linear moment um
Fr om Newt on’s second law of mot ion, t he t ime r at e of change of t he pr oduct of t he mass and velocit y of a
par t icle is pr opor t ional t o t he impr essed for ce. Ther efor e
L inear moment um, G = mv
Linear M otion. L et a const ant for ce F act on a body of mass ‘m ’ for t ime ‘t ’ and changes it s velocit y fr om u t o
v under an acceler at ion a, t hen
F = ma
Fr om v = u + at , at = v – u
 I mpulse = F × t = mv – mu
I mpulse = Change of moment um
This is called t he equat ion of moment um
Fr om F × t = mv – mu ,
mv  mu
F =
t
This value of F is called t he t ime aver age of for ce.
I f t he for ce is var iable, t hen

z z t
L inear I mpulse = F .dt = m.
o o
t dv
dt
t
z
dt = m.dv = m (v – u )
o

Thus t he linear impulse is equal t o t he change in t he linear moment um dur ing t he t ime int er val t .
Angular M ot i on
L et a const ant t or que T act on a body of moment of iner t ia I for t ime t and changes it s angular velocit y fr om 1t o
2 under an angular acceler at ion , t hen
Angular I mpulse = Tor que × t ime
wher e Tor que,T = I 
and 2 = 1 + t
or t = (2 – 1)
 Angular I mpulse = I × t = I (t ) = I (2 – 1)
= change in angular moment um
I f t or que T is var iable, t hen
Angular I mpulse = z1
2
I .d = I (2 – 1)

Thus, angular impulse is t he pr oduct of M .I . about axis of r ot at ion and t he change in angular velocit y.
 1.6 Engineering Mechanics

L inear I mpulse-M oment um Relat ion for an Assemblage of Par t icles

The sum of the exter nal forces acting on an assemblage of a n particles equals the time rate of change of the linear
momentum of a mass m , which is equal to the sum of the masses of n particles and which possesses a velocity equal
to that of the centre of masses of n particles. Thus, sum of the external forces acting on the gr oup of particles.
d (mv) dF
F = =
dt dt
wher e m = mass of n par t icles
v = velocit y of t he cent r e of mass t he gr oup of n par t icles.
L inear I mpulse = zo
t
 F . dt = z
u
y
d (mu ) = m (v – u )
So, t he linear impulse I of all t he for ces act ing in t he st at ed t ime int er val is equal t o t he change in linear
moment um of a mass m.

KI N EM ATI CS OF A PARTI CLE

I t is t he st udy of mot ion of a body or of a par t icle wit hout any r efer ence t o t he for ce syst em act ing on it .

D i spl acement
Displacement of a body is defined as change of it s posit ion wit h r espect t o a given object . Displacement is a
vect or quant it y and t he r efer ence object as well as dir ect ion of displacement should essent ially be st at ed. When
t he movement is st r aight , t he displacement is r ect linear t r anslat ion and when t he mot ion is along a cur ved
pat h, t he displacement is cur vilinear t r anslat ion .

Speed
I t is change of posit ion per unit t ime, i.e., dist ance per unit t ime is called speed.

Vel oci t y
Velocit y is speed associat ed wit h dir ect ion. Velocit y is a vect or quant it y having bot h magnit ude and dir ect ion. I f
s is t he displacement in t ime t , t hen
s
veloci t y, v =
t
ds
I n differ ent ial fr om, v=
dt
Velocit y is differ ent fr om speed, which r efer s t o t he magnit ude of t he velocit y ir r espect ive of it s dir ect ion.

Acceler at ion ( a or f )
v
I t is t he r at e of change of velocit y, i.e a =
t
dv d2s dv
I n differ ent ial for m, a = or v
dt dt 2 ds
The unit of acceler at ion is m/sec2. Acceler at ion is a vect or quant it y
I f velocit y incr eases, it s r at e of change is called acceler at ion and it decr eases, t he r at e of change of velocit y is
called r elar dat ion or deacceler ation .

RE CTI LI N EAR M OTI ON

I f t he mot ion of a body is such t hat t he dir ect ion of it s r esult ant R r emains const ant t hen t he mot ion of t he body
is along a st r aight pat h and is called r ect ilinear mot ion.

M ot ion U nder Const ant Acceler at ion

I f init ial velocit y of a body is u, final velocit y is v, t ime int er val is t , acceler at ion is a and displacement is s, t hen
1
v2 = u 2 + 2 as and s = ut + at 2
2
M ot ion U nder Gr avit y
1
v2 = u 2 + 2gh and h = ut + gt 2
2
wher e h is ver t ical displacement and g is acceler at ion due t o gr avit y t o be t aken as 9.81 m/s2. '+' sign t o be used
for mot ions along gr avit y, wher eas ‘– ’ sign for mot ion against gr avit y.
 Engineering Mechanics 1.7

Dist ance Tr avelled by a Par ticle in n th Second

Consider a r ectilinear motion of a par ticle starts fr om or igin O and moving
along x -axis wit h an init ial velocit y u . L et t he dist ance t r avelled in n t h
second is s, final velocit y is v and const ant acceleration is a. The distance
tr avelled in the (n - 1) seconds is sn – 1.
 Dist ance t r avelled by t he par t icle in n t h second,
a
s = sn – sn – 1 = u + (2n – 1)
2
M ot ion U nder Var iable Acceler at ion
L et , s be t he dist ance t r avelled by t he par t icle in t ime t wit h a velocit y v and acceler at ion a.
dv
a= v
ds
Rel at i ve Velocit y
(i ) Two bodies moving in the same direction will have their relative velocity equal to the difference of their velocities.
Let u and v be the velocities of particles A and B r espectively. I f u > v and u & v have same direction, then
Relat ive velocit y of A wit h r espect t o B = u – v in t he dir ect ion of u .
Relat ive velocit y of B wit h r espect t o A = v – u (which is negat ive, opposit e t o t he dir ect ion of u ).
(ii ) Two bodies moving in opposit e dir ect ions.
Relat ive velocit y of A wit h r espect B = u + v in t he dir ect ion of u .
Relat ive velocit y of B wit h r espect t o A = u + v in t he dir ect ion of v.

LAW OF PARALLELOGRAM OF VELOCI TI ES

Parallelogram law st at es t hat, "if t wo velocities are r epresent ed in magnit ude and dir ection by two adjacent sides
of a par allelogr am, t heir r esult ant will be r epr esent ed in magnit ude and dir ect ion by t he diagonal of t he
parallelogram.
w = r esult ant of velocit ies u, and v
= u 2  v2  2 uv cos 
v sin 
and t an  =
u  v cos 
I f t wo par t icles A and B ar e moving wit h velocit ies u and v and t he angle bet ween t heir dir ect ion of mot ion is  ,
t hen r elat ive velocit y of A wit h r espect t o B is obt ained by combining opposit e velocit y of B wit h A. This is shown
in Fig. (a). Fig. (b) shows r elat ive velocit y of B wit h r espect t o A.

(a ) (b) (c)
Thus R1 = Relat ive velocit y of A wit h r espect t o B. = u 2  v2  2 uv cos (180   )

and R2 = Relat ive velocit y of B wit h r espect t o A = u 2  v2  2 uv cos (180   )

But in opposit e dir ect ion of R1.

CU RV I LI N EAR M OTI ON
I f t he dir ect ion of r esult ant of body R var ies t o maint ain it s posit ion t hr ough cent er of gr avit y, t hen body is
r esult ing in a cur ved pat h and is called cur vilinear mot ion.
Cur vilinear mot ion in a plane is mot ion along a plane cur ve (pat h). The velocit y and acceler at ion of a point on
such a cur ve will be expr essed in
(a) r ect angular component s
(b) t angent ial as nor mal component s
(c) r adial as t r ansver se component s
 1.8 Engineering Mechanics

Angular Velocit y ()

I t is defined as t he angle in r adians t ur ned by a par t icle in unit t ime.
2 N
=
60
Tangent ial or linear velocit y of a par t icle under going a cur vilinear mot ion and having angular velocity is given
by
v = r  and t
d v2
Angular acceler at ion,= 
dt r
Angular velocit y and displacement given by,
1
   + t , t =
t 2
2
2n  1 ( 2   20 )
Angle t ur ned t hr ough in n t h second =  0   and  =
2 2

M OTI ON OF PROJE CTI LE

When a par t icle is pr oject ed upwar ds at a cer t ain angle (but not ver t ical),
it t r aces some pat h in t he air and falls back on at some ot her point . The
velocit y of pr oject ion of par t icle has t wo component s :
Ver t ical component which pr oject s t he body ver t ically upwar ds, and
H or izont al component which move t he body hor izont ally in it s dir ect ion.
Due to combined effect of both the components, the particle move along
a par abolic pat h, t hen t he par t icle is called a pr oject ile.
The pat h t r aced by a pr oject ile is called it s Tr aject or y. The angle at which t he pr oject ile is t hr own int o space is
called t he angle of pr oject ion and is denot ed by as shown in figur e
Velocity of Projection. The velocit y wit h which a pr oject ile is pr oject ed is known as t he velocit y of pr oject ion
(u ). I t always act s along t he t angent t o t he cur ve.
Range. M inimum dist ance bet ween t he point of pr oject ion and t he point wher e t he pr oject ile st r ikes t he gr ound
is called t he r ange (R).
Time of Flight. Tot al t ime by a pr oject ile t o r each maximum height and t o r et ur n back t o t he gr ound is called
t he t ime of flight (t ).
L et t = t ime of flight
u = velocit y of pr oject ion, and
 = angle of pr oject ion
Equation of Trajectory. (Ver t ical dist ance t r avelled in t seconds)
1 gx 2
y  x tan  
2 u 2 cos2 
wher e, x = hor izont al dist ance t r avelled in t seconds
u cos  = init ial hor izont al velocit y of pr oject ile
2u sin 
Time of flight, t = g
u 2 sin 2
Range, R = g
u2
M aximum value of R = g , wher e 2 = 90°,   = 45°

I f t he values of R and u ar e given, t hen t her e will be t wo values of sat isfying t he equat ion for R, say and 
t her efor e  = 900 – 
i.e. for a given r ange and velocit y of pr oject ion, t her e ar e t wo angles of pr oject ion, whose sum is 900.
u 2 sin 2 
M aximum height of pr oject ion, H max  ,
2g
 Engineering Mechanics 1.9
Ver t ical component of velocit y of hit t ing t he gr ound, v = gt
wher e t = t ime of flight
1 2 2
Result ant velocit y at t he gr ound, w  u 2 cos2   g t
4
(1 / 2) gt gt
Angle wit h hor izont al at which t he pr oject ile hit s t he gr ound = tan 1  tan 1
u cos  2u cos 
Vel oci t y at t i m e t : T h e h or i zon t al com pon en t of v el oci t y v x i s con st an t an d equ al t o u cos  .
Ver t ical component of velocit y at t ime t is, v = u sin  – gt

 Result ant velocit y at t ime, t = vx2 + v2 = u 2 cos2   (u sin   gt ) 2 = u 2  2 gut sin   g 2 t 2

vy u sin   g t
I nclinat ion of r esult ant velocit y t o t he hor izont al = t an 1  t an 1
vx u cos 
Velocity of H eight h : H or izont al component of velocit y v x = u cos 
Ver t ical component of velocit y at height h is given by
v 2y = u 2 sin 2 – 2 gh .......... ( fr om v 2 = u 2 + 2 as)
H ence r esult ant velocit y v, at height h is given by
v2 = v x2 + v y2 = u 2 cos2 + u 2 sin 2 – 2gh
or v2 = u 2 – 2 gh

M OTI ON OF PROJECTI LE ON AN I N CLI N ED PLAN E

L et a pr oject ile be pr oject ed on an inclined plane. The inclinat ion of t he plane and t he angle of pr oject ion ar e 
and  r espect ively t o t he hor izont al. I n going fr om O to A t he pr oject ile has t r avelled zer o dist ance perpendicular
t o plane.
2u sin (  )
 Time of flight fr om O t o A, t =
g cos 
Range of pr oject ile on t he inclined plane,
OM 2 u 2 sin ( – ) cos 
OA = =
cos  g cos2 

For maximum r ange, –  = – 
2
u 2 (1 – sin ) u2
M aximum Range, Rmax = =
g cos2  g (1  sin 
2 u 2 sin (  ) cos 
For pr oject ing t he par t icle down t he plane, R =
g cos2 
N ote : Two angl es of elevat i on pr oducing t he same r ange ar e compl ement ar y angl es (e.g. 20° and 70°,
35° and 55° et c.)

KI N EM ATI CS OF A RI GI D BODY I N PLAN E M OTI ON Y

Plane M ot ion of a Rigid Body B A

Plane mot ion of a r igid body t akes place if ever y point in t he body r emains at a const ant
dist ance fr om a fixed plane. I n t he figur e, t he xy plane is a fixed r efer ence plane and
lamina shown is r epr esent at ive of all laminas which compose t he r igid body. The z
X
dist ance t o any point in t he lamina r emains const ant as t he lamina moves.

Tr ansl at i onal M ot i on
Z

I n t r anslat ion r ot at ion as t he lamina moves, ever y st r aight link in t he lamina is always par allel t o is or iginal
dir ect ion. I n t he given figur e t he line AB does not r ot at e.

Rot at i onal M ot i on
The r otational motion takes place in the bodies like shafts, pulleys, flywheels etc. their an axis, usually the geometr ic
axis of the body. This motion is considered as angular motion. Sometimes linear motion of any particle on the
rotating body can be expressed in ter ms of its radius and the angular velocity or acceleration of the rotating body.
 1.10 Engineering Mechanics
I f at any inst ant , t he angular velocit y of r ot at ing body is N r evolut ions/minut e, t hen it s angular velocit y
2 N
 revolution / second.
60
Angular velocit y is defined as t he angle in r adians t ur ned t hr ough by a par t icle in unit t ime.
Angular displacement (  ) is given by
d
 r adians per second.
dt
Tangent i al or l i near vel oci t y of a par t i cl e under goi ng a cur vi l i near mot i on and havi ng angul ar vel oci t y
is given by
v = r and  = t
d v2
Angular acceler at ion,  = = r
dt
Angular velocit y,  = t
1
Angular displacement ,  = t + t 2
2
2n  1  2   20
Angle moved t hr ough in n t h second = +   and =
2 2

I M PACT
I n impact , t he t ime int er val dur ing which t he for ces act ar e quit e small and usually indet er minat e. The sur face
of t wo colliding bodies ar e along t he line of impact .
(i ) Dir ect impact occur s if init ial velocit ies of t he t wo colliding bodies ar e along t he line of impact .
(ii ) Dir ect cent r al impact occur s if mass cent r es in par t (i ) ar e also along t he line of impact .
(iii ) Dir ect eccent r ic impact occur s if init ial velocit ies ar e par allel t o t he nor mal t o t he st r iking sur faces but ar e
not collinear.
(iv) Oblique impact occur s if init ial velocit ies ar e not along t he line of impact .

DI RE CT CEN TRAL I M PACT

Energy Lost Due to I mpact
Suppose a body of mass m falls on anot her body of mass M fr om a height h and let t he body of mass M penet r at e
int o gr ound t hr ough a dist ance s befor e it comes t o r est . L et v be t he velocit y of mass m befor e impact and V be
t he final of t he composit e mass (M + m ) aft er impact . Then
v = 2 gh
Fr om conser vat ion of moment um
mv = (M + m ) V
m
 V= V .....(i )
Mm
L et E L be t he loss of kinet ic ener gy in impact . Then
1 1
EL = mv 2 – (M + m )V 2
2 2
Subst it ut e t he value of V fr om equat ion (i ), we have
1
mv 2 –
1
(M + m ).
m2
v 2 = 1 mv 2 1 –
m LM OP
EL =
2 2 ( M  m) 2
2 M m N Q
m
As is always posit ve, t her e is always a loss of ener gy due t o impact . The r esist ance R offer ed by t he
Mm
gr ound can be calculat ed by equat ing t he wor k done t o K inet ic and Pot ent ial ener gies.
1
K .E. of impact = mv 2
2
Pont ent ial ener gy dur ing penet r at ion int o t he gr ound = (M + m ) gs
Wor k done against r esist ance = R  s
1
 R  s = mv 2 + (M + m ) gs
2
 Engineering Mechanics 1.11

There can be following cases

(1) When aft er t he impact bot h bodies move wit h common velocit y V.
1 m
mv 2 1 – M  m
LM OP
Ener gy lost , E L =
2 N Q
(2) When mass M is penet r at ed t o an ext ent s and aver age r esist ance offer ed is R.
1 m
mv 2 1 – M  m
Rs=
LM OP
2 N Q
(3) When mass M does not move aft er t he impact , i.e. V = 0
1
R1  s1 =mv 2
2
(4) When mass m penet r at es int o M and comes out wit h a velocit y V 2 and mass M also moves wit h a velocit y V 1.
L et t be t hickness of mass M which m penet r at es and comes out .

1
EL = R  t = mv 2 –
LM mV 2
2
 M V1 2 OP ...(ii )
2 MN 2 PQ
Collision of E last ic Bodies
L et masses m and m  wit h init ial velocit ies u 1 and u 2 impact or collide. L et t heir velocit ies aft er collision be v 1
and v 2. Then fr om law of conser vat ion of moment um
m 1v 1 + m 2v 2 = m 1u 1 + m 2u 2 ...(i )

N ewt on's E xper iment al L aw of Colliding E last ic Bodies

This law st at es t hat , “ when t wo bodies impinge dir ect ly, t heir r elat ive velocit y aft er impact is in ‘Constant Rat io’
t o t heir r elat ive velocit y befor e impact , and is in t he opposit e dir ect ion. I f t he impact is not nor mal or dir ect but
is oblique, t hen same fact holds for t he component s of t heir velocit ies along t he common nor mal at the point of
cont act .”
v1 – v2
Fr om t his law, we get =– e
u1 – u 2
v1 – v2
or e= ...(ii )
u1 – u 2
The const ant r at io ‘e’ is called coefficient of r est it ut ion ” or coefficient of r esilience. The value of ‘e’ depends upon
t he nat ur e of t he mat er ial of t he colliding bodies, but is independent of t heir masses and magnit ude of t heir
vel ocit i es.
When bodies ar e per fect ly elast ic, e= 1
Fr om equat ion (ii ), m 1(v 1 – v 2) = e m 1(u 2 – u 1)
(m1  e m2 ) u1  m2 (1  e)u2
Adding equat ions (i ) and (ii ), v1 =
m1  m2

m1 (1  e) u1  (m2 – e m1 )u2
and v2 = ...(iii )
m1  m2
Now, kinet ic ener gy lost , EL = I nit ial K .E. – Final K .E.

=
FG 1 m u 2 1
m2u22 –
1 IJ FG 1
m1 v1 2  m 2 v2 2 =
m1 m 2IJ (1 – e2) (u 1 – u 2)2
H2 1 1 
2 2 K H 2 K
2(m1  m 2 )
I nelastic impact : I n t his case, one body absor bs t he ot her or cl ings t o it , i.e. t hey have a common final
veloci t y.
I f e = 0, t hen equat ion (iii ) becomes
m1u1  m2u2 m2 u2  m1 u1
v2 = , v1 = m2  m1
m1  m2
 v1 = v 2
 1.12 Engineering Mechanics

Purely Elast ic I mpact : When a movi ng body st r i k es a st at i onar y body on a smoot h sur face, t he nfi nal
speed of t he movi ng body wi l l be t he i ni t i al speed of t he ot her body, whi l e fi nal speed of t he for mer l y
st at i onar y body wi l l be t he i ni t i al speed of t he movi ng body, i .e. movi ng body st ops and t he st at i onar y one
assumes i t s speed.
For elast ic impact , put e = 1 in equat ion (iii ), we get

v1 = 2m 2u 2  u1 (m1 – m 2 )
m 2  m1
2m1 u1  u 2 (m 2 – m1 )
and v2 =
m 2  m1

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
LEVEL-1 (a)
t
(b)
t
3 3
1. Two blocks wit h masses M and m ar e in cont act
wit h each ot her and ar e r est ing on a hor izont al t t
(c) (d)
fr ict ionless floor. When hor izontal for ce is applied 2 3
t o t he heavier, t he blocks acceler at e t o t he r ight . (Take inclinat ion of plane = 30)
The for ce bet ween t he t wo blocks is 5. AB is t he ver tical diamet er of a cir cle in a ver t ical
(a) (M + m) F/m plane. Anot her diamet er CD makes an angle of
(b) M F/m 600 wit h AB. Then t he r at io of t ime t aken by a
par t icle t o slide along AB t o t he t ime t aken by it
(c) mF/M
t o slide along CD is
(d) mF/(M + m)
(a) 1 : 3 (b) 2 :1
2. The combined motion of r ot ation and tr anslat ion
may be assumed to be a mot ion of pur e r otat ion (c) 1 : 2 (d) 3 : 2
about some centr e which goes on changing fr om 6. Whi ch of t he fol l owi ng gr aphs r epr esent s t he
time to t ime. The centr e in quest ion is known as mot i on of an obj ect s movi ng wi t h a l i near l y
(a) Shear cent r e incr easing acceler at ion against t ime ?
(b) M et a cent r e (a) (b)
(c) I nst ant aneous cent r e
(d) Gr avit at ional cent r e
3. Two bodies of mass m 1 and m 2 ar e dr opped fr om
(c) (d)
differ ent heights h 1 and h 2 r espectively. Neglecting
t he effect of fr ict ion, t he r at io of t imes t aken t o
dr op t hr ough t he given height s would be
m1
(a) 7. Two par t icles wit h masses in t he r at io 1 : 4 ar e
m2 m ov i n g w i t h equ al k i n et i c en er gi es. T h e
m2 h2 m agn i t u de of t h ei r l i n ear m omen t u m s wi l l
(b)
m1 h1 confor m t o t he r at io
(a) 1 : 8 (b) 1 : 2
Fh I
(c) G J 1
½

Hh K2
(c) 2 :1 (d) 2
8. I f two bodies one light and other heavy have equal
Fh I
(d) G J 1
2
k i n et i c en er gi es, w h i ch on e h as a gr eat er
Hh K2 moment um?
4. A block slides down a smoot h inclined plane in (a) H eavy body
t ime t aft er having been r eleased fr om it s t op. (b) L ight body
An i dent ical bl ock on being r eleased fr om t he (c) Bot h have equal moment um
same point and falling freely will r each the gr ound
(d) I t depends on t he act ual velocit ies.
in t ime
 Engineering Mechanics 1.13
9. The angular moment um of a syst em is conser ved 15. For maxi mum hor i zont al r ange, t he angl e of
if t her e pr oject ion of a pr oject ile should be
(a) ar e no for ces pr esent (a) 30 (b) 45
(b) ar e no magnet ic for ces pr esent (c) 60 (d) 90
(c) is no net for ce on t he syst em LEVEL-2
(d) ar e no t or ques pr esent
16. Two st ones ar e pr oject ed wit h t he same velocit y
10. A body moves al ong a st r ai ght l i ne and t he (in magnitudes) but making differ ent angles with
var iat ion of it s kinet ic ener gy wit h t ime is linear t he hor izont al. I f t heir r anges ar e equal and t he
as depict ed in t he figur e below angle of pr oject ion of one is 600, t hen t he r at io of
t he maximum height s at t ained (y 2/y 1) will be
(a) 3 : 1 (b) 2 : 1
(c) 1 : 2 (d) 1 : 3
17. A st one is pr oject ed hor izont ally fr om a cliff at 10
m/sec and l ands on t he gr ound below at 20 m
fr om t he base of t he cliff. Find t he height h of t he
The for ce act ing on t he body is cliff. Use g = 10 m/sec2
(a) dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o velocit y (a) 18 m (b) 20 m
(b) inver sely pr opor t ional t o velocit y (c) 22 m (d) 24 m
(c) zer o 18. Two bal l s ar e pr oj ect ed fr om t he same poi nt
making angles of 600 and 300 with the ver tical axis.
(d) constant
I f both t he balls ar e to attain the same height, the
11. For per fectly elastic bodies, the value of coefficient r at io of t he speeds of pr oject ion V 1 / V 2 shoule be
of r est it ut ion is
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 1 : 1
(a) 1 (b) 0.5 t o 1
(c) 0 t o 0.5 (d) zer o (c) 1 : 3 (d) 2 : 1
19. For a pr oject ile of r ange R, t he kinet ic ener gy is
12. A st eel ball is dr opped fr om a height h 1 ont o a
minimum aft er t he pr oject ile cover s (fr om st ar t )
st eel pl at e and r ebounds t o a hei ght h 2. The
a dist ance equal t o
coefficient of restitution between the ball and plate
will be (a) 0.25R (b) 0.5R
h (c) 0.75 R (d) R
(a) 1
h2 20. I f t he t ime of flight of a bullet over a hor izont al
r ange R i s T seconds, t he i ncl i nat i on of t he
h2
(b) dir ect ion of pr oject ion wit h t he hor izont al is
2 h1
F gT I2
FG gT IJ
(c)
h2 (a) tan – 1 GH 2 R JK (b) t an – 1
H 2R K
2h1
F gT I
2
FG 2 gT IJ
(d )
h2 (c) tan – 1 GH 4 R JK (d) tan – 1
H RK
h1
13. Consi der a one-di mensi onal el ast i c col l i si on 21. The shaft of a mot or st ar t s fr om r est and at t ains
bet ween an incoming body A of mass m 1 and a full speed of 1800 r pm in 10 seconds. The shaft
body B of mass m 2 init ially at r est . For body B t o has an angular acceler at ion of
move wit h gr eat est kinet ic ener gy aft er collision (a) 3  r ad/sec2 (b) 6 r ad/sec2
(a) m 1 > m 2 (b) m 1 < m 2 (c) 2 r ad/sec 2
(d) 18 r ad/sec2
(c) m 1 = m 2 (d) none of t hese 22. A flywheel 200 cm in diamet er is r ot at ing at 100
14. Dist ance of t he cent r oid of a semicir cle of r adius r evolut ions per minut e. A point on t he r im of t he
r fr om it s base is flywheel will not have
(a) angular velocit y
4r 3
(a) (b) (b) cent r ipet al acceler at ion
3 4r
(c) t angent ial acceler at ion
4 2
(c) (d) (d) all of t hese
3r 3r
1.14 Engineering Mechanics

23. Two bodi es of mass M and m ar e movi ng i n 26. A boy t wi r ls a 15 l b bucket of wat er i n a ver t ical
concent r ic or bit s of r adii R and r such t hat t heir ci r cle. I f t he r adi us of cur vat ur e of t he pat h is
per i ods ar e same. Then r at i o bet ween t hei r 4 ft , det er mine t he minimum speed t he buck et
angular velocit y is must have when i t is over head at A so no wat er
spil ls out .
(a) R : r (b) m R : M r
(a) 11.35 ft /s (b) 0
R m (c) 6.26 ft /s (d) 2.83 ft /s
(c) 1 : 1 (d) :
r M 27. A 0.6 kg br ick is t hr own into a 25 kg wagon which
is i nit ially at r est . I f, upon ent er ing, t he br i ck
24. A cylinder of r adius 10 cm. r olls without slipping has a vel ocit y of 10 m/s as shown, det er mi ne t he
on a hor izontal plane. At the inst ant as shown the fi nal vel oci t y of t he wagon.
magnit ude of t he velocit y of A r elat ive t o B is
(a) v = 0.203 m/s (b) v = 0.208 m/s
40 cm/sec. The velocit y of t he cent r e O at this
(c) v = 0.240 m/s (d) v = 0.234 m/s
instant is
28. The fr i ct i on exper i enced by a body, when i n
(a) 10 2 cm/sec mot i on, is k nown as
(a) r oll ing fr ict i on (b) dynamic fr ict ion
(b) 15 2 cm/sec
(c) limit ing fr ict i on (d) st at ic fr ict i on
(c) 20 2 cm/sec 29. The bodies which r ebound after impact ar e called
(a) Per fect ly inel ast ic bodi es
(d) 25 2 cm/sec
(b) Per fect ly elast ic bodi es
25. A per son st anding on a unifor mly r ot at ing t ur n
(c) n ei t h er Per f ect l y el ast i c n or Per f ect l y
t able has his ar ms held close t o his chest . I f he inelast i c bodi es
out st r et ches his ar ms
(d) none of t hese
(a) t he moment of iner t ia will decr ease
30. The moment of iner t ia of a soli d cone of mass m
(b) t he angular moment um will incr ease and base r adius r about it s ver t i cal axi s is
(c) t he speed of r ot at ion will decr ease (a) 3mr 2/5 (b) 3mr 2/10
(d) t he angular velocit y will r emain const ant (c) 2mr 2/5 (d) 4mr 2/5

AN SWERS
LEVEL-1
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b)

LEVEL-2
16. (d) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (a) 21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (c) 25. (c)
26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (b) 29. (b) 30. (b)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
2. The inst ant aneous cent r e of a link is t he point
LEVEL-1 about which all t he point s on t he link appear t o
1. Fr om fr ee body diagr am r ot at e at t hat inst ant .
F – N = Ma ...(i ) 1
3. s = ut + gt 2
or N = ma ...(ii ) 2
Fr om equat ions (i ) and (ii ), we get and u=0
mF 1 1 2
N =  h 1 = gt 12 , and h 2 = gt 2
(m  M ) 2 2
 Engineering Mechanics 1.15

H ence
t1
=
FG h IJ
1
½
7. (K E)1 =
1
m v2
t2 Hh K
2
2 1 1
Appar ent ly r at io of t imes t aken is indepedent of and (KE)2 =
1
m 1v 22
t he mass of bodies. 2
m1 1
4. For mot ion along t he plane But kinet ic ener gies ar e equal and 
m2 4
h N ow, m 1v 21 = m 2v 22
a = g sin  and l =
sin 
h
=
1
(g sin  ) t 2 or
v1
=
m2 FG IJ ½

=2

sin  2 v2 m1 H K
2h 1 v1
or t2 = ... (i ) m1 v1 m1
g sin 2  Requir ed r at io = =  v
m 2 v2 m2 2
For ver t ical mot ion :
1 1
h = gT 2 2=1:2 =
2 4
2h 8. L et light body be L and heavy body H
or T2 = ...(ii )
g 1 1
 m L vL 2 = m H vH 2
Fr om equat ions (i ) and (ii ), we get 2 2

T = t sin  = t sin 30 =

t
or
mL v
= H
FG IJ 2

<1
5.
2
For mot ion along t he ver t ical diamet er AB
mH vL H K
s = d (diamet er of cir cle) and a = g Momentum of light body m L vL v
= = L .
1 Momentum of heavy body m H vH vH
d = gt 2

2 FG v IJ
H
2

=
vH
<1
t =
2
2d
g
... (i ) Hv K
L vL

For mot i on al ong t he H ence moment um of light body is less t han t he

inclined diamet er CD, moment um of heavy body or heavier body has
s=d gr eat er momentum as compar ed to light er body.

and a = g cos 600 = g/2 9. Net torque on a system ,  n = time rate of change
1 g of t he syst em’s angular moment um,
 d =   T2 
2 2 dL
4d i.e.
or T2 = ... (ii ) dt
g  
At const ant L , t her efor e,  n = 0.
Fr om equat ions (i ) and (ii ) we get Thi s condi t i on may be sat i sfi ed i f t her e ar e
t 1 tor ques pr esent, as long as ther e is no net tor que.
=
T 2 10.
6. The acceler ation which var ies linear ly wit h time
can be expr essed as
dv
a = = a0 + kt
dt
Hence no curve shows with acceleration versus time,

v = v 0 + a0 t +
kt 2
1 dx FG IJ 2

2
Cur ves (a), (d) ar e dr awn wit h velocit y against
K inet ic ener gy =
2
m
dt H K = kt

wher e k is const ant

t ime. None of t hem sat isfies t he above r elat ions.
Differ ent iat ing, we get
a0 t 2 kt 3
H owever, s = s0 + v 0t + + F d xI = k
2

(b) sat isfies t his r elat ion.

2 6 m
dx
dt GH dt JK 2
1.16 Engineering Mechanics
For ce = mass  acceler at ion 20
17. Time of flight = = 2 sec.
2
d x dx k FG IJ 10
= m
dt 2
= k/
dt v H K = Since hor izont al component of velocit y r emains
const ant , t her efor e
11. Value of coefficient of r est it ut ion is unit y, if t he
1 2
collision is elast ic, i.e. if no ener gy is dissipat ed h = gt
2
dur ing collision.
1
Minimum value of coefficient of restitution would =  10  22
2
be zer o for plast ic collision, i.e., if ener gy get s
= 20 m
ent ir ely dissipat ed.
H2 V 2 sin 2  2 2g
12. Velocit y of ball just befor e impact , 18. = 2  2
H1 2g V1 sin 2  1
v1 = 2 g h1
=
FG V IJ
2
2
sin 2 30 
=
FG V IJ
2
2
1
I t s velocit y as it r ebound, v2 = 2 g h2 .
HV K1 si n 2 60 HV K
1

3
By definit ion,
But H 1 = H 2;
v2 – 0 2 gh 2 h2 V1
e= = =  = 1: 3
0 – v1 – (– 2 gh1 h1 V2
13. Aft er elast ic collision, t he velocit y of st at ionar y 19. K i net i c ener gy i s mi ni mum at t he poi nt of
body, maximum height , and t hat height is at t ained
2m1 dur ing half of t he t ot al t ime of flight
v2' = v
m1  m2 1 Dist ance cover ed

K inet ic ener gy =
1
m2
2m1
v1
RS UV 2 = (hor izont al component of velocit y)
 (half t he t ime of flight )
2 m1  m2 T W 2V0 sin  V 2 sin 2
2m1 m2
2
= V 0 cos   = 0
= v12 2g 2g
bm  m g
1 2
2
which is half of t he r ange.
H ence k i net i c ener gy wi l l have t he gr eat est
V 02 sin 2 2 sin  cos 
possible value when m 1 > m 2. 20. R = = V02 
g g
1 2
14. Ar ea = r 2V0 sin 
2  T =
g
4r
x c = r, yc = T 2 g2
3 V02 =
4 sin 2 
V 2 sin 2
15. H or izont al r ange, R = 0
g g 2T 2 2 sin  cos  gT 2
 R =  =
For maximum hor izont al r ange, 4 sin 2  g 4 tan 
sin 2 = 1 F gT I 2

or 2 = 90 or = t an – 1 GH 2 R JK
or  = 45
21. = t
LEVEL-2 2   1800
or = 0 +  t
16. Si nce r anges and vel oci t i es of pr oject i on ar e 60
same and angl e of pr oj ect i on of one i s 60 0, or  = 6 r ad/sec2
t her efor e angle of pr oject ion of t he ot her would 22. Since ther e is no change in magnitude of angular
be (90º – 60º) = 30º speed, t her e will be no t angent ial acceler at ion.
H2 V02 sin 2  2 2g 23. Given, T1 =
2
, T2 =
2
=  2
H1 2g V0 sin 2  1 1 2
T1 
sin 2  2 sin 2 30   = 2
= = =1:3 T2 1
sin 2  1 si n 2 60

Since t ime per iods of t wo bodies ar e st at ed t o be
same, t heir angular velocit ies will confor m t o
t he r at io 1 : 1.
24. Velocity = r adius  angular velocity
V A/B = r A/B  = 10 2  = 40 cm/sec
  = 2 2 r ad/sec
Thus C is t he inst ant cent r e of velocit y.
 V0 = 10 = 20 2 cm/sec
25. I n the absence of an exter nal tor que, the angular
moment um is conser ved,
i.e., I  = const ant
An incr ease in t he value of moment of iner t ia
(due t o st r et ching of ar ms) will br ing about a
decr ease in t he value of speed of r ot at ion of t he
t ur n t able.
26. Cent r ifugal acceler at ion has t o be equal t o t he
do gr avit y accel er at i on (g)
Engineering Mechanics 1.17
v2
=g
r
v= 32.17 * 4 = 11.35 ft /s
27. T he m oment um i n t h e hor i zon t al di r ect i on
r emain same. So
m 1v 1cos () = (m 1 + m 2)v 2
0.6 * 10cos (30) = (0.6 +25)v 2
 v = 0.203 m/s
28. Roll ing fr i ct i on - when body r oll s.
Dynamic fr i ct i on - when body moves.
L i mi t ing fr ict ion - when body just t o st ar t move.
St at ic fr ict i on - when body doesn't move.
29. I f body r ebounds wit h same vel ocit y t hen i t is
per fect ly elast i c body. I f body st i ck s wit h same
velocit y t hen it is per fect ly i nel ast i c body.
 2
CHAPTER Engineering Materials

M ATE RI AL STRU CTU RE

Types of M at er ial St r uct ur e
(1) M acro Structure : This is seen by low-power magnificat ion of upt o 10x or t he naked eye. These may be
obser ved dir ect ly on a fr act ur e sur face or on a for ging specimen. I nt er nal flaws open up under appli ed
st r ess.
(2) M icro Structure : The st r uct ur e is obser ved under an opt ical micr oscope at magnificat ions r anging fr om
20x to 2000x. Full infor mat ion r egar ding str uct ur e can be obtained only by examinat ion of pr epar ed sect ions
of t he specimen.
(3) Crystal Structure : This st r uct ur e descr ibes t he r egular it y and t ype of at omic ar r angement wit hin a
cr yst al.
(4) Electronic Structure : This r efer s t o t he elect r ons in t he out er most shells of individual at oms t hat for m
t he solid. Spect r oscopy is used t o st udy t his t ype of st r uct ur e.
(5) N uclear Structure : This is det er mined by nuclear spect r oscopic met hod. M ossbauer St udies and magnet ic
r esonance (NM R) ar e t he common t echniques used for st udying.

CRYSTAL SYSTE M
Solids can eit her be cr yst alline or non-cr yst alline (amor phous).
(1) Cr yst alline Solids
A cr ystal is a solid whose constituent molecules or atoms ar e arr anged in a systematic
patt er n. Cr ystalline solids ar e usually built up of a number of cr ystals which may be
similar or of widely var ying sizes and metallic or non-met allic. When descr ibing
cr ystalline str uctur es, atoms (or ions) ar e t hought of as being solid spher es having
well-defined di amet er s. Thi s i s t er med as t he "at omi c har d spher e m odel " i n F i g . C r y s t a l l i n e s t r u c t u r e
wh i ch sph er es r epr esent ing near est neighbour atoms touch one another. ( h i g h l y o r d er ed st a t e)
(2) N on-Cr yst alline (Amor phous)
I n mat er ials (such as glass) which ar e non-cr yst alline, called amor phous, t he int er nal st r uct ur e is not based
on a r egular r epet it ion pat t er n.

Fig. Amorphous structure (disordered state)

Cr yst al l ogr aphy

I n cr yst allogr aphy t he st r uct ur e implies t he ar r angement and disposit ion of at oms wit hin a cr yst al.

( a) ( b)
Fig. Space lattice
 2.2 Engineering Materials

Br avious L at t ice
Ever y mat er ial is a building mat er ial block of same unit called br avious lat t ice.
Types of Br avious lat t ice
Ther e ar e 7 differ ent t ypes of br avious lat t ices.
Table : Charact erist ics of Basic crystal syst ems
S. Crystal Relat ion I nt er face Examples U nit Cell
N o. System between angles Geometry
primitives

1. Cubic a=b=c  =  =  = 90º CaF 2, NaCl, Au, Cu, Al and Fe

2. Tet r agonal a = b c  =  =  = 90º SnO2, NiSO4, Sn, TiO3

3. Or thogonal abc  =  =  = 90º BaSO4, MgSO4, KNO3

4. Hexagonal a=bc  =  = 90º;  = 120º SiO2, AgCl, Zn, Gr aphit e

5. Rhombohedral a=b=c  =  =   90 CaSO4, SiO2, CaCO3

6. M onoclinic abc  =  = 90º  FeSO4, CaSO4, 2H 2O, NaSO4

7. Tr iclinic abc       90º CuSO4, K 2Cr 2O7

 Engineering Materials 2.3

At omic Packing F act or (APF )

I t is defined as fr act ion of volume applied by spher ical at oms as compar ed t o t he t ot al available volume of t he
st r uct ur e. I t is also called fr act ion or r elat ive densit y of packing.
Volume of atoms in a unit cell
At omic packing fact or =
Volume of the unit cell
Cubic St r uct ur es
( i ) Simple Cubic St r uct ur e
There is one atom at each corner and this atom is shar ed by B unit cells. So number of atoms per unit cell
1
n = 8=1
8
Size of unit cell (lat t ice const ant ) = a
4
1  r 3
APF = 3
a3
But a = 2r
 APF = 0.5
H ence coor dinat ion number of simple cubic is 6.
( ii ) Body-Cent red Cubic St ruct ure (BCC)
Ot her met als possessing BCC st r uct ur e ar e M O, V, M n, Ta, -Cr and Nb.
I r on has cubic st r uct ur e. At r oom t emper at ur e t he unit cell of ir on has an at om.
1
 Tot al number of at oms =  8 = 1 at om
8
BCC cr yst al has one at om at t he cent r e = 1 at om
Tot al at oms in BCC = 2 at oms
Along wit h one at om at each cor ner t her e is at om at t he cent r e of each unit cell which is in physical cont act
wit h all t he cor ner at oms
1
n = 8+1=2
8
4
2   r 3
APF = 3
a3
But 4r = a 3
 APF = 0.68
H ence coor dinat ion number of bcc is 8.
(iii ) Face Centred Cubic st ructure (FCC)
Along wit h one at om at each cor ner, t her e is an at om on each face.
1 1
n =8 +6 =4
8 2
4 3
4  r
APF = 3
a3
But 4r = a 2
 APF = 0.74
H ence coor dinat ion number of FCC is 12.
I n this type of lattice structur e, atoms are located at the corners of the cube and at the centre of each face.
This t ype is t ypical of t he met als Cu, Al, Pb, Ag, Au, -Fe, Ca,  -Co, et c.
1 1
 Tot al at oms in FCC unit cell =  8 +  6 = 1 + 3 = 4 at oms
8 2
( iv) H exagonal close-packed st ruct ur es
A lat t ice st r uct ur e of t his t ype has an at om at each cor ner of t he hexagon, one at om each at t he cent r es of
t he t wo hexagonal faces and one at om at t he cent r e of t he line connect ing t he per pendicular s in t he t hr ee
r hombuses which combine and for m t he hexagonal close-packed st r uct ur e. The at omic packing fact or for
an H CP met al is found t o equal 0.74. This is ident ical t o t he packing fact or of an FCC met al because each
has a co-or dinat e number of 12. H CP is found in such met als as Be, M g, Ca, Zn, Cd, Ti and ot her s.
2.4 Engineering Materials

Cr yst al st r uct ur es of some common met als

bcc fcc hcp
I r on (except 900° t o 1400 °C) I r on (except 900° t o 1400 °C) Titanium
Chr omium Aluminum Zinc
Tungsten Copper Zir conium
Vanadium Lead Magnesium
Molybdenum Ni ck et Cobalt
Tantalum Silver
Platinum
N ote : Pr oper t ies of solid cr yst alline depends on t he basic cr yst al st r uct ur e of t he solid
e.g. fcc mor e duct ile while hcp is less duct ile. bcc is usually har der.

DEFECTS I N TH E M ATERI ALS

1. Point s D efect s
( i ) Vacancy defect. I t appear s due t o missing of at om fr om t he lat t ice.

( ii ) I nterstitial defect. When for eign at om occupies t he int er st it ial sit e, t he defect is called int er st it ial
defect .

( iii )Subst it ut ional defect . I f r egul ar at om i s r epl aced by anot her for ei gn at om, t he defect i s cal l ed
substitut ional defect .

( iv) Frenkel defect. When at om in t he lat t ice point goes and occupies int er st it ial void of ot her at om, t hen
it is called Fr enkel defect .

(v) Schottky defect. I n t he combinat ion of cat ion and anion if t her e is a vacancy defect , it is called Schot t ky
defect .
2. Sur face Defect s
( i ) Grain boundary defect. The bound lengt h is mor e at t he gr ain boundar y due t o or ient at ion mismat ch
can easily be br oken. So, at mospher ic oxygen r eact s wit h t he at om at gr ain boundar y and cor r odes.
Thus finer t he gr ain st r uct ur e, lower will be t he cor r osion r esist ance.

Smal l-angl e
gr ai n boundar y

Or ient at ion M ism at ch

1
( ii ) Tilt boundary defect. When or ient at ion mismat ch at t he gr ain boundar ies is – 1, gr ain boundar ies
2
ar e called t ilt boundar ies.
 Engineering Materials 2.5
(iii ) Twin boundary defect. When or ient at ions on one side ar e mir r or image of opposit e side, such gr ain
boundar y defect s ar e called t win boundar y defect s.
( iv) St acking fault s. When gr ai n boundar i es on bot h t he sides ar e par al lel t o each ot her wi t h sl i ght
dist ur bance of bonds in a ver y r egion, such gr ain boundar ies ar e called st acking fault s.
3. Line Defects
( i ) Edge dislocation. Alt hough millions of dislocat ions ar e alr eady t her e in t he mat er ial but assume t hat
t her e is a per fect mat er ial and one face of t he mat er ial is fixed, i.e. r est r ict ed t o move. On t he opposit e
face, a unifor m pr essur e is applied on 50% ar ea. Once t his pr essur e exceeds beyond a cer t ain value,
slipping of at oms t akes place. This unit amount of plast ic defor mat ion which appear s in t he dir ect ion of
applied load is called bur ger vect or. Ther e will be a boundar y ‘AB’ as shown in t he figur e below bet ween
slipped and unslipped r egions called edge dislocat ion . I n t his case bur ger vect or is per pendicular t o t he
dislocat ion line.

Ther e appear s an ext r a half plane at t he dislocat ion line. The int er st it ial void at t he dislocat ion line is
lar ger in size.
Upon applying load on any mat er ial, dislocat ions move in t he dir ect ion of applied load. I f dislocat i ons
comes out of t he sur face, it is said t hat plast ic defor mat ion has begun in the mater ial. The r epr esentat ion
of dislocat ion mot ion is phase in t he figur e below. I f ext r a half plane is above t he dislocat ion line it is
called posit ive edge dislocat ions r epr esent ed by  and if half plane is below t he dislocat ion line it is
called negat ive edge dislocat ion r epr esent ed by symbol T.

Fig. Dislocation M otion

( ii ) Screw dislocation. I t is for med by a shear st r ess t hat is applied t o pr oduce dist or t ion shown in figur e
below. The scr ew dislocat ion is t r aced ar ound t he dislocat ion line by t he at omic planes of at oms. The
bur ger vect or in t his case is par allel t o t he dislocat ion line.

PH ASE DI AGRAM S
Phase diagr ams pr ovide a convenient way of r epr esent ing which st at e of aggr egat ion (phase or phases) is st able
for a par t icular set of condit ions. I n addit ion, phase diagr ams pr ovide valuable infor mat ion about melt ing,
cast ing, cr yst allizat ion, and ot her phenomena. I t helps us t o under st and and pr edict micr ost r uct ur e of alloy.
Following t er ms ar e r equir ed t o under st and t he phase diagr ams :
 Component : I t is a chemically r ecognizable species (Fe and C in car bon st eel, H 2O and sucr ose in sugar
solut ion in wat er ). A binar y alloy cont ains t wo component s, a t er nar y alloy - t hr ee, et c.
 Phase : I t is a por t ion of a syst em t hat has unifor m physical and chemical char act er ist ics. Two dist inct
phases in a syst em have dist inct physical and/or chemical char act er ist ics (e.g. wat er and ice, wat er and oil)
and ar e separated fr om each other by definite phase boundaries. A phase may contain one or more components.
A phase is a st r uct ur ally homogeneous por t ion of mat t er.
 2.6 Engineering Materials
 A single-phase system is called homogeneous, systems with two or mor e phases ar e mixtur es or heter ogeneous
syst ems. A solut ion (liquid or solid) is phase wit h mor e t han one component ; a mixt ur e is a mat er ial wit h
mor e t han one phase.
 Solvent : M ajor component in solut ion, while solute is minor component .
 System : The ser ies of possibl e alloys consist ing of t he same component s but wit hout r egar d t o all oy
composit ion.
 Solid solution : I t consist s of at oms of at least t wo differ ent t ypes wher e sol ut e at oms occupy ei t her
substitutional or interstitial positions in the solvent lattice and the cr ystal str uctur e of the solvent is maintained.
 Solubility Limit of a component in a phase is t he maximum amount of t he component t hat can be dissolved
in it (e.g. alcohol has unlimit ed solubilit y in wat er, sugar has a limit ed solubilit y, oil is insoluble). The same
concept s apply t o solid phases: Cu and Ni ar e mut ually soluble in any amount (unlimit ed solid solubi lit y),
while C has a limited solubilit y in Fe. I n gener al, solubility limit changes wit h t emper atur e. I f solute available
is mor e t han t he solubilit y limit t hat may lead t o for mat ion of differ ent phase, eit her a solid solut ion or
compound.
The pr oper t ies of an alloy depend not only on pr opor t ions of t he phases but also on how t hey ar e ar r anged
st r uct ur ally at t he micr oscopic level. Thus, t he micr ost r uct ur e is specified by t he number of phases, t heir
pr opor t ions, and t heir ar r angement in space.
 Phase equilibrium : I t is t he set of condit ions wher e mor e t han one phase may exist . I t can be r eflect ed by
const ancy wi t h t i me i n t he phase char act er i st i cs of a syst em at const ant t emper at ur e, pr essur e and
composit ion. The st at e of equilibr ium is never complet ely achieved because of ver y slow r at e of appr oach of
equilibr ium in solid systems. This leads to non-equilibrium or meta-stable state, which may persist indefinitely
and which has mor e pr act ical significance t han equilibr ium phases. I n t her modynamics t he equilibr ium is
descr ibed as a st at e of a syst em t hat cor r esponds t o t he minimum of t her modynamic funct ion called t he free
energy. A syst em at a met a-st able st at e is t r apped in a local minimum of fr ee ener gy t hat is not t he global
one.
 Gibbs phase rule : These include t wo ext er nal var iables namely t emper at ur e and pr essur e along wit h
int er nal var iables composit ion (C) and number of phases (P) is r elat ed t o number of independent var iables
among t hese gives t he degr ees of fr eedom (F) as follows :
F+P=C+2
The degr ees of fr eedom cannot be less t han zer o so t hat we have an upper limit t o t he number of phases t hat
can exist in equilibr ium for a given syst em. For pr act ical pur pose, in met allur gical and mat er ials field,
pr essur e can be consider ed as a const ant , and t hus t he condensed phase r ule is given as follows :
F+P=C+1
Equilibrium Phase Diagrams : A diagr am t hat depi ct s exi st ence of di ffer ent phases of a syst em under
equilibr ium is t er med as phase diagr am . I t is also known as equilibr ium or const it ut ional diagr am . Equilibr ium
phase diagr ams r epr esent t he r elat ionships bet ween t emper at ur e and t he composit ions and t he quant it i es of
phases at equilibr ium.The equilibr ium st at e of t he syst em is defined by t wo independent par amet er s (P and T),
(T and V), or (P and V). These diagr ams do not indicat e t he dynamics when one phase t r ansfor ms int o anot her.
H owever, it depict s infor mat ion r elat ed t o micr ost r uct ur e and phase st r uct ur e of a par t icular syst em in a
convenient and concise manner. The obt ainable infor mat ion fr om a phase diagr am can be summar ized as
follows :
 To show phases ar e pr esent at differ ent composit ions and t emper at ur es under slow cooling (equilibr ium)
condit ions.
 To indicat e equilibr ium solid solubilit y of one element /compound in anot her.
 To indicat e t emper at ur e at which an alloy st ar t s t o solidify and t he r ange of solidificat ion.
 To indicat e t he t emper at ur e at which differ ent phases st ar t t o melt .
 Amount of each phase in a t wo-phase mixt ur e can be obt ained.
A phase diagr am is act ually a set of solubilit y cur ves t hat r epr esent s locus of t emper at ur es above which all
composit ions ar e liquid ar e called liquidus, while solidus r epr esent s set of solubilit y cur ves t hat denot es t he
locus of t emper at ur es below which all composit ions ar e solid. Ever y phase diagr am for t wo or mor e component s
must show a liquidus and a solidus, and an int er vening fr eezing r ange, except for pur e syst em, as melt ing of a
 Engineering Materials 2.7
phase occur s over a r ange of t emper at ur e. Whet her t he component s ar e met als or nonmet als, t her e ar e cer t ain
locat ions on t he phase diagr am wher e t he liquidus and solidus meet . For a pur e component , a cont act point lies
at t he edge of t he diagr am. The liquidus and solidus also meet at t he ot her invar iant posit ions on t he diagr am
which r epr esents an invar iant r eaction t hat can occur only under a par ticular set of conditions between par ticular
phases.
Phase diagr ams ar e classified based on t he number of component s in t he syst em. Single component syst ems
have unar y diagr ams, t wo-component systems have binar y diagr ams, t hr ee component systems ar e r epr esented
by t er nar y diagr ams and so on. When mor e t han t wo components ar e pr esent , phase diagr ams become ext remely
complicat ed and difficult t o r epr esent .
U nary diagrams: I n t hese syst ems, t her e is no composit ion change (C=1), t hus only var iables ar e t emper at ur e
and pressur e. Thus in r egion of single phase two var iables (temper atur e and pressur e) can be varied independently.
I f t wo phases coexist t hen, accor ding t o Phase r ule, either t emper at ur e or pr essur e can be var ied independently,
but not bot h. At t r iple point s, t hr ee phases can coexist at a par t icular set of t emper at ur e and pr essur e. At t hese
point s, neit her t emper at ur e nor t he pr essur e can be changed wit hout disr upt ing t he equilibr ium i.e. one of t he
phases may disappear. Figur e-1 depict s phase diagr am for wat er. The point A, B and C (in Figur e-1) shows t he
single phase, t wo phases and t hr ee phases at a par t icular t ime r espect ively.

Cr it i cal point
225 at m

1 at m
Wat er (l iqui d)
I ce A
Pr essur e (sol id) B
C Water Vapor
0.006 at m Tr iple (gas)
point
0.01C 100C 374C
Temper at ur e

Figure 1 : U nary phase diagram for water

Binary diagrams : These diagr ams const it ut es t wo component s, e.g.: t wo met als (Cu and Ni), or a met al and
a compound (Fe and Fe3C), or t wo compounds (Al 2O3 and Si 2O3), et c. The condensed phase r ule is applicable in
engineer ing aspect . The pr esent at ion of binar y diagr am becomes less complicat ed, by assuming t he pr essur e
constant i.e. no var iation of pr essur e. Thus binar y diagr ams ar e usually dr awn showing var iations in temper atur e
and composit ion only. I t is also t o be not ed t hat all binar y syst ems consist only one liquid phase i.e. a component
is complet ely soluble in t he ot her component when bot h ar e in liquid st at e.
H ence, binar y syst ems ar e classified accor ding t o t heir solid solubilit y. Ext ent solid solubilit y for a system of t wo
met allic component s can be pr edict ed based on H ume-Rut her y condit ions, summar ized in t he following :
 Cr yst al st r uct ur e of each element of solid solut ion must be t he same.
 Size of at oms of each t wo element s must not differ by mor e t han 15%.
 Element s should not for m compounds wit h each ot her i.e. t her e should be no appr eciable differ ence in t he
elect r o-negat ivit ies of t he t wo element s.
 Element s should have t he same valence.
All t he H ume-Rot her y r ules ar e not always applicable for all pair s of element s which show complet e solid
solubilit y. I mpor t ant binar y syst ems ar e descr ibed below :
I som or ph ou s syst em : B ot h t h e com pon en t s ar e com pl et el y sol u bl e i n each ot h er , e.g.: Cu -N i ,
Ag-Au, Ge-Si, Al 2O3-Cr 2O3. Figur e-2 depict s a t ypical phase diagr am for an isomor phous syst em made of t wo
met allic element s A and B. A set of coor dinat es – a t emper at ur e and a composit ion – is associat ed wi t h each
point in t he diagr am. I f t he alloy composi t ion and t emper at ur e specified, t hen t he phase diagr am al l ows
det er minat ion of t he phase or phases t hat will pr esent under equilibr ium condit ions. Ther e ar e only t wo phases
in t he phase diagr am, t he liquid and t he solid phases. These single-phases r egions ar e separ ated by a two-phase
r egion wher e bot h liquid and solid co-exist . The ar ea in t he Figur e-2 above t he line mar ked liquidus (A'bB')
cor r esponds t o t he r egion of st abilit y of t he liquid phase, and t he ar ea below t he solidus line (A'dB') r epr esent s
t he st able r egion for t he solid phase.
 2.8 Engineering Materials

L i q u i d u s -A b B 
B
L iq u id a

Y b V

Tem p era tu re
U c
L +S d
A S o l i d u s -A d B 
e
S o lid

U X V

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
A (% ) B
C o m p o sitio n

Figure 2 : Phase diagram for typical

isomorphous binary system
For the inter pr etation of the phase diagr am, let's consider the ver t ical line ae dr awn cor r esponding to composit ion
of 50%A + 50%B and assume t hat t he syst em is under going equilibr ium cooling. The point a on t he line ae
signifies t hat for t hat par t icular t emper at ur e and composit ion, only liquid phase is st able. This is t r ue up t o t he
point b which lies on t he liquidus line, r epr esent ing t he st ar t ing of solidificat ion. Complet ion of solidificat ion of
the alloy is r epr esented by the point, d. Point e cor r esponds to single phase solid r egion up to the r oom temper atur e.
Point c lies in t he t wo-phase r egion made of both liquid and solid phases. Cor r esponding micr o-str uctur al changes
ar e also shown in figur e-2. As shown in figur e-2, above liquidus only a liquid phase exist s, and below t he solidus
single solid phase exist s as complet ely solidified gr ains. Bet ween t hese t wo lines, syst em consist bot h solid
cr yst als spr ead in liquid phase. I t is cust omar y t o use L t o r epr esent liquid phase(s) and Gr eek alphabet s
(,  , ) for r epr esent ing solid phases.
Bet ween t wo ext r emes of t he hor izont al axis of t he diagr am, cooling cur ves for differ ent alloys ar e shown in
figur e-3 as a funct ion of t ime and t emper at ur e. Cooling cur ves shown in figur e-3 r epr esent A, U', X, V' and B
cor r espondingly in figur e-2. Change in slope of t he cooling cur ve is caused by heat of fusion.

Pure A 50%A+50%B Pure B

Temper at ur e

A+28%B A+74%B

Ti me

Figure 3 : Cooling curves for isomorphous binary system

Anot her impor t ant aspect of int er pr et ing phase diagr ams along wit h phases pr esent is finding t he r el at ive
amount of phases pr esent and t heir individual composit ion.
Pr ocedur e t o find equilibrium concent rat ions of phases :
 A t ie-line or isot her m (UV) is dr awn acr oss t wo-phase r egion t o int er sect t he boundar ies of t he r egion.
 Per pendicular s ar e dr opped fr om t hese int er sect ions t o t he composit ion axis, r epr esent ed by U' and V' in
figur e-2, fr om which each of each phase is r ead. U' r epr esent s composit ion of liquid phase and V' r epr esent s
composit ion of solid phase as int er sect ion U meet s liquidus line and V meet s solidus line.
Procedure t o find equilibrium relat ive amount s of phases (lever rule) :
 A t ie-line is const r uct ed acr oss t he t wo phase r egion at t he t emper at ur e of t he alloy t o int er sect t he r egion
boundar ies.
 Engineering Materials 2.9
 The r elat ive amount of a phase is comput ed by t aking t he lengt h of t ie line fr om over all composit ion t o
t he phase boundar y for t he ot her phase, and dividing by t he t ot al t ie-line lengt h. Fr om figur e-2, r elat ive
amount s of liquid and solid phases is given r espect ively by
cV Uc
CL  , CS  ,
UV UV
and it is not iced t hat CL  CS  1
Eutectic system : M any binar y syst ems have component s which have limit ed solid solubilit y, e.g.: Cu-Ag,
Pb-Sn. The r egions of limited solid solubility at each end of a phase diagr am ar e called ter minal solid solut ions
as t hey appear at ends of t he diagr am. M any of t he binar y systems wit h limited solubilit y ar e of eut ect ic t ype,
which consists of specific alloy composition known as eutectic composition that solidifies at a lower temper atur e
t han all ot her composit ions. This low t emper at ur e which cor r esponds t o t he lowest t emper at ur e at whi ch
t he l i qui d can exi st when cooled under equil i br ium condit i ons i s known as eut ect i c t emper at ur e. The
cor r esponding point on t he phase diagr am is called eut ect ic point . When t he liquid of eut ect ic composit ion is
cooled, at or below eut ect ic t emper at ur e t his liquid t r ansfor ms simult aneously int o t wo solid phases (t wo
t er minal solid solut ions, r epr esent ed by  and  ). This t r ansfor mat ion is known as eut ect ic r eact ion and is
wr it t en symbolically as :
L iquid (L )  solid solut ion-1 () + solid solut ion-2 ( )
This eut ect ic r eact ion is called invar iant r eact ion as it occur s under equilibr ium condit ions at a specific
t emper at ur e and specific composit ion which cannot be var ied. Thus, t his r eact ion is r epr esent ed by a ther mal
hor izontal ar r est in t he cooling cur ve of an alloy of eut ectic composit ion. A typical eut ectic type phase diagr am
is shown in figur e-4 along wit h a cooling cur ve. As shown in figur e-4, t her e exist t hr ee single phase r egions,
n am el y l i qu i d (L ),  an d  ph ases. T h er e al so ex i st t h r ee t w o ph ase r egi on s :
L + , L +  and +  . These t hr ee t wo phase r egions ar e separ at ed by hor izont al line cor r esponding t o t he
eut ect i c t emper at ur e. Bel ow t he eut ect i c t emper at ur e, t he mat er i al is ful ly sol id for al l composi t i ons.
Compositions and r elative amount of the phases can be deter mined using tie-lines and lever r ule. Compositions
t hat ar e on l eft -hand-si de of t he eut ect i c composit i on ar e k nown as hypo-eut ect ic composi t i ons whi l e
compositions on r ight-hand-side of the eutectic composition ar e called hyper-eutectic compositions. Development
of micr o-st r uct ur e and r espect ive cooling cur ves for eut ect ic alloys ar e shown in figur e-5, 6, 7 and 8 for
differ ent composit ions. The phase t hat for ms dur ing cooling but befor e r eaching eut ect ic t emper at ur e is
called pro-eut ect ic phase.
c , -Terminal solid solutions c d g - L iqui dus
c b d f g - Sol idus g
L a b /e f - Sol vus
L+
Temperat ur e

L+
b f
 d 
Eut ect ic poi nt
Eut ect ic i sot her m
+

H ypo-eutect ic H yper -eut ect i c

composi t ions composi t ions
a e
A Composit ion (%wt .) B
Figure 4 : Typical phase diagram for a
binary eutectic system

c L
g
Temper at ur e

L+
Temperat ur e

b
 
d f

+
L
a  e
A Composit ion (%wt .) B Ti me
Figure 5 : Cooling curve and micro-structure development for eutectic alloy that passes
mainly through terminal solid solution
2.10 Engineering Materials

c
L g

Temperat ur e

Temperat ur e
L+ L+
b f
 

+ 
L

a  e
A Composit i on (%wt .) B Ti me
F igure 6 : Cooling curve and micro-structure development for eutectic alloy that passes
through t erminal solid solution wit hout
formation of eutectic solid

c
g
L+ L
Temper at ur e

Temper at ur e
L+
b f
 
Pr o-eut ect ic
phase
Eut ect ic
phase
L +

a  e
A Composit i on (%wt .) B Ti me
F igur e 7: Cooling curve and micr o-st r uctur e
development for eutectic alloy that passes
t hr ough hypo-eut ect i c r egion

c
g
L
L+
Temperat ur e

Temperat ur e

L+
b f
 

+ 
L Eut ect ic
 phase

a e
A Composit i on (%wt .) B Ti me
F igur e 8: Cooling curve and micr o-st r uctur e
development for eutectic alloy that
passes t hr ough eut ectic-point
I nvariant reactions : The eut ect ic r eact ion, in which a liquid t r ansfor ms int o t wo solid phases, is just one of
t he possible t hr ee-phase invar iant r eact ions t hat can occur in binar y syst ems t hose ar e not isomor phous. I t
r epr esent s t hat a liquid phase, L , t r ansfor ms int o t wo differ ent solids phases  and  upon cooling dur ing t he
eut ect ic r eact ion. I n t he solid st at e analog of a eut ect ic r eact ion, called a eut ect oid r eact ion, one solid phase
having eut ect oid composit ion t r ansfor ms int o t wo differ ent solid phases. Anot her set of invar iant r eact ions t hat
occur oft en in binar y syst ems ar e per it ect ic r eact ion wher e a solid phase r eact s wit h a liquid phase t o pr oduce a
new solid phase, and in per it ect oid r eaction , t wo solid phases r eact to for m a new solid phase. Perit ectic r eact ion
is commonly pr esent as par t of mor e-complicat ed binar y diagr ams, par t icular ly if t he melt ing point s of t he t wo
component s ar e quit e differ ent . Per it ect ic and per it ect oid r eact ions do not give r ise t o micr o-const it uent s as t he
eut ect ic and eut ect oid r eact ions do. Anot her invar iant r eact ion t hat involves liquid phase is monot ectic r eact ion
in which a liquid phase t r ansfor ms int o a solid phase and a liquid phase of differ ent composit ion. Over a cer t ain
r ange of composit ions t he t wo liquids ar e immiscible like oil and wat er and so constit ut e individual phases, t hus
monot ect ic r eact ion can said t o be associat ed wit h miscibilit y gaps in t he liquid st at e. Example syst em for
monot ect ic r eact ion : Cu-Pb at 954C and 36%Pb. Analog t o monot ect ic r eact ion in solid st at e is monot ect oid
r eact ion in which a solid phase t r ansfor ms t o pr oduce t wo solid phases of differ ent composit ions. Anot her
not able invar iant r eact ion t hat is associat ed wit h liquid immiscibilit y is synt ect ic r eact ion in which t wo liquid
phases r eact t o for m a solid phase. All t he invar iant r eact ions ar e summar ized in t he t able-1 showing bot h
symbolic r eact ion and schemat ic par t of phase diagr am.
 Engineering Materials 2.11
Table 1 : Summary of invariant react ions in binary systems

R eaction Symbolic equation

Eut ect ic L  + 
Eut ect oid  + 
Per it ect ic L + 
Per it ect oid  + 
M onot ect ic L1  L2 + 
M onot ect oid 1 2 + 
Synt ect ic L 1 + L 2 

I ntermediate phases : An int er mediat e phase may occur over a composit ion r ange (int er mediat e solid solution)
or at a r elat ively fixed composit ion (compound) inside t he phase diagr am and ar e separ at ed fr om ot her t wo
phases in a binar y diagr am by t wo phase r egions. M any phase diagr ams cont ain int er mediat e phases whose
occur r ence cannot be r eadily pr edict ed fr om t he nat ur e of t he pur e component s. I nt er mediat e solid solut ions
often have higher elect r ical r esistivit y and har dness than either of the t wo components. I nter mediate compounds
for m r elat ively at a fixed composit ion when t her e exist s a st oichiomet r ic r elat ionship bet ween t he component s,
for example: M g2Ni and M gNi 2 in M g-Ni syst em. These ar e called int er -met allic compounds, and differ fr om
ot her chemical compounds in t hat t he bonding is pr imar ily met allic r at her t han ionic or covalent , as would be
found wit h compounds in cer t ain met al-nonmet al or cer amic syst ems. Some met al-nonmet al compounds, Fe3C,
ar e met allic in nat ur e, wher eas in ot her s, M gO and M g2Si, bonding is mainly covalent .

CON TROL OF M ATERI AL PROPERTI ES

M etals and alloys may not possess all t he pr oper t ies r equir ed in a finished pr oduct . The mat er ial pr oper t ies can,
however, be cont r olled by var ious met hods t o make t he mat er ial suit able for a given applicat ion. These met hods
include
1. Alloying 2. H eat t r eat ment 3. M echanical wor king 4. Recr ystallization.

1. Al loyi ng
I f for eign element occupies int er st it ial sit e it pr oduces compr essive st r ain field in t he host at oms. I t is
because i nt er st i t ial voi d i s al ways smal l er t han t he si ze of i mpur i t y at om. I f i mpur i t y at om occupi es
subst it ut ional sit e and if it s size is smaller, it pr oduces t ensile st r ain field. I f impur it y size i s bigger t han t he
host at oms, it pr oduces compr essive st r ain field. These st r ain fields cr eat e an obst acle in t he movement of
dislocat ion. This incr eases st r engt h of mat er ial. So, alloys ar e always st r onger t han t he pur e met al . Bot h
car bon and nit r ogen occupies int er st it ial sit e in ir on but nit r ogen pr oduces har der and st r onger mat er ials
because it pr oduces st r ain field of lar ger int ensit y.

Al l oys
An alloy is a combinat ion of a met al wit h ot her mat er ials.
The manufactur ing pr oper ties of an alloy depend on the pr oper ties, distr ibution, size, and shape of the var ious
phases pr esent, and on the natur e of phase int er faces. The most commonly-used alloy in engineer ing is that of
ir on and car bon, popular ly known as steel. The car bon pr esent in steel is in the for m of Fe3C called cementite
containing 6.67% of C.
Pur e ir on has t wo differ ent allot r opic for ms. Fig. (a) shows t he cooling cur ve of pur e ir on. Bet ween 1537 C
and 1400C, t he solid ir on exist s in t he for m of bcc cr yst als and is commonly known as -ir on. Fr om 1400C t o
910C, t he cr yst al st r uct ur e is fcc, t he cor r esponding name being -ir on.
Below 910C, t he st r uct ur e again changes back t o bcc, and t his phase is r efer r ed t o as -ir on. H owever, t her e
is no basic st r uct ur al differ ence bet ween t he - and t he -phase. Fig. (b) shows t he ir on-car bon equilibr ium
diagr am. I n t his figur e, t he por t ion involving t he -phase is not of much int er est so far as t he nor mal
manufact ur ing pr ocesses ar e concer ned because the t emper atur e is ver y high. For casting pr ocesses, the
2.12 Engineering Materials

liquid-solid tr ansfor mation at 1125C is significant, wher eas for heat tr eatment of steels, the tr ansfor mations
ar ound 723C play an impor t ant r ole.
At 1125C, t he solubilit y of cement ite in -ir on is limited to 2% as indicat ed by t he point A in Fig. (b) This solid
solut ion of -ir on and Fe3C is commonly t er med as aust enit e. I n t he bcc phases (i.e., - and -phase) of ir on,
t he solubilit y of Fe3C is much smaller (ar ound 0.33% in t he -phase and 0.1% in t h -phase, as indicat ed by
t he point s C and B in Fig. (b). The solid solut ion of Fe3C in -ir on is called fer r it e. The eut ect oid (E ')
composit ion of fer r it e and cement it e is r efer r ed t o as pear lit e which consist s of alt er nat e t hin laminat es of
cement it e and fer r it e.
 B
+L
1537 P
Liquid L(liquid)
1537 1492
1500
1400
+ +L L + Fe3C
-iron(bcc) E
Temperature (°C)

1400 Peritectic
1125 A
(austenitc) Eutectic
910
1200  + Fe3C
-iron(fcc) + E
723
C
Pearlite Cementite
(ferric) (eutectoid)  + Fe3C
Ferrite Cementite
910 pearlite + pearlite
900 C% 0 0.3 0.83 2 4.3 6.67
-iron(bcc)
(  100% Fe 3C)
Time Steel Cast iron

Fig. (a ) Cooling curve of pure iron Fig. (b) I ron-carbon equilibrium diagram

910 Cementite
Austenite
°C
2
°C
1
Ferrite
Temperature  (°C)

C
Austenite 2 Austenite
723
Ferrite C Pearlite
1
Cementite

Pearlite Pearlite

C% 0 0.03 C1 0.83 C2 2
Hypoeutectoid steel Hypereutectoid steel

Fig. (c) M icrostructures of various phases of steel

The different str uctures for the various phases of steel are indicated in Fig. (c). As can be noticed, the structure of
ferrite is thick and r ounded, wher eas that of cementite tends to be thin and needle-like. Ferrite is soft and
cementite is very hard. The transformation of austenite into fer rite and cementite is achieved only when the
cooling is slow. A rapid cooling rate transforms austenite into a metastable phase, known as martensite. Depending
on the composition and temperature drop, there exists a minimum cooling rate for such a transformation. Martensite
is br ittle and this proper ty limits its applicability.
Theor et ical t emper at ur es acr oss which a change of phase occur s can be found out fr om Fig. (c). For a
composit ion C1, t he lower and the upper cr itical temper atur es ar e l C and u C . Similar ly, for a composit ion
1 1
C2, t he cr it ical t emper at ur es ar e l C and u C .
2 2
 Engineering Materials 2.13
Classificat ion of Alloy St eel
Alloy st eels ar e br oadly classified int o t wo cat egor ies
(a) L ow alloy st eels
(b) H igh alloy st eels
I n low alloy st eels, t ot al cont ent of t he alloying element s, such as Cr, Ni, M o, V, and M n, is kept wit hin 5%.
Each alloying element impar t s a specific pr oper t y t o t he or iginal mat er ial.
Table : Effects of alloying elements on steel
Element Effect (s) Remark (s)
Al Pr omot es deoxidizat ion
Pr omot es nit r iding Typically low per cent age
Rest r ict s gr ain gr owt h
B I ncr eases har denabilit y Typical per centage 0.001-0.003
I mpair s impact st r engt h slight ly Used in st eels wit h car bon cont ent less t han 0.6%
Co Cont r ibut es t o r ed har dness
Sust ains har dness dur ing t emper ing
I ncr eases har denabilit y Typical per cent age 0.5-2 t o incr ease har denabilit y
Cr I ncr eases r esist ance t o cor r osion, Typical per cent age 4-8 t o incr ease cor r osion and wear
abr asion and wear r esist ance
I ncr eases high t emper at ur e st r engt h
Cu I ncr ease cor r osion r esist ance Typical per centage 0.1-0.4
Count er act s br it t leness fr om S Typical percentage 0.25-0.40 to counteract brittleness from S
Mn I ncr eases har denabilit y Typical per cent age > 1 t o incr ease har denabilit y
I ncr ease r esist ance
Reduces ductility and weldabilit y
I ncr eases har denabilit y significantly Typical per cent age 0.2-5
Mo I ncr eases st r engt h, t oughness, r ed Used for H SS cut ting t ools, for ged cr ankshafts, tur bine
har dnes, and hot st r engt h when used r ot or s, high pr essur e cylinder s and boiler plat es, and
wit h Cr, M n, and V enhances gear s
cor r osion and abr asion r esist ance. Typical percentage 2-5 to increase toughness and strength.
Ni I ncrease toughness and impact strength Typical per centage 12-20 to increase cor rosion resistance
I mpr oves cor r osion r esist ance Used in case har dened par t s such as high speed gear s
and bear ings
P I ncr ease har denabilit y Typical per cent age 0.2-0.9 t o incr ease st r engt h
I mpr oves machinabilit y Typical per cent age 2
I ncr eases st r engt h in low car bon st eel Used in spr ing st eels
I mpr oves cor r osion r esist ance
St r engt hens low alloy st eels
I ncr eases har denabilit y
Si Act s as deoxidizer Typically high percentage to improve magnetic properties
I mpr oves magnet ic pr oper t ies when
pr esent in lar ge per cent age
S I mpr oves machinabilit y of ver y low Typical per cent age 0.08-0.15
car bon st eels Nor mally consider ed an impur it y
Ti I ncr eases aust enit ic har denabilit y Fixes car bon in iner t par t icles, r esult ing in
Reduces martensitic hardness in Cr steels r emar kable car bide for ming effect
V I ncr eases st r engt h while r et aining Typical per cent age 0.15
duct ilit y Pr oduces fine gr ain size For ms st able car bides t hat per sist at quit e high
I ncr eases har denabilit y t emper atur e
Nor mally used in combinat ion wit h chr omium
W I mpar ts har dness and wear r esistance Typical per cent age 4 t o impar t wear r esist ance
Significant ly impr oves r ed har dness Typical per cent age 18 t o impr ove r ed har dness
I mpar t s st r engt h at high t emper at ur e Used in high speed t ool mat er ials.
2.14 Engineering Materials

2. H eat Treatment
Cont r ol of mat er ial pr oper t ies can also be achieved wit hout t he addit ion of ot her element s. This is done by
subject ing t he mat er ial t o a cont r olled cycle of heat ing and cooling. Take a simple example wher e aust enit e
st eel (above 723C) is cooled at differ ent r at es. Fig. (a) shows t he var ious r esult ing st r uct ur es along wit h a
few mechanical pr oper t ies.
Transformation-begins curve
0
Lower critical temperature
1
700 Coarse
pearlite

Austenite 600 A
1 Pearlite
Temperature > 723°C B
Fine pearlite

Temperature  (°C)
500
Nose

400 Tr a Bainite
Water quenched Oil Air Furnace cooled 2
ns
fo r
quenched cooled Austenite
m
a ti
on In this region
300 -e
nd austenite-martensite
sc transformation
ur
ve is instantaneous
200
3

100
Martensite Very tine Fine pearlite Coarse Transformation-completed curve
pearlite pearlite Martensite
1 t1 10 t2102 103 104 105
Time t (sec)

Fig. (a) Effect of cooling rate on microstructure and properties Fig. (b) TTT diagram for carbon steel
Obviously by changing only t he r at e of cooling, differ ent phases can be achieved. The infor mat ion on t he
change of phase wit h t he cooling r at e can be convenient ly displayed wit h t he help of a t ime-t emper at ur e-
t r ansfor mat ion diagr am (commonly known as t he TTT diagr am). I n such a diagr am, t he t emper at ur e is
plot ted along the ver tical axis (using a linear scale), wher eas t he abscissa r epr esent s the t ime on a logar it hmic
scale. The TTT diagr am for car bon st eel is given in Fig. (b). When aust enit e is br ought t o a t emper at ur e 1
fr om 0 (in essent ially zer o t ime) and t her eaft er held at 1, t he t r ansfor mat ion t o pear lit e begins aft er a
lapse of t ime t 1, as shown by t he point A in t he figur e. Such a t r ansfor mat ion, t aking place at a const ant
t emper at ur e, is known as an isot her mal t r ansfor mat ion . The point B indicat es a t ime t 2, aft er which t he
t r ansfor mat ion is complet e.
I n Fig. (b), the tr ansfor mations cor r esponding to other t emper atur es, viz., 2 and 3, ar e also shown. At about
600C, the tr ansfor mation star ts aft er a minimum lapse of t ime, and this par t of t he diagr am is called the nose.
Below this temper atur e, austenite tr ansfor ms into bainite which is an intimate mixtur e of ferr ite and cementite
(cementit e exists in the for m of tiny spher oids). Bainite cannot be pr oduced by cont inuous cooling.
When the temper ature of isother mal tr ansfor mation is decr eased (above 600C), the time r equired for the
transformation reduces. This results in a finer grain structure as less time is available for the growth of new nuclei.
The cur ve, indicat ing t he beginning of t he t r ansfor mat ion, does not exist below about 220C. Below t his
t emper at ur e, aust enit e inst ant aneously st ar t s t r ansfor ming int o mar t ensit e.
I t impar t s high mechanical pr oper t ies t o st eels.
Time Temper at ur e Tr ansfor mat ion (T T T ) D iagr am
Pr of. Bain heat ed t he st eel samples havi ng an eut ect oi d composi t i on at a t emper at ur e at which aust eni t e i s
st abl e. These sampl es ar e subsequent l y quenched t o di ffer ent t emper at ur es bel ow 725C. The fir st sampl e
was quenched t o 700C and i t was obser ved t hat for a subst ant i al per iod of t i me, t her e was no change in t he
micr o st r uct ur e of ‘aust enit e’. Although aust enit e cannot be stable below 725C, t his per iod is called incubation
period. Decr easing qenching temper atur e, incubation per iod decr eases and at 550C it is only ‘one sec’ decr easing
quenching t emper at ur e fur t her, again t her e is incr ease in t he incubat ion per iod.
On projecting % decomposition vs time graph to temperature vs time graphs two ‘C’ curves appears. This diagram is
called Time-Temperature-Transformation curve (or) TTT Curve or C-Curve or S-curve or Bains Curve.
F act or s r esponsi bl e for cur ve
( i ) Driving force : G = Gfinal – Ginit ial
I f G is +ve, it means final phase is st able.
I f G is xer o, it means phase is neut r al.
I f G is – ve, it means phase is unst able.
As t her e is a decr ease in t emper at ur e, (G) dr iving for ce value incr eases and
so incubat ion per iod decr ease fr om 725C t o 555C.
 Engineering Materials 2.15
( ii ) At omic mobilit y (D iffusion)
I t decr eases wit h decr ease in t emper at ur es slight ly below 725C, t he dr iving for ce is ver y low t hat is why
incubat ion per iod is mor e. Below 550C alt hough value of dr iving for ce is ver y high but due t o lower
t emper at ur e, diffusion is ver y low. This incr eases incubat ion per iod.

H eat Tr eat ment Pr ocesses used in engineer ing pr act ice

1. Aust emper i ng
In the TTT-diagram, there appears two lines other than C-curves at 220C and 100C horizontal to time axis.

220C-M sStar t of mar t ensit e

100C-M f Finish of mar tensit e

Fig. Critical Cooling Rate

I f cooling r ate is such that, it just touches the nose of TTT diagr am, it is called critical cooling rat e (CCR). Any
cooling r ate gr eater than (or ) equal t o CCR will not pr oduce pear lite and micr ostr uctur e car bon will fr eeze at
its locat ion and it is like colloidal solution of car bon (or ) cementite int o fer r ite. This phase of ir on is called
mar tensite, which is the har dest phase of ir on. All the lines on TTT diar am ar e that of decomposition of
austenite into some other micr o str uctur e. Once the austenite conver t s into some other micr ostr uctur e, it
never r econver t s again. The slow cooling pr ocess pr oduce coar se str uctur e and fast cooling pr ocess pr oduce
fine str uctur e. Bainite cannot be pr oduced by continuous cooling. To pr oduce bainite, the sample has to be
quenched below the nose of TTT diagr am but above mar tensite star t line (220C). Then sample is maintained
at this t emper atur e for substant ial per iod of time till entir e austenite conver ts into bainite. The pr ocess is
called Austempering.
Advant ages of Aust emper ing
(i ) Br it t le mar t ensit e does not for m.
(ii ) Quenching cr acks bet ween cor e and sur face do not develop.
(iii ) Duct ilit y is incr eased.
(iv) I mpact st r engt h and t oughness ar e incr eased.
Object s of heat t reatment .
(i ) To incr ease t he har dness of met als.
(ii ) To r elieve t he st r ess set up in t he mat er ial aft er hot or cold wor king.
(iii ) To impr ove machinabilit y.
(iv) To soft en t he met al.
(v) To modify t he st r uct ur e of t he mat er ial t o impr ove it s elect r ical and magnet ic pr oper t ies.
(vi ) To change t he gr ain size.
(vii )To incr ease t he qualit ies of a met al t o pr ovide bet t er r esist ance t o heat , cor r osion and wear.
2. Anneal i ng
I t is t he heat ing of st eel t o aust enit e t emper at ur e and t hen cooling slowly in t he fur nace.
M ain objects of Annealing :
(i ) To r educe har dness
(ii ) To impr ove machinabilit y
(iii ) To incr ease or t o r est or e duct ilit y
(iv) To r elieve int er nal st r esses
(v) To r educe or eliminat e st r uct ur al in homogeneit y
(vi ) To r efine gr ain size
(vii ) To pr epar e st eel for subsequent heat t r eat ment
Slow cooling r esults in t he for mation of spher oidal car bide and coar se lamilar pear lite. These pr oducts ar e ver y
soft. The cooling r at e dur ing annealing var ies fr om depending upon alloying element in the steel and lower
r ate of cooling is used for alloy steels as compar ed to plain C-steels. Annealing r esult s in t he for mation of
2.16 Engineering Materials
fer r ite, spher oidal cementite and coar se pear lite. All t heses phases and micr o-const ituent s ar e r elatively soft
and ther efor e called softening treatment and produces relatively lower hardness values while ductility increases.
Types of Annealing process
Ther e ar e four t ypes of anneling pr ocess :
( i ) Full Annealing : Pr imar y object ive of t his pr ocess is t o r educe har dness and incr ease duct ilit y. The
pr ocess involves
(a) H eat ing t he st eel t o about 50 t o 75C above t he upper cr it ical t emper at ur e for hypoeut ect oid st eels
and above t he lower cr it ical t emper at ur e for hyper eut ect oid st eel.
(b) H olding it at t his t emper at ur e for a sufficient t ime depending upon t he t hickness of object t he holding
t ime is 3-4 min/mm of t hickness of t he lar gest sect ions.
(c) Slowly cooling in t he fur nace. The r at e of cooling var ies fr om 30C-200C per hour depending upon t he
composit ion and st abilit y of aust enit e, when slow cooling in done aust enit e is decompose int o coar se
pear lite and fer r it e st r uct ur es in hypoeut ect oid steels and in eutectoid st eels is conver ted int o pear lite.
Hyper -eutectoid steels may under go full annealing after hot wor king like cooling. Austenite decomposes
int o pear lit e and cement it e.
( ii ) Process Annealing : I t is usually car r ied out t o r emove t he effect s of cold wor king and t o soft er t o make
i t sui t abl e for fur t her pl ast i c defor mat i on as i n t he case of sheet and wi r e i ndust r i es. I t i s t he
r e-cr yst allizat ion of cold wor ked st eel by heat ing below cr it ical t emper at ur e. The exact t emper at ur e
depends upon t he ext ent of cold wor king gr ain size composition and holding time Dur ing r e-cr ystallization
t he defor med gr ains ar e r eor ient ed t o incr ease plast icit y and r emove int er nal st r esses. I t should be
not ed t hat t his pr ocess pr oduces no change in micr ost r uct ur e and t he pr ocess is pr imar ily used for l ow
car bon st eels.
(iii ) Spheroidise Annealing : This process is applied to high carbon steels which are difficult to machine. I t
causes formation of all carbides in the steel in the for m of ver y small globules or spheroids like spheres. The
process consists of heating the steel near the lower critical temperature (730-770C), holding at this temperature
and their cooling slowly to 600C. The rate of cooling in the furnace is 25-30C/hr. Varieties of heat treatment
can be used to produce a spheroidized structure but all of them are relatively lengthy and costly.
( iv) Diffusion Annealing : Diffusion annealing or homogenizing is applied t o alloy st eel ingot s and heavy
complex cast ings for eliminat ing t he chemical in homogeneit y wit hin t he separ at e cr yst als by diffusion.
H omogenizing is car r ied out at t emper at ur e 1000-1200C. The opt imum t emper at ur e being 1150C at
which diffusion pr oceeds quit e easily. The st eel is heat ed t o 1150C as t he highest r at e available for t he
fur nace. H ol di ng t i me i s k ept at mi ni mum, fol l owed by cool i ng wi t h t he fur nace for 6-8 hour s t o
800-850C and t hen fur t her cooling in air. Aft er H omogenizing cast ings under go full annealing t o r efine
t heir st r uct ur es. H igher t emper at ur es ar e select ed t o enable diffusion mor e and mor e.
3. N or mal i zi ng
M ain object s of nor malising
( i ) To r efine the gr ain str uctur e of the st eel to impr ove machinability, tensile str ength and str uctur e of weld.
( ii ) To r emove st r ains caused by cold wor king pr ocesses like hammer ing, r olling, bending et c., which makes
t he met al br it t le and unr eliable.
( iii ) To r emove dislocat ions caused in t he int er nal st r uct ur e of t he st eel due t o hot wor king.
( iv) To impr ove cer t ain mechanical and elect r ical pr oper t ies.
Process : I t is a final heat t r eat ment pr ocess which is given t o a pr oduct , which ar e subject ed t o r elat ively
high st r esses, t he pr ocess consist of heat ing st eel t o a t emper at ur e 40-50C above t he line which aust enit e is
st able, holding at t hat t emper at ur e for a shor t per iod and subsequent ly cooling in air at r oom t emper at ur e.
This is called air quenching, Nor malizing pr oduces micr o-st r uct ur es consist ing of fer r it e and pear lit e for
hypo-eut ect ic st eel and pear lit e and cement it e for hyper et ect oid st eels. This alloy st eel st r uct ur e consist of
fer r it e and sor bit e (medium pear lit e). Nor malizing r aises the yield point ultimate t ensile st r engt h and impact
st r engt h in st eels. Nor malized st eels ar e har der and st r onger but less duct ile t hen annealed st eels wit h t he
same composit ion.
 The upper cr it ical t emper at ur e for a st eel depends upon it s car bon cont ent . I t is 900C for pur e ir on, 860C
for steels with 2.2% carbon, 723C for steel with 0.8% car bon and 1130C for steel with 1.8% carbon.
 St eel cont aining 0.8% car bon is known as eut ect oid st eel. St eel cont aining less t han 0.8% car bon is called
hypoeut ect oid st eel and st eel cont aining above 0.8% car bon is called hyper eut ect oid st eel.
 Engineering Materials 2.17
Compar ison bet ween N ormalizing and Annealing
(i ) Nor malizing r equir es a heat ing r ange which is about 40C above t hat of annealing.
(ii ) M echanical pr oper t ies of st eels ar e bet t er t han t hose pr oduced by annealing.
(iii )H eat t r eat ment pr ocess is of shor t dur at ion due t o incr eased r at e of cooling of t he met al in air.
(iv) I f mechanical pr oper t ies is not t he main aim of t he heat t r eat ment , bet t er machinabilit y and r emoval of
int er nal st r esses is possible in annealing t hat obt ained by nor malizing.

4. H ar deni ng
H ar dening is a pr ocess in which st eel is heat ed t o aust enit e t emper at ur e held at t his t emper at ur e and t hen
quenched in wat er oil or molt en salt bat hs. H ypoeut ect oid st eels ar e heat ed fr om 30-50C above t he Upper
Cr it ical Temper at ur e (UCT), while hyper eut ect oid st eels ar e heat ed above t he lower cr it ical t emper at ur e
(LCT).
Cool i ng at a r at e hi gher t hen t he cr i t i cal val ue enabl es t he aust enit e t o super cool ed t o mar t ensit e point .
Due t o r api d cool i ng car bon fr eezes at i t s l ocat i on and t he mi cr ost r uct ur e appear s l i k e col l idal sol ut i on of
cement i t e i s fer r it e. Thi s mi cr ost r uct ur e i s cal l ed mar t ensit e whi ch i s ver y har d and br it t l e. har dened st eel
i s ver y br i t t l e and can not be used for pr act i cal pur poses. Aft er har deni ng st eel must be t emper ed t o r educe
br it t leness r elieve t he inter nal st r esses caused by har dening and t o obt ain t he desir ed mechanical pr oper t ies
of st eel s i n case of t ool st eel s i t i ncr eases t he har dness and wear r et ai ning t he t oughness at t he same t i me.
I n case of st r uct ur al st eel , i t i mpr oves st r engt h, duct i l i t y and t oughness.

St ages of H ardening
H ar dening is car r ied out in t hr ee st ages :
(i ) H eat ing t he object t o a t emper at ur e above t he cr it ical point .
(ii ) H olding t he object at t his t emper at ur e for a definit e per iod.
(iii )Quenching in a suit able medium.
Hardening process is based upon metallurgical reaction of eutectoid, which depend upon following factors :
( i ) Adequate C-content : I n or der t o pr oduce har d st r uct ur es like mar t ensit e, at least 0.5% C must be
pr esent . Car bon incr eases har dness and upt o 1% wear r esist ance sur face is obt ained. These ar e some
alloys which r emain dissolved in t he aust enit e and become ver y har d dur ing decomposit ion of aust enit e
t o mar t ensit e.
( ii ) Austenite decomposition : TTT diagr am r elat es t he decomposit ion of aust enit e wit h r espect t o t ime
and t emper at ur e condit ions. This diagr am explains t he decomposit ion of aust enit e t o var ious st r uct ur al
component s like pear lit e, banit e and mar t ensit e.
( iii ) H eating rate and H eating time : These on composit ion of st eel, it s st r uct ur e, r esidual st r esses, for m
and size of t he par t t o be har dened. I f heat ing r at e is t oo high t her e will be a t emper at ur e gr adient
bet ween sur face and t he cor e, t he best way is t o fir st heat t o t he r equir ed t emper at ur e and hold it at t hat
t emper at ur e t he heat ing t ime for car bon t ool st eels and medium alloy st r uct ur al st eel is 25-50% mor e
t han for C-st r uct ur al st eels. For high alloy st r uct ur al st eels and t ool st eels it should be 50-100% higher.
H eat ing in salt bat hs may be conduct ed mor e unifor mly and r apidly t han heat ing in box fur naces.
( iv) Quenching medium : Quenching must pr ovide for a cooling r ate above the cr itical value to prevent austenite
decomposition into pear lite and intermediate regions. On the martensitic transfor mation temperature r ange,
cooling should be slower to avoid high internal stresses, distortion and cr acking the most widely employed
quenching media are water aqueous solution, oil, air and molt en salt . Wat er and aqueous solut ion, are
most widely used as quenching media in hardening car bon and certain low alloy steels which have a high
cooling rate (cr itical).
(v) Quenching rate (200 C/min) : I t depends upon quenching medium. H igher t he quenching r at e, mor e
is t he t emper at ur e gr adient bet ween cor e and t he sur face.
( vi ) Size and Rate : L ong ar t icles of cylindr ical and ot her cr oss-sect ion should be quenched wit h t heir main
axis per pendicular t o t he bot h sur face t hin and flat ar t icle, should be immer sed an edge. The dir ect ion of
movement dur ing cooling should coincide wit h t he dir ect ion of immer sion. H eavy maximum ar t icles
should be held st at ionar y and t he liquid should be agit at ed.
(vii ) Surface condition : When a par t of a surface is quenched in water only its surface is in contact and the heat
is dissipated from the par t to the water thr ough surface only. Cooling rate depends upon the surface ar ea of
the par t.
2.18 Engineering Materials

5. Tem per i n g
M ar t ensit e which is for med dur ing quenching is t oo br it t le and hence Austenite
cannot be used in many cases, t he r esidual st r esses ar e also developed
723
dur ing mar t ensit e for mat i on hence har deni ng should be fol lowed by 700 Spheroidite

Temperature  (°C)
t emper i ng. Temper i ng consi st i n heat i ng t he har dened st eel t o a
temper atur e below the lower cr itical t emper at ur e holding it for sometime 500 Sorbite
and t hen cooling slowly. I t is t he final oper at ion in heat t r eat ment .
300 Troosite
Temper ing r efer s t o secondar y heat ing of mar t ensit e obtained by a r apid
cooling of aust enit e. Dur ing t his pr ocess, no change of phase t akes place 100 Martensite
because t he t emper at ur e i s never r ai sed beyond t he l ower cr i t i cal
t emper at ur e (723C). This pr ocess har dens t he st eel wit h r educt ion in Original state
st r engt h; al so, i t adds t o t he t oughness and duct il i t y. The di ffer ent F i g . T e m p er i n g o f m a r t en si t e
st r uct ur es, indicated in t he figur e r esult fr om t he disper sion of car bides.

Advantages of Tempering :
(i ) Residual st r esses ar e r elieved
(ii ) Duct ilit y is impr oved
(iii )Toughness is incr eased
Higher the temper ing temperature, more the r esidual str esses. Hardness is reduced and toughness is incr eased
at high temper ing temperatur e. The work is cooled slowly after tempering. The cooling r ate consider ably affect
the r esidual stresses. The slower the cooling, lesser will be the stresses. Rapid cooling in water develops new
thermal stresses.

Types of Tempering
Temper ing is classified accor ding t o t he t emper ing t emper at ur e, because it has much effect on pr oper t ies of
st eel .
( i ) H igh temperature tempering (Sorbite) : I t is employed at 500-650C. The r esult ing st r uct ur e consist
of sor bit e which gives good st r engt h and t oughness. Residual st r esses ar e complet ely r elieved if holding
t emper at ur e is 100-120C t he holding t ime can be incr eased t o give desir ed pr oper t ies t o st eel.
( ii ) M edium temperature tempering (Troosite) : This t ype of t emper ing is employed at 350-500C t he
r esult ing st eel st r uct ur e consist of t emper ed t r oost it e. This pr ocess incr eases endur ance limit and elast ic
limit . Aft er t emper ing t he wor k is cooled in wat er t hen by incr easing t he endur ance limit in case of
spr ings. This pr ocess is used for spr ing st eel and die st eels.
(iii ) Low temperature tempering : The temper atur e employs at 250C and the holding time is 1-3 hr s. This
pr ocess r educes int er nal st r esses incr eases st r engt h and t oughness and pr ovides high wear r esist ance.
This met hod is employed in manufact ur e of measur ing t ools and cut t ing t ools. This is also employed t o
t he component s which ar e sur face har dened by car bur izing nit r iding or car bo-nit r iding.

6. Case H ar deni ng
H ar d sur faces ar e pr oduced on r elat ively soft cor es by case har dening. The par t s which ar e subject ed t o wear
and impact ar e har dened by sur face t r eat ment , har d sur face has good wear r esist ance and t he soft cor e has
good t oughness. Since mild st eels can not be har dened by quenching, so t her e st r engt h is incr eased by case
har dening. A har d wear r esist ance sur face is called case and r elat ively soft and t ough inside is called cor e.

Case hardening Techniques

I . F ow Low carbon st eel
( i ) Car bur izing
I t i s appl i ed t o l ow Car bon st eel up t o 0.18% car bon. I n car bur i zi ng t he car bon cont ent of t he sur face
l ayer i s i ncr eased t he pur pose i s t o obt ai n a har d layer on t he wor k pi ece suface aft er heat t r eat ment s.
The sur face l ayer i s enr i ched wi t h car bon upt o 1%. Car bur i zi ng i s fol l owed by har deni ng and l ow
t emper at ur e t emper i ng. L ow C-st eel i s heat ed upt o 870  C i n t he at mospher i c whi ch cont ai n
car bon.
Fe + 2CO  FeC + CO2
Fe3C i s aust eni t e wi t h di ssol ve car bon at 870C, maxi mum amount of car bon can be dissolved i n
aust enit e.
 Engineering Materials 2.19
Car bur izing is per for med in t he following ways :
( a ) Pack Carburizing : The par t s ar e sur r ounded by car bur izing mixt ur e and packed in a st eel box which
is t ight ly cover ed and sealed wit h clay on all sides t o pr event ent r y or exit of gases. The cont ainer is
heat ed t o pr oper t emper at ur e for t he r equir ed amount of t ime. The t emper at ur e is gener ally 950-
1000C and t ime is 6-8 hr s. higher t emper at ur es ar e select ed t o enable diffusion mor e and mor e. The
car bon diffuses int o low C-st eel dur ing t his t ime t he car bur ising mixt ur e consist of 50% good Char coal
20% BaCO3, 5% CaCO3 and 5-12% Na2CO3.
Bar ium car bonat e act s as ener gizer it incr eases t he act ion of car bon on low C-st eel. The car bur izing
mixt ur e is in t he for m of coar se par t icles so t hat sufficient air is t r apped, visual t he cont ainer t o for m
Co. I n 2 CO  CO2 + C (at omic st at e). This at omic st at e car bon diffuses int o aust enit e. The addit ion of
car bonat es act ivat es t he car bur izer t o for m t he at mospher e of CO.
When heat ing per iod is over t he boxes ar e cool down t o 450-500C and t hen opened. The car bur ized
par t s ar e t aken out and quenched if r equir ed. This met hod is bat ch pr oduct ion met hod.
Disadvant ages :
(1) H igh labour cost for packing and unpacking.
(2) I t is difficult t o quench dir ect ly fr om car bur ising t emper at ur e.
(3) M uch t ime is needed in heat ing and cooling.
( b) Gas Carburising : The wor k is t r eat ed in a medium of gases cont aining CO and hydr ocar bon gases
such as CH 4. Pr opane but ane et c. nat ur al gas is also used which gives ver y high qualit y of car bur ized
case these gases ar e mixed with definite amount of air which pr ovides O2 and for ms CO fr om hydr ocar bon
gases. Wor k pieces ar e heat ed in an at mospher e of r egulat ing car bur izing gases. The t emper at ur e,
maint ained is gener ally 930-950C and t he holding t ime is 3-12 hr s depending upon t he t hickness of the
case t he chief r eact ion of car bur ising is t he dissociat ion of met hane and CO.
This at omic st age of C diffuses int o aust enit e t his pr ocess may be per for med in cont inuous fur naces.
The wor k pieces ar e placed in t he fur nace such t hat t he gases will have easy access t o t he sur face to be
car bur ized. The wor k pieces ar e t hen cool down t o r oom t emper at ur e and fur t her heat t r eat ment can
be done aft er war ds. This pr cess has many advant ages over pack car bur izing and hence it is ext ensively
used t he pr ocess can be made fully aut omat ic.
Advant ages :
(1) H igh qualit y car bur ized case can be pr oduced. (2) H eat consumed is less.
(3) Time consume is also less. (4) Pr ocess is clean.
(5) Pr oduct ion cost is low. (6) Closer qualit y limit s can be achieved.
(7) Ther e is mor e flexibilit y of oper at ion.
( c) Liquid Carburising : I n this pr ocess, molt en stat e bath containing 20% NaCN is used. Cyanide pr ovides
C and N. The t emper at ur e is maint ained at 950C. The pr ocess consist of heat ing t he wor k pieces in
molt en bat h at 950C. At t his high t emper at ur e C and small amount of N ar e diffused in t he sur face of
wor k pieces and t he case is har dened. The only disadvant ages t hat t he cost of car bur izing salt is ver y
high.
( ii ) N i t r iding
I n nit r iding nit r ogen cont ent of t he sur face is incr eased. This is done by heating t he st eel in t he at mospher e
of NH 3 gas t he par t s t o be nit r ided ar e placed in an air t ight cont ainer. NH 3 is passed cont inuous t hr ough
t he wor k pieces at a t emper at ur e of 500 t o 650C.
This at omic st at e of nit r ogen diffuses int o st eel sur faces and r eact wit h alloys of st eel making a case
cont aining t he alloy nit r ides. Thus pr esence of alloying element s such as Al, Cr, M o et c. is necessar y, in
or der t o obt ain a case of maximum har dness medium. C-st eel cont aining 3% of alloying element s pr oduces
har dest case on t he st eel sur face.
M ost common size of nitr iding case is 0.3 to 5 mm thick, it requires 30-40 hrs at 500-520C. The time can be
reduced by using a double state pr ocess in which the work is first heated at 500-520C and then at 550-600C for
the nitr iding process. After nitriding the wor k is cooled in the furnace in the spring of ammonia.
Advant ages :
(a) I t incr eases har dness of sur face layer which is har der as compar ed t o car bur ising.
(b) I t incr eases wear r esist ance, endur ance limit and r esist ance t o cor r osion.
(c) No heat t r eat ment is r equir ed aft er nit r iding.
U ses :
I t is used dur ing manufact ur e of gear s component s of machine t ools cylinder s of power ful engines, cylinder
liner s, gauges, cams, values et c.
2.20 Engineering Materials
Disadvant ages :
(a) Case pr oduced is br it t le.
(b) Pr ocess is cost ly compar ed t o car bur ising.
( iii ) Cyaniding
I t is a case of high har dness and wear r esist ance is pr oduced on C-alloy st eels. Wor k is immer sed in molt en
salt bat h cont aining NaCN, which is heat ed t o 820-860C. This is usually followed by wat er quenching. The
cyanide bath consists of 20-30% NaCN, 25-50% NaCl and 25-50% Na2CO3. The time r equir ed is 30-90 minutes
depending upon t he dept h of case which is 0.15-0.5 mm.
At omic C diffused int o st eel. The wor k can be dir ect ly quenched as soon as it is t aken out of bat h, Then low
t emper at ur e t emper ing is done at 200C.
The case obtained by cyaniding is of high wear r esistants and endur ances limit compar ed to car bur ising.
Case har dness var ies in t he following sequence
N it riding > Cyaniding > Carburizing
Cyaniding is used to produce light cases on small parts like small shafts, worms, gears, nuts, springs, pins etc.
( iv) H igh t emperat ure or Deep cyaniding
A deeper or t hick case of 0.5-2 mm is obt ained by heat ing t he wor k piece in a salt bat h at 930-360C for
1.5-6 hrs depending upon the depth of case required. The bath consist of 82% BaCl 2, 8% NaCN and 10% NaCl.
This atomic C and N diffuse into steel after deep cyaniding. The wor k is cooled in air to r efine the gr ains. The
wor k is again har dened and quenched, this is followed by low temper at ur e temper ing at 200C.
Advant ages :
(a) I t r equir es less t ime t han car bur ising.
(b) Ther e is less dist or t ion of t he wor k piece.
(c) Resist ance t o cor r osion and wear is high.
Disadvant ages :
(a) H igh cost .
(b) Cyaniding bat h is t oxic, hence wor ker needs pr ot ect ion.
(v) Carbo-nit r iding (Gas Cyaniding)
A mixt ur e of ammonia and hydr ocar bon gas is used. The wor k is heat ed t o 850C in t he mixt ur e for
2-10 hrs. This is followed by quencing and then tempering is employed at 180C. Martempering can also be
employed instead of low temperature tempering. Both Carbon and Nitrogen diffuses simultaneously with Carbon
diffusing at a higher rate than nitrogen. The alloying elements form car bides and nitrides with Carbon and
Nitrogen. The car bides and nitr ides lower the stability of austenite and troostite is formed in the case. This
reduces endurances limit, ductility and toughness of the steel.
Advant ages :
(a) I t is per for med at lower t emper at ur e (850-870C) as compar ed t o Car bur izing (930-950C).
(b) H igher r esist ance t o cor r osion and wear.
(c) Oper ation is clean and ther e is no soot on wor kpiece when compar ed with liquid cyaniding. Hence
medium and lar ge size wor k can be pr ocessed.
(d) Nit r ogen and Car bon cont ent s in t he case can be cont r olled.
(e) Toxic salt s ar e not r equir ed.
(f) The wor k can be machined.
I I . For M edium carbon steel
( i ) I nduct ion H ar dening
This pr ocess is employed t o incr ease har dness, wear r esist ance and endur ances limit of t he sur face of t he
wor k piece. H eat t r eat ment is given t o t he sur face only by supplying excessive heat t o t he sur face followed
by dr ast ic quenching. The sur face is heat ed t o t he aust enit e r ange and t hen quenched immediat ely t o for m
mar t ensit e. The st r uct ur e of cor e r emains unchanged because it is not effect ed by heat . The component s
should cont ain 0.4-0.5% car bon or sufficient alloying element s as chr omium Ni, or M o. The wor k is placed
in H elical coils called induct or. The coil consist of sever al t ur ns of wat er cooled cut ubing. Alt er nat e cur r ent
is passed t hr ough t he induct or and t hus alt er nat e magnet ic field sets up. The field induces eddy cur r ent s on
t he sur face layer s and heat is gener at ed. The cur r ent densit y is not unifor m t hr ough out t he cr oss-sect ion
of t he wor k piece. H eat ing r at e in t he r ange of t r ansfor mat ion t emper at ur es is upt o 300C/sec and if it is
250C/sec it is 900C.
I nduct ion har dening can be per for med in t hr ee ways :
( a ) Whole wor k sur face is heat ed at one t ime and quenched. This pr ocedur e is used for har dening sur faces
of small component s like shaft s and shar ps of t ools.
 Engineering Materials 2.21
( b) Sect ions of wor k ar e heat ed and quenched consequent ly. This pr ocedur e is used for har dening
gener als of Cank shaft t eet h of gear s and cams of cam shaft .
( c) Wor k in made t o t r avel wit h r espect t o st at ionar y induct or or vice ver sa and spr ay quenching is
done. This pr ocedur e is used for har dening long shaft s and axles. Gener ally induct ion heat ing is
followed by low t emper at ur e t emper ing at about 180C.
Advant ages :
(a) Time r equir ed is ver y small hence t he pr ocess is ver y quick and pr oduct ivit y is high.
(b) Scale i s not for med hence machining t ime is saved mor eover mat er ial is not l ost due t o scale
for mat ion.
(c) Pr ocess can be aut omat ed.
(d) Dept h of har dness can be cont r olled easily.
(e) Dist or t ion is r educed.
(f) Due t o high speed gr ain gr owt h decar bur ising do not occur.
(g) Bot h ext er nal and int er nal sur faces can be har dened.
(h) I t is an efficient mass pr oduct ion met hod. Almost all component s can be unifor mly har dened i.e. t he
qualit y of all t he component s is unifor m.
(i ) Where ever required the hardering can be localised and there is no need to protect the remaining surfaces.
Disadvant ages :
Each t ype of wor k piece r equir es differ ent fixt ur es for it s holding, wher eas differ ent wor k pieces can be
t r eat ed at one t ime in car bur izing and nit r iding.
U ses :
I t i s most l y used i n i ndust r y for har deni ng sur faces of cam shaft , cr ank shaft gear s, aut omobil e
component s, cold r olling mills, splined shaft , cr ane wheels, spindles, br ake dr ums et c.
( ii ) F lame H ardening
The pr ocess consi st s of heat ing t he sur face of medium car bon st eel by t emper at ur e gas fl ame at
240C-3300C and immediat ely cooling in air or in wat er. H eat may be supplied by oxyacet ylene t or ch.
The fuel used by t he flame may be oxyacet ylene, nat ur al gas or der osene t he flame r apidly impar t s
lar ge amount of heat t o t he sur face. The heat is supplied so quickly t o t he sur face and for so shor t t ime
t he cor e r emains unaffect ed.
As soon as t he desir ed t emper at ur e is achieved, wat er is immediat ely spr ayed which cools t he sur face.
By pr oper contr ol of heating and cooling oper ation the cor e is not affected by the tr eatment. The thickness
of har dened l ayer is 2-4 mm and it s st r uct ur e i s mar t ensit e. The st r uct ur e of under l ine layer s is
t r oost omar t ensit e.
Advant ages :
(a) Ther e is pr act ically no dist or t ion of t he wor k piece because only small sect ions of t he wor k piece ar e
heat ed.
(b) As heat ing r at e is high, t he wor k sur face r emains clean.
(c) Pr ocess can easily be aut omat ed.
(d) Pr ocess is mor e efficient for lar ge wor k as compar ed t o induct ion heat ing. I t s is ver y economical for
lar ge wor k.
Disadvant ages :
(a) Ver y t hin sect ions may get dist or t ed ext ensively.
(b) Over heat ing may cause cr ack.
U ses :
To incr ease wear r esist ance and sur face har dness of pist on pins, lar ge gear s, hand t ools shaft s, cams,
mill r olls et c.
Age H ar dening and Pr ecipit at ion H ar dening
The pr ocess of har dening is applicable only for t hose alloys t hat exist as a t wo-phase mat er ial at t he r oom
t emper at ur e and can be heat ed up t o a single phase. The phase diagr am of one such alloy is shown in t he figur e
below Assuming t hat t he composit ion is 3% Cu and 97% Al, t he alloy exist s as a t wo-phase mat er ial (+ ) below
a t emper at ur e 1. H owever, bet ween 1and 2, it exist s as a single-phase solid solut ion (). A solut ion heat
t r eat ment pr ocess consist s in heat ing t he alloy t o a t emper at ur e bet ween 1and 3. Also, a sufficient t ime is
given at t his t emper at ur e for t he mat er ial t o homogenize. A subsequent r apid quenching does not allow all t he
 -phase t o separ at e out . Thus, solut ion becomes super sat ur at ed. This super sat ur at ed  -phase pr ecipit at es
slowly, t he t at e being dependent on t he final t emper at ur e aft er quenching. The pr ecipit at ion t akes place at t he
gr ain boundar ies and cr yst allogr aphic planes, making t he slippage of at omic layer s mor e difficult . Thus, alloy
becomes har der and st r onger.
2.22 Engineering Materials
I f pr ecipitation takes place at the r oom temper atur e, a longer time is necessar y for the completion of pr ecipitation,
t his pr ocess is called age hardening.
I f pr ecipitation r at e is incr eased by quenching the specimen to a temper atur e higher t han t he r oom temper at ur e,
t hen pr ocess is cal led precipitation hardening.

Fig. Principle of precipitation hardening

Defects due to H eat Treatment of Steels
(i ) Over heating (ii ) Bur ning
(iii ) Decar bur ization (iv) Excessive har dness of hot wor ked annealed st eel
(v) Black fr act ur e (vi ) Quenching cr acks
(vii ) Defor mation and volume change after hardening; (viii ) Warping
(ix) I nsufficient har dness aft er quenching (x) Soft spot s
(xi ) Excessive har dness aft er t emper ing (xii ) I nsufficient har dness aft er t emper ing
(xiii ) Er osion (xiv) Cor r osi on.

CLASSI FI CATI ON OF EN GI N EERI N G M ATERI ALS

Engi neer i ng mat er i als may be classi fi ed int o t he fol lowi ng
1. M et als
M et als ar e element subst ances t hat give up elect r ons t o for m met allic bonds and conduct elect r icit y. When
t wo or mor e pur e met als ar e melt ed t oget her t o for m a new met al it s pr oper t ies ar e quit e differ ent fr om
t hose of t he or iginal met als, it is called an alloy.
M et als possess specific pr oper t ies like plast icit y, st r engt h, lust r e, har dness, r esist ance t o cor r osion, t her mal
and elect r ical conduct ivit y, malleabilit y, st iffness, t he pr oper t y of magnet ism, et c.
M et al s
Act ually pur e met als ar e r ar ely used but ar e allowed t o get desir able pr oper t ies for t he applicat ion.
Proper t ies of met als
( i ) Tensile st rengt h
I t is t he pr oper t y of a mat er ial t o wit hst and st r et ching for ce. I t can be found by st r et ching a specimen of
a mat er ial on a t est ing machine by applying known values of t he tensile load and measur ing the r esulting
ext ension of t he specimen unt il t he mat er ial fr act ur es.
M at er ials may have differ ent values of st r engt h when t est ed in t ension, compr ession and shear.
( ii ) Toughness
This is t he abilit y of a met al t o wit hst and shock loading. Toughness may be measur ed by subject ing a
t est specimen t o sudden loads using a machine designed for t he pur pose. The machine is capable of
measur ing t he amount of ener gy r equir ed t o br eak t he t est piece.
( iii ) D uct il it y
This is t he abilit y possessed by a met al t o wit hst and dr awing (st r et ching) wit hout showing sings of
fr act ur e. Ductility r efer s to t he amount a metal will extend befor e br eaking when under a tensile load.
The manufactur e of wir e, wher e a metal has t o be dr awn down fr om one diameter to another depends on
the ductility possessed by a met al.
( iv) M alleabilit y
This is the abilit y possessed by a met al t o withst and compr essive for ces without showing signs of fractur e.
M et als t hat have t o be pr essed or dr awn int o shapes must be duct ile.
(v) H ar dness
I t is t he abilit y of a mat er ial t o wit hst and sur face wear. H ar dness may be measur ed by subject ing t he
sur face of t he met al t o pr essur e fr om a st eel ball or point er.
 Engineering Materials 2.23

H ardness testing
( a ) Vickers diamond pyramid test : This method uses a squre based diamond pyramid to make an indentation
in the surface of the metal. The square impression is measur ed using a micr oscope and a hardness number
is calculated.
applied load
Vicker s pyr amid har dness number =
Area and impression
Because of t he smallness of t he indent at ions component s wit h a polished sur face finish may be t est ed
wit hout not iceable damage t o t he sur face. Above a har dness value of 500, t he Vicker s t est is mor e
accur at e, because t her e is less chance of t he diamond defor ming under heavier loads as would be t he
case when using a st eel ball.
( b) Rockwell test : I n the test either a steel ball or a diamond cone ar e used as the indentor. I f a steel ball is
used, it is refer red to as scale B, if a diamond cone, scale C or A depending upon the load used.
The har dness value is shown on a dial and as no measur ement of t he impr ession is necessar y, t his
met hod is ver y useful for quick r out ine har dness checking of component s.
( c) Brinell test : I n t his t est , a har dness st ell ballis for ced int o t he specimen under t est by means of a
suitable standar d load. The diamet er of t he impr ession made by t he ball is measur ed using a micr oscope
and t he r esult ant har dness value is found by calculat ion.
Applied load P
Br iness har dness number, H = =
Area of impression 1 LM e
D D – D 2 – d 2 j OPQ
kg mm

wher e, P = load in kilogr ammes.

2 N
D = diamet er of t he ball in maillimet er s
d = diamet er of t he impr ession in millimet er s.
( d ) Shore scleroscope test : I n t his t est , an indent or weighing 25g is cont ained wit hin a glass t ube and
allowed t o fall fr eely down t his t ube fr om a height of 250 mm. The r ebound of t he indent or up t he t ube
is measur ed fr om gr aduat ions on t he t ube and t his is t aken as an index of har dness.

Classificat ion of M et als

M et als may be fur t her subdivided as
( i ) Ferrous metals : e.g. cast ir on, wr ought ir on and st eel) and alloys (e.g. silicon st eel, high speed st eel,
spr ing st eel et c.
( ii ) N on-ferrous metals : e.g. copper, aluminium, zinc, lead etc. alloys br ass, br onze, dur alumin etc.
The ir on gr oup which includes all ir ons and st eels ar e called fer r ous met als (fer r ous ir on), whilst ot her s ar e
specified as non-fer r ous.
N on M etals
Commonly adopt ed non-met allic mat er ials ar e leat her, r ubber, asbest os and plast ic.
Difference bet ween M et als and N on-met als
S. N . Property M etals N on-M etals
1. Str uct ur e All solid metals have crystalline st ructure. Exist in amorphic or measomophic forms
2. Excit at ion of valence Easy Difficult
elect r on by E.M .F.
(electronmotive force)
3. St at e Gener ally solids at r oom t emper at ur e Gases and solid at ordinary temperature
4. L ust r e Possess met allic lust r e Do not posses met allic lust r e (except
iodine and gr aphit e)
5. Conduct ivit y Good conduct or of heat and elect r icit y Bad conduct or s of heat and elect r icit y
6. M al l eabi l it y M al leabl e Not malleable
7. Ductilit y Duct ile Not duct ile
8. H ar dness Generally har d H ar dness var ies
9. Elect r olysi s For m anion For m anions
10. Densit y H igh densit y L ow densit y
2.24 Engineering Materials

2. Cer amics
Cer amics ar e compounds of met allic and non-met allic element s. M ost of t hem ar e oxides e.g., silica, Al 2O3,
M gO, concr et e, silicon car bide, bor on nit r ide, fer r it es, gar net s, et c.
Cer amic mat er ials ar e a diver se gr oup of non-met allic, inor ganic solids wit h a wide r ange of composi t ions
and pr oper t ies. Their st r uct ur e may be eit her cr yst alline of glassy. Cer amic includes all pr oduct s made fr om
fir ed clay, such a br icks, t iles, fir eclaly r efr act or ies and elect r ical por celain.
Clay is r eally a t her moset t ing mat er ial. I n t he r aw st at e, it s molecules ar e ar r anged in layer s which ar e
separ at ed by molecules of wat er. This allows t he layer s t o glide over each ot her, leading t o t he char act er ist ic
plast icit y of unfir ed clay. Fir ing dr ives off t he wat er molecules and at t he same t ime, st r ong chemical links
for m bet ween t he layer s, so t hat t he day becomes har d and r igid. Since t he change is not r ever sible, clay
cannot be soft ened again once fir ed, and it is t hus a t her moset t ing mat er ial.
Advant ages of Cer amics
( i ) Refr act or iness, or abilit y t o wit hst and high t emper at ur es wit hout det er ior at ion
( ii ) St r engt h and r igidit y at high t emper at ur e ( iii ) Fr eedom fr om cr eep at high t emper at ur e
( iv) H ar dness r esist ance t o wear and br it t leness (v) Resist ance t o abr asion
Some high-temperature Ceramics

Subst ance Chemical name M elting point (C) Characteristics and U ses
Alumina Aluminium oxide 2050 Widely used in spar k-plugs, cutting-tools, cr ucibles,
pyr ometer -sheaths, gauges (with a life twenty times
t hat of st eel) sur face-plat es for pr ecision- checking
equipment .
Ber yllia Ber yllium oxide 2350 Cr ucible for special mat er ials, as a moder at or in
high t emper at ur e nuclear r eact or s.
Magnesta M agnesium oxide 2800 Refractory material, furnace-linings and crucibles.
Thor ia Thor ium oxide 3050 Not used much, because it is ‘fissionable’
Zir coma Xir conium oxide 2690 Used in t he ‘stablised’ for m, liner s for jet and r ocket
motor tubes, facing high-temper atur e furnace walls.
Tool mat er i al s
Some cut t ing t ools ar e der ived fr om a mor e or less pur e cer amic base. These subst ances possess gr eat
har dness and good compr essive st r engt hs, even at high t emper at ur e, t hough, compar ed wit h met als, t heir
t ensile st r engt h is low, and t ools made fr om t hem ar e r elat ively br it t le. Cer amic t ools can be used at higher
cut t ing speeds t han can har d met als, but t hey ar e par t icular ly useful in cut t ing t ough mat er ials such as
plast ics, r ubber and wood, as well as met als. Cer amic bodies used for t his pur pose include sint er ed high-
pur it y alumina (cor undum), bor on car bide, r ecr yst allised silicon car bide (car bor undum), alumina bonded
wit h glass and ot her mat er ials. Gr inding wheels ar e usually composed of abr asive par t icles of alumina or
silicon car bide, bonded, wit h such mat er ials as clay, quar t z, or felspar.
Cer met s
To get mat er ials having high melt ing point , st r engt hened r igidit y at high t emper at ur e, shock r esist ance, a
combinat ion of met als and cer amics in suit able combinat ion is obt ained by power -met allur y met hods. I n this
powder s of suit able par t icle size ar e t hor oughly mixed in t he cor r ect pr opor t ions and ar e t hen compr essed in
dir es, at high pr essur e. A degr ee of cold-welding occur s bet ween t he met al par t icles in t he mixt ur e. Gr ain-
gr owt h occur s acr oss t he boundr ies of t he minut e welds and knit s t oget her t he met al par t icles, giving a
t ough and cont inuous st r uct ur e. H ar d r igid cer amic par t icles ar e t hen bonded in a t ough met allic mat r ix.
I f a mat er i al of consi der abl e r igi di t y at high t emper at ur es
is r equir ed, t hen pr opor t ion of cer amic may need t o be high,
in or der t hat t he r esult ant cer met will not defor m.
( i ) Low ceramic-content : Cer met defor ms in compr ession.
( ii ) H igh cer ami c-cont ent : Cer m et wi t hst an ds comp
r essive loads and is also t ough
( iii )M et al fibr es impr ove t he t ensi l e st r engt h, but t he
mat er ial is also r igid, due t o t he cer amic body. Fig. Composite materials
 Engineering Materials 2.25
U ses :
Cer met s gener ally ar e suit able for uses such as lamp filament s, air cr aft jet - engine par t s, gas-t ur bine
par t s, r ocket -engine component s, cut t i ng, dr il li ng, and gr i nding t ools, fr ict i on par t s nclear -power
applicat ions, heat ing- element s, bear ings and magnet ic-cor e mat er ials
Some Cer met s
Par ticle mater ial Bond Structural type Characteristics and uses
Flake silver or copper Gaphit e L aminat ed Cur r ent br ushes-low fr ict ion
Alumina (70%) Chromium (30%) Bonded par t icles Ver y suit able for high-t emper at ur e ser vice,
Good r esist ance t o impact and t her mal shock .
M agnesia Nick el Flame sprayed heat- Applicable to stainless steels, alloy steels and inco-
r esist ant coat ing nel-to raise the working temperature by about 80C.
Alumina (40 – 70%) I r on (30 – 60%) Bonded par t icles Tur bine blades
M olybdenum bor ide Nick el Bonded pat icles Cut t ing-t ools for machining t it anium
Tit anium car bide Var ious alloys Bonded par t icles I n air craft engines where r efract oriness, t hermal
cont aining shock -r esist ance and r esist ance t o oxidat ion ar e
M o, AI and Cr necessary.
Tungst en car bide or Cobal t Bonded par t icles Cut t ing-t ools for most mat er ial, including
Tit anium car bide masonr y and glass met al-for ming dies.

Cer m et s ar e t ool m at er i al s wh i ch con si st s of ext r em el y h ar d, abr asion-r esist ant par t icles held
t oget her by a st r ong, shock-r esist ant bonding mat er ials. The most widely used and best known consist s
of particles of tungsten car bide bonded with tough, strong cobalt, though car bides of t it anium or t ant alum
ar e somet i mes used i nst ead of t ungst en car bide.

Fig. Type of structure in a tungsten carbide/cabalt cermet. Particles of tungsten

carbide (white) in cobalt matrix (black ) (x 100)
F ilament -r einfor ced cer amics
These ar e cer met s in which a har d, r igid cer amic body is r einfor ced wit h st r ands of t ough, shock-
r esist ant met al.

3. Or ganic M at er ials
These mater ials are der ived directly from carbon. They usually consist of carbon chemically combined with
hydrogen, oxygen or other non-metallic substances. I n many instances their structures ar e fair ly complex.
Common or gani c mat er ials
Plast ics and Synt het ic r ubber s ar e called polymer s because t hey ar e ter med by polymer izat ion r eact ion
in which r elat ively simple molecules ar e chemically combined int o massive long-chain molecules or
t hr ee dimensional st r uct ur e.
Or ganic mat er ials :
(i ) Plast ics : PVC, PTFE , polyt hene,
(ii ) Fibr es : t er ylene, nylon, cot t on, nat ur al and synt het ic r ubber s, leat her, et c.
Composi t es
(1) M et als and alloys and cer amics
(i ) St eel r einfor ced concr et e (ii ) Disper sion har dened alloys
(2) M et als and alloys and or ganic polymer s
(i ) Vinyl- coat ed st eel (ii ) Whisker -r einfor ced plastics
(3) Cer amics and or ganic polymer s
(i ) Fiber -r einfor ced plastic (ii ) Car bon-r einfor ced r ubber.
2.26 Engineering Materials

N ON -M E TALLI C M ATERI ALS

These ar e used in engineer ing pr actice due to their low density, low cost, flexibility, r esistant to heat and electr icity.

Commonly used N on-met allic mat er ials

1. Pl ast i cs
These ar e synt het ic mat er ials which ar e moulded int o shape under pr essur e wit h or wit hout t he applicat ion
of heat . These can also be cast , r olled, ext r uded, laminat ed and machined.
Types of Plastics
(i ) Thermosetting plastics : The t her moset t ing plast ics ar e t hose which ar e for med int o shape under
heat and pr essur e and r esult s in a per manent ly har d pr oduct . The heat fir st soft ens t he mat er ial, but as
addit ional heat and pr essur e is applied, it becomes har d by a chemical change called phenol-for maldehyde
(Bakelit e), phenol-fur fur al (Dur it e), ur ea-for maldehyde (Plaskon), et c.
(ii ) Thermoplastic. The thermoplastic materials do not become hard with the application of heat and pressure
and no chemical change occurs. They remain soft at elevated temperatures until they are hardened by cooling.
These can be remelted repeatedly by successive application of heat. common thermoplastics are
Cellulose nit r at e (Celluloid), polyt hene, polyvinyl acet at e, polyvinyl chlor ide (P.V.C.) et c.
The plastics are extremely r esistant to cor rosion and have a high dimensional stability.
U ses :
(a) manufacture of aeroplane and automobile parts.
(b) For making safety glasses, laminated gear s, pulleys, self-lubricating bearing etc., due to their resilience
and strength.
Polymer s
M ost solid subst ances-met als, salt s and miner als-exist in a
pur ely cr yst alline for m, i.e. at oms or ions of which t hey ar e
composed ar e ar r anged in some r egular geomet r ic pat t er n.
This is gener ally possible because at oms (or ions) ar e small
and ver y easily maneouor able. I n polymer s, lar ge molecules
ent angle wit h each ot her and ar e consequent ly much less,
man manoeuvr able.
As a r esult only a limit ed degr ee of cr yst alline ar r angement
is possible with most polymers as they cool, and only restricted
r egions occur in which t he linear molecular chains ar r ange
t hemselves in an or der ed pat t er n. These or der ed r egions F i g . ‘C r y s t a l l i t e s ’ i n a s o l i d p l a s t i c s m a t e r i a l
ar e called cr yst allit es.
Thus in a solid state, polymer s consist of both cr ystalline and amor phous r egions. Highly cr ystalline polymer s
cont ain up t o 90 cr yst alline r egions whilst ot her s ar e almost complet ely amor phous.
M elting point of polymers
Amor phous and cr yst alline plast ics mat er ials on heat ing become pr ogr essively less r igid and show no clear
t r ansit ion fr om solid t o liquid, since amor phous become less viscous as t he t emper at ur e r ises. I n hi ghly
cr yst alline polymer s, a sudden change in t he r at e of expansion occur s on heat ing t o a cer t ain t emper at ur e.
At t hi s poi nt al l cr yst al li ne r egions have become amor phous when soli d cr yst al li ne met al s change t o
amor phous liquids. I n plast ic mat er ials t his is designat ed as melt ing point (T m ). Gr eat er t he degr ee of
cr yst allint y of polyt hene, t he higher it s melt ing point , Because Vander waal’s for ces ar e much gr eat er in t he
cr yst alline r egions since t he molecules ar e closer t oget her t her e.
M elting points of some crystalline polymers
Pol ymer M elti ng poi nt (T m ) (C )
Polyt hene (50% cryst alline) 120
Polyt hene (80% cryst alline) 135
Polypr opylene 176
Polyvinylchior ide 212
Polyt etr afluoroethylene 327
 Engineering Materials 2.27
Glass t ransition t emper at ur e
At ambient temper atur e polymer s may be either soft and flexible or har d, br itt le and glassy. The temper atur e
at which t his soft -t o-glassy change occur s is called glass-t r ansit ion t emper at ur es T g.
Vicat soft ening t emperature
I t offer s a useful means of compar ison bet ween plast ic mat er ials as far as t heir r esponse t o t emper at ur e
change is concer ned. I t measur es t emper at ur e at which a st andar d indent or penet r at es a specific dist ance
int o t he sur face of t he plast ics mat er ial using a st andar d for ce. Dur ing t he t est , t emper at ur e is r aised at a
specified unifor m r at e and penet r at ion (usually 1 mm) has been at t ained.
M echanical pr oper t ies of plast ic mat er ials
The str ength of plast ics mater ials is gener ally much lower than that of most other constr uctional mater ials.
Never theless plastics ar e light mater ials with a r elative densit y between 0.9 and 2.0 so that when consider ed
in t er ms of str ength/weight r atio they compar e favour ably with some metals and alloys.
The mechanical pr oper t ies of most engineer ing met als and alloys var y ver y litt le wit hin t he r ange of ambient
t emper at ur es encount er ed i n ser vi ce. Thi s i s expect ed si nce no st r uct ur al changes occur unt i l t he
r ecr ystallisation temper atur e is r eached and this is usually well above 100C. With many polymer -par ticular ly
t her moplast ic-mat er ials, mechanical pr oper t ies var y consider ably wit h t emper at ur e in t he ambient r egion.
Bot h T m and T g will affect mechanical pr oper t ies as will t he gr adual r educt ion in Van der Waals’ for ces wit h
r ise in t emper at ur e. Thus a t her moplast ic polymer may have a t ensile st r engt h of say, 70 N/mm 2 at 0C,
falling to 40 N/mm 2 at 25C, and to no mor e than 10 N/mm 2 at 80C. As tensile strength falls r ise in temper atur e
t her e is a cor r esponding incr ease in % elongat ion.
2. R u bber
I t is one of t he most impor t ant nat ur al plast ics. I t r esist s abr asion, heat , st r ong alkalis and fair ly st r ong
acids. Soft r ubber is used for elect r ical insulat ions. I t is also used for power t r ansmission belt ing, being
applied t o woven cot t on or cot t on cor ds as a base.
U ses : H ar d r ubber is used for piping and as lining for pickling t anks.
3. L eat her
I t is ver y flexible and can wit hst and consider able wear under suit able condit ions.
U ses : For power t r ansmission belt ing and as a packing or as washer s.
4. F er r odo
I t is a t r ade name given t o asbest os lined wit h lead oxide.
U ses : As a fr ict ion lining for clut ches and br akes.

N ON -FE RROU S M E TALS

Non-fer r ous met als ar e t hose which cont ain a met al ot her t han ir on as t heir chief const it uent .
Non-fer r ous met als ar e usually employed in indust r y due t o
(i ) ease of fabr icat ion (cast ing, r olling, for ging, welding and machining)
(ii ) r esist ance t o cor r osion
(iii ) elect r ical and t her mal conduct ivit y
(iv) weight

N on-F er r ous M et als used in E ngineer ing Pr act ice

1. Al umi ni um
I t is whit e met al pr oduced by elect r ical pr ocesses fr om oxide (alumina), which is pr epar ed fr om a cl ayey
miner al called bauxit e. I t is a light met al having specific gr avit y 2.7 and melt ing point 658C. The t ensile
st r engt h of t he met al var ies fr om 90 M Pa t o 150 M Pa.
I n its pur e state, metal is weak and soft for most pur poses, but when mixed with small amounts of other alloys,
it becomes har d and r igid. So, it is blanked, for med, dr awn, tur ned, cast, for ged and die cast . I ts good electr ical
conductivity is an impor tant pr oper ty and is widely used for over head cables. The high r esistance to cor r osion
and its non-toxicity makes it useful metal for cooking utensils under or dinar y condit ion and thin foils ar e used
for wr apping food items. I t is extensively used in air cr aft and automobile components wher e saving of weight
is an advantage.
2.28 Engineering Materials

Aluminium Alloys
The al uminium may be alloyed wit h one or mor e ot her element s like copper, magnesium, manganese,
silicon and nickel. The addit ion of small quant it ies of alloying element s conver t s t he soft and weak met al
int o har d and st r ong met al, while st ill r et aining it s light weight .
M ain Aluminium Alloys
(i ) Duralumin : I t is an impor t ant and int er est ing wr ought alloy.
Composit ion :
Copper = 3.5 - 4.5%
Manganese = 0.4 - 0.7%
Magnesium = 0.4 - 0.7%
Remaining is Aluminium
This alloy possesses maximum t ensile st r engt h (upt o 400 M Pa) aft er heat t r eat ment and age har dening.
Aft er wor king, if t he met al is allowed t o age for 3 or 4 days, it will be har dened. This phenomenon is
call ed age hardening.
I t is widely used in wr ought condit ions for for ging, st amping, bar s, sheet s, t ubes and r ivet s. I t can be
wor ked in hot condit ion at a t emper at ur e of 500C. H owever, aft er for ging and annealing, it can also be
cold wor ked. Due t o it s high st r engt h and light weight , t his alloy may be used in aut omobile and air cr aft
component s. I t is also used in manufact ur ing connect ing r ods, bar s, r ivet s, pulleys et c.
(ii ) Y-alloy : I t is also called copper-aluminium alloy . The addit ion of copper t o pur e aluminium incr eases
it s st r engt h and machinabilit y.
Composit ion :
Copper = 3.5 - 4.5%
Manganese = 1.2 - 1.7%
Ni ck el = 1.8 - 2.3%
Silicon, M agnesium, I r on = 0.6% each
Remaining is Aluminium.
This alloy is heat t r eat ed and age har dened like dur alumin. The ageing pr ocess is car r ied out at r oom
t emper at ur e for about five days.
I t is mainly used for cast pur poses, but it can also be used for for ged component s like dur alumin. Since
Y -alloy, has bet t er st r engt h (t han dur alumin) at high t emper at ur e, t her efor e, it is much used in air cr aft
engines for cylinder heads and pist ons.
(iii )M agnalium : I t is made by melt ing t he aluminium wit h 2 t o 10% magnesium in a vacuum and t hen
cooling it in a vacuum or under a pr essur e of 100 t o 200 at mospher es. I t also cont ains about 1.75%
copper. Due to its light weight and good mechanical pr oper ties, it is mainly used for air cr aft and automobile
component s.
(iv) H indalium : I t is an alloy of aluminium and magnesium wit h a small quant it y of chr omium. I t is t r ade
name of aluminium alloy pr oduced by H indust an Aluminium Cor por at ion L t d., Renukoot . I t is pr oduced
as a r olled pr oduct in 16 guage, mainly for anodized ut ensil manufact ur e.
2. C opper
I t is most widely used non-fer r ous met al. I t is a soft , malleable and duct ile mat er ial wit h a r eddish-br own
appear ance. I t s specific gr avit y is 8.9 and melt ing point is 1083C. The t ensile st r engt h var ies fr om 150 M Pa
t o 400 M Pa under differ ent condit ions. I t is a good conduct or of elect r icit y. I t is lar gely used in making
electr ic cables and wir es, for electr ic machiner y and appliances, in electr otyping and elect r oplating, in making
coins and household ut ensils.
Alloys of Copper
Alloy Composition Uses
Br asses
(i ) Cap copper 91% Cu, 2% Zn Used as deoxidiser
(ii ) Gilding metal 85% Cu, 15% Zn Bullet envelops, dr awn cont ainer s,
dr ess jeweller y
(iii ) Car t idge metal 70% Cu, 30% Zn Cartr idges
(iv) 63/37 br ass 63% Cu, 37% Zn Cold pr ess wor k
(v) M unt z met al 60% Cu, 40% Zn Engineer ing applications
(vi ) L eaded br ass 56-61%, copper H ot st ampings
1.5-3.5% lead, balance zincExt r uded r ods
 Engineering Materials 2.29

Br onzes
(i ) Coinage br onze
(ii ) Gun met al
(iii ) 86/7/5/2 br onze
(iv) Phosphor br onze
(v) Bear ing br onze
N ick el-Copper -Alloys
(i ) Alloys-1
(ii ) Alloys-2
(iii ) Alloys-3
(iv) Alloys-4
(v) M onel met al
Aluminium Alloys
Y-alloy
Al-Cu alloy L m-6
RR 77
95% Cu, 3.5% Zn, 1.5% Zn Coins for gings
88% Cu, 10% Sn, 2% Zn Casting
86% Cu, 7% Sn, 5% Zn, 2% Pb Cast ing for medium pr essur es
93.7% Cu, 6% Sn, 0.3% P Scient ific wor ks
75% Cu, 5% Sn, 20% Pb Bear ings
Cu 98%, Ni 2% Fir e box st ays
Cu 94%, Ni 5% Fe 1% Ship’s copper smit h’s wor k
Cu 80%, Ni 20% Condenser t ubes
Cu 55.60%, Ni 40.45% Elect r ical r esist ance and t her mocuples
Cu 33%, Ni 68%, Fe 2% Tur bine blades
Cu 3.5– 4.5%, Ni 1.8— 2.3% Castings and for gings
M ag 1.2— 1.7%, M g 1.2— 1.7%
Balance aluminium
92% Al, 8% Cu Si 10— 13% Gr avit y die cast ing
Balance aluminium I nst r ument cases
Zn 5.5%, M g 2.8%, Cu 0.4% Air cr aft

Classificat ion of copper alloys

These ar e br oadly classified int o following t wo gr oups :
(i ) Copper-zinc alloys (Brass) :
The most widely used copper-zinc alloy is br ass. There ar e var ious types of br asses, depending upon propor tions
of copper and zinc. This is fundament ally a binar y alloy of copper wit h zinc each 50%. By adding small
quant it ies of ot her element s, pr oper t ies of br ass may be gr eat ly changed.
e.g., addit ion of lead (1 t o 2%) impr oves t he machining qualit y of br ass. I t has a gr eat er st r engt h t han t hat of
copper, but have a lower t her mal and elect r ical conduct ivit y.
Br asses ar e ver y r esistant t o atmospher ic cor r osion and can be easily solder ed. They can be easily fabr icated
by pr ocesses like spinning and can also be electr oplated with metals like nickel and chr omium.
Table : Composit ion and U ses of Brasses according t o I ndian St andards
I ndian St andar d Composition in
designat ion per centages Uses
Car t r idge br ass Copper = 70 I t is a cold wor king br ass used for cold r olled
Zinc = 30 sheets, wir e dr awing, deep dr awing, pr essing
and t ube manufact ur e.I t is suit able for hot
wor king by r olling, ext r usion and st amping.
Yellow br ass (M unt z met al) Copper = 60
Zinc = 40
L eaded br ass Copper = 62.5 These ar e used for plat es, t ubes et c.
Zinc = 36
Lead = 1.5
Admir alr y br ass Copper = 70
Zinc = 29
Tin =1
Naval br ass Copper = 59
Zinc = 40
Tin =1
Nickel br ass Copper = 60-45
(Ger man silver or Zinc = 35-20
Nickel silver ) Ni ck el = 5-35
2.30 Engineering Materials
(ii ) Copper-t in alloys (Bronze).
The alloys of copper and tin are usually called bronzes. The useful range of composition is 75 to 95% copper and
5 to 25% tin. The metal is comparatively hard, resists surface wear and can be shaped or rolled into wires, rods
and sheets very easily. I n corrosion resistant properties, bronzes are superior to brasses.
Types of bronzes:
( a ) Phosphor bronze: When br onze cont ains phosphor us, it is called phosphor bronze. Phosphor us
increases strength, ductility and soundness of castings. Tesile strength of this alloy when cast varies fr om
215 MPa to 280 MPa but increases upto 2300 MPa when rolled or drawn. This alloy possesses good
wearing qualities and high elasticity. The metal is r esistant to salt water cor rosion. Composition of the
metal varies according to whether it is to be for ged, wrought or made into castings.
Composit ion (accor ding t o I ndian st andar ds) of common phosphor br onze:
Copper = 87-90%
Tin = 9-10%
Phosphor us = 0.1-3%.
U sed : For bear ings, wor m wheels, gear s, nut s for machine lead scr ews, pump par t s, linings and for
many ot her pur poses. I t is also suit able for making spr ings.
( b) Silicon bronze : I t cont ains 96% copper, 3% silicon and 1% manganese or zinc. I t has good gener al
cor r osion r esist ance of copper combined wit h higher st r engt h. I t can be cast , r olled, st amped, for ged
and pr essed eit her hot or cold and it can be welded by all t he usual met hods.
U sed : For boiler s, t anks, st oves or wher e high st r engt h and good cor r osion r esist ance is r equir ed.
( c) Beryllium bronze : I t is a copper base alloy cont aining about 97.75% copper and 2.25% ber yllium. I t
has high yield point, high fatigue limit and excellent cold and hot cor r osion r esistance. I t is par ticular ly
suit able mat er ial for spr ings, heavy dut y elect r ical swit ches, cams and bushings.
U ses :
Since wear r esist ance of ber yllium copper is five t imes t hat of phosphor br onze, t her efor e, it may be
used as a bear ing met al in place of phosphor br onze.
I t has a film forming and a soft lubricating property, which makes it more suitable as a bearing metal.
( d ) M anganese bronze : I t is an alloy of copper, zinc and lit t le per cent age of manganese.
Composit ion :
Copper – 60%
Zinc – 35%
Manganese – 5%
This metal is highly resistant to corrosion. It is harder and stronger than phosphor bronze.
U sed : For bushes, plungers, feed pumps, rods etc. Worm gears are frequently made from this bronze.
( e) Aluminium br onze : I t i s an al l oy of copper and al umi ni um. The al umi ni um br onze wi t h
6-8% aluminium has valuable cold wor king pr oper t ies. The maximum t ensile st r engt h of t his alloy is
450 M Pa wit h 11% of aluminium. They ar e most suit able for making component s exposed t o sever e
cor r osion condit ions. When ir on is added t o t hese br onzes, t his mechanical pr oper t ies ar e impr oved
by r efining t he gr ain size and impr oving t he duct ilit y.
Aluminium br onzes ar e widely used for making gear s, pr opeller s, condenser bolt s, pump component s,
t ubes, air pumps, slide valves and bushings et c. Cams and r oller s ar e also made fr om t his alloy. The
6% aluminium alloy has a fine gold colour which is used for imit at ion jeweller y and decor at ive
pur poses.

3. Sol der
Types of Engineering solders
(i ) Soft solders. I t is based on lead and t in and melt bet ween 180° C and 250° C. The ideal t in man’s solder
has 2 par t s t in t o 1 lead but shor t age and high cost of t in oft en causes 5% or even lower t in cont ent s t o
be used. For some special elect r ical pur pose pur e t in must be used, and solder s cont aining lead should
never be used on pr ecious met als, e.g. r esist ance wir es. Plumber s solder r equir es a long past y r ange
and has 2 par t s lead and 1 par t t in.
 Engineering Materials 2.31
(ii ) Brazing solders. These ar e high zinc br asses, and t hey melt at ar ound 850°C— 900°C.
(iii ) Silver solders. These ar e alloys of silver wit h copper and zinc. They have 64 per cent copper and 43 per
cent silver and t heir melt ing r angs ar e 720/725°C, 725/750°C. Silver solder s can give gr eat st r engt h
t han br azing solder s and under some condit ions have bet t er cor r osion r esist ance in chemical plant s
while t heir whit e colour may somet imes be advant ageous.
(iv) White metals. Whit e met al bear ing alloys ar e usually eit her t in base or lead base. The for mer being
t he babbit met als. Tin base alloys ar e in most ways super ior t o lead alloys but t hey ar e mor e cost ly, and
ar e subject t o anist r opic expansion which may init iat e failur e.
The har dening const ituents necessar y for t he wear -r esist ance ar e pr ovided by t he pr esence of antimony,
upt o 15 per cent , and of copper, usually limit ed t o 4 per cent .
I n t in base alloys it is desir ed t o pr oduce t wo well-defined compounds, which will be embeded in t he
soft er t in-r ich mat r ix :
(a ) A compound of t in and copper which cr yst allises fr om t he molt en alloy in t he for m of neeles and
for ms a sor t of net wor k.
(b) A har d compound of t in and ant imony which separ at es in t he for m of char act er ist ic cuboids.
The melting pr ocedur e, casting temper ature etc. must be car efully contr olled so that these two compounds
ar e cor r ect ly ar r anged or t he bear ing wi ll not wear uni for mly. For cheaper bear ings lead may be
subst it ut ed for par t of t he t in. L ead base alloys cont ain anyt hing over 50% lead, and t hese ar e also
har dened wit h ant imony and copper. Wher e loads ar e not excessive and speeds ar e slow t hey ar e
except ionally good.

4. Gun M etal
I t is an alloy of copper, t in and zinc, which usually cont ains 88% copper, 10% t in and 2% zinc. This met al is
also called admir alt y gun met al . The zinc is added t o clean t he met al and t o incr ease it s fluidit y.
I t is not suitable for being wor ked in the cold state but may be for ged when at about 600C. The met al is ver y
str ong and r esistant to cor r osion by water and atmospher e. Or iginally, it was made for cast ing guns.
U ses : For cast ing boiler fit t ings, bushes, bear ings, glands et c.

5. L ea d
I t is a bluish gr ey met al having specific gr avit y 11.36 and melt ing point 326C. I t is so soft t hat it can be cut
wit h a knife. I t has no t enacit y. I t is ext ensively used for making solder s, as a lining for acid t anks, cist er ns,
wat er pipes, and as coat ing for elect r ical cables.
Lead base alloys ar e employed wher e a cheap and cor r osion r esistant mater ial is r equir ed. An alloy containing
83% lead, 15% ant imony, 1.5% t in and 0.5% copper is used for lar ge bear ings subject ed t o light ser vice.

6. T i n
I t is br ight ly shining whit e met al. I t is soft , malleable and duct ile. I t can be r olled int o ver y t hin sheet s. I t is
used for making impor t ant alloys, fine solder, as a pr ot ect ive coat ing for ir on and st eel sheet s and for making
t in foil used as moist ur e pr oof packing.
A t in base alloy cont aining 88% t in, 8% ant imony and 4% copper is called babbit met al. I t is a soft mat er ial
wit h a low coefficient of fr ict ion and has lit t le st r engt h. I t is t he most common bear ing met al used wit h cast
ir on boxes wher e bear ings ar e subject ed t o high pr essur e and load.
Those alloys in which lead and t in ar e pr edominat ing ar e designat ed as whit e met al bear ing alloys.
U sed : For lining bear ings subject ed t o high speeds like t he bear ings of aer o-engines.

7. Bear i ng M et al s
Commonly used Bear ing met als
(i ) Copper-base alloys. These ar e most impor t ant bear ing alloys, which ar e har der and st r onger t han
the white metals (lead base and tin base alloys). These ar e used for bear ings subject ed to heavy pr essur es.
(ii ) L ead-base alloys
(iii ) Tin-base alloys
(iv) Cadmium-base alloys : These cont ain 95% cadmium and 5% silver. These ar e used for medium loaded
bear ings subject ed t o high t emper at ur e.
2.32 Engineering Materials
Select ion of Bearing met als
I t depends upon t he condit ions under which it is t o be used. I t involves fact or s r elat ing t o bear ing pr essur es,
r ubbing speeds, t emper at ur es, lubr icat ion et c.
Required pr opert ies in bearing mat erial :
(i ) I t should have low coefficient of fr ict ion.
(ii ) I t should have good wear ing qualit ies.
(iii ) I t should have abilit y t o wit hst and bear ing pr essur es.
(iv) I t should have ability to oper ate satisfactor ily wit h suit able lubr ication means at the maximum r ubbing
speeds.
(v) I t should have a sufficient melt ing point .
(vi ) I t should have high t her mal conduct ivit y.
(vii ) I t should have good cast ing qualit ies.
(viii )I t should have minimum shr inkage aft er cast ing.
(xi ) I t should have non-cor r osive pr oper t ies.
(x) I t should be economical in cost .
8. Zinc Base Alloys
M ost of t he die cast ings ar e pr oduced fr om zinc base alloys. These alloys can be cast ed easily wit h a good
finish at fair ly low t emper at ur es. These also have consider able st r engt h and low in cost . Usual alloying
element s for zinc ar e aluminium, copper and magnesium and t hese ar e all held in close limit s.
Composit ion of t wo st andar d die cast ing zinc alloys
(i ) Aluminium 4.1%, Copper 0.1%, M agnesium 0.04% and r emainder is Zinc.
(ii ) Aluminium 4.1%, Copper 1%, M agnesium 0.04% and r emainder is Zinc.
Aluminium impr oves mechanical pr oper t ies and r educes t endency of zinc t o dissolve ir on. Copper incr eases
t ensi l e st r engt h, har dness and duct i li t y. M agnesi um has t he benefi ci al effect of maki ng t he cast ings
per manently st able.
U ses :
I n t he aut omot ive indust r y and for ot her high pr oduct ion mar ket s such as washing machines, oil bur ner s,
r efr iger at or s, r adios, phot ogr aphs, t elevision, business machines et c.
9. N ickel Base Alloys
These ar e widely used in engineer ing and indust r y on account of t heir high mechanical st r engt h pr oper t ies,
cor r osion r esist ance et c.
Commonly used N ickel base Alloys
(i ) M onel metal. I t is an impor t ant alloy of nickel and copper, which cont ains 68% nickel, 29% copper and
3% ot her const it uent s like ir on, manganese, silicon and car bon. I t s specific gr avit y is 8.87 and melt ing
point 1360C. I t has a t ensile st r engt h fr om 390 MPa t o 460 M Pa. I t r esembles nickel in appear ance and
is st r ong, duct ile and t ough. I t is super ior t o br ass and br onze in cor r osion r esist ing pr oper t ies.
U ses :
I t is used for making pr opeller s, pump fit tings, condenser t ubes, st eam tur bine blades, sea water exposed
par t s, t anks and chemical and food handling plant s.
(ii ) I conel. I t consist s of 80% nickel, 14% chr omium, and 6% ir on. I t s specific gr avit y is 8.55 and melt ing
point 1395C. This alloy has excellent mechanical pr oper t ies at or dinar y and elevat ed t emper at ur es. I t
can be cast , r olled and cold dr awn.
U ses : (a) For making spr ings which have to withst and high temper at ur es and ar e exposed to cor r osive
action.
(b) For exhaust manifolds of air cr aft engines.
(iii ) N ichrome. I t consist s of 65% nickel, 15% chr omium and 20% ir on. I t has high heat and oxidat ion
r esist ance.
U ses : I n making elect r ical r esist ance wir e for elect r ic fur naces and heat ing element s.
(iv) N imonic. I t consist s of 80% nickel and 20% chr omium. I t has high st r engt h and abilit y t o oper at e
under int er mit t ent heat ing and cooling condit ions.
U ses : I n gas t ur bine engines.
 Engineering Materials 2.33

STRESS-STRAI N DI AGRAM
The st iffness of a mat er ial is of equal impor t ance in designing t he st r uct ur e along wit h t he st r engt h of a
mat er ial. The ot her mechanical pr oper t ies such as har dness, t oughness and duct ilit y ar e lesser impor t ant in
t he select ion of mat er ial.
These pr oper t ies ar e det er mined by making t est s on mat er ials and compar ing t he r esult s wit h est ablished
st andar ds. One of t he t est s (t ension t est of st eel) and it s r esult s will be consider ed, which helps t o develop
sever al impor t ant basic concept s.

I n t ensile t est , a specimen in gr ipped bet ween jaws of a t est ing machine. The elongat ion in a specified lengt h
called gauge lengt h is obser ved simult aneously. These dat a ar e t hen plot t ed on a gr aph wit h t he or dinat e
r epr esent ing t he load and absscisa r epr esent ing t he elongat ion.
Figur e r epr esent s such a gr aph for st r uct ur al st eel. I n t his st r ess is plot t ed against t he unit elongat ion (i.e.
st r ain) only by r educing obser ved values t o a unit basis. The pr oper t ies of one specimen is compar ed wit h t hose
of ot her specimens.
The diagr am shown in t he above figur e is called st r ess st r ain diagr am.

H OOKE'S LAW
Consider st r aight line por t ion of t he st r ess-st r ain diagr am. The slope of t hat line is t he r at io of st r ess t o st r ain.
I t is called modulus of elast icit y is denot ed by E.

Slope of st r ess-st r ain cur ve = E =
e
or,  = Ee

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
4. Pr oper t y of mat er ial due t o whi ch t hey can be
LEVEL-1 dr awn into wir es, is called
1. Abil it y of a mat er i al t o r esi st defor mat i on due t o (a) elast icit y (b) plast icity
st r ess is call ed (c) stiffness (d) duct ilit y
(a) t oughness (b) stiffness 5. Abil it y of a mat er ial t o under go lar ge per manent
(c) plast icity (d) har dness defor mat i ons in t ensi on, is call ed
2. Abil it y of mat er ial t o r esist fr act ur e due t o hi gh (a) t oughness (b) stiffness
impact load is call ed (c) plast icity (d) har dness
(a) t oughness (b) stiffness 6. Abil it y of a mat er i al t o r et ain t he defor mat ion
(c) plast icity (d) har dness per manently is called
3. Etching solution used for medium and high car bon (a) stiffness (b) duct ilit y
st eel, pear lit ic st eel and cast i r on, is (c) har dness (d) plast icity
(a) ni t al-2% H N O3 i n et hyl alcohol 7. Abi l i t y of a mat er i al t o r esi st penet r at i on by
(b) pi cr al - 5% picr ic acid and et hyl alcohol anot her mat er i al , is call ed
(c) 1% hydr ofluor ic acid in wat er (a) stiffness (b) duct ilit y
(d) 50% N H 2 OH and 50% wat er (c) har dness (d) plast icity
2.34 Engineering Materials
8. Pr oper t y of mat er ial due t o which i t can be r oll ed 20. A met al which is duct ile in t ension can become
or hammer ed int o t hin sheet s is call ed br it tle
(a) br it t l eness (b) duct ilit y (a) in t he pr esence of not ches
(c) malleability (d) fatigue (b) under hydr ost at ic compr ession
9. Pr oper t y of mat er i al due t o which i t br eak s wi t h (c) in t he pr esence of embr it t le-ment agent s such
li t t le per manent di st or t ion is call ed as hydr ogen
(a) br it t l eness (b) duct ilit y (d) all of t hese
(c) malleability (d) fatigue LEVEL-2
10. Pr oper t y of mat er ial due t o whi ch r ecovery after
unloading is complete but instantaneous, is called 21. Nit r iding is a pr ocess for
(a) elast icit y (b) plast icity (a) nor malising (b) annealing
(c) anelasticity (d) enelast icit y (c) case har dening (d) t emper ing
11. Wi t h incr ease in t he har dness of mat er ial elast ic 22. Pr ocess of r eheat ing t he har dened st eel t o some
r ecover y aft er defor mat i on
t emper at ur e below t heor et ical r ange, followed by
(a) i ncr eases (b) decr eases any r at e of cooling is called
(c) r emains same (d) none of t hese
(a) normalising (b) annealing
12. Abil it y of a mat er ial t o under go lar ge per manent
defor mat i on in compr ession, is known as (c) t emper ing (d) spher oidising
(a) duct ilit y (b) malleabilit y 23. Pr ocess in which steel is heated in a molten salt
(c) br it t l eness (d) har dness bath having temper a-tur e 250C to 500C above
13. Ability of a mater ial to exhibit consider able elastic t he cr it ical t emper at ur e, t hen quenched i nt o a
r ecover y on r elease of l oad, is k nown as molt en bat h at sufficient r ate bet ween 200C to
(a) t oughness (b) stiffness 450C, held t her e for sufficient time and cooled to
(c) r esi li ence (d) har dness r oom temper atur e, is called
14. Si li con when added t o copper incr eases i t s (a) nor malising (b) annealing
(a) machinability (c) t emper ing (d) spher oidising
(b) br it t l eness 24. H eat t r eat ment pr ocess used t o soft en har dened
(c) elect r ical conduct ivit y st eel is
(d) har dness and st r engt h (a) normalising (b) annealing
15. St r ess-concent r at i on occu r s wh en a body i s
subject ed t o (c) t emper ing (d) spher oidising
(a) extensive str ess (b) non-uni for m st r ess 25. The pr ocess in which t he st eel is heat ed slight ly
(c) r ever se st r ess (d) fluct uat ing st r ess above t he lower cr it ical t emper at ur e and t hen
16. M et als which can be easi ly dr awn i nt o wir e is cooled slowly t o a t emper at ur e of 600C is called
(a) tin (b) copper (a) nor malising (b) annealing
(c) lead (d) zinc (c) t emper ing (d) spher oidising
17. When a body r ecover s it s or i ginal di mensions on 26. H eat t r eat ment pr ocess usually applied t o high
r emoving t he l oad, it is call ed car bon t ool st eel which ar e difficult t o machine is
(a) elastic (b) plastic
(a) normalising (b) annealing
(c) br it tle (d) none of t hese
(c) t emper ing (d) spher oidising
18. Amount of external ener gy r equired t o defor m an
el ast i c body is call ed 27. Heat tr eat ment pr ocess which decr eases har dness
(a) el ast ic ener gy (b) pl ast ic ener gy and t ensile strength but increases machinability is
(c) st r ain ener gy (d) none of t hese (a) nor malising (b) annealing
19. A met al which is br it t le in t ension can become (c) t emper ing (d) spher oidising
ductile
28. The process in which steel is heated at about C, where
(a) in t he pr esence of not ches the structure consists of entirely austenite, then it is
(b) under hydr ost at ic compr ession cooled suddenly at a temperature of about 250C to
(c) in t he pr esence of embr it t le-ment agent s such 525C is called
as hydr ogen
(a) normalising (b) annealing
(d) all of t hese
(c) har dening (d) austemper ing
 Engineering Materials 2.35
29. Sor bit e is obt ained by 39. Temper atur e at which t he change ends on heating
(a) annealing of st eel t he st eel, is called
(b) quenching st eel dur ing t r ansfor mat ion (a) lower cr it ical t emper at ur e
(c) bot h (a) and (b) (b) upper cr it ical t emper at ur e
(d) none of t hese (c) point of r ecalescence
30. Age har dening gener ally applied t o (d) none of t hese
(a) cast ir on 40. St eel cont aining 0.8% car bon has
(b) high alloy st eel (a) no cr it ical point (b) one cr it ical point
(c) alloys of aluminium, magnesium, nickel et c. (c) t wo cr it ical point s (d) t hr ee cr it ical point s
(d) alloys of chr omium, silicon et c. 41. L ower cr it ical point for all st eels is
31. Age har dening is r elat ed t o (a) 600C (b) 723C
(a) cast ir on (b) dur alumin (c) 900C (d) 91400C
(c) st ainless st eel (d) brass 42. Gamma ir on exist s in t he t emper at ur e r ange of
32. I nduct ion har dening have high (a) 300C to 600C (b) 600C to 900C
(a) volt age (b) cur r ent (c) 900C t o 1400C (d) 1400C to 1530C
(c) fr equency (d) power fact or 43. Alpha ir on exist s at
33. I nduct ion har dening is t he pr ocess of (a) below 768C
(a) unifor m har dening (b) bet ween 768C t o 900C
(b) har dening t he cor e (c) bet ween 900C t o 1400
(c) select ive har dening (d) between 1400C to 1530C
(d) har dening sur face for wear r esist ance 44. K noop har dness number (K H N) is equal t o
34. I n flame har dening, t he flame used is of P P
(a) (b)
(a) oil bur ner (b) gas bur ner LC L2 C
(c) oxy-acetylene (d) none of t hese
2P 2P
35. Con st i t u en t s of H ay n ess st el l i t e, h av i n g (c) (d)
super for mance t han H SS ar e
LC L2 C
(a) t ungst en, chr omium and vanadium where, L = length of long diagonal, mm
(b) t ungst en, chr omium and cobalt C = constant related to length of pr oject ed
ar ea
(c) t ungst en, molybdneum and cobalt
45. Delt a ir on exist s in t he t emper at ur e r ange of
(d) cobalt , nickel and aluminium
(a) 0C t o 768C (b) 768C to 900C
36. A r ever sible changes in an at omic str uct ur e of the
m et al wi t h a cor r espon di n g ch an ge i n t h e (c) 900C t o 1400C (d) 1400C to 1530C
pr oper t ies of st eel, is called 46. Alpha () ir on
(a) allot r opic (b) polyt r opic (a) has body cent r ed at omic ar r angement
(c) cr itical point (d) none of t hese (b) is commonly called fer r it e
37. St eel can be har dened only if it is heat ed above (c) is magnet ic
(a) lowest cr it ical t emper at ur e (d) all of t hese
(b) middle cr it ical t emper at ur e 47. Vicker 's Pyr amid Number (VPN) is equal t o
(c) highest cr it ical t emper at ur e 2P sin  P sin 
(a) (b)
(d) none of t hese d2 d2
38. When a st eel cont aining less t han 0.8% car bon is
cooled slowly fr om t emper at ur e above or wit hin P sin 
t he cr it ical r ange, it cont ains (c) 2 (d) None of t hese
(a) fer r it e mainly d2
(b) pear lite mainly wher e,P = load in kg
(c) fer r it e and pear lit e  = angle between opposite faces of diamond
(d) pear lit e and cement it e pyramid
2.36 Engineering Materials
48. When the atoms ar e ar r anged r egular ly in some 50. Br inell har dess number is equal to
dir ection but not in other s, in a mater ial, it is called
P
(a) amor phous mat er ial (a)
D  ( D2  d 2 )
(b) mesomor phous mat er ial
(c) cr yst alline st r uct ur e P
(b)
(d) none of t hese D FD IK
49. When t he at oms ar e ar r anged i n defi nit e and
H (D 2  d 2 )

or der ly manner in a mat er ial, it is called 2P

(a) amor phous mat er ial (c)
D  D2  d 2
(b) mesomor phous mat er ial
(c) cr yst alline st r uct ur e 2P
(d)
(d) none of t hese FH
D D  (D 2  d 2 ) IK
wher e d = diamet er of the impression.

AN SWERS
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (a)
LEVEL-2
21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (c) 25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (d) 29. (a) 30. (c)
31. (b) 32. (c) 33. (d) 34. (c) 35. (c) 36. (a) 37. (a) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (b)
41. (b) 42. (c) 43. (a) 44. (b) 45. (d) 46. (d) 47. (c) 48. (b) 49. (c) 50. (d)
 3
CHAPTER Strength of Materials
STRESS, STRAI N AN D M OH R'S CI RCLE
STRESS. I t is t he int ensit y of I nt er nal Resist ance offer ed by a body/ mat er ial against defor mat ion.
I nt ensit y means per unit ar ea.
P P
St r ess = Resist ing for ce per unit ar ea.
N ormal Stress & Shear Stress
Resist ing for ce nor mal t o t he plane or sect ion per unit ar ea
is called nor mal st r ess.
F
I nt ensit y of r esist ing for ce par allel t o t he sect ion/plane is Resi st ance
called shear st r ess.
(ii) Nor mal st r ess: F.B.D
F P
Fr om figur e, aver age st r ess = = = avg P
Fig
A A
This Aver age st r ess avg can be assumed t o be t he st r ess at any f
point on that plane if resisting force is uniform throughout the plane. A
I f Resist ance is not unifor m t hen st r ess at any point on t he sect ion
can be defined as
F
=
A
F dF
 = line =
A  0
A dA
(ii ) Shear St r ess : P
Resist ing for ce par allel t o plane is Q
Q P
H ence shear st r ess,  =
A P
Fr om equilibr ium, F = 0
 –P+Q=0
 P=Q P P
P P Q
So =
A
U nit of stress : N/m 2 (similar t o unit of pr essur e)
1M Pa = 1  106 N/m 2 = 1N/mm 2
Poisson's Rat io
The r at io of lat er al st r ain t o t he longit udinal st r ain is a const ant quant it y and is called t he Poisson's r at io and
1
is denot ed by  or
m
L at eral st rain
 =
L ongit udinal st r ain
For the most metals its value is between 0.25 to 0.33. For cement concr et e 0.15, for r ubber 0.5, for steal 0.3.

ST RAI N
Similar t o st r ess it is a quant it y used t o measur e t he int ensit y of defor mat ion.
I t is defined as change in dimension wit h r espect t o or iginal dimension.
N ormal Strain,  l

M easur es t he change in size (Elongat ion or Cont r act ion) of an ar bit r ar y line
segment on a body dur ing it s defor mat ion. P P

l L
avg =
l
 3.2 Strength of Materials

Shear ing St rain, 

M easur es t he change in shape. (Change in angle bet ween t wo lines t hat ar e or t hogonal in t he undefor med
shape of t he body under defor mat ion) Y

  area 
Shear st r ain  =  =   
L  radius 
change in volume V L
Volumet r ic st r ain = =
original volume V 
X

H OOKE'S LAW
I f st at es t hat t he st r ess is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o st r ain upt o t he elast ic limit .
   =E ( E is modulus of elast icit y)

Ratio of stress and strain is used to measure the stiffness of a material, this ratio is called Modulus of Elasticity..

TH E RM AL ST RE SSE S
Ever y mat er ial expands when t emper at ur e r ises and cont r act s when t emper at ur e falls. The change in lengt h
due t o change in t emper at ur e is found t o be dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o t he lengt h of member and also t o change in
t emper at ur e. H ence if  is constant of pr opor t ionalit y, t is change in t emper at ur e and L is lengt h of t he member,
t hen
change in lengt h, = t L
wher e,  = const ant of pr opor t ionalit y called coefficient of t her mal expansion. I t is defined as change in unit
lengt h of t he mat er ial due t o unit change in t emper at ur e. This value is differ ent for differ ent mat er ials.
M ater ia l Coeffi ci en t of th er m al ex pansion
St eel 12  10– 6/ °C
Copper 17.5  10– 6 /°C
St ain less st eel 18  10– 6/ °C
Brass, Br on ze 19  10– 6/ °C
Alu mi ni um 23  10– 6/ °C
I f t he bar is fr ee t o ext end when t emper at ur e is incr eased by ‘t ’ degr ees,
its ext ension (fr ee expansion) would have been  t L .
But this extension is completely prevented in this case by for ces developed
at suppor t s. This suppor t for ce P such t hat it causes shor t ening () of
t he bar by  t L .
H ence  =  tL
PL
 =  tL
AE
P
or = E t
A
i.e.  = E t
wher e, p = t emper at ur e st r ess, which is compr essive in t his case.
I f fr ee expansion is prevented par tly as in case of member shown in the L 
figur e, then shor tening caused by support reaction P is given by 

 = t L – 
tL
PL
 = t L –  P
AE

Composit e Sect ion U nder T her mal St r ess

(i) Consider a composit e bar r igidly fit t ed at suppor t s A and B.
Then suppor t r eact ions can be found.
Tot al expansion, l = a t l a + s t l s
 Strength of Materials 3.3
or l = (a l a + s l s) t … (i )
L et p be t he suppor t r eact ion. Then
Pl a Pl s
l = + … (i i )
A aE a A sE s
Fr om equat ions (i) and (ii),
l ls
(a l a + s l s) t = P ( a + )
A aE a A sE s
(ii) Consider a steel bar of uniformly varying diameter is held between two unyielding support at room temperature.
I f t he t emper at ur e r ises by t degr ees, t hen maximum st r ess induced in t he bar.
L et P be t he for ce developed at t he suppor t . Then
4Pl
l = t L =
E d1 d2
P
Pmax =
A
Example. A Composite bar is r igidly fitted at the suppor ts A and B as shown in the figur e. Deter mine the reactions
at t he suppor ts when temper at ur e r ises by 20 C. Take E a = 70GN/m 2, E s = 200 GN/m 2, a = 11  10– 6/C and s =
12  10– 6/C.

Sol ut i on. Fr ee expansion,  = a t L a + s t L s

= 11  10– 6  20  1000 + 12  10– 6  20  3000 = 0.94
PL a PL s
I f P is suppor t r eact ion, t hen  = A E + A E
a a s s
H er e, E a = 70  1000 N/mm 2
and E s = 200  1000 N/mm 2

 P
LM 1000  3000 OP = 0.94
N 600  70  1000 300  200  1000 Q
or P = 12735.48 N.

Temper at ur e St r ess in Compound Bar s

When Temper at ur e r ises t he t wo mat er ials of a compound bar exper ience differ ent fr ee expansions. Since, t hey
ar e pr evented fr om separ ating, the two materials will have common position which is possible only by development
of t emper at ur e st r esses.
Consider t he compound bar of lengt h L shown in t he figur e.
L et t he r ise in t emper at ur e be t .
L et 1, 2 be coefficient of t her mal expansion and E 1, E 2 be modulii of elast icit y of t he t wo mat er ials.
L et 1 > 2.
Fr ee expansion of bar (i) = 1 t L .
Fr ee expansion of bar (ii) = 2 t L .
Si nce 1 > 2, t he posi t i on of t he t wo bar s, i f fr ee expansi ons ar e
per mit t ed t o expend at AA and BB as shown in t he figur e.
But since two bar s are rigidly secured at the ends the position of the bars
will be some wher e in between AA and BB say at CC (figure). To secure
this position compr essive for ce P1 will act in bar (I ) so as to produce
shortening by 1 and a tensile for ce P2 will act in bar (I I ) to pr oduce an
extension 2 in bar (I I ). From equilibrium condition,
 3.4 Strength of Materials
P1 = P2 = P.
Fr om t he figur e, 2 t L + 2 = 1 t L – 1
or 1 + 2 = 1 t L – 2 t L
PL PL
or + = (1 – 2) t L
A 1E1 A 2E 2

or PL
FG A E  A E IJ
2 2 1 1
= (1 – 2) t L
H AEAE K 1 1 2 2

FG A A E E IJ
1 2 1 2
or P=
H A E + A E K  ( –  ) t L
1 1 2 2
1 2

P
H ence st r ess in bar (I ) is, 1 = (compr essive)
A1
P
and st r ess in bar (I I ) is, 2 = (t ensile)
A2
Example. A compound bar is made of a cent r al st eel plat e 60 mm wide and 10 mm t hick t o which copper plat es
40 mm wide by 5 mm t hick ar e connect ed r igidly on each side. The lengt h of t he bar at nor mal t emper at ur e is
1 met r e. I f t he t emper at ur e is r aised by 80C, det er mine t he st r esses in each met al and t he change in lengt h.
Take : E s = 200 GN/m 2 ; E c = 100 GN/m 2 ; s = 12  10– 6/c ; c = 17  10– 6/c
Solution.

H er e, t = 80 C,
L = 1 m = 1000 mm .
E s = 200 GN/m 2 = 200  109 / (103  103) = 2  105 N/mm 2
E c = 100 GN/m 2 = 100  109 / (103  103) = 1  105 N/mm 2
A s = 60  10 = 600 mm 2
A c = 40  5 = 200 mm 2 for each plat e.
Fr om equilibr ium of for ces P s = 2 Pc
I f s and c ar e t he changes in lengt h of st eel and copper plat es r espect ively, t hen fr om t he figur e
s + c = c t L – s t L

PsL PL
or + c = (c – s) t L
A sE s A cEc

F 2P Pc I
or GH A E
c

s s

A cE c JK = (c – s) t

or Pc LM 2 1 OP = (17 – 12)  10– 6  80

N 600  2  10 5

200  1  105 Q
or Pc = 6000 N and Ps = 2  6000 = 12000 N.

6000
 St r ess in copper = = 30 N/mm 2. Ans.
200
 Strength of Materials 3.5

12000
and St r ess in st eel = = 20 N/mm 2. Ans.
600

PsL s
Change in lengt h of compound bar = s t L + A E
s s

1200  1000
= 12  10– 6  80  1000 + = 1.06 mm
600  2  105

E LASTI C CON STAN TS

M odulus of E last icit y
I t is defined as t he r at io of linear st r ess t o linear st r ain wit hin elast ic limit .
Fr om H ook’s law ,   e
or  = eE

or E =
e
M odulus of Ri gidi t y
I t is defined as t he shear ing st r ess t o t he shear ing st r ain wit hin elast ic limit .

 G =

Bulk M odul us
When a body is subject ed t o ident ical pr essur e p in t hr ee mut ually per pendicular dir ect ion, t hen t he body
under goes unifor m changes in t hr ee dir ect ion wit hout under going dist or t ion of shape. The r at io of change in
volume t o or iginal volume is called volumet r ic st r ain (ev).

Then Bulk modulus, K = e
v
V
wher e, ev = volumet r ic st r ain =
V
Relat ionship Bet ween E last ic Const ant s
E = 2 G (1 + )
E = 3 K (1 – 2 )
9K G
and E =
3K  G

V OLU M E TRI C STRAI N

Consider a bar of r ectangular section subjected t o str es x,y and z in x , y and z dir ections r espectively. The str ess
 
pr oduces str ain of magnitude in its dir ection and a str ain  of opposite natur e at r ight angles to its dir ection.
E E
  y  z  x y  z  x  y z
 ex= x – – ; ey =  + – ; ez= – – +
E E E E E E E E E
dv ( x   y   z )
Volumet r ic st r ain, ev = = ( 1 – 2 v)
v E
×

B
×

STRESS-STRAI N DI AGRAM (M I LD STEEL)

A F
×
C
E
Stress

Figur e shows st r ess – st r ain diagr am for t he t ypical mild st eel specimen.
The following salient point s ar e obser ved on st r ess st r ain cur ve.
(i) Limit of proportionality (A) : I t is t he limit ing value of t he st r ess O F
upt o which st r ess is pr opor t ional t o st r ain. Strain

(ii) Elastic limit : I t is t he limit ing value of st r ess upt o which if t he mat er ial is st r essed and t hen r eleased
(unloaded) st r ain disappear s complet ely and t he or iginal lengt h is r egained. This point is slight ly beyond
t he limit of pr opor t ionalit y.
 3.6 Strength of Materials
(iii) U pper yield point (B) : I t is the st r ess at which, the load star t s r educing and the extension incr eases. This
phenomenon is called yielding of mater ial. At this stage str ain is about 0.125 and str ess is about 250 N/mm 2.
(iv) Lower yield point (C) : At t his st age t he st r ess r emains same but st r ain incr eases for some t ime.
(v) U ltimate stress (D) : I t is t he maximum st r ess t he mat er ial can r esist . This st r ess is about 370-400 N/
mm 2. At t his st age cr oss sect ional ar ea at a par t icular sect ion st ar t s r educing ver y fast . This is called neck
formation. Aft er t his st age, load r esist ed and hence t he st r ess developed st ar t s r educing.
(vi) Breaking point (E) : The st r ess at which finally t he specimen fails is called br eaking point . At t his st age
st r ain is 20 t o 25 per cent .
I f unloading is made wit hin elast ic limit , it follows a st r aight line par allel t o t he or iginal st r ai ght por t ion as
shown by FF in t he figur e. Thus if it is loaded beyond elast ic limit and t hen unloaded a per manent st r ain (OF)
is left in t he specimen. This is called per manent set .

St ress-St rain Relation in Aluminium and H igh Str ength Steel

y
F
Stress

F
O 0.2  Strain
F ig. Stress-Strain relationship in Aluminium and high strength steel
Str ess st ain diagr am is shown in the figur e. This str ess  at which if unloading is made ther e will be 0.2 per cent
per manent set is known as 0.2 percent pr oof str ess and this point is tr eated as yield point for all pr actical pur poses.

Str ess-St rain Diagr am (Br it tle M aterial)

x
Stress

Strain
F ig. Stress-Strain relations for brittle material.
I n br ittle mater ials t her e is no appr eciable change in r at e of str ain. Ther e is no yield point and no necking takes
place. Ultimate point and br eaking point ar e one and the same. The str ain at failur e is ver y small, ver y less str ain
is obser ved.

Behaviour of M at er ials under Compr ession

As t her e is chance of buckling (lat er ally bending) of long specimen, for compr ession t est s shor t specimen ar e
used. Hence, t his test involve measur ement of smaller changes in lengt h. I t r esult s into lesser accur acy. However
pr ecise measur ement t s have shown t he followign r esult s.
(i) I n case of duct ile mat er ials st r ess-st r ain cur ve follows exact ly same pat h as in t ensile t est upt o and even
slight ly beyond yield point . For lar ger values t he cur ves diver ge. Ther e wil not be necking in case of
compr ession t est s.
(ii) For most br it t le mat er ials ult imat e compr essive st r ess in compr ession is much lar ger t han in t ension. I t is
because of flows and cr acks pr esent in br it t le mat er ials which weaken t h emat er ial in t ension but will not
affect t he st r engt h in compr ession.

SH EAR FORCE AN D BEN DI N G M OM EN T

The shear r epr esent s t he t endency t o slide. The shear ing for ce at any point along a loaded beam is t he algebr aic
sum of all t he ver t ical for ces act ing t o one side of t he point . Thus for t he beam shown in t he figur e, t he shear
for ce at t he cr oss sect ion x  x as measur ed fr om t he left hand side is
 Strength of Materials 3.7
F 1 = R1 – W 1
which is equal t o t he shear for ce, F 2 = W 2 – R2 as measur ed fr om r ight hand side.

Since F 1 = F 2, t her efor e beam is in equilibr ium. A t hin slice of t he beam at sect ion x – x subject ed t o t hese for ces
as shown in fig (b). The shear for ce is assumed t o be posit ive when it pr oduces a clockwise moment and negat ive
when it pr oduces an ant iclockwise moment or shear for ce will be consider ed posit ive when r esult ant of t he
for ces t o t he left is upwar ds, or t o t he r ight is downwar ds.

Bending M oment
Bending moment at any sect ion on t he loaded beam is algebr aic sum of moment s of all t he for ces act ing on
eit her side of t his sect ion.
Clockwise moment at sect ion x – x , M 1 = R1 x – W 1 (x – a)
and ant iclockwise moment at sect ion x – x , M 2 = R2 ( l – x ) – W 2 (l – x – b)
For t he equilibr ium of t he beam, M1 = M2
Clockwise moment s ar e assumed t o be posit ive and ant iclockwise negat ive due t o all t he loads act ing t o t he left
of a sect ion. The shear for ce and bending moment s ar e vect or quant it ies and following sign convent ions ar e
gener ally used.
F
F

F
F
+ve shear force
–ve shear force
The bending moment is positive if it tries to sag the beam. I f the left portion of the beam is consider ed positive
moment works out to be clockwise. Whereas the bending moment is negative if it tr ies to bag the beam.

+ve bending moment Sagging Bending M oment – ve bending moment H ogging Bending M oment

Relat ionship Bet ween L oad I nt ensit y, Shear F or ce and Bending M oment
Consider t he beam AB subject ed t o a gener al loading as shown in t he figur e. I n t his figur e, t he fr ee body
diagr am of an element al lengt h x at dist ance x fr om t he left suppor t is dr awn wit h posit ive sense of all t he
for ces and moment s.

(a) Position of element

(b) Positive sences of SF and BM (c) Enlarged view of element

The int ensit y of loading on t he element al lengt h may be t aken as const ant .
 3.8 Strength of Materials
Consider ing t he ver t ical equilibr ium of for ces, we get
F + F – F – W x = 0
F
or =W
x
dF
I n t he limit ing case as x  0, = W..
dx
Taking moment in equilibr ium of t he element about r ight face, we get
x
M + M – M + F x + W x =0
2
Neglect ing t he small quant it y of higher or der, we get
M + F x = 0
M
or = – F..
x
I n t he limit , as x  0, M = – F.
x
Shear For ce Diagrams (SFD) and Bending M oment Diagr ams (BM D).
A diagr am in which or dinat e r epr esent s shear for ce and abscissa r epr esent s t he posit ion of t he sect ion is called
shear force diagram. Similarly bending moment diagram may be defined as a diagram in which ordinate represents
bending moment and abscissa r epr esent s t he posit ion of t he sect ion.
I n t hese diagr ams, following infor mat ion is given:
(i) Values at all salient point s, i.e. t he point s wher e values ar e maximum/minimum, and t he point s wher e
nat ur e of var iat ion changes.
(ii) Nat ur e of var iat ion bet ween t he salient point s.
(iii) L ocat ion of t he point of cont r aflexur e, i.e. t he point wher e moment changes it s sign. Obviously at t his point
bending moment is zer o.

Shear F or ce and Bending M oment D iagr ams

( i ) Cant ilever Subject ed to a Concentrated L oad at End
Consider t he beam shown in fig. (a)
At t he sect ion dist ance x fr om fr ee end, and consider ing t he
for ces on left hand side por t ion.
F =–W (a) SPACE DI AGRAM
Thus shear for ce is constant at any section and its value is –
W.
H ence SFD is as shown in t he fig (b).
At sect ion x – x , M = – W x , i.e. linear var iat ion (b) S.F.D.
At x = 0, M =0
At x = l , M = – Wl .
H ence BM D is as shown in fig (c). (c) B.M .D.
( ii ) Cant ilever Subject ed t o U nifor mly Dist r ibut ed L oad w/unit lenght
Consider the left hand por tion of the beam from the section x
– x shown in t he fig. (a)
F = – wx X X
i.e., linear var iat ion l
At x = 0, F = 0. (a) SPACE DI AGRAM
At x = l , F = – wl .
H ence SFD is as shown in t he fig. (b)
x wx 2
M = – wx =– , (b) S F D
2 2
i.e., par abolic var iat ion
At x = 0, M =0
wl 2
At x = l , M =– . (c) B M D
2
H ence BM D is as shown in fig. (c).
 Strength of Materials 3.9

( iii ) Cant ilever Subject ed t o U niformly Varying L oad w / unit

L et t he load var y fr om zer o at suppor t A t o w/unit lengt h at l engt h
suppor t B linear ly.
At any dist ance x fr om left hand side, x l
x
L oad, wx = w . (a) SPACE DI AGRAM
l
1 x wx2
 F =– w x=–
2 l 2l
i.e., par abolic var iat ion
At x = 0, F = 0. (b) S.F.D.
2
w x
w l
At x = l , F = 2l = .
2
H ence SFD is as shown in t he fig. (b)
1 x x wx3
M =– w x =–
2 l 3 6l
(c) B.M .D.
i.e., cubic var iat ion
At x = 0, M =0
wl 2
At x = l , M =– .
6
H ence BM D is as shown in t he fig. (c) W
( iv) Simply Support ed Beam Subject ed t o a Concent rat ed L oad
A B
Consider t he beam AB of span l subject ed t o a concent r at ed a
C
b
load W act ing at a dist ance ‘a’ fr om left hand suppor t as Wb
l
Wa
l l
shown in t he figur e.
Wb Wa
Now, RA = , and RB =
l l
Consider por t ion AC at any sect ion dist ance x fr om A.
Wb
F = , i.e., const ant
l
Wb (b) S.F.D.
M = x,
l
i.e., linear var iat ion
At x = 0, M = 0.
W ab
At x = a, M =
l
For por t ion AC, SFD and BM D can be dr awn. (c) B.M .D.
Consider the portion CB. At any section at a distance x from B and considering right hand side portion, we get
Wa
F =– , i.e. const ant
l
Wa
M = x , i.e. linear var iat ion
l
At x = 0, M =0
W ab
At x = b, M =
l
l l l
l W W
If a = b = , t hen F = 2 = W, and M= 2 2 = Wl .
2 l 2 l 4
3.10 Strength of Materials
(v) Simply Support ed beam subject ed t o U DL .
Consider t he simply suppor t ed beam of span l subject ed t o
unifor mly dist r ibut ed load w per unit lengt h as shown in
t he fig. (a).
The r eact ions developed ar e
wl
RA = RB = (a) SPACE DI AGRAM
2
At sect ion x – x dist ance x fr om A,
wl
F = RA – wx = – wx
2
i .e. linear var iat ion
wl
At x = 0, F = (b) S.F.D.
2
wl wl
At x = L , F = – wl = –
2 2
i.e. linear var iat ion
x wLx wx2
At sect ion x – x , M = RA x – wx = –
2 2 2
i.e. par abolic var iat ion
At x = 0 and x = L , M = 0. (c) B.M .D.

L wL L w L2 w L2
At x = , M=  – = .
2 2 2 8 8

TYPI CAL STAN DARD CASES OF CAN TI LEVERS AN D BEAM S

S. N o. D iagr am Shear force Bending moment
Cantilevers. ( Shear for ce and bending moment ar e bot h maximum at fixed end of a cant ilever ).
1. F max = – W M max = – W l

wl 2
2. F max = – wl M max = –
2

M max = – wl 1 l 
FG l1 IJ
3. F max = – wl 1
H 2 K
wl 12
4. F max = – wl 1 M max = –
2

wl wl 2
5. F max = – M max = –
2 6

wl wl 2
6. F max = – M max = –
2 3

Beams. (Shear for ce may be maximum at suppor t or under point loads. Bending moment may be maximum at
t he point wher e shear for ce is zer o or changes signs.)
W Wl
7. F max = M max = + at mid span.
2 4
 Strength of Materials 3.11

Wa W ab
8. F max = fr om B t o C. M max = + at C.
l l

wl wl 2 l
9. F max = at A and B. M max = + at fr om A.
2 8 2

wl wl 2
10. F max = at A and B. M max = + at C.
4 12

wl wl 2 l
11. F max = – at A. M max = at fr om B.
3 9 3 3

DEFLECTI ON , TORSI ON AN D COLU M N

TH EORY OF SI M PLE BEN DI N G
Following assumpt ions ar e made :
(1) Befor e t he applicat ion of t r anser ve loads of t he beam it is init ially st r aight .
(2) The mater ials of the beam is per fectly homogeneous and isotr opic (i.e. equal elastic pr oper ties in all dir ections).
(3) The beam mat er ial is st r essed wit hin it s elast ic limit and t hus obeys H ook’s law.
(4) The t r ansver se sect ion (i.e. AC or BD in Fig. 1) r emain plane befor e and aft er bending of t he beam.
(5) The value of Young’s modulus of elast icit y E of t he mat er ials is t he same in t ension or compr ession.
Consider a small element ABCD of beam subject ed t o posit ive bending moment M . L et us assume sect ion of
beam r ect angular (it may have any shope). Due t o bending moment , t op fibr e AB cont r act s and t he bot tom most
fiber CD ext ends.
Aft er bending AB changes t o A B  and CD changes t o CD . Assume for t he small infint esimal lengt h , t he bent
lengt h can be consider ed as a par t of a cir cle of a definit e r adius. L et t he cent r e of cir cle or cent r e of cur vat ur e
be O, r adius of t he cir cle or r adius of cur vat ur e upt o t he net ur al axis is R.
Now consider of layer EF at a dist ance y fr om t he net ur al axis which is r educed t o lengt h E F  aft er t he bending
of t he beam.
M M b
A tC C
B
y B 
yC FC
E F R
N N
d h
N L y/N A yt Ft A'
B'
C D D
N' E' F'
L'
tt t
C' D'
(a) Longitudinal (b) Cross (c) Strain (d) Stress
Section Section diagram diagram
(e)

Final lengt h – Original lengt h

St r ain in layer EF =
Or iginal lengt h
I nitially, EF = AB = NL = N L 
St r ain in layer EF , e = E F  – N L 
N L 
wher e, N L  = R and E F  = (R – y ) 
Distance between the layer s EF and NL i.e., y is changed t o y  but change is t his thickness is negligible and y = y 
( R  y) – R y
 St r ain in layer EF , e = =
R R
 e y ...(i )
3.12 Strength of Materials
So, st r ain is dir ect ly pr opor t ioal t o dist ance of fibr e fr om net r ual axis. The st r ain is compr essive or t ensile
depending upon posit ion of t he layer, i.e. whet her layer is above or below t he neut r al layer.
L et , y c = dist ance of t he t op fibr e neut r al axis,
and y t = dist ance of t he bot t om fibr e fr om neut r al axis.
yt
Then, maximum compr essive st r ain, et =
R
yt
and maximum t ensile st r ain, et =
R
These var iat ion ar e shown in t he figur e.
st ress 
As we know elast icit y, E = =
st rain e
y
  =eE = E
R
 E
 =
y R
E
  = y ...(ii )
R
Since E and R ar e const ant s for par t icular sect ion, t her efor e st r ess at any point is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o it s
dist ance fr om t he neut r al axis.
Posit ion of N eut ral Axis
I nt er sect ion of t he plane of neut r al layer wit h t he cr oss sect ion of t he beam is called neut r al axis.
Now consider st r ess in layer, EF = 
But  = eE
E
wher e E = Young’s modulus of mat er ial =y
R
For ce on element ar y ar ea at EF level, F = b ×y = a
wher e a = ar ea of element ar y st r ip
yE
 F = a = – E  ya
R R
y
E c
Tot al for ce on t his sect ion, F =  F – ya
R yt


For equilibr ium, r esultant for ce on t he section should be zer o, i.e. total compr essive for ce F C acting on the sect ion
above the neutr al axis is equal to total tensile for ce F t act ing on the section below the neutr al axis, i.e
Fc – Ft = 0
 y
F =0
E c
y  a = 0
R yt

1
y =  yd a
A
 Ay = 0
Ther efor e, fir st moment of ar ea about t he N.A. is zer o since A  0
 y =0
This shows t hat , net ur al axis of t he beam passes t hr ough t he cent r iod of t he sect ion or neur t al axis passes
t hr ough t he cent r oids of all t he sect ion along t he lengt h t he beam.

M oment of Resist ance of a Sect ion

E
Refer ing t o Fig. (a), for ce on element ar y ar ea a, F = – y  a
R
E E 2
and, moment of t his for ce about N .A , M = – F = – y  a  – y  = y a
R R
y
E c 2
 M oment of for ce about N .A . = R  y a
yt
 Strength of Materials 3.13
M oment of r esist ance is due t o int er nal st r esses developed in sect ion,
yc
M r = E  y2a and t his must be equal t o applied moment M .
R yt
yc
2
wher e,  y a
yt
= second moment of the ar ea about N.A. = M oment of int er t ia about N.A. = I NA

E
 M = I
R NA
Assume C.G. is cent r iod of t he sect ion and X -X and Y -Y ar e hor izont al and ver t ical axes passing t hr ough t he
cent r iod.
 I NA = I xx Y
E
 M = I X
R xx X
N A
E M
 =
R I xx Y
Using t his r eact ion and equat ion (ii ), we have
M E 
= =
I xx R y
This for mulat ion is called flexur e for mula.
Since t ot al compr essive for ce on t he sect ion above t he NA is equal t o t ot al t ensile for ce below t he neut r al axis,
hence t hey const it ut e a couple of ar m h.
 Moment of resistance, M r = Fc  h = Ft  h = Applied moment, M
I n t er ms of maximum compr essive st r esses or maximum t ensile st r esses
M
t = M yc = 
I Zt
xx
M yc M
c = =
I xx ZC
wher e Z stands for modulus of section and is equal to moment of iner tia of the section about NA divided by the
extr eme value of y .
d
For symmet r ical cr oss sect ion, yc = y t =
2
wher e  = dept h of t he sect ion
I
 Zc = Zt = xx
d/2
and, moment of r esist ance, M = Z

SLOPE AN D DEFLECTI ON OF BEAM

Consider a beam AB which t ake cur ved shape as shown in t he figur e.
Consider an element ar y lengt h CD equal t o ds of t he beam. L et t angent t o t he elast ic cur ve at C makes an
angle  wit h x axis of t he beam.
d2 y
d dx 2 1
Then = =
ds LM F I OP
dy
2
3
2 R
1
MN GH JK QP
dx
dy d2 y 1 M
When is ver y small, t hen = =
dx dx2 R EI
Posit ive bending moment should cause posit ive cur vat ur e. When cur vat ur e is posit ive, angle  decr eases going
on fr om C t o D. Ther efor e
1 d M d2 y
= = =
R ds EI dx2
d2 y
 M = EI
dx2
3.14 Strength of Materials

Slope of t he beam,
dy
dx
=
M
EI z
dx + C1

Deflect ion of beam, y =

M
EI zz
dx  dx + C1 x + C2
wher e C1 and C2 ar e const ant and t heir values can be obt ained fr om t he end condit ions of t he beam.
dM d3 y
Shear for ce, F = = EI
dx dx 3
d4 y
Unifor m load, W = EI
dx 4
M et hods for F inding Slope and Deflection at a Point of Beam
1. M acaulay's met hod
W

A
2. M oment ar ea met hod B

3. Conjugat e beam met hod RA a b RB

1. M acaulay's M et hod
Point load on a simply suppor t ed beam : l

Wb Wa
React ion, RA = and RB =
ab ab
Differ ent ial equat ion of bending becomes
d2 y W bx
EI 2
= – M x = – RA  x + W (x – a) = – + W (x – a) ...(i )
dx ab
dy W bx 2 W( x  a)2
I nt egr at ing, we get EI =– + + C1 ...(ii )
dx 2(a  b) 2
W bx 3 W( x  a)3
I nt egr at ing again, we get EIy =– + + C1 x + C2 ...(iii)
6(a  b) 6
Applying end condit ions
At x = 0, y = 0, which gives C2 = 0
W ab FG a  2bIJ
At x = a + b, y = 0, which gives C1 =
6 H ab K
Subst it ut ing equat ions (ii) and (iii), we get
Wbx 3 W( x  a) 3 W ab FG a  2bIJ
EIy =–
6( a  b)
+
6
+
6 H ab K x ...(iv )

dy W bx 2 W( x  a)2 W ab FG a  2bIJ
and EI
dx
=–
2(a  b)
+
2
+
6 H ab K ...(v )

Deflect ion under t he load is obt ained by put t ing x = a

W a2 b2
 yc =
3 EI l
l
I f concent r at ed load W is act ing at mid-span, t hen a = b =
2
Wl 3
 (y )x = l/2 =
48 EI
dy
M aximum deflect ion is obt ained wher e =0
dx
a(a  2b)
 x =
3

y max =
W ab( a  2b) RS a (a  2bUV12


9( a  b) EI T3 W
 Strength of Materials 3.15

EI
FG dy IJ W ab FG a  2bIJ
At x = 0, H dx K x 0
=
6 H ab K
W ab FG a  2bIJ
 A =
6EI H ab K
l Wl 2
For a=b= , B = –
2 16 EI
W ab FG 2a  bIJ
At x = l, B = –
6EI H ab K
l Wl 2
For a=b= , B = –
2 16 EI

U nifor mly Dist r ibut ed L oad on Simply Suppor t ed Beam

x2
M oment at sect ion X – X M x = RA  x – w
2
wl
Now RA = RB =
2
Differ ent ial equat ion of bending is
d2 y wx 2 wlx wx 2
EI = – M = – R  x + = – +
dx2
x A
2 2 2
2 3
dy wl x wx
I nt egr at ing, we get EI =– + + C1
dx 4 6
wl x 3 wx 4
and EIy =– + + C1 x + C2
12 24
Apply end condit ions :
At x = 0, y = 0, which gives C2 = 0
wl 3
At x = l , y = 0, which gives C1 =
24
wl x 3 wx 4 wl 3 x
 EIy =– + +
12 24 24
l
At x = , t he deflect ion is maximum.
2
5wl 4
 y max =
384EI
dy wl x 2 wx 3 wl 3
Sl ope EI =– + +
dx 4 6 24
wl 3
At x = 0, A =
24EI
wl 3
 E I A =
24
wl 3
At x = l, B = –
24 EI

Cantilever Beam Car rying a Concentr at ed Load at F ree End

Taking a sect ion at a dist ance x fr om t he fr ee end, we have
M x = – Wx
Thus differ ent ial equat ion of bending becomes,
d2 y
EI = – M x = Wx
dx2
dy W x2
I nt egr at ing, we get EI = + C1
dx 2
3.16 Strength of Materials

W x3
Again int egr ating EIy = + C1 x + C2
6
Apply end condit ions :
dy Wl 2 Wl 3
At x = l , y = 0, = 0. Ther efor e C1 = – and C2 =
dx 2 3
2 2
dy Wx Wl
 EI = –
dx 2 2
Wx 3
Wl 2 Wl 3
and EIy = – x+
6 2 3
2
Wl Wl 3
At x = 0, A = – and yA =
2 EI 3 EI

Beams of Var ying Cr oss-sect ion

For a beam of var ying cross-section and made of different materials, EI should be taken inside the integr ation sign.
d2 y
e.g. = – Mx EI
dx2
d2 y Mx
 2 = – EI
dx


dy
dx
=–
Mx
EI
dx z
Consider a beam made of t wo mat er ials and differ ent cr oss-sect ion as shown in t he figur e. Then
M x = RA  x – W 1 (x – a) – W 2 (x – b) W2
W1
RA (l 1 + l 2) = W 1 (l 1 + l 2 – a) + W 2 (l 1 + l 2 – b) ×
FG1  a IJ FG1  b IJ C
D
RA = W 1
H l 1  l2 K +W H l
2
1  l2 K A
a
E
B

RB = (W 1 + W 2) – RA RA l1 l2 RB
b
2 x
d y ×
EI = – Mx
dx2
d2 y Mx
 =–
dx2 EI
2
d y RA  x W ( x  a) W2 ( x  b)
2 = – + 1 +
dx EI EI EI
I nt egr at ing, we get
dy
dx
= z0
l1

T EI
A
1 1 E I
1
1 1 E I W
2
1 1 T EI z
RS R  x  W (x  a)  W (x  b) UV dx+ RS R  x  W (x  a)  W (x  b) UV dx + C
E I
l1
l2

E I
A
2 2W
1
2 2
2
2 1
1

Then y= zz
l1

0
l1

0
RS R  x  W ( x  a)  W ( x  b) UV
T E I
A

1 1 E I
1
E
1 1 I W
2
dx . dx +
1 1 T EI EI zz
RS R  x  W ( x  a)  W ( x  b) UV
l2

l1 EI
l2

l1
A

2 2 W dx. dx
+ C1 x + C2
1

2 2
2

2 2

Example. A cant ilever beam of lengt h L car r ies a concent r at ed load P at it s fr ee end. The beam for t he fir st half
of it s lengt h (for fixed end t o cent r e) is made of diamet er D and for t he r emaining lengt h is D/2.
23 Pl 3
Show t hat deflect ion at t he fr ee end  = , wher e I 2 is moment of iner t ia of t he smaller sect ion.
384 EI 2
Sol ut i on.
D 4 D 4
I1 =
, and I 2 =
64 16  64
 I 1 = 16 I 2
Consider a sect ion at a dist ance x fr om t he fr ee end as shown in t he figur e
M x = – Px
 Strength of Materials 3.17

d2 y
Now EI = – M x = Px
dx2
I nt egr at ing t wice, we get

y = zz
L 2

0 0
L 2 Px
EI 2 d x d x + zz L

L 2 L
L
Px
2 EI 1
dxdx

z z
L 2 L
L 2 Px L Px Px 3 Px 3
= 0 EI 2 . x dx + L 2 EI 1
. x dx = 3EI
2
+ 3EI
1 L 2
0
3 3 3 3 3
PL PL PL PL PL PL3 23 PL
3

= 24EI + 3EI – 24EI = 24EI + 48EI – 384EI  y =

2 1 1 2 2 2 384 EI 2
Example. A cant ilever beam of lengt h l and car r ying a unifor mly dist r ibut ed load of int ensit y w per unit lengt h
is made of st eel having modulus of elast icit y E s and moment of iner t ia I . I t is suppor t ed by an elast ic r od made
of aluminium at t he fr ee end. The modulus of elast icit y of r od is E a, lengt h L and ar ea of cr oss-sect ion A.
Calculat e t he for ce exer t ed by t he r od on t he cant ilever.
Sol ut i on:
L et F be t he for ce bet ween t he beam and r od at A.
FL
Compr ession of r od, r =
EaA
Fl 3
Deflect ion of beam due t o for ce F at A, 1 = (upwar d)
3E sI
wl 4
Deflect ion of beam at A due t o unifor mly dist r ibut ed load w , 2 = (downwar d)
8E sI
Now 2 – 1 = r
wl4
Fl 3 FL
– =
8E sI 3E sI EaA
wl 4
8E sI
F =

LM L  l OP 3

N E A 3E I Q
a s

2. M ohr 's M oment Area M ethod

Consider a par t AB of t he deflect ed beam as shown in
t he figur e.
A small element CD = ds.
Dr aw t angent s at C and D t o t he deflect ed beam.
Also dr aw nor mals t o t hese t angent s t o meet a point
O, so t hat COD = d.
I n limit ing case for small deflect ion,
1 d
ds  dx ; and =
R ds
1 M
Also, =
R EI
M M dx d A
 d = . ds  =
EI EI EI
wher e, dA = M dx is ar ea of t he bending moment diagr am bet ween point s C and D.

Fr om t he figur e, z z
B

A
d =
B

A
M
EI
dx
3.18 Strength of Materials

 Change of slope fr om A t o B, A – B =
M
EI
dx
Now dist ance of point B above t he t angent AB 1 at A = BB 1.
z A
B

z
x  xB
M
Ver t ical dist ance bet ween t he point s C and D, BB 1 = (x – x C) dx
x  xA EI B
The expr ession within the integr al sign is moment of the M /EI diagr am between points A and B with r espect to
point B and it is equal to the distance between the deflected posit ion of B above the tangent at A.
Example. A cant ilever beam of lengt h l is loaded only one half of it s lengt h fr om t he fr ee end wit h a unifor mly
dist r ibut ed load of w per unit r un. Der ive a for mula for t he deflect ion at t he fr ee end.
w/unit length

B A
C
A
w/unit length
l l
2 2
(a)

(b)
Sol ut i on:
Unifor mly dist r ibut ed load is ext ended upt o t he fixed end B and an equal and opposit e load is applied bet ween
BC as shown in Fig. (a). The bending moment diagr am is shown in Fig (b).

A x  A 2 x2 1 LM 1  wl 2
3 1 wl 2 l l 3 FG IJ OP = 1 L wl 4
7wl 4 OP = 41 wl 4
A = 1 1
EI
=
EI N3 2
l
4
l 
3 8
  l
2 2 8 H K Q EI MN 8 
384 Q 384 EI

TORSI ON OF CI RCU LAR SH AFTS

Assumptions
(i ) The mat er ial of t he bar is homogeneous, per fect ly elast ic and obeys H ooke's law.
(ii ) The st r ess does not exceed t he limit of pr opor t ionalit y.
(iii ) Cr oss-sect ions r ot at e as if r igid, i.e. ever y diamet er r ot at es t hr ough t he same angle.
T
A B B

 dx
C C 
x
O d/2

T
l
(a) (b)
Consider a cir cular shaft t o lengt h l and diamet er d subject t o a couple T as shown in Fig. (a).
A line AB on t he sur face of t he shaft , which is par allel t o t he axis befor e st r aining, t akes up t he for m of a helix
AC aft er st r aining.
L et  be t he angle of shear st r ain on t he sur face. Then
BC = l 
BC
 =
l
 Strength of Materials 3.19


But =
G
wher e,  = shear st r ess in t he shaft
G = modulus of r igidit y.
  = G
T  G
 = =
J r l
d 4
wher e J = is polar moment of iner t ia of t he shaft cr oss-sect ion
32
COM PARI SON OF H OLLOW AN D SOLI D SH AFTS
I f shaft is hollow having inner r adius r and out er r adius R, t hen

T hol l ow =

R
.

2
eR 4
j
 r4 =

J
R hollow

T sol i d =  R3
2
FR r I
4 4
1

Thol l ow
Tsol i d
= GH R JK R3
COM POSI TE CI RCU LAR SH AFTS
(i) Shafts in Series
Consider a shaft made of t wo mat er ials connect ed in ser ies and subject ed t o t he t or que T.

d2 2 T
1
d1

l2 l1

T1 1 G11 T2  G 
Then, = = and = 2 = 2 2
J1 d1 l1 J2 d2 l2
2 2
J  JG J  J G 
T1 = 1 1 = 1 1 1 , or T2 = 2 2 = 2 2 2
d1 l1 d2 l2
2 2
Since bot h t he shaft s ar e subject ed t o t he same t or que, t her efor e
T1 = T 2

1
=
J2 d1
= 32
 d24  d1
=
d2
3

and
FG IJ
1 J G
= 2 2 
l1
=
FG d IJ
2
4
l1 G
 2

2 J1

d2 
 d14  d2
d1 H K
2 l2 J 1G1 Hd K
1

l2 G1
32
( ii ) Shafts in Parallel
Consider a shaft made of t wo mat er ials connect ed in par allel and T be t he t or que applied t o t he composit e
shaft . Then
T = T1 + T2
G11 J 1 G 2 2 J 2 d2
T1 = and T 2 = d1
l1 l2
G11 J 1 G 2 2 J 2
 T = l1 + l2
l2
l1

I f l 1 = l 2 = l and 1 = 2 = , t hen
3.20 Strength of Materials

 Tl
T = (G1 J 1 + G2 J 2); and =
l G1 J 1  G 2 J 2
d14
wher e J 1 =
32
; J2 =

32
ed 4
2  d14 j
TAPE RE D CI RCU LAR SH AFT
Consider t aper ed cir cular shaft and T be t he t or que applied at t he ends. L et 1 and 2 be t he maximum shear
st r esses at t he ends having diamet er s d1 and d2 r espect ively and  be t he shear st r ess at a dist ance x fr om t he
end having diamet er d2.
T l

d
d2 d1

T
x dx
Since t or que is same t hr oughout t he shaft , t her efor e
   3
d13 1 = d23 2 = d 
16 16 16
 d13 1 = d23 2 = d3 
Consider a small lengt h dx of t he shaft at a dist ance x fr om t he lar ger end.
L et d be diamet er of t he shaft at t his sect ion. I f d is angle of t wist of t he small lengt h dx , t hen
T 32T
d = dx = dx
GJ d 4G
d  d1
Now t an  = 2
2l
d = d2 –
d2  d1 FG
x = d2 – kx
IJ
......[ k = 2
d  d1
]
FG IJ

l H K l H K
32 T dx
 d =
G(d2  kx)4
32T l Fd 2
 d22  d1 d2 I
 Tot al angle of t wist for t he lengt h l =
3G
GH 1
d13 d23 JK
16 T
M aximum shear st r ess, max =
d13

STRAI N EN ERGY AN D RESI LI EN CE

Ext er nal for ces when applied t o a member, causes defor mat ion of t he member. The amount of defor mat ion
depends upon t he manner in which t he load has been applied. The member opposes t he defor mat ion and i n
doing so it develops int er nal st r esses. These int er nal st r eses have t he capacit y t o do wor k and get s st or ed as
st r ain ener gy in it . Only elast ic mat er ials get st r ained and develop st r esses and so st r ain ener gy can be st or ed
only in elast ic mat er ials. The wor k done in pr oducing an elast ic st r ain in t he member is st or ed as st ain ener gy
in t he mat er ial, which r eappear s on t he r emoval of load.
We know, wit hin t he elast ic limit , st r ess is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o st r ain
e e 
(,)
Normal strain

(,)
Shear strain

(,)
Volumetric
strain

u u u

  
Normal strain Shear strain Volumetric strain
Consider a bar car r ying a nor mal st r ess  (compr essive or t ensile) pr oducing a nor mal st r ain e. Then
1
St r ain ener gy per unit volume, u = .E (ar ea of t he shaded por t ion)
2
 Strength of Materials 3.21


But st r ain, e =
E
2

 u =
2E
2

Tot al st r ain ener gy, U =  volume of t he specimen
2E
The st r ain ener gy absor bed by t he specimen is also called r esilience.
U nits : St r ain ener gy has unit s of wor k done, i.e. N-mm or kg-cm et c.

Pr oof Resil i ence

The maximum st r ain ener gy absor bed by t he body up t o it s elast ic limit is called pr oof r esilience.
e
2
( e ) (A.L )
2 FG  A IJ FG L   IJ
e e
Pr oof r esilience =
2E
 Volume =
2E
= H 2 K H E K
FG IJ FG
Pc  c . L IJ
wher e, cA = load at elast ic limit =
H KH
2 E K
 e L
wher e change in lengt h up t o elast ic limit
E
FG 1 IJ (P ) (L )
Pr oof r esilience = H 2K e e

Pr oof r esilience per unit volume is called modulus of r esilience.

2
e
 M odulus of r esilience =
2E
1 2 2
Similar ly, shear st r ain ener gy per unit volume, u s =  =
2 2G
2
and, t ot al shear st r ain ener gy, U =  volume
2G
wher e, = shear st r ess
G = modulus of r igidit y or shear modulus.
2
1 
Similar ly, volumet r ic st r ain ener gy per unit volume, u v = v . ev = v
2 2K
2
v
and, t ot al volumet r ic st r ain ener gy, V v =  Volume
2K
wher e, v = volumet r ic st r ess
K = bulk modulus.
Example. A st eel specimen 1.5 cm 2 in cr oss-sect ion st r et ches by 0.005 cm over a 5 cm gauge lengt h under an
axial load of 30 kN. Calculat e st r ain ener gy st or ed in t he specimen at t his st age. I f load at elast ic limit for t he
specimen is 50 kN, calculat e elongat ion at elast ic limit and pr oof r esilience.
Sol ut i on.
Cr oss sect ional ar ea = 150 mm 2 ; Elongat ion, l = 0.005 mm ; L = 50 mm, and P = 30,000 N
FG 1 IJ ( P) (l ) = FG 1 IJ (30,000) (0.05) = 750 N– m
Tot al st r ain ener gy,U = H 2K H 2K
As we know, elongat ion due t o 30,000 N load = 0.05 mm
0.05
Ther efor e, elongat ion due t o 50,000 N load =  50,000 = 0.0833 mm (it is in t he elast ic limit )
30,000
Ther efor e, maximum st r ain ener gy at elast ic limit , i.e.

Pr oof r esilience =
FG 1 IJ (Pe) (l ) =
FG 1 IJ (50,000) (0.08333) = 2083.33 mm
H 2K H 2K
3.22 Strength of Materials
Example. A bar 100 cm in lengt h is subject ed t o an axial pull such t hat t he
maximum st r ess is equal t o 15000 N/mm 2. I f ar ea of cr oss-sect ion is 2 cm 2 over
a lengt h at 95 cm and for middle 5 cm lengt h, cr oss sect ional ar ea is 1 cm 2. I f
E = 2 105 N/mm 2, calculat e st ain ener gy st or ed in t he bar.
Sol ut i on.
St r ess in par t I and I I I :
15,000
1 = = 75 N/mm 2
200
St r ess in par t I I :
15,000
2 = = 150 N/mm 2
100
Tot al st r ain ener gy st or ed,

U =
LM   Volume of par t I +   Volume of par t I I + 
1
2
2
2
2

MN 2E
1
2E  Volume of Part III
2E

=2 M
L (75)  (200) ( 475)OP + (150)  (100) (50)
2 2

MN 2  2  10 5
PQ 2  2  10 5

= 2671.825 + 281.25
= 2953.125 N– mm.

TH I N -WALLED PRESSU RE VESSELS

Thin walled pr essur e vessels ar e used for t r anspor t at ion and st gor age of gases and fluids. I n t his t ype of vessels
t hi ck ness of t he wal l , t i s ver y sm al l as compar ed t o di amet er of t he vessel s. Thi ck ness equal s t o
1/10 or less of inner r adius.
A vessel car r ying a gas or liquid under a pr essur e p is subjected t o t ensile for ces, which r esist t he bur sting for ces
developed acr oss longit udinal and t r ansver se sect ions.
P
P t
L


d D
Z
N

Now consider a cylinder ical vessel of diamet er D , t hickness t lengt h L subject ed t o int er nal pr essur e P.
Consider equilibr ium of vessel along t he sect ion Z-Z.
Element ar y for ce act ing nor mal t o an element of t he cylinder at an angle  fr om hor izont al diamet er,
pL D
dF = p.dA =
. d
2
Same for ce act s on t he symmet r ically placed element on t he ot her side of t he ver t ical cent er line. So hor izont al
component of such for ces cancels out , and bur st ing for ce f is summat ion of t he ver t ical component of t hese
element ar y for ces.
pL D


F = 
0
2
. d sin  (for ver t ical component only)

pL D

pL D 
 F =  sin d =   cos 0
0
2 2
 F = pDL
Tot al bur st ing for ce F , act ing nor mal t o t he cut t ing plane z-z, is r esist ed by t he equal for ces P act ing on each cut
sur face of t he vessel wall.
Consider ing st at ic equilibr ium in ver t ical dir ect ion,
i .e. V = 0
 F = p DL = 2P
 Strength of Materials 3.23
This equat ion indicat es t hat bur st ing for ce can be det er mined if int er nal gas or fluid pr essur e p is known, along
wit h vessel diamet er and lengt h.
St r ess in t he logit udinal sect ion t hat r esist s bur t ing for ce F is obt ained by dividing it by t he ar ea of t wo cut
sur faces. This gives
pDL F
t = ... [for m  = ]
2t  L A
pD
 t = ...(i )
2t
St r ess obt ained by equat ion (i ) is called t angent ial st r ess because it act s t angent ially t o t he sur faces of t he
cylinder. These st r esses ar e also called cir cumfer ent ial st r ess, hoop st r ess, and gir t h st r ess.
N ote: St r ess comput ed by equat ion (i ) is aver age st r ess for t hin cylinder s only, which is pr act ically equal t o
maximum st r ess at t he inside sur faces, for t he st r ess dist r ibut ion in t hick walled cylinder s.
Now consider equilibr ium of t r ansver se sect ion.
Bur sting for ce acting over t he end of t he cylinder is r esist ed by r esult ant
P of t he t ear ing for ces act ing over t he t r ansver se sect ion.
Since t is small as compar ed t o D,
Ar ea of t r ansver se sect ion =  (D + t ) t F=
2

 Dt (closely appr oximat ed)

D
Now P =F
D 2
  Dt  l = P
4 P=(Dt). L
PD
 l = ...(ii )
4t
wher e t is called longit udial st r ess, because it act s par allel t o t he longit udinal axis of t he cylinder.
Fr om equat ions (i ) and (ii ), it is clear t hat logit udinal st r ess is one half t he value of t angent ial st r ess. Wit h t his,
it is concluded t hat if pr essur e in a cylinder is r aised t o t he bur st ing point , failur e will occur along a logit udinal
sect ion or longit udinal seam of t he cylinder .
When a cylinder ical tank is composed of two sheets riveted together, then strength
of t he logit udinal joint should be t wice t he st r engt h of gir t h joint .
For cylinder, wit h r ounded or dished end, t he bur st ing for ce t r aver se sect ion
may st ill be comput ed as t he pr oduct of t he int er nal pr essur e mult iplied by t he
pr oject ed ar ea of t he t r ansver se sect ion. Girth Joint

H er e it is assumed t hat t he volume bet ween t r ansver se sect ion A-A and t he
r ounded end is filled wit h a fluid. The r esult ant longit udial for ce will equal t o
pr oduct of t he pr essur e int ensit y mult iplied by t he shaded ar ea of t he t r aver se
sect ion.
Bur st ing for ce = Pr oduct of pr essur e and pr oject ed ar ea
D 2
i .e. F = p
4
Bur st ing for ce is r esist ed by t he for ce P dist r ibut ed acr oss t he t hickness of t he vessel.
Again consider ing  (D + t ) t =  Dt
Since, P =F Rounded or
Convexend
D 2
  Dt = p
4
pD
 =
4t
which is same as equat ion (ii )
The t angent ial or cir cumt er ent ial st r ess t and longit udinal or axial st r esses l ar e quit e lar ge in compar ision t o
t he r adial st r ess p, t her efor e, in st r ain det er minat ion p is not consider ed.
 1 l
Cir cumfer ential st r ain, ec = t –
E m E
3.24 Strength of Materials
wher e, e = Young’s modulus of elast icit y of t he mat er ial
1
and = Poissons r at io
m
pD 1 pD pD 1
 ec = = (2 – ) ...(iii )
2tE m 4 tE 4 tE m
Ther efor e, change in dimaet er, D = ec  D
pD 2  1
 2  
D =
4 tE  m
 1 t pD 1 pD
Axial st r ain or longit udinal st r ain, ea = l – = 
E m E 4 tE m 2tE
pD  2
 ea = 1–  ...(iv )
4 tE  3
pDL  2
Change in lengt h, L = ea  L = 1–
4 tE  m 
Final volume – I nit ial volume
Volumet r ic st r ain =
I nit ial volume
 
( D  D ) 2  ( L  L ) – D 2 L
4 4
=  2
D L
4
2D L
=  (neglect ing higher or der t er m of dD and dl )
D L
= 2ec + ea
2 pD 1 pD 2 pD 4
= (2 – ) (1  ) = (5 – ) ...(v )
4 tE m 4 tE m 4 tE m
pDV 4
Change in volume of t he cylinder, V1 = (5 – ) ...(vi )
4 tE m
p
Change in volume of t he liquid, V2 = V ...(vii )
K
wher e K is bulk modulus of t he liquid.
N ote: Equat ions (iii ) t o (vii ) ar e applicable t o t he cylinder vessels wit h flat ends.

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S (c) span/lengt h of t he beam
(d) r atio of over all depth to thickness of the flange
1. x, y and xy ar e r ect angular st r ess component s at
a point . The r adius of M ohr ’s cir cle is 3. The value of t he maximum shear st r ess will be
2
 x   y  2
(a)  2x   2y   2xy (b)     xy
 2 
2
 x –  y  2
2 2 2
(c)    (d)     xy
y x xy
 2 
2. The maxi mum al l owabl e compr essi ve st r ess (a) 25 5 (b) 50 5
cor r esponding t o lat er al buckling in a discr et ely
(c) 100 5 (d) 200 5
later ally suppor t ed symmet r ical I -beam, does not
depend upon 4. The buckling load in a st eel column is
(a) modulus of elast icit y (a) r elat ed t o t he lengt h
(b) r adius of gyr at ion about t he minor axis (b) dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o t he slender ness r at io
 Strength of Materials 3.25
(c) inver sely pr opor tional to the slender ness r atio
LEVEL-1
(d) non-linear ly t o t he slender ness r at io
11. The plane of maximum shear st r ess has nor mal
5. I f t he pr inci pal st r ess cor r esponding t o a t wo-
st r ess t hat is
dimensinal state of st r ess ar e 1 and 2 and 1 is
gr eater than 2 and both ar e tensile, then which (a) maximum (b) minimum
one of the following would be the cor r ect cr iter ion (c) zer o (d) none of t hese
for failur e by yielding, accor ding to the maximum 12. When  and Young’s M odul us of El ast i ci t y E
shear str ess cr iter ion ?
r emains constant, the ener gy-absor bing capacity
(1   2 )  yp 1  yp of part subject to dynamic forces, is a function of its
(a)  (b)  (a) length (b) cr oss-sect ion
2 2 2 2
2  yp (c) vol ume (d) none of t hese
(c)  (d) 1 = ± 2 yp 13. The shear st r ess dist r ibut ion over a r ect angular
2 2
cr oss-sect ion of a beam follows
6. Consider t he following st at ement s :
(a) a st r aight line pat h (b) a cir cular pat h
I n a uni-dimensional st r ess system, t he pr incipal
plane is defined as one on which t he (c) a par abolic pat h (d) an ellipt ical pat h
1. Shear st r ess is zer o 14. When a col um n i s fi xed at bot h ends, cor r e-
2. Nor mal st r ess is zer o spondi ng Eul er ’s cr i t i cal l oad i s
3. Shear st r ess is maximum  2 EI 2  2 EI
(a) (b)
4. Nor mal st r ess is maximum L2 L2
Of t hese st at ement s : 3 2 EI 4  2 EI
(c) (d)
(a) 1 and 2 ar e cor r ect (b) 2 and 3 ar e cor r ect L2 L2
(c) 1 and 4 ar e cor r ect (d) 3 and 4 ar e cor r ect 15. For the two shafts connected in par allel, find which
7. A M ohr ’s cir cle r educes t o a point when t he body st at ement is t r ue ?
is subject ed t o (a) Tor que in each shaft is t he same
(a) pur e shear (b) Shear st r ess in each shaft is t he same
(b) uniaxial st r ess only (c) Angle of t wist of each shaft is t he same
(c) equal and opposi t e axi al st r esses on t wo (d) Tor sional st iffness of each shft is t he same.
mut ual l y per pendi cul ar planes, t he pl anes 16. The slenderness ratio of a compression member
being fr ee of shear is :
(d) equal axial st r esses on t wo mut ually per pen-
dicular planes, t he planes being fr ee of shear. Effect ivelengt h
(a)
8. The number of st r ai n r eadi ngs (usi ng st r ai n Least r adiusof gyrat ion
gauges) needed on a plane sur face t o det er mine
t he pr incipal st r ains and t heir dir ect ions is Act ual lengt h
(b)
(a) 1 (b) 2 M oment of iner t ia
(c) 3 (d) 4
Moment of iner t ia
9. When t wo mut ual l y per pendi cul ar pr i nci pal (c)
st r esses ar e unequal but al ik e, t he maximum Act ual lengt h
shear st r ess is r epr esent ed by
(a) t he diamet er of t he M ohr ’s cir cle Act ual lengt h
(d)
(b) half t he diamet er of t he M ohr ’s cir cle R adiusof gyrat ion
(c) one-t hir d t he diamet er of t he M ohr ’s cir cle 17. The length of a bar is L metres. It extends by 2
(d) one-four t h t he diamet er of t he M ohr ’s cir cle mm when a tensile force F is applied. Find the
10. I f t he val ue of Poi sson’s r at i o i s zer o, t hen i t strain produced in the bar :
means t hat
0.002 2
(a) t he mat er ial is r igid (a) (b)
L L
(b) t he mat er ial is per fect ly plast ic
(c) t her e is no longit udinal st r ain in t he mat er ial 0.2 L
(c) (d)
(d) none of t hese L 0.002
3.26 Strength of Materials
18. For perfectly elastic bodies, the value of coefficient
uniform load of W/L
of restitution is :
(a) zero (b) 0.5
(c) 1.0 (d) 0.25
19. Choose the option which correctly shows the (1)
relationship between Modulus of Elasticity (E);
Modulus of Rigidity (c) and Bulk Modulus (K) : (2)

KC 2K C
(a) E  (b) E  (3)
K C 2K  C
(4)
9K C 3K C
(c) E  (d) E 
3K  C K  2C (a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
20. The property of a material by which it can be
27. A si mply suppor t ed beam car r ies a var ying load
rolled into sheets is called :
fr om zer o at one end t o  N /m at t he ot her end
(a) Elasticity (b) Plasticity (as under ).
(c) Ductility (d) Malleability
21. A simply supported beam of length L is loaded N/m
with a uniformly distributed load of "  per unit A
B
length. The maximum bending moment will be :

L 2 L 2
L
(a) (b) The lengt h of t he beam is L . The shear for ce wi ll
4 8
be zer o at a dist ance 'x ' fr om A. Fi nd 'x ' :
L 2 L L
(c) (d) L2 (a) (b)
2 2 4
22. Which of the following property is generally NOT L L
shown by metal ? (c) (d)
3 3
(a) Electrical conduction 28. Which one of t he following is t he most significant
(b) Sonorous in nature pr oper t y t o be consi der ed i n t he sel ect i on of
(c) dullness mat er ial for the manufact ur e of locating pins and
dr il l jig bushes used i n jigs and fixt ur es ?
(d) ductility
(a) Wear Resi st ance (b) Elasticity
LEVEL-2 (c) Shear St r engt h (d) Tensile St r engt h
29. What is t he main shaft of an engine t hat cont r ols
23. I n S.I syst em, unit of st r ess i s:
t he movement of pi st on ?
(a) kg/cm 2 (b) N
(a) axle (b) dr ive shaft
(c) N/m 2 (d) Watt (c) cr ank shaft (d) cam shaft
24. What i s t he funct i on of push r od i n a di esel 30. The component of t he engine t hat connect s t he
engi ne? I t t r ansfer s for ce bet ween - li nk bet ween t he small end of t he connect ing r od
(a) Cam and r ocker ar m and t he pist on is k nown as
(b) Connect ing r od and pi st on (a) Cams (b) Fl y wheel
(c) Cr ankshaft and pist on (c) Gudgeon pin (d) Pi st on r i ng
(d) None of t hese 31. The negat ive r at io of t r ansver se t o axi al st r ain
25. I n C.G.S syst em, t he unit of st r ain i s: is cal led as
(a) Young's modul us
(a) cm/k g (b) m/k g
(b) Shear modul us
(c) no unit (d) None of t hese (c) Poisson's r at io
26. I n t he case of a uni for ml y dist r ibut ed load on a (d) Bulk modulus of elast i ci t y
si mpl y suppor t ed beam, t he bendi ng moment 32. To con n ect pi st on t o t h e con n ect i n g r od
diagr am would be- t he_______ ar e used:
(a) r od caps (b) cap bol t s
(c) smal l end bear ings (d) gudgeon pi ns
 Strength of Materials 3.27

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (d)

LEVEL-1
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (b) 22. (c)

LEVEL-2
23. (c) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (c) 28. (d) 29. (c) 30. (c) 31. (c) 32. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
2. Si nce al l owabl e compr essi ve st r ess depends 5. 2

D l
upon r at io and r r at io as per I .S. Code
T y
y 1
800 : 1984. Ther efor e, it will not depend upon
t he modulus of elast icit y.
3. x = 200 , y = 100, xy = 100 1 > 2
2 M aximum Shear St r ess Theor y
x   y  x –  y  2
p1 , p2 = ±     xy  max –  mi n
2  2  M aximum Shear St r ess =
2
2
200  100  200 – 100  2 1 – 0 1
= ±    100 = =
2  2  2 2
= 150 ± 50 2  100 2 = 150 ± 50 5 1  yp
 Cr it er ion  =±
= 150  50 5 , 150 – 50 5 2 2
 p1 = 150 + 50 5 6. Only (1) can be cor r ect
(4) also Sat isfies
p2 = 150 – 50 5
 cor r ect st at ement is (1) and (4)
A t hir d pr incipal st r ess will be t hese 7. A M ohr ’s cir cle r educes t o a point when t he body
p = 0 i s subj ect ed t o equal axi al st r esses on t wo
3
mut ually per pendicular planes, the planes being
 pmax –  pmin
150  50 5 – 0 fr ee of shear.
max = = = 130.9
2 2
This will be maximum shear str ess in any plane FG  IJ
2

 p1 –  p2
12. St r ain ener gy, U =
H 2 EK
Also max = = 50 5
2  and E r emaining const ant , U is pr opor t ional
This is maximum in plane shear st r ess. t o (A.L .) which is volume.
2 EI 2 E.Ar 2 Also, since U is a funct ion of 2, t hat por t ion of
4. Per = = the par t which is pr one to high localised str esses
2
l 2
l
will absorb a high amount of energy, making it
2 EA 2 E.A
= 2
= 2
vulnerable to failure, such a part, therefor e, is
lr  slender ness r at io designed to have such a contour that, when it is
subjected to time-varying or impact loads or other
Per could be non linear ly r elat ed t o slender ness
types of dynamic for ces, the par t absorbs or less
r at io so bet t er t o avoid choice (d).
uniform stress distribution along the whole length
of the part is whole length of the part is ensured.
3.28 Strength of Materials
13. A par abolic path 21. SF and BM Formulas
Simply supported with uniform distributed load
Fx = Shear force at X
Mx = Bending Moment at X
 2 EI
14. Euler ’s cr it ical load, P =
( L eff ) 2 w Per unit length
wher e, L eff = effect ive lengt h of t he column. x
When bot h ends ar e fixed,
L ef f = 0.5 L A B
2 2 2
 EI  EI 4  EI
 P Cr = = 2 or
(0.5 L) 2
0.25 L L2
C
16. Slender ness r at io is t he r at io of t he lengt h of a RB
RA
column and the least r adius of gyr ation of its cr oss
L
sect i on. Oft en denot ed by l ambda. I t i s used
ext ensively for finding out t he design load as well
as i n cl assi f yi n g var i ou s col u mn s i n sh or t /
int er mediat e/long.
18. The coefficient of restitution (COR) is the ratio of BM
the final to initial relative velocity between two wL/2
objects after they collide. It normally ranges from C B
A
0 to 1 where 1 would be a perfectly elastic collision.
19. We know that, wL/2
E = 2C(1 +  ) ...(i)
and E = 3K (1 – 2  ) ...(ii)
wL2
From (i) 8
E
1 
2C

E 22. Dullness is the property which is not shown by

 1
2C the metal.
Equating this value in (i) 23. The S.I . uni t of st r ess is N/m 2.
24. A push r od is a component of t he val ve t r ai n of
  E   E  cer tain pist on engines. I t 's funct ion is essent ially
E  3K 1  2   1    3K 1   2
  2C   C  t o push t he valve open. Rods used in an over head
valve engine t o open and close t he valves. One
 E  3C  E  end is pushed up by the cam and ot her end makes
E  3K 3    3K  cont act wit h t he r ock er ar ms whi ch r ot at es and
 C   C 
pushes t he valve open.
EC = 3K(3C – E) = 9KC – 3KE 25. St r ain is unit less quant it y.
 EC + 3KE = 9KC I t i s dimensionl ess.
 E(C + 3K) = 9KC 26. Si mply suppor t ed beam wi t h udl,
9KC W N/m
E 
C  3K
A B
20. Malleability is a substance's ability to deform
under pressure (compressive stress). If malleable, l
a material may be flattened into thin sheets by Now FBD, t ake sagging (+ve) and hoggi ng (– ve),
hammering or rolling. Malleable materials can
be flattened into metal leaf. Many metals with
high malleability also have high ductility.
 Strength of Materials 3.29
By FBD,
x l

WL/2
A B
x C
l l
2L/3 C L/3
2 x 2
L
RA RB
l x
Now, M x  x – x.
2 2 WL
L oad at poi nt C =
2
l x 2
Mx = x
2 2 Now,  M B = O
 M A = (A bx = 0) = 0 – 0 = 0 WL L
 M B (A bx = L ) RA  L  
2 3
L2 L2 WL
  0  RA 
2 2 6
For maximum bending, H er e, fr om simil ar AXX and AWB,
dM x l WXX
 – x  0 x Wx
dx 2   WXX 
W L L
l l Shear for ce at X– X cr oss sect ion,
Now, x  , so bendi ng moment at x  t o be
2 2
maxi mum so, SF at WL 1
XX    WXX  x
6 2
2
l
  WL 1 Wx
l  l   2  l 2 l 2  l 2   x
Mc  .      6 2 L
2  2 2 4 8 8
WL 1 Wx 2
2  
l 6 2 L
Mc 
8 SF at X-X sect ion = 0 [By quest ion]
H ence, BM D shoul d be
WL Wx 2
0 –
6 2L
2
l Parabolic
8 curve Wx 2 WL
 
A B 2L 6
C
So, opt ion (b) is cor r ect . 2L2 L2
 x2  
6 3
‘W’ N/M
Wxx 1
x
X 3
28. Tensile strength is the criteria for selection of
material in manufacturing of locating pins and
27. jug bushes.
A x 29. Crankshaft is the main shaft that controls the
X B
movement of piston.
L
3.30 Strength of Materials
30. Gudgeon pin is defi ned as t he pin which hol ds
pi st on r od and connect i ng r od t oget her.
31. Poi sson’s r at i o: Poi sson’s r at i o i s t he r at i o of
t r ansver se cont r act i on st r ai n t o l ongi t udi nal
ext ension st r ai n i n t he dir ect ion of st r et ching
for ce. Tensile defor mat ion i s consi der ed posi t i ve
and com pr essi ve defor mat i on i s con si der ed
negat i ve.
32. Gudgeon pins are those pins which holds piston
and connecting rod together.
 4
Manufacturing Engineering
(Machining, Welding and
CHAPTER
Finishing Process)
M ETAL CU TTI N G
The pr imar y objective in met al cutting is the pr oduction of chips; which ar e r emoved to obt ain a component
and event ually t he chips ar e t hr own away. These chips may const it ut e mor e t han 50% of t he init ial
wor kpiece mat er ial. M et al cut t ing pr ocesses in gener al should be car r ied out at high speeds and feeds
wit h t he least cut t ing effor t at a minimum cost .
F act or s affect ing met al cut t ing.
(i ) Pr oper t ies of wor k mat er ial.
( ii ) Pr oper t ies and geomet r y of t he cut t ing t ool.
( iii ) I nt er act ion bet ween t ool and t he wor k dur ing met al cut t ing.
M echanics of met al cut t ing.
A cut t ing t ool exer t s a compr essive for ce on t he wor kpiece which st r esses t he wor k mat er ial beyond it s
yield point and t her efor e t he mat er ial defor m plast ically and shear s off. Plast ic flow t akes place i n a
localised r egion called shear plane.
The shear ed mat er ial begins t o flow along t he cut t ing t ool face in Chi p
Pl a
t he for m of small pieces called chips. Sh
n eo
ear f s Tool
h ea
The applied compr essive for ce which leads t o t he for mat ion of an r
gl e
chips is called cut t ing for ce.
The fl owing chips cause t ool wear. The heat pr oduced dur ing
shear ing act ion r aises t emper at ur e of t he wor k mat er ial, cut t ing Wor k piece
t ool and chips. Temper at ur e r ise in t he cut t ing t ool soft ens it and
causes loss of keeness in t he cut t ing edge leading t o it s failur e.
Cut t ing for ce, heat and abr asive wear ar e t he essent ial feat ur es
of t he mat er ial cut t ing pr ocess.
T ypes of met al cut t ing processes.
( i ) Or t hogonal cut t ing (t wo dimensional) :
I n this t ype, major cutt ing edge of t he tool is pr esent ed t o the wor kpiece per pendicular to the dir ect ion
of feed mot ion. I n or t hogonal cut t ing only t wo for ces ar e involved simplifying t he analysis of cut t ing
mot i on.
( ii ) Oblique cut t ing :
I n oblique cut t ing, major edge of t he cut t ing t ool is pr esent ed t o t he wor kpiece at an angle which is
not nor mal (angle  90º) t o t he dir ect ion of feed mot ion.

CH I PS FORM ATI ON
Types of chipes.
( i ) Cont inuous chip.
This t ype of chip is pr oduced when duct ile mat er ials such as aluminium, copper, wr ought ir on, and
mild st eel ar e machined at nor mal cut t ing speeds. This t ype of chip is pr oduced when t her e is low
fr ict ion bet ween chip and t he t ool face. This chip has t he shape of long st r ing or cur ls int o a t ight r oll.
( ii ) Cont inuous chip wit h built up edge.
When high fr ict ion exist s bet ween chip and t he t ool, t he chip mat er ial welds it self t o t he t ool face.
This welded mat er ial incr eases fr ict ion fur t her which in t ur n leads t o t he building up of layer upon
layer of chip mat er ial. Thus t he built mat er ial is r efer r ed t o as a built up edge. The built up edge
4.2 Manufacturing Engineering
gr ows and br eaks down when it becomes unst able. Chips wit h built up edge ar c not desir ed as t hey
r esult in higher power consumpt ion, poor sur face finish and lar ge t ool wear.
( iii )D iscont inuous chip (segment ed chip).
Discont inuous or segment ed chips ar e plast ically defor med wor kpiece segment s which ar e eit her
loosely connected to each other or completely unconnected. This type of chip is pr oduced while machining
br it t le mat er ials such as cast ir on or cast br ass but may also be pr oduced when machining duct ile
mat er ials at ver y low speeds and high feeds. For br it t le mat er ials discont inuous chip is associat ed
wit h fair sur face finish, lower power consumpt ion and r easonable t ool life. H owever, t his t ype of chip
is not desir able in t he case of duct ile mat er ials as t hey indicat e poor sur face finish and excessive t ool
wear.
( iv) N on-homogeneous chips.
These chips ar e char act er ized by not ches on t he fr ee side of t he chip and t hey ar e for med due t o non-
unifor m st r ain in t he mat er ial dur ing chip for mat ion. This t ype of chip is for med of mat er ials whose
yield st r engt h decr eases wit h t emper at ur e and which have poor t her mal conduct ivit y.
CU TT I N G T OOLS
Type of cut t ing t ools.
(1) Single-point cut t ing t ool.
This t ype of t ool has a effect i ve cut t ing edge and r emoves excess mat er ial fr om t he wor k mat er i al
al ong t he cut t ing edge.
Types of single-point cut t ing tool : Major cutting edge
Minor cutting edge
( i ) Gr ound type
Shank Tool axis
( ii ) For ged t ype Minor
flank
( ii ) Tr ipped type
Base
( iv) Bit t ype Major
flank
Single-point cut ting t ools ar e commonly used in lathes, planer s, shaper s, bor ing machines and slott er s.
These t ools may be left-handed or r ight-handed. A t ool is said t o be r ight /left-handed if t he cut ting edge
is on t he r ight or left side when t he t ool is viewed fr om t he point end.
(2) M ult i-point cut t ing t ools.
These t ools have mor e t han one effect ive edge.
e.g. milling cut t er s, dr ills, r eamer s, br oaches and gr inding wheels et c.
TOOL M ATERI ALS.
Properties of cutting tool materials.
( i ) Red hardness or H ot hardness:
I t is t he abilit y of a mat er ial t o r et ain it s har dness at high t emper at ur es.
( ii ) Wear resist ance:
I t enables t he cut t ing t ool t o r et ain it s shape and cut t ing efficiency.
( iii )Toughness:
I t r elat es t o t he abilit y of a mat er ial t o r esist shock or impact loads associat ed wit h int er r upt ed cut s.
( iv) Ot her pr opert ies :
Thermal conductivity, specific heat, coefficient of ther mal expansion, hardenability, dimensional stability,
fr eedom fr om distortion after heat tr eatment, resistance to decar bur isation, grindability and weldability.
Classificat ion of t ool mat erials.
(1) Car bon-t ool st eels.
These ar e plain car bon st eels wit h 0.6 t o 1.5% car bon. Ver y lit t le quant it ies of M n, Si, Cr or V ar e
added t o incr ease har dness and r efine gr ain size. L ow car bon var iet ies possess good t oughness and
shock r esist ance wher eas t he high car bon var iet ies ar e abr asion r esist ant wit h an abilit y t o maint ain
a shar p cut t ing edge.
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.3
Types of carbon tool steels.
(i ) Wat er har dening t ype
(ii ) Oil har dening t ypes
Car bon t ool st eels possess good machinabilit y, high sur face har dness wit h a fair ly t ough cor e. They
loose t heir har dness r apidly at t emper at ur es above 200°C. Their dimensional st abilit y dur ing heat
t r eat ment is poor. They cr ack under dr ast ic dimensional changes.
Car bon t ool st eels ar e used in t he manufact ur e of milling cut t er s, t wist dr ills, t ur ning and for m t ools
for use on wood, br ass, aluminium and magnesium.
I n t hese applicat ions, t emper at ur e at t he cut t ing edge is below 200°C, t her eby t he t ool r et ains it s
shar p edge and har dness.
(2) H igh speed steel.
These ar e basically high car bon st eel with significant quantit ies of t ungst en, molybdenum, chr omium,
vanadium and coabalt . These alloying element s impr ove har dness, har denabilit y, t oughness and wear
r esist ance. They also impr ove high t emper at ur e pr oper t ies. These st eels r et ain t he keenness of t he
cut t ing edge and har dness upt o 600°C, t her eby per mit t ing much higher cut t ing speeds.
Types of high speed steel :
(i ) T t ype for Tungst en pr edominant alloy.
(ii ) M t ype for M olybdenum pr edominat e alloy.
Accor ding t o AI SI designat ion (Amer ican I r on and St eel I nst it ut e), M olybdenum high speed st eels ar e
slight ly t ougher at t he same level of har dness as compar ed t o t he t ungst en var iet y. Pr esence of
chr omim impr oves har denabilit y, vanadium impr oves abr asion r esistance. Gr indability decr eases with
higher per cent age of vanadium. Cobalt is added t o high speed st eel t o incr ease it s r ed har dness.
H igh speed st eels ar e used for single point lat he t ools, milling cut t er s, dr ills, br oaches, hobs, shaver s,
t aps and t ools bit s.
(3) Cast cobalt base alloys.
I t is combinat ion of t ungst en, chr omium and cobalt which for m an alloy wit h high r ed har dness, wear
r esist ance and t oughness. This mat er ial is made by melt ing t he element s t oget her and t hen cast in
moulds, hence t hey ar e called cast alloys.
Pr imar y element s in cast alloys.
(i ) Cobalt
(ii ) Chr omium
(iii ) Tungsten
(iv ) Car bon.
Ot her el ement s such as Vanadium, M ol ybdenum, Tant al um, et c, ar e added t o i mpr ove speci fi c
pr oper t ies. A par t of chr omium and t ungst en can be subst i t ut ed by mol ybdenum, t ant alum and
columbium t o for m car bides. I n cer t ain inst ances nickel and bor on ar e also added. These cast alloys
have pr oper t ies in bet ween high speed st eels and cement ed car bides.
These alloys ar e used for machining cast ir on, alloy st eels, non-fer r ous met als, cer t ain super alloys,
gr aphite and plast ic.
(4) Cement ed car bides.
These ar e car bides of t ungst en, t it anium and t ant alum wit h cer t ain amount of cobalt . These car bides
ar e pr oduced t hr ough t he powder met allur gy r out e.
Types of cement ed carbides :
( i ) St r aight t ungst en car bide cobalt gr ade : They ar e char act er i sed by hi gh abr asi ve wear
r esist ance and st r engt h. They ar e not as t ough as H SS but possess higher har dness, densit y and
modulus of eleast icity. I n commer cial gr ades, the cobalt content var ies fr om 3 t o 12%. Wit h incr ease
in cobalt cont ent har dness, elast ic modulus, compr essive st r engt h decr ease, however t r ansver se
r upt ur e st r engt h incr ease.
( ii ) Alloyed tungsten carbide crade : The st r aight tungsten car bide tools fail r apidly due to for mat ion
of cr at er while machining st eel at higher speeds. H owever, t his cr at er wear can significant ly
r educed by t he addit ion of car bides of t it anium, t ant alum, neobium, et c.
4.4 Manufacturing Engineering
U se of carbide t ools.
The st r aight car bides ar e used for machining no-duct ile mat er ials which ar e not pr one t o met allic
adhesion bet ween chip and t he t ool face like C.I ., non fer r ous alloys, plast ics, wood, glass et c. Alloyed
car bide ar e used for cut t ing all gr ades of st eel and cut t ing speeds 3 or 4 t imes t hose possible wit h H SS
can be used.
(5) Ceramic t ool mat er ials.
(i ) Alumination oxide
(ii ) Silicon car bide
(iii ) Bor on car bide
(iv) Tit anium car bide
(v) Tit anium bor ide
Best machining r esult s have been pr ovided by sint er ed alumina. A popular cer amic t ool cont ains
99% Al 2 O3 and t he r emaining 1% is shar ed by Cr 2 O3, M gO and NiO.
Cer amic t ool cut t ing edge r et ains t he keenness even when t he chip is r ed hot . Cer amics ar e st able in
air even at temper atur es ar ound 18800°C. They have good cor r osion r esist ance. They ar e non-magnet ic
and do not conduct electr icit y. Har dness is high fr om ver y low t emper at ur es t o ver y high temper atur es.
Wit h t hese t ools built up edge is never encount er ed.
Cer amic t ools cut most met al and allow higher cut t ing speeds. Their t ool life is longer and t hey
pr ovide super ior sur face finish. No coolant is r equir ed and coefficient of fr ict ion bet ween chips and
t ool face is less.
(6) D iamond t ools.
I t is ext ensively used for t r uing t he gr inding wheels and t o a lesser ext ent for fine finishing of met als.
Diamond is one of t he har dest mat er ials wit h excellent abr asion r esist ance. I t s t her mal conduct ivit y
and melt ing point ar e high. I t pr ovides highest tool life and t ool can pr oduce mir r or like sur face finish,
as defor mat ion dur ing cut t ing is minimum.
Diamond t ools ar e used t o machine Al-Si alloys cont aining high silicon levels, abr asive non fer r ous
alloys, silica, cement ed tungsten cabide, cer amics, etc. Diamond abr asvie belt s ar e used for machining
t elevision scr eens. Poly cr yst alline diamond inser t s ar e br azed int o cut t ing edges of cir cular saws for
cut t ing const r uct ion mat er ials like concr et e, r efr act or ies, st one et c.
TOOL GEOM ETRY.
Tool geomet r y r efer s t o t ool angles, shape of t he t ool face and for m of cut t ing edges.
F act ors affect ing t ool geomet ry.
(i ) Wor k mat er ial
(ii ) M achining var iables (viz, cut t ing speed, feed and dept h of cut )
(iii ) Tool mat er ial
(iv) Type of cut t ing

S ide E n d cu tting
c le ara nc e e dg e a n gle
An gl es of tool S ide
H e el ra ke

N o se
ra dius S ide c uttin g ed ge a ng le
B a ke ra k e
S ide
re lie f
S h an k
End Flan k
c le ara nce
End
re lie f

Fig. Various angles of single point tool

 Manufacturing Engineering 4.5
Back rake angle.
I t measur es downwar d slope of t op sur face of t he cut t ing t ool fr om
the nose t o the r ear along t he longitudinal axis. I t guides the dir ect ion
of ch i p f l ow an d al so pr ot ect s t h e cu t t i n g t ool poi n t .
Soft er t he mat er i al , gr eat er shoul d be t he posi t i ve r ak e angl e.
Back r ake angle may be posit ive, neut r al or negat ive.
F ig. Positive Back rake angle
Side rake angle.
S ide
Side r ake angle measur es t he slope of t he t op sur face of t he t ool t o ra ke
t he side in dir ect ion per pendicular t o t he longit udinal axis. This
angle also guides t he dir ect ion of chip away fr om t he job. The
amount by which a chip is bent depends upon t his angle. When
the side r ake angle incr eases, magnitude of chip bending decr eases
S ide re lief a ng le
and t her efor e power needed t o par t and bend t he chip decr eases. Vx
Smoot her sur face fur nish is pr oduced by lar ger side r ake angle. F ig. Side rake and r elief angles
End cut ting edge angle.
I t is t he angle bet ween minor flank and a plane per pendicular t o t he side of shank. This angle ser ves as a
r elief angle allowing a small sect ion of t he end cut t ing edge t o cont r act t he machined sur face. This angle
usually var ies fr om 5° t o 15°.
Side cutt ing edge angle.
The angle bet ween side cut t ing edge and longit udinal axis of t he t ool is called side cut t ing edge angle. I t
contr ols t he dir ection of chip flow and avoids the for mat ion of built up edge. This angle also distr ibut es t he
cut t ing for ce and heat pr oduced over lar ger cut t ing edge.
Side relief angle.
This angle is bet ween flank of t he t ool and a plane nor mal t o t he base just under t he side cut t ing edge.
This angle allows t he t ool t o fed sideways int o t he job in or der t o cut t he wor k mat er ial wit hout r ubbing.
L ar ger side r elief angle leads t o t he br eaking of t he cut t ing edge due t o insufficient suppor t , wher eas if
t his angle is t oo small, t he t ool cannot be fed int o t he wor k mat er ial. When t he side r elief angle i s ver y
small, t he t ool will r ub against t he job and t her efor e it will get over heat ed and become blunt and t he
sur fae finish obt ained will be poor.
End relief angle.
The angle bet ween plane nor mal t o t he base and flank is called end r elief angle. This angle pr event s t he
r ubbing bet ween wor k mat er ial and cut t ing t ool. Ver y lar ge end r elief angles lead t o t he br eaking of
cut t ing edge, however, if t his angle is ver y small t he t ool will r ub on t he job leading t o poor sur face finish.
This angle var ies fr om 6° t o 10°.
N ose radius.
Nose r adius incr eases finish and st r engt hen t he cut t ing t ip of t he t ool. Smaller r adii pr oduce smoot her
sur face finish. Small r adii is mor e suit able for t hin cr oss-sect ion of wor k.
Tool signat ur e.
The t ool angles have been st andar dised by t he Amer ican St andar ds Associat ion.
Cut t ing t ool signat ur e consist s of following seven impor t ant par amet er s.
Back r ake, side r ake, end r elief, side r elief, end cut t ing edge, side cut t ing edge angles and nose r adius.
A t ool of signat ur e 10, 10, 6, 6, 8, 8, 2 will have t he following angles.
Back r ake angle = 10, Side r ake angle = 10, End r elief angle = 6, Side r elief angle = 6,
End cut t ing edge angle = 8, Side cut t ing edge angle = 8, Nose r adius = 2 mm.
4.6 Manufacturing Engineering
TOOL LI FE.
Excessive cut t ing speeds cause a r apid failur e of t he cut t ing edge of t he t ool; t hus, t he t ool can be declar ed
t o have had a shor t life.
F actors used t o evaluat e t ool life.
( i ) Change of t he qualit y of t he machined sur faces
( ii ) Change in the magnitude of the cutting force r esulting in changes in machine and workpiece dimensions
t o change
( iii ) Change in t he cut t ing t emper at ur e.
The select ion of t he cor r ect cut t ing speed has an impor t ant bear ing on t he economics of all met al-cut t ing
oper at ions. The cor r ect cut t ing speed can be est imat ed wit h r easonable accur acy fr om t ool-life gr aphs or
fr om t he Taylor Tool-life r elat ionships, pr ovided necessar y dat a ar e obt ainable.
F act ors affect ing t ool life.
( i ) Tool geomet ry : A t ool wit h lar ge r ake angle becomes weak as a lar ge r ake r educes t he t ool cr oss-
sect ion and amount of met al t o absor b t he heat .
The effect of end cut t ing edge angle is t o impr ove sur face finish, r igidit y and equivalent cut t ing speed.
The opt imum end cut t ing edge angle is 4° t o 10°. Clear ance is opt imum for 12° t o 15°.
( ii ) Tool mat erial : Effect of t ool mat er ial on t ool life is r emoving lar ge or maximum volume of met al
by not only incr easing cut t ing speed but t he high r at e at which t he st ock will be r emoved per cut t ing
edge or t ool life. An ideal t ool would r emove t he same amount of met al per cut t ing edge or any speed.
Physical and chemical pr oper t ies of wor k mater ials influence-t ool life by affecting st abilit y and r ate of
wear of t ool.
( iii ) Cutt ing fluid : I t affect t ool life t o a gr eat ext ent . Cut t ing fluids car r ies away t he heat gener at ed
and keeps t he t ool, chip and wor k piece cool. Cut t ing fluids also r educes coefficient of fr ict ion at t he
chip t ool int er face and incr eases t ool life.
M ACH I N ABI LI TY
I t is pr oper t y of t he mat er ial which gover ns t he ease or difficult y wit h which it can be machined under a
given set of condit ions.
Cr it er ia for machinabilit y.
(1) Tool life.
Tool life is a dir ect funct ion of cut ting speed. By incr easing the cutt ing speed, tool life may be decr eased
and vice-ver sa. H ence speed is usually t aken as r efer ence t o expr ess machinabilit y r at ings.
(2) M achinabilit y rat ings (based on cut t ing speed).
(3) Cut t ing for ces.
This is necessar y t o limit t he values of cut t ing for ce in keeping wit h t he r igidit y of t he machine and t o
avoid vibr ations dur ing machining. I f cut t ing for ce is high and consequent ly t he power consumpt ion is
also high, lar ger machine t ool may be r equir ed, t hus incr easing over head cost and unit cost of the par t
pr oduced. H igher t he cut t ing for ces induced under a set of cut t ing condit ions dur ing t he machining of
a mat er ial, lower is it s machinabilit y index.
(4) Surface finish.
I f given mat er ial allow higher cut t ing speed or induce lower cut t ing for ces, it may not pr oduce good
sur face finish. Wher e a finish pr oduced on a par t is a cause for r eject ion, it has an impor t ant bear ing
on t he cost . H igher t he sur face finish, bet t er is it s machinabilit y.
(5) Tool r igidit y.
Tool defect s due t o cut t ing for ces causing a det r iment al effect not t he t ool life, e.g. in end mill since it
is clamped only at ends, consider able for ce may cause t he t ool t o deflect as it s slender ness r at io is
lar ge.
(6) Penet r at ion r at io
(7) Case of chip disposal
(8) Temper at ur e of cut t ing t ool
(9) Wor k har dening.
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.7
FACTORS AFFECTI N G M ACH I N ABI LI TY.
(1) M achine var iables.
Efficiency of machi ning oper at i ons depends on over all r igidi t y of machi ne t ool, cut t i ng t ool and
wor kpiece. I f t he machine is not sufficient ly r igid and has less power, t he t ool life will be r educed in
addit ion t o poor accur acy and sur face finish. L ower speed, dept h and t ool have t o be employed. Thus
machinabilit y of a mat er ial is indir ect ly affect ed by t he machine var iables.
(2) Tool var iables.
( i ) Tool materials : When t ools ar e made fr om t he pr oper t ool mat er ial and have pr oper geomet r y,
a cut t ing oper at ion can be per for med efficient ly. I f cut t ing t ool is not opt imized, t he mat er ial
r emoval r at es must be r educed t o obt ain a r easonable value of t ool life, ot her wise machining cost s
will be incr easing. Cut t ing t ools ar e made of high car bon st eel, high-speed st eels, var ious t ype of
sint er ed car bides, cast alloys, cer amics, diamonds. Specific cut t ing speeds, defined as t he speed
pr oducing a pr edet er mined lengt h of t ool life, ar e lar gely influenced by t he t ype of t ool mat er ial.
Select ion of a par t icular t ool mat er ial for a given job depends on t he wor k mat er ial, machining
condit ions, wear r esist ance of t he t ool mat er ial and t he cost of t he t ool mat er ial.
( ii ) Tool geomet r y : Pr oper t ool geomet r y i s essent i al for effi ci ent cut t i ng. For ces ar e most l y
independent of t ool angles except t he t r ue r ake. (For ce change for ot her var iables also but t he
change is less significant e.g. nose r adius, side cut t ing edges angle).

Var iable incr eased Effect on surface finish

Rake angle L ar ge impr ovement
Relief angle Slight det er ior at ion
Side cut t ing edge angle Slight t o lar ge impr ovement
End cut t ing edge angle L ar ge det er ior at ion
Nose r adius L ar ge impr ovement

(iii )N ature of engagement of tool with work : Tool life is usually mor e wher e cont inuous cut t ing
occur (t ur ning a full cylinder ) and is shor t for int er mit t ent and heavy impact loads (machining
slot s or keyways) when t he speeds has t o be r educed.
For milling, init ial cont act of t he cut t er wit h t he wor kpiece affect s t ool life consider ably in t he
case of car bides and ot her br it t le cut t ing t ool mat er ials.
Angle of engagement wit h t he wor k should be less t han about 20° and if it is incr eased above 35°,
it may cause pr emat ur e failur e of t he cut t ing edge.
(3) Cut t ing condit ions.
(i ) Cutt ing speed
(ii ) Feed
(iii ) Dept h of cut
(4) Wor k mat erial variables.
( i ) H ardness : I t is t he r esult of chemical composit ion and heat t r eat ment of t he alloy. As har dness
incr eases, machinabilit y decr eases.
( ii ) Tensile strength : Sur face impr oves wit h incr ease in t ensile st r engt h of mat er ial.
( iii )Chemical composit ion :
Effect of var ious element s in t he mat er ial :
( a ) Carbon : L ow car bon st eels wit h 0.01 – 0.15% car bon have poor machinabilit y because of
t heir pr edominant fer r i t e st r uct ur e, hi gh duct i lit y and t oughness. When car bon cont ent
incr eases for 0.25– 0.3%, machinabilit y impr oves. Any fur t her incr ease in car bon det er ior at es
t he machinabilit y.
( b) M anganese : M achinabilit y is impr oved t o a cer t ain ext ent by t he addit ion of manganese
upt o 1%. Wit h fur t her incr ease, machinabilit y det er ior at es.
4.8 Manufacturing Engineering

( c) Phosphorus : Addit ion of phosphor us upt o 0.15% has a favor able effect . I t r eact s wit h ir on t o
for m ir on phosphide which incr eases br it t leness of chips and impr oves sur face finish.
( d ) Sulphur : I t has similar effect as phosphor us.
( e) Lead : When lead is added upt o 0.2%, it has a favour able effect on chip br eaking and t her efor e
fr ee-cut t ing st eels cont ain lead.
( f ) Si l i con
( g) N ickel : M achinabilit y det er ior at es wit h higher cont ent of nickel.
( iv) M icrostructure. H ar d const it uent s necessit at e low cut t ing speeds and vice ver sa. L ar ger gr ain
size al lows higher cut t i ng speeds. St eel s having same chemi cal composit i on and har dness
manufact ur ed in t he same plant but in differ ent shift s, can have mar ked differ ence in t heir
machinabilit y r at ings.
Car bide and oxide inclusions cause r apid wear on t he cut t ing t ool, hence cut t ing speed has t o be
subst ant ially r educed. M icr ost r uct ur e can be var ied by heat t r eat ment .
(v) Degree of cold work. Cold wor king incr eases t ool life and per mit s an incr ease in cut t ing speed.
I n st eels cont aining 0.3 t o 0.4% car bon, t her e is pr act ically no differ ence in machinabilit y of hot -
r olled and cold-r olled bar s.
( vi ) Shape and dimensions wor k
(vii ) Rigidit y of wor k piece
(viii ) St r ain har denability
DRI L L I N G.
I n t his pr ocess, t he hole is pr oduced or enlar ged using a specific t ype of end cut t ing t ool. Dr illing involves
t wo pr incipal cut t ing edges.
SH API N G M ACH I N E.
I t is a r ecipr ocat ing t ype int ended t o pr oduce flat sur faces. These sur faces may be ver t ical, hor izont al or
inclined.
Types of shaping machines.
( i ) H or izont al t ype
( ii ) Ver t ical t ype
( iii ) Cr ank t ype, Gear ed or H ydr aulic t ype
( iv) Univer sal t ype
M echanisms involved.
(i ) Cr ank and slot t ed lever mechanism
( ii ) Whit wor t h quick r et ur n mechanism
( iii ) H ydr aulic shaper mechanism
PLAN I N G M ACH I N E.
I t is int ended t o pr oduce plane and flat sur faces by a single point cut t ing t ool. I t is a lar ge machine. I n t his
machine, t he job r ecipr ocat es, and aft er ever y double st r oke t he t ool is subject ed t o feed eit her in ver t ical
or hor izont al dir ect ion.
Types of planing machine.
(i ) Open t ype planer
(ii ) Pit planer
(iii ) Double housing planer
Types of mechanisms used for table drive.
( i ) Open and cr ossed belt dr ive
( ii ) Rever sible mot or dr ive
( iii ) H ydr aulic dr ive
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.9
M I LLI N G M ACH I N E
I n t his machine, t he wor k is fed against a r ot at ing mult ipoint cut t er. The cut t er r ot at es at a high speed
since t he mult iple cut t ing edge r emoves met al at a fast er r at e. This machine finds applicat ions on a wider
r ange, since it is possible t o hold many cut t er s on t he mandr el or ar bor. The accur acy and sur face finish
ar e good in t his machining compar ed t o ot her pr ocesses.
The milling pr ocess is dist inguished by a t ool wit h one or mor e t eet h which r ot at e about a fixed axis while
the wor kpiece is fed into the tool. The chips pr oduced by milling ar e gener ally short, discontinuous segments.
The milling pr ocess ut ilises small, light t ools which can be easily r ot at ed at high speeds t o pr oduce flat or
cur ved sur faces on wor kpieces of a wide var iet y of size and shapes.
T ypes of milling machines.
( i ) Plain milling : The plain milling cut t er which is used t o pr oduce flat sur faces, has cut t ing edges on
t he per ipher y which ar e par allel wit h t he axis of r ot at ion. The per for mance of t his cut t er is impr oved
if t he t ools ar e ar r anged in helical fashion r at her t han par allel t o t he axis of r ot at ion. The use of
helical cut t er not only pr ovides smoot her cut t ing but chip for mat ion is also impr oved. Cut t er s wit h
helix angles up 45º ar e nor mally called plain milling cut t er s, wher eas cut t er wit h helix angles gr eat er
t han 45º ar e called helical mills.
( ii ) End or face milling : The end milling cut t er has t eet h on one end as well as on t he per ipher y. I n use
it s axis of r ot at ion is per pendicular t o t he sur face pr oduced, while in plain million t he cut t er axi s is
par allel t o the finishing sur face. The end milling cut t er is used for pr oducing flat sur faces and pr ofiles–
ver y oft en simult aneously. M illing cut t er s used ar e, milling saws, angle mills, fly mills, T-slot mi lls,
for med mills, et c.
Compound indexing.
The indexing met hod is called compound due t o t wo separ at e movement s of t he cr ank in t wo differ ent
hole cir cles.
GRI N D I N G
I t is a met al cut t ing pr ocess in which t he met al is r emoved by a shear ing pr ocess just as in ot her cut t ing
oper at ions. Gr inding pr ocesses employ an abr asive wheel containing many gr ains of har d mat er ial bonded
in a mat r ix. The act ion of a gr inding wheel may be consider ed a mult iple-edge cut t ing t ool except t he
cutting edges ar e ir r egular ly shaped and r andomly spaced ar ound the face of the wheel. Each gr ain r emoves
a shor t chip of gr adually incr easing t hickness. Aft er ‘use’ t he wheel can become ‘loaded’ wit h dull gr ains
and/or find adher ing chips. The wheel must be dr essed by passing a diamond t ip t ool acr oss t he wheel face
t o gener at e new shar p cut t ing sur faces.
Gr inding is gener ally car r ied out wit h wheel and wor k moving in opposit e dir ect ions. This is somet imes
r efer r ed t o as up gr inding. I n down gr inding t he wheel and wor k move in t he same dir ect ion.
Types of Grinding.
( i ) Sur face gr inding
( ii ) Ext er nal or cylindr ical gr inding
( iii ) I nter nal gr inding
( iv) Cent r eless gr inding
(v) Off hand gr inding.
F act ors affect ing performance of a grinding wheel.
( i ) Abrasive type : The abr asives gener ally used ar e aluminium oxide, silicon car bide, and diamond.
Diamond is t he har dest subst ance known and is used for ver y har d wor k mat er ials such as glass,
car bide, and cer amics. Aluminium oxide and silicon car bide ar e mor e commonly used for making t he
gr inding wheels. Silicon car bide is har der t han aluminium oxide but dulls mor e r apidly. Gener ally,
aluminium oxide abr asives ar e select ed for t he sur face gr inding of st eels and br onzes, wher eas silicon
car bide is chosen for t he sur face gr inding of cast ir on, br ass, aluminium, har d alloys, and car bides.
( ii ) Grain size : The size of t he gr ains i s gener all y by t he gr it size. A 60 gr it si ze, for exampl e, i s
appr oximat ely 1/60 inch squar e. The lar ger t he size of t he gr ains, t he mor e will be t he mat er ial
r emoval capacit y, but t he qualit y of t he sur face finish det er ior at es. Thus, t he gr ain size is det er mined
pr imar ily by t he sur face qualit y r equir ement s.
4.10 Manufacturing Engineering

( iii )Bonding material : The bond mat er ials commonly used ar e vit r ified clay, r esinoid mat er ials, silicat es,
r ubber, shellac, and met als. The vit r ified bond is st r ong and r igid. I t is t he most common t ype of bond
used. The r esin bonds ar e made fr om synt het ic or ganic mat er ials. Such bonds ar e st r ong and fair ly
flexible. The silicat e bonds ar e essent ially t he silicat es of soda (wat er glass). These bonds ar e not as
st r ong as t he vit r ified bonds.
( iv) Structure : Since t he gr inding wheel is similar t o a milling cut t er wit h a ver y lar ge number of t eet h
r andomly or ient ed, it must have voids t o allow space for t he chips. I f t he voids ar e t oo small for t he
chips, t he chips st ay in t he wheel, blocking t he voids. This is known as loading of t he wheel. L oading
causes inefficient cut t ing. I f t he voids ar e t oo lar ge, again t he cut t ing act ion is inefficient since t her e
will be t oo few cut t ing edges. I n an open st r uct ur e, t he gr ains ar e not t oo densely packed, and in a
wheel wit h a closed st r uct ur e, t he gr ains ar e t ight ly packed. For gr inding duct ile wor k mat er ials,
lar ger chips ar e pr oduced, and t o r educe t he t endency of loading, an open st r uct ur e is pr efer r ed. I n t he
case of har d and br it t le wor k mat er ials, a closed st r uct ur e is pr efer r ed. I n t he case of har d and br it t le
wor k mat er ials, a closed st r uct ur e is select ed. The st r uct ur e depends on t he r equir ed gr ade and also
t he nat ur e of cut . For a r ough cut , an open st r uct ur e is mor e suit able.
(v) Grade : The gr ade is det er mined by t he st r engt h of t he bonding mat er ial. So, a har d wheel means
st r ong bonding and t he abr asive gr ains can wit hst and lar ge for ces wit hout get t ing dislodged fr om t he
wheel. I n t he case of a soft wheel, t he sit uat ion is just t he opposit e. When t he wor k mat er ial is har d,
t he gr ains wear out easily and t he shar pness of t he cut t ing edges is quickly lost . This is known as
glazing of t he wheel. A glazed wheel cut s less and r ubs mor e, making t he pr ocess inefficient . To avoid
t his pr oblem, a soft wheel should be used so t hat t he gr ains which lose t he shar pness get easily
dislodged as t he machining for ce on t he individual gr ains incr eases. Thus, t he layer s of new gr ains ar e
exposed, maint aining t he shar pness of t he wheel. When t he wor k mat er ial is soft, a har d wheel should
be used since t he pr oblem of glazing will be absent and a longer wheel life will be achieved. So, for a
wor k mat er ial, t her e exist s an opt imal gr ade– t oo har d a wheel causes glazing, wher eas t oo soft a
wheel wear s out ver y fast .

CEN TRELESS GRI N DI N G.

Advant ages.
(i ) L ess met al is r emoved.
( ii ) No t endency for chat t er and deflect ion of t he wor k.
( iii ) I t can be used for mass pr oduct ion.
( iv) No cent r e holes is necessar y.
(v) Size of wor k is cont r olled.
( vi ) Unskilled wor ker s can also be employed.
D isadvant ages.
( i ) M ult iple diamet er s cannot be gr ound.
( ii ) H ollow wor kpieces cannot be cor r ect ly gr ound.
ABRASI VE S.
I t is a subst ance used for making gr inding wheel.
Types of abrasives.
( i ) N atural abrasives : Solid quar t z, emer y, cor undum and diamond.
( ii ) Artificial abrasives : These ar e silicon car bide and aluminium oxide.
Silicon car bide cont ains 56% silica sand, 34% powder ed coke, 2% salt and 12% saw dust . Sand pr oduces
silica, coke gives car bon, salt helps t o fuse it .
Aluminium oxide is pr oduced by heat ing bauxit e wit h coke and ir on bor ings in a fur nace.
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.11
BON DS.
A bond is employed t o hold abr asives t oget her.
Types of bonds.
(i ) Vitr ified bond
( ii ) Silicat e bond
( iii ) Shellac bond
( iv) Resinoid bond
(v) Rubber bond
( vi ) Oxychlor ide bond
N ON -TRADI TI ON AL M ACH I N I N G PROCESSES
ABRASI VE JET M ACH I N I N G (AJM ).
I t is t he r emoval of mat er ial fr om a wor kpiece by a high speed syst em of abr asive par t icles car r ied by gas
fr om a nozzle. The pr ocess is used chiefly t o cut mat er ials t hat ar e sensit ive t o heat damage and t hin
sect ions of har d mater ials that chip easily and t o cut int r icat e holes t hat would be mor e difficult t o pr oduce
by ot her met hods.
Pr ocess.
Abr asive powder is fed fr om a mixing chamber t hat vibr at es at 50 H z int o an or ifice chamber wher e it is
ent r ained in t he gas st r eam and t hen passed t hr ough a connect ing hose finally emer ging fr om a small
nozzle at high velocit y. Power feed r at e is cont r olled by amplit ude of t he mixing vibr at ion and pr essur e
r egulator contr ols the gas flow. Duplex units allow unint er r upted pr oduction while r eloading or can per for m
independent oper at ions wit h differ ent abr asives. The pr essur e can be r eleased t hr ough blow off out let s in
some unit s. Abr asive flow fr om t he nozzle can be st opped in 10 t o 15 milliseconds.
The nozzle is mount ed in a fixt ur e for aut omat ic oper at ion eit her t he wor kpiece or t he nozzle being moved
by cam dr ives, pant ogr aphs or ot her suit able mechanisms. Nozzles must be highly r esist ant t o abr asion
and ar e made of t ungst en car bide or synt het ic sapphir e. For pr ecision cut t ing nozzles ar e made wit h an
ext er nal t aper on t he t ip t o minimize secondar y r icochet of abr asive par t icles t hat r ebound fr om t he
wor kpiece.
Dist ance of nozzle fr om wor kpiece affect t he size of machined ar ea and t he r at e of mat er ial r emoval. The
abr asive par t icles fr om any nozzle follow par allel pat hs for a shor t dist ance and t hen t he abr asive jet flar es
out war d like a nar r ow cone.
Abr asive mat er ials used in abr asive jet machining include aluminium oxide, silicon car bide, dolomit e
(calcium magnesium car bonat e), sodium bicar bonat e and small glass beads. har dness, st r engt h, par t icle
size and par t icle shape of t he abr asive affect it s cut t ing per for mance and life.
Abr asives ar e not or dinar ily r e-used because of r educed cutt ing action they give and because contaminat ion
wit h mat er ial abr aded fr om t he wor k can clog small or ifices in t he equipment and t he nozzle.
Carrier gas.
Or dinar ily air, nit r ogen or car bon dioxide is used as t he car r ier or pr opellant gas. Commet r ical cyl inder
gases ar e usually of sat isfact or y pur it y.
Nozzle pr essur e can r ange bet ween 2 and 8.5 bar but or dinar ily is about 5 bar. H igh pr essur e r esult s in
r apid nozzle wear, low pr essur e gives slow r emoval r at es.
Advant ages.
(i ) Abilit y t o cut int r icat e hole in mat er ial of any har dness.
(ii ) Abilit y t o cut fr agile, br it t le or heat sensit ive mat er ial wit hout damage.
(iii ) Absence of mechanical cont act bet ween t ool and wor k.
(iv) L ow capit al cost .
D isadvant ages.
(i ) L imit ed applicabilit y because only small amount s of met als can be r emoved and nozzle must be close
t o t he wor kpiece.
(ii ) Slow r emoval r at e and inefficient use of power.
(iii ) St r ay cut t ing.
(iv) Embedding of abr asive in t he wor kpiece.
4.12 Manufacturing Engineering
Appl icat i ons.
Abr ading and fr eest one glass, cleaning, cutt ing fine lines exposing an ar ea for elect r ical contact machining
semiconductor s such as ger manium, silicon gallium, cutting and etching mater ials such as quar tz, sapphir e,
mica and glass, debur r ing, mar king.

WATER-JET M ACH I N I N G
Pr ocess.
When pur e wat er is abr asive-laden and shaped int o a small (0.08 t o 0.5 mm diamet er ) coher ent st r eam
fir ed at velocit ies up t o 1000 m/s (fast er t han a 30.06) caliber r ifle bullet ) int o a mat er ial, t he r esult s ar e
clean, smoot h cut s at sur pr isingly fast r at es.
I n oper at ion, t he wat er is pr essur ized by a hydr aulic int ensifier, which is a lar ger pist on wor king on a
smaller one. Diamet er r at ios var y fr om 10 : 1 t o 20 : 1 wit h a 20 : 1 r at io, a pr essur e of 200 bar int ensified
becomes 4000 bar on t he wat er in t he smaller -diamet er pist on. Pr essur ized wat er is t hen r out ed t o an
at t enuat or t hat act s as an accumulat or t o maint ain const ant flow and pr essur e t o t he cut t ing nozzle by
modulating the hydr aulic system’s pulsating action into a smooth str eam of water under for ce. A maintained
4000 bar pr essur e behind a 0.5 mm office r epr esent s t he high end of wor king r ange.
Abr asive can be anyt hing fr om sand t o salt depending on t he applicat ion. Abr asive is int r oduced int o t he
st eam aft er it leaves t he or ifice.
Appl icat i ons.
( i ) Wat er jet can be used t o cut fer r ous and nonfer r ous plat es, composit es of all t ypes, t her moplast ics,
high-st r engt h alloys, elast omer s, gels, cer amics, pr int ed cir cuit boar ds, paper boar ds, and a wide
r ange of food pr oduct s.
( ii ) I nt er nal cut s can be made.
( iii )No st ar t ing hole is necessar y.
( iv) I nside cor ner r adii as t ight as 1.5 t o 3 mm can be made.
Advant ages.
(i ) Water jets ar e shar p in all dir ections. Robot ar ms can swing them quickly without r egar d to or ientation.
(ii ) Cut s ar e made without heat , leaving a fine sur face finish. A wide var iet y of mat er ial including fer r ous
and nonfer r ous plat e composit es of all t ypes, t her moplast ics, high-st r engt h alloys, elast omer s, glass,
cer amics and pr int ed cir cuit boar ds can be cut .
(iii ) A minimum of wast e and allowes line-t o-line cut t ing t o nest ed par t s.
(iv) Air bor ne par t icles like, glass, fiber glass, and ot her t oxic mat er ials et c. associat ed wit h most cut t ing
pr ocesses ar e eliminat ed.
(v) Cut edge is ver y smoot h and r equir es no fur t her finishing.

D isadvant ages.
(i ) A 0.08 mm st r eam pr oject ed int o t he at mospher e will complet ely vapor ize at about 600 mm fr om t he
nozzle.
(ii ) Noise can easily r each a high-decibel l evel. Eit her t he wor king unit must be sound shi elded or
wor ker s in t he vicinit y must wear ear pr ot ect ion.
(iii ) Back pr essur es of r eact ive for ces ar e pr esent , however, t hey ar e not t r oublesome since t he wor king
ener gy is concent r at ed int o a minut e cr oss-sect ional ar ea at any given moment .
(iv) Spent wat er and abr asive must be cont ained. Typical consumpt ion of wat er is 5 t o 10 l/m, wit h 70%
evapor at ion dur ing t he cut . Remaining wat er is dir ect ed int o a cont ainer under t he equipment .
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.13

ELECTRO CH EM I CAL M ACH I N I N G (ECM ).

This met hod r emoves met al wit hout t he use of mechanical or t her mal ener gy. Elect r ic ener gy is combined
wit h a chemical t o for m a r eact ion of r ever se plat ing. Dir ect cur r ent at r elat ively high amper age and low
voltage is continuously passed between anodic wor kpiece and cathodic tool (electr ode) thr ough a conduct ive
elect r olyt e. At t he anode sur face, elect r ons ar e r emoved by t he cur r ent flow and t he met alic bonds of t he
molecular st r uct ur e of t his sur face ar e br oken. These sur face at oms pr oceed t o go int o solut ion as met al
ions. Simult aneously, posit ive hydr ogen ions ar e at t r act ed t o t he negat ively char ged sur face, and emit t ed
at t he cat hode sur face t o for m hydr ogen molecules. Dissolved mat er ial is r emoved fr om t he gap bet ween
wor k and t ool by t he flow of elect r olyt ic which also aids in car r ying away t he heat and hydr ogen for med.
Exposur e of t he wor kpiece t o hydr ogen is t hus r educed.
Advant ages.
(i ) H igh met al r emoval r at es for t ough or har d alloys.
(ii ) Rapid met al r emoval r at es when machining complex t hr ee dimensional sur faces.
(iii ) Ability t o machine complex t hr ee dimensional sur faces without bur r s and without the str iation mar ks
left by miling cut t er s.
(iv) Fr eedom fr om met allur gical damage.
(v) Accur acy and economy t hr ough t he inher ent char act er ist ics of t he pr ocess.

Requirement s of ECM operat ions.

(i ) A cat hode t ool pr epar ed wit h an appr oximat e mir r or image of t he configur at ion t o be machined int o
t he wor kpiece (wit h compensat ion for over cut ).
(ii ) A wor kpiece and means t o hold and locat e it in close pr oximit y t o t he t ool.
(iii ) A means of supplying t he gap bet ween t ool and wor kpiece wit h pr essur ized flowing conduct ive liquid
(el ect r ol yt e).
(iv) A car efully cont r olled sour ce of d.c. elect r ical power of sufficient capacit y t o maint ain a cur r ent
densit y bet ween t ool and t he wor kpiece.

Appl icat i ons.

(i ) This pr ocess is par t icular ly suit able for small deep holes.
(ii ) Penet r at ion r at es fr om 0.75 t o 12.5 m per min or mor e ar e possible.
(iii ) Air cr aft and aer ospace component s ar e fr equently pr oduced by t his method, because t he high st r engt h
t emper at ur e r esist ant mat er ials used ar e difficult t o machine in ot her ways.

Advant ages.
(i ) Abilit y t o machine economically t he complex shaped wor kpiece.
( ii ) M achining abilit y is independent of t he mechanical pr oper t ies of t he wor k mat er ial.
( iii ) Can dispense wit h oper at ion like gr inding and hence fast er in some cases.
( iv) Pr oduct ion of st r ess fr ee sur face.

D isadvant ages.
(i ) Cor r osion and r ust for mat ion in t he machine t ool and wor k.
( ii ) M inimum cor ner r adii t hat can be machined is limit ed t o about 0.2 mm.
( iii ) Gr ain boundar y at t ack may t ake place under cer t ain condit ions.
( iv) L ar ge floor space r equir ement s and high capit al cost .
4.14 Manufacturing Engineering
U LTRASON I C M ACH I N I N G (U SM ).
I t is t he r emoval of mat er ial by par t icles of abr asive t hat vibr at e in a wat er slur r y cir culat ing t hr ough a
nar r ow gap bet ween wor kpiece and t he t ool t hat oscillat es at about 20,000 H z (cycles per second). The t ool
r epr oduces it s shape in t he wor kpiece, gener ally t o an accur acy ± of 0.025 mm and somet imes t o t oler ance
of 0.0125 mm or less wit hout bur r s. Accur acy depends on t he size of t he t ool, r igidit y of machine and t he
t ool, t emper at ur e of t he slur r y, gr it size and pr ocedur e for r oughing and finishing.
Ult r asonic machining is used chiefly on har d, br it t le mat er ials t hat do not conduct elect r icit y, however, it
is used on bot h met als and nonmet als and on duct ile as well as br it t le mat er ials. I t par t icular ly well suit ed
t o t he pr oduct ion of r elat ively shallow ir r egular cavit ies and is one of t he few pr ocesses suit able for
machining ext r emely fr agile such as honeycomb.
Appl icat i ons.
(i ) Four nar r ow r ect angular holes wer e cut at t he same t ime in t he moving par t of hydr aulic ser vo
valve.
(ii ) A car bon flat 75 × 100 × 1 mm was machined by USM making 2176 holes t hr ough it , each 0.8 mm
squar e, in less t han 10 min.
(iii ) Dense cer amic 1.6 mm t hick was machined by USM making 27 t hr ough-holes in 3 r ows of 9, t he
cent r es accur at e t o ± 0.025 mm. H oles about 4.75 mm in diamet er wer e made simult aneously by a
t ool t hat r esembled 27 t ubes. The t ool made 150 par t s befor e it needed shar pening.
Advant ages.
(i ) H igh accur acy and good finish ar e easily at t ainable.
(ii ) Equipment is safe t o oper at e.
(iii ) L it t le or no heat gener at ion dur ing machining.
(iv) L ow cost of met al r emoval.
(v) H ar d br it t le mat er ials ar e easily machinable.
D isadvant ages.
(i ) L ow r at e of met al r emoval.
(ii ) Soft er mat er ials ar e difficult t o machine.
(iii ) H igh cost .
ELECTRON BEAM M ACH I N I N G (EBM ).
Elect ion beam machining (EBM) uses elect r ical ener gy t o gener at e ther mal ener gy for r emoving mat er ial.
A pulsat i ng st r eam of high speed el ect r ons pr oduced by a gener at or i s focused by el ect r ost at ic and
elect r omagnet ic feilds t o concent r at e ener gy on a ver y small ar ea of wor k. H igh power beams ar e used
wit h elect r on velocit ies exceeding one half t he speed of light . As t he elect r ons impinge on t he wor k t heir
kinet ic ener gy is t r ansfor med int o t her mal ener gy and vapor izes t he mat er ial locally.
Beams can be concent r at ed on spot s as small as 0.01 mm in diamet er. The pr ocess is usually per for med in
vaccum, t o pr event collisions of elect r ons wit h gas molecules which would scat t er or diffuse t he elect r on
beam. L ead shielding is r equir ed t o pr ot ect t he oper at or fr om r adiat ion. EBM is gener ally limit ed t o
dr illing ext r emely small holes and cut t ing nar r ow slot s or cont our s in t hin mat er ials t o close t oler ances.
Ther e is no t ool wear or pr essur e on t he wor k. St ock r emoval r at e is gener ally about 1.6 mm 3/min wit h a
penet r at ion r at e of about 0.25 mm/s or fast er.
Appl icat i ons.
( i ) Dr illing gas or ifices for pr essur e differ ent ial devices, wher eby closely dimensioned holes ar e dr illed
t hr ough t he par t . These holes r egulat e t he amount of gas t hat flows in a given amount of t ime.
( ii ) Pr oducing wir e dr awing dies, light r ay or ifices and spinner et s t o pr oduce synt het ic fiber s.
( iii ) Pr oducing met er ing holes eit her r ound or pr ofile shaped t o be used as flow holes on sleeve valve
r ocket fuel inject or s or inject ion nozzles on diesel engines.
Advant ages.
( i ) Good for micr o-machining.
( ii ) Can cut any mat er ial.
( iii ) No t ool wear.
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.15

( iv) No t ool wor k cont act .

(v) L it t le physical and met allur gical damage t o t he wor kpiece.
( vi ) Concent r at ed sour ce of heat ing.
D isadvant ages
(i ) H igh cost .
( ii ) H igh level of skill needed.
( iii ) Can be applied for small cut s only.
( iv) Vacuum r equir ement s limit t he size of wor kpiece t hat can be handled.

ELECTRI CAL DI SCH ARGE GRI N DI N G (EDG).

I t is similar t o EDM except t hat t he elect r ode is a r ot at ing wheel (gener ally gr aphit e). Posit ively char ged
wor kpiece ar e immer sed in or flooded by a dielect r ic fluid and fed past t he negat ively char ged wheel by
ser vo cont r olled machine t able. M et al is r emoved by int er mit t ent high fr equency elect r ical dischar ges
passing thor ough the gap bet ween wheel and wor k. The r ever se of the for m on t he wheel face is tr ansfer r ed
t o t he wor kpiece. Chips ar e flushed away by fluid car r ied t hr ough t he cut t ing ar ea by wheel r ot at ion.
Wheel never comes closer t o t he wor kpiece t han t he pr esent lengt h of spar k (usually 0.01 t o 0.075 mm)
used for any par t icular gr inding oper at ion.
Appl icat i ons.
(i ) Gr inding st eel and car bide at t he same t ime wit hout wheel loading.
( ii ) Gr inding t hin sect ions wher e abr asive wheel pr essur es might cause dist or t ion.
( iii ) Gr inding br it t le mat er ials of fr agile par t s wher e abr sive mat er ials might cause far act ur ing.
( iv) Gr inding t hr ough for ms wher e diamond wheel cost s would be excessive.
(v) Gr inding cir cular for ms in dir ect compet it ion wit h abr asive wheel met hods.
Advant ages.
(i ) Gr inding pr essur e is ver y low r esult ing int o st r ess and bur r -fr ee gr inding.
( ii ) H eat effect s such as gr inding cr acks, t emper ing of wor k and t r ansfor mat ion of sur face layer s ar e
eliminat ed because elect r olyt ic gr inding is a cold gr inding pr ocess.
( iii ) I nsignificant wheel wear guar ant ee cut t er concent r icit y.
D isadvant ages.
(i ) Cannot be applied t o elect r ically non-conduct ing mat er ials.
( ii ) I n some cases t he sur face machined, has been found t o have micr o-cr acks.
( iii ) Tool wear can limit t he degr ee of accur acy at t ainable.
( iv) Nor mally applicable t o small sized jobs.

CH EM I CAL M ACH I N I N G.
I n t his pr ocess, t wo most impor t ant fact or s ar e et chant r esist ant mat er ial (called maskant or r esist ) and
etchant used.
Types of maskant s or resists.
( i ) Cut and peel maskants : These ar e used almost exclusively for chemical milling of air cr aft missile
and st r uct ur al par t s ar e applied by flow dip or spr ay coat ing t o t hicknesses of 0.0125 mm t o 0.375 mm
dr y film for m. The mat er ials ar e r emoved fr om ar eas t o be et ched by cut t ing and peeling away t he
unwant ed ar eas gener ally wit h a t emplat e t o aid accur acy. Et ching dept hs of 12 mm or mor e can be
at t ained and aft er a cer t ain ar ea has been et ched, addit ional maskant may be r emoved so t hat st ep
et ching is possible.
(ii ) Phot ogr aphic r esist s
(iii ) Scr een r esist s.
4.16 Manufacturing Engineering
F act ors affect ing select ion of et chant .
(i ) M at er ials t o et ched
(ii ) Type of maskant or r esist used
(iii ) Dept h of et ch
(iv) Sur face finish r equir ed
(v) Pot ent ial damage or alt er at ion of met allur gical pr oper t ies of t he mat er ial
(vi ) Speed of mat er ial r emoval
(vii ) Per missible oper at ing envir onment
(viii ) Economics of mat er ial r emoval
(ix) H eat t r eat condit ion of mat er ial.
CH EM I CAL M I LLI N G.
Chemical milling is t he pr ocess used t o shape met als t o an exact ing t oler ance by t he chemical r emoval of
met al or deep et ching of par t s.
Amount of met al r emoved or dept h of et ch is cont r olled by amount of immer sion t ime in t he et ching
solut ion. L ocat ion of t he unet ched or unmilled ar eas of a par t is cont r olled by masking or pr ot ect ing t hese
ar eas fr om t he act ion of et chant solut ion.
Appl icat i ons.
(i ) Remove met al fr om a por t ion of t he ent ir e sur face of for med or ir r egular ly shaped par t s such as
for gings, cast ings, ext r usions, or for med wr ought st ock.
(ii ) Reduce web t hicknesses below pr act ical machining, for ging, cast ing, or for ming limit s.
(iii ) Taper sheet s and per for med shapes.
(iv) Pr oduce st epped webs r esult ing in consolidat ion of sever al det ails int o one int egr al piece.
Advant ages.
(i ) Sur faces wit h complex pr ofiles of t hin sheet s can be pr epar ed. No bur r s ar e pr oduced.
(ii ) Bot h sides of wor k sheet can be pr epar ed at a t ime.
(iii ) No mechanical wor k is done on t he sur face which offer s higher fat igue.
(iv) Pr ocess r educes t ooling t ime consider ably.
(v) Tooling cost is low.
(vi ) Pr ocess is flexible.
D isadvant ages.
(i ) L ar ger floor ar ea is r equir ed because of t he size and number of bat hs r equir ed in t he pr ocess.
(ii ) Cost of manufact ur ing is high.
(iii ) L ower met al r emoval r at e is available (0.2 mm per min).
(v) Shar p cut s ar e not possible.
PH OTOCH EM I CAL M ACH I N I N G
Phot ochemical machining or chemical blanking is t he pr ocess of pr oducing met allic and non-met allic
par t s by chemical act ion. The pr ocess consist s of placing a chemically r esist ant image of t he par t on a
sheet of met al and exposing t he sheet t o chemical act ion which dissolves all t he met al except t he desir ed
par t . M ost par t s pr oduced in t his way ar e similar t o t hin gauge st ampings and ar e gener ally flat and of
complex design.
I n phot ogr aphic r esist pr ocess of phot ochemical machining met al can be chemically cleaned in numer ous
ways including decr easing, pumice scr ubbing, elect r o cleaning, or chemical cleaning. Cleaned met al is
coat ed wit h phot ogr aphic mat er ial which exposed t o light of t he pr oper wavelengt h, will polymer ize and
r emain on t he panel as it goes t hr ough developing st age. This polymer ized layer t hen act s as t he bar r ier
t o t he et ching solut ion applied t o t he met al. M et hods of coat ing t he met al wit h t he phot o-r esist ar e
dipping, spr aying, flow coat ing, dollar coating, or laminat ing. Most applicable method is det er mined by the
t ype of r esist used and t he par t ’s physical for m.
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.17
Appl icat i ons.
The use of phot ochemical machining is gener ally limit ed t o r elat ively t hin mat er ials, fr om 0.002 mm t o 1
mm t hick. The limit of mat er ial t hickness is gener ally a funct ion of t he t oler ance desir ed on finished
par ts.

Advant ages.
(i ) Wor king on ext r emely t hin mat er ials wher e handling difficult ies and die accur acies pr eclude t he use
of nor mal mechanical met hods.
(ii ) Wor king on har dened or br it t le mat er ials wher e mechanical act ion would cause br eakage or st r ess
concent r at ion point s. Chemical blanking wor ks well on spr ing mat er ials and har dened mat er ials
which ar e r elat ively difficult t o punch.
(iii ) Pr oduct ion of par t s which must be absolut ely bur r -fr ee.
(iv) Pr oduct ion of ext r emely complex par t s wher e die cost would be pr ohibit ive.
(v) Pr oduct ing shor t r un par t s wher e r elat ively low set up cost s and shor t cut fr om pr int t o pr oduct ion
offer advant ages. This is especially impor t ant in r esear ch and development pr oject s and in model
shops.
LASER BEAM M ACH I N I N G (LBM ).
The wor d L ASER st and for “ L ight Amplicat ion using Simulat ed Emission of Radiat ion.” L aser pr ovides
int ense and uni-dir ect ional beams of light ; t his light is coher ent in nat ur e. The mechanism by which a
laser beam r emoves mat er ial fr om t he t he sur face being wor ked involves a combinat ion of t he melt ing
and evapor at ion pr ocesses. H owever, wit h some mat er ials, t he mechanism is pur ely one of evapor at ion.
Advant ages.
(i ) No mechanical cont act bet ween t ool and t he wor k.
(ii ) Beam can be pr oejct ed t hr ough a t r anspar ent window.
(iii ) L aser can be used wit h mat er ials sensit ive t o heat shock such as cer amics.
(iv) Wor kpiece is not subject ed t o lar ge mechanical for ces.
(v) L aser oper at es in any t r anspar ent envir onment including air, iner t gas, vacuum and even cer t ain
liquids.
D isadvant ages.
The laser syst em is quit e inefficient .

4.18 Manufacturing Engineering

F ORM I N G PROCE SS
I t can be defined as a pr ocess in which desir ed size and shape ar e obt ained t hr ough t he plast ic defor mation
of a mat er i al. The st r esses induced dur i ng t he pr ocess ar e gr eat er t han t he yield st r engt h, but less t han
t he fr actur e str engt h of t he mat er ial. The type of loading may be tensile, compr essive, bending, or shear ing
or a combinat i on of t hese.
Types of forming processes.
(i ) Col d for mi ng
(ii ) H ot for mi ng
I f wor king t emper at ur e is higher t han t he r ecr yst al lizat ion t emper at ur e of t he mat er i al, t hen t he pr ocess
is call ed hot for ming. Ot her wi se t he pr ocess is call ed cold for ming.
The flow stress behaviour of a mater ial is entirely different above and below its r ecr ystallization temper ature.
Dur ing hot wor king, a lar ge amount of plastic defor mat ion can be impar t ed without significant str ain
har dening. This is impor tant because a lar ge amount of st r ain har dening r ender s t he mater ial br itt le.
The fr i ct ional char act er ist ics of t wo for mi ng pr ocesses ar e also ent ir ely differ ent .
e.g. coeffi cient of fr ict i on in cold for ming is gener al ly of t he or der of 0.1, wher eas t hat in hot for ming can
be as high as 0.6.
Again hot for ming lower s down t he mat er ial st r engt h so t hat a machine wit h a r easonabl e capacit y can be
used even for a pr oduct havi ng l ar ge di mensi ons.
Typical for ming pr ocesses.
( i ) Rolling : The job is dr awn by means of fr i ct ion t hr ough a r egul at ed openi ng bet ween t wo power -
dr iven r olls.The shape and size of t he pr oduct ar e decided by t he gap bet ween r olls and t heir cont our s.
This i s a ver y useful pr ocess for t he pr oduct ion of sheet met al and var ious common sect i ons.
e.g. r ai l, channel angle
( ii ) Forging : I n for gi ng, t he mat er ial is squeezed bet ween t wo t o mor e di es or alt er it s shape and size.
Depending on t he sit uat ion, t he die may be open or closed.
( ii i ) Drawing : I n t his pr ocess, cr oss-sect ion of a wir e or t hat of a bar or t ube is r educed by pulli ng t he
wor k piece t hr ough t he coni cal or i fice of a di e. When hi gh r educt ion i s r equir ed, it may be necessar y
t o per for m t he oper at i on i n sever al passes.
(iv ) Deep drawing : I n deep dr awi ng, a cup-shaped pr oduct i s obt ained fr om a fl at sheet met al wit h t he
help of a punch and a die. The sheet met al is held over t he die by means of a blank holder t o avoid
defect s i n t he pr oduct .
(v) Bending : Thi s is a pr ocess of bending a met al sheet plast i call y t o obt ai n t he desi r ed shape. Thi s is
achi eved by a set of suit abl y designed punch and di e.
(vi ) Extrusion : Thi s i s a pr ocess basical ly si mi lar t o t he cl osed di e for gi ng. But i n t hi s oper at i on, t he
wor kpiece is compr essed in a closed space, for cing t he mat er ial t o flow out t hr ough a suit able opening,
call ed die. I n t his pr ocess, only t he shapes wi t h const ant cr oss-sect ions (die out l et cr oss-sect ion) can
be pr oduced.
WORKI N G PROCESSES
Temper at ur e of t he wor kpiece in met al wor king depends on following fact or s.
(i ) I nit ial t emper at ur e of t he t ools and mat er ial
(ii ) H eat gener at ion due t o plast ic defor mat ion
(iii ) H eat gener at ed by fr ict ion at t he die/mat er ial int er face
(iv) H eat t r ansfer bet ween defor ming mat er ial and dies and sur r ounding envir onment
Usually t emper at ur e is highest at t he mat er ial/t ool iner face wher e fr ict ion gener at es t he heat and it falls
off t owar d t he inside of t he wor kpiece and int o t he die.
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.19
CLASSI FI CATI ON OF WORKI N G PROCESS.
(I ) On t he basis of t eperat ure of workpiece.
(1) H ot wor king.
When pl ast ic defor mat i on of met al is car r ied out at t emper at ur e above t he r ecr yst al l isat ion
t emper at ur e, t he pr ocesses per for med on met als ar e called hot wor king. H ot wor king pr ocess can
be consider ed as simult aneous combinat ion of cold wor king and annealing. Any wor k har dening
effect caused by plast ic defor mat ion is neut r alised immediat ely by t he effect of high t emper at ur e.
H ot wor king pr ocess facilit at es met al shaping wit h low power r equir ement s though it is expensive
t o handle hot mat er ials. Ther e is also loss of met al by scaling and fine dimensional t oler ance
cannot be achieved in t his pr ocess. H ot wor king incr eases t he densit y since any por es or cavit y in
t he cast met al disappear dur ing hot -wor king. Gr ain st r uct ur e become mor e r efined.
H ot -wor king pr ocesses such as r olling, ext r ust ion, or for ging t ypically ar e used at fir st conver t a
cast ingot i nt o a wr ought pr oduct . The st r ai n in hot -wor ki ng i s l ar ge ( e  2 t o 4) compar ed
wit h t ension or cr eep t est s. Usually H ot -wor king is car r ied out at high st r ain r at es in t he r ange
0.5 t o 500 s– 1.
H ot -wor king r esult in decr ease in t he ener gy r equir ed t o defor m t he met al and incr eased abilit y t o
flow wit hout cr acking, but r apid diffusion at hot wor king t emper at ur e aids in decr easing t he
chemical inhomogeneit ies of t he cast -ingot st r uct ur e.
The st r uct ur e and pr oper t ies of hot -wor ked met als ar e gener ally not so unifor m over t he cr oss
sect ion as in met als which have been cold-wor ked and annealed. Since defor mat ion is always
gr eat er in t he sur face layer s, t he met al will have a finer r ecr yst allized gr ain size in t his r egion.
Because int er ior will be at higher t emper at ur es for longer t imes dur ing cooling t han will be t he
ext er nal sur faces, gr ain gr owt h can occur in t he int er ior of lar ge pieces, which cool slowly fr om
t he wor king t emper at ur e.
L ower t emper at ur e limit for t he hot -wor king of a met al is t he lowest t emper at ur e at which t he
r at e of r ecr yst allizat ion is r apid enough t o eliminat e st r ain har dening in t he t ime when t he met al
is at t hat t emper at ur e. For a given met al or alloy, t he lower hot -wor king t emper at ur e will depend
on fact or s like amount of defor mat ion and t ime t hat t he met al is at t hat t emper at ur e. Since
gr eat er i s t he amount of defor mat i on, lower is t he r ecr yst al l i zat ion t emper at ur e, t he lower
t emper at ur e limit for hot -wor king is decr eased for lar ge defor mat ions. M et al which is r apidly
defor med and cooled r apidly will r equir e a higher hot -wor king t emper at ur e for t he same degr ee of
defor mat ion t han will a met al slowly defor med and slowly cooled.
The upper limit for hot-wor king is det er mined by t emper atur e at which eit her melt ing or excessive
oxidat ion occur s. Gener ally maximum wor king t emper at ur e is limit ed t o 50 t o 60C below t he
melt ing point . This is t o allow for t he possibilit y of segr egat ed r egions of lower -melt ing-point
mat er ial. Only a ver y small amount of a gr ain-boundar y film of a lower -melt ing const it uent is
needed t o make a mat er ial cr umble int o pieces when it is defor med. Such condit ion is called hot
shor t ness or bur ning.
Most hot-wor king oper ations ar e car r ied out in a number of multiple passes, or steps. Gener ally
wor k i ng t emper at ur e for t he i nt er medi at e passes i s k ept wel l above t he mi ni mum wor ki ng
temper atur e in or der to take advantage of economics offer ed by lower flow str ess. Some gr ain gr owth
will likely to occur subsequent to the r ecr ystallization at t hese t emper atur es. Since a fine gr ain-
sized pr oduct is usually desir ed, common pr act ice is to lower the wor king temper at ur e for the last
pass to the point wher e gr ain gr owth dur ing cooling fr om the wor king temper atur e will be negligible.
Finishing temper atur e is usually just above the minimum r ecer ystallization temper atur e. To ensur e
a fine r ecr ystallized gr ain size, amount of defor mation in the last pass should be r elatively lar ge.
Types of hot wor king processes.
( i ) Rolling
( ii ) For ging
(iii ) Pipe welding
( iv) H ot pier cing
(v) H ot dr awing
( vi ) H ot spinning
(vii ) H ot ext r uding
4.20 Manufacturing Engineering

(2) Cold wor k ing.

A metal is said to be cold worked, if it is mechanically processed below the cr ystallisation temper ature of
the metal. Cold working produces an improved surface finish and closer dimensional tolerance and because
of this char acter istic cold wor king pr ocesses ar e gener ally used in making end-use pr oducts. Since
r ecr ystallisation does not take place in cold wor king, the gr ains ar e per manently distor ted. Residual
stresses are set-up during the cold working. As their presence is undesir able, a suitable heat tr eatment is
gener ally necessary to neutr alise these str esses and restor e the metal to its or iginal struct ur e.
Cold-wor king of met al r esults in an incr ease in st r engt h or har dness and a decr ease in duct ilit y. When
cold-wor king is excessive, met al will fr act ur e befor e r eaching t he desir ed size and shape. Ther efor e
cold-wor king oper ations ar e usually car r ied out in sever al steps with inter mediate annealing oper ations
int r oduced t o soft en t he cold-wor ked met al and r est or e t he duct ilit y. This sequence of r epeat ed cold-
wor king and annealing is fr equent ly called cold-wor k-anneal cycle.
Alt hough need for annealing oper at ions incr eases t he cost of for ming by cold-wor king, it pr ovides a
degr ee of ver sat ilit y which is not possible in hot -wor king oper at ions. By suit ably adjust ing cold-wor k-
anneal cycle, the par t can be pr oduced wit h any desir ed degr ee of str ain har dening. I f finished pr oduct
is st r onger t han fully annealed mat er ial, t hen final oper at ion must be a cold-wor king st ep wit h t he
pr oper degr ee of defor mat ion t o pr oduce t he desir ed st r engt h. This would pr obably be followed by a
st r ess r elief t o r emove r esidual st r esses.
Types of cold working processes :
(i ) Drawing
( ii ) Squeezing
( iii ) Bending
( iv) Shear ing
(v) Hobbing
( vi ) Shot peening
( vii ) Cold ext r uding
When t her e is excessive cold wor king, t he met al may fr act ur e befor e r eaching t he desir ed shapes and
size, and in or der t o avoid it , cold wor king oper at ions ar e car r ied out in sever al st eps.

Compar ison of Cold working and H ot wor king process.

C old w or k in g pr ocess H ot w or k in g pr ocess

1. D one at a t emper atur e below the val ue 1. D one at a t emper at ur e above
r equir ed for r ecr yst al l i sat i on, so no r ecr yst al l i sat i on t emper atur e, so i t can be
appl i cabl e r ecover y t ak es pl ace dur ing r egar ded as a si mul t aneous occur ence of
defor mat i on. defor mat i on and r ecover y pr ocess.
2. H ar dening i s not el i mi nat ed as w or k ing i s 2. H ar dening due t o pl ast i c defor mat i on i s
done at a t emper at ur e bel ow compl et el y el i mi nat ed by r ecover y and
r ecr yst al l i sat i on. So thi s is al w ays r ecr yst al l i sat i on. Thi s i s t r ue, only i f r at e of
accompanied by st r ai n har dening. cr yst al l i sat i on i s higher t han r at e of
defor mat i on.
3. D ecr eases mechani cal pr oper t i es like 3. I ncr eases mechanical pr oper t i es like
el ongat i on, r educt i on of ar ea and i mpact el ongat i on, r educt i on of ar ea and i mpact
val ues. val ues.
4. Cr yst al l i sat i on does not t ak e pl ace. Gr ains 4. Refi nement of cr yst al s occur s.
ar e el ongat ed.
.
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.21

5. U ni for mi ty of mat er i al i s l ost and pr oper t i es 5. Pr omot es uni for mi t y of mat er i al by

ar e gr eat l y effect ed.
6. Chances of cr ack pr opagat i on i s mor e.
7. I ncr eases ul t i mat e t ensi l e st r ength, yi el d
poi nt har dness and fat igue st r engt h but
decr eases r esi st ance t o cor r osi on, i f sever el y
w or k ed yi el d point may coi nci de w i t h
ul t i mat e st r engt h val ue.
faci l i t at i ng di ffusi on of al l oys, const i t uent s
and br eak s br i t t l e fi l m of har d const i t uent s
or i mpur i ty e.g. cement i t e in st eel .
6. Cr ack s and unoxi dised bl ow hol es ar e
somet i mes w el ded up; al t er nat i vely, ser i ous
cr ack s or faul t s ar e usual l y shown up at an
ear l y st age.
7. U l t i mat el y t ensi l e st r engt h, yi el d poi nt ,
fat i gue st r ength, har dness and r esi st ance t o
cor r osi on et c. ar e not effect ed i f hot w or k ing
i s done pr oper ly.

8. I nt er nal and r esi dual st r esses ar e pr oduced. 8. I nt er nal and r esi dual st r esses ar e not
pr oduced.

I I . On the basis of t ype of forces applied.

(1) D ir ect compr ession t ype pr ocess.
I n t hese pr ocess, for ce is applied t o t he sur face of wor kpiece and t he met al flows at r ight angles to
t he dir ect ion of compr ession.
e.g. for ging and r olling
(2) I ndir ect compr ession pr ocesses.
These include wir e dr awing, t ube dr awing, ext r usion and deep dr awing of a cup.
(3) Tension t ype processes.
These pr ocesses ar e car r ied out under t he applicat ion of t ensile for ces
e.g. st r et ch for ming, wher e a met al sheet is wr apped t o t he cont our of a die.
(4) Bending pr ocesses.
These pr ocesses involves t he applicat ion of bending moment t o t he sheet .
(5) Shear ing pr ocesses.
These pr ocesses involves t he applicat ion of shear ing for ces of sufficient magnit ude t o r upt ur e t he
met al in t he plane of shear.
F ORGI N G
I t is t he pr ocess of shaping met als by impact or ver y high pr essur e. When t he mt al is heat ed t o plast ic
t emper at ur e and shaped, it is called hot for ging or simplify for ging. When t he met al is defor med and
shaped at r oom temper at ur e r aising t he st r ess level beyond elast ic limit , t he pr ocess is called cold for ging.
M ain for ging oper at ions.
(i ) Upset t ing or jumping
( ii ) Dr awing or necking
( iii ) Sett ing down
( iv) Punching
(v) Bending
( vi ) Welding
( vii ) Cutting
(viii )Swaging
4.22 Manufacturing Engineering
TYPES OF FORGI N G.
(1) Smit h for ging.
I n smit h for ging, t he for ging for ce is supplied by dr op hammer s, st eam hammer s or by hydr aulic
pr esses, so t hat for gings var ying in size fr om less t han 0.5 kg up t o 200 t ons can be pr oduced. The
shaping of component depends ent ir ely upon the manipulat ive skill of the smit h, and met hod used for
small quant it ies of for gings or for pr eliminar y shaping pr ior t o dr op for ging.
Tools and equipment s used in smit hy :
H ear t h; Anvil; H ammer s; Tongs; Swages; Swage block; Fuller s; Flat t er
(2) Closed die for ging.
This pr ocesses include bot h dr op for ging wher ein some for m of hammer is used and pr ess for ging in
which a mechanical or hydr aulic pr ess is used. I n each pr ocess, a closed impr ession die is used t o
shape a piece of heat ed met al. I n such a die, met al is t ot ally enclosed in t he die cavit y, one half of t he
die being at t ached t o t he r am and ot her half of t he anvil.
Closed-die for ging uses car efully machined matching die blocks to pr oduce forgings to close dimensional
t oler ances. The pr eshaped billet is placed in t he cavit y of the blocking die and r ough-for ged t o close t o
t he final shape. The gr eat est change in t he shape of t he met al usually occur s in t his st ep. I t is t hen
t r ansfer r ed t o t he finishing die, wher e it is for ged t o final shape and dimensions. Usually blocking
cavit y and t he finishing cavit y ar e machined into the same die block. Fuller ing and edging impr essions
ar e oft en placed on t he edges of t he die block.
(3) U pset or machine forging.
This pr ocess pr oduces a lar ge var it y of component s, t he mechanical pr oper t ies of whi ch benefit
consider ably fr om t he for ged st r uct ur e obt ained.
I n this type of for ging, machines used ar e essentially double acting and their dies move in the hor izontal
plane. The fixed half of t he die cor r esponds to the anvil in a for ging hammer and has a pair of gr ipping
jaws, t he wor k is held by t hem, when for ging t akes place.
EXTRU SI ON
By t his pr ocess, a block of met al is r educed in cr oss-sect ion by for cing it t o blow t hr ough a die or ifice under
high pr essur e.
Types of ext rusion pr ocess.
(1) I mpact ext r usion.
I t is a cold ext r usion pr ocess used for t he manufact ur e of collapsible t ube and long shells.
(2) H ydr ost at ic ext r usion.
I n t his pr ocess, billet is sur r ounded by liquid on all sides except at it s fr ont end which is point ed and
which bear s against a cone shaped die. The liquid t r ansmit s t he pr essur e applied t o t he r am pushing
t he billet for war d, and compr esses t he billet cir cumfer ent ially. Since t her e is no fr ict ion bet ween
billet and t he cont ainer, wor king loads ar e less and ext r usion is also defect fr ee.
(3) Direct ext rusion.
I n dir ect ext r usion, a heat ed billet of met al is placed in t he cont ainer of pr ess and t hen for ced t hr ough
t he die, t he ext r usion t akes place in t he dir ect ion of mot ion of t he r am.
(4) I ndir ect E xt r usion.
I n indir ect ext r usion, ext r usion t akes place in t he dir ect ion opposit e t o t he movement of t he r am.
Gener ally indir ect pr ocess is used t o employ a fixed r am and move cont ainer and t he billet . Since
t her e is no r el at i ve movement bet ween bil let and cont ai ner, l ess mechanical ener gy i s used in
over coming fr ict ional for ces bet ween t he t wo.
(5) E xt r usion for ging.
This is basically a for ging pr ocess which is allied t o ext r usion so far as par t of t he component is
ext r uded whilst hot t hr ough a die.
D RAWI N G
Cold dr awing is used ext ensively in t he pr oduct ion of r ods of var ious cr oss-sect ions, and wir e.
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.23
Wir e dr awing.
I t is a simple pr ocess of r educing diamet er of met al r ods by dr awing t hem t hr ough conical opening in die
blocks. St eel, ir on or non-fer r ous r od is conver t ed int o wir e by dr awing it t hr ough a conical hole having an
included angle of 8-24 degr ee. I n cont inuous wir e dr awing, t he wir e passes t hr ough a succession of holes
of decr easing size in dies made of st eel, t ungst en car bide, r uby or diamond. Reduct ionin cr oss-sect i onal
ar ea usually being about 30 per cent . The amount of r educt ion which can be achieved in a single pass
t hr ough a die is limit ed by t he t ensile st r engt h of t he dr awn wir e.
M aximum t ensile for ce = cr oss-sect ional ar ea of dr awn wir e  yield st r engt h aft er dr awing.
D eep dr awing.
I n t his pr ocess, annual por t ion of t he sheet met al wor kpiece bet ween blank holder and die is subject ed t o
a pur e r adial dr awing, wher eas por t ions of t he wor kpiece ar ound t he cor ner s of t he punch and die ar e
subject ed t o a bending oper at ion. Again, por t ion of t he job bet ween punch and t he die walls under goes a
longit udinal dr awing. I n t his oper at ion var ying amount of t hickening and t hinning of t he wor kpiece is
unavoidable.

BL AN KI N G
I t is a pr ocess of cut t ing or shear ing a blank fr om sheet or st r ip mat er ial. Refer r ing figur e, punch is of t he
built -up t ype having a low-car bon-st eel shank, which is fit t ed in t he pr ess r am, and a har dened-st eel
cut t ing edge held by scr ews on t o t he face. Aim of having a built -up punch of t his t ype is t wo fold.
I t gives a st r ong edge t hat will wit hst and t he abr asive act ion for a consider able per iod wit hout losing it
size, and it per mit s a gr eat economy in t he use of expensive st eel.
I n t his par t icular design, cut t ing edge is held in posit ion by
means of a spigot and hollow-head scr ews. To assist the clamping
and make up shunt height of t he pr ess, t he bed is mount ed on
a bolst er plat e. I t is locat ed by means of st r ong dowels and
clamped in posit ion wit h hollow-head scr ews. I n or der t o guide
Punch
t he mat er ial a guide plat e fit t ed wit h a st op is at t ached t o t he Hardened steel
face of t he blank bed. The guide plat e also act s as a st r ipper cutting face Guide
stripper
and t akes t he scr ap webbing off t he punch. I t aids in get t ing a plate
good blank, and a r easonable out put per hour, as t ime is not Blank bed
Bolster
wast ed in having t o pull t he scr ap clear by hand. plate

PI ERCI N G OR PU N CH I N G
The main differ ence bet ween pier cing and blanking is that the metal
por t ions t hat ar e cut out in t he for mer pr ocess ar e scar p. H oles of Piercing
var ious shapes ar e pier ced. When t wo or mor e pier cing punches rollers
ar e employed t oget her in a die, t heir lengt hs should differ slight ly Mandrel
i n or der t o r educe t he for ce and i mpact r equi r ed at one t i me.
Diamet er s of holes which ar e t o be pier ced should be at least t wice Solid-billet
t he met al t hickness, in or der t o avoid excessive punch br eakage. Seamless
Pier ced holes should not be locat ed t oo close t o adjacent holes. Dr illing should be used for smaller holes
tubing
and for holes which must be quit e close t oget her.
This pr ocess is employed for t he pr oduct ion of seamless t ubes. I t offer s most economical mechanical
wor king pr ocess for t he manufact ur e of seamless t ubes. I t consist s of passing t he hot r olled billet at
1100C bet ween t wo conical r oller s and over a mandr el which helps in pier cing and cont r olling t he size of
bor e as t he billet is for ced over it .
The solid billet is fir st centr e-punched and then heat ed to 1100 in a fur nace befor e being pier ced. I t is t hen
pushed int o two-pier cing r oller s, which impar t both axial and r otat ional motion. Due t o alter nate squeezing
and bulging oper at ions, a seam is for med in t he cent r e and pier cing mandr el cont r ol size and shape of t he
hole. The fir st pass makes a r at her t hick-walled t ube which is again passed bet ween gr ooved r oller s over
a plug held by a mandr el and is conver t ed int o a longer t ube wit h specified wall t hickness. The t ube is
again passed t hr ough a r eeling machine which helps in st r aight ening and sizing t o t he final dimensions.
4.24 Manufacturing Engineering
Tubes ar e t hen cooled and placed in t he pickling bat h of dilut e sulphur ic acid to r emove t he oxide and scale
for mat ion. The one pass pr ocess is applicable t o scamless t ubes of 15 cent imet er s diamet er. L ar ger t ubes
upt o 35 cent imet er s diamet er ar e t hen given a second pass or pier cing r oller s.

SPI N N I N G
I t means shaping a met al blank as it r evolved at a high speed in lat he.
For small-bat ch pr oduct ion, is used because of t he
(i ) simplicit y of equipment needed
(ii ) ease wit h which a chuck can be pr epar ed
(iii ) gives lower over all pr oduct ion cost s t han any alt er nat ive met hod. The pr ocess lends it self t o t he
pr oduct ion of goods dir ect fr om a flat blank. I t is also a ver y useful adjunct t o t he pr ess and dr op
stamp.
Types of spinning.
(1) H and spinning.
Wit h hand spinning , t he blank as it r evolves at a high speed is subject ed, by a st eel t ool, t o pr essur e
exer t ed by t he oper at or, who has t he t ool handle t ucked under his r ight ar m. The t ool is lever ed off a
t ee t est and is pr event ed fr om slipping by means of a peg. The lever age obt ained is adjust ed t o suit
t he class of wor k being handled.
(2) M achine spinning.
EXTRU SI ON OF TU BI N G
Wit h moder n equipment , t ubing may be pr oduced by ext r usion t o t oler ances as close as t hose obt ained by
cold-dr awing. To pr oduce t ubing by extr usion, a mandr el must be fast ened t o the end of t he ext r usion r am.
The mandr el ext ends t o t he ent r ance of ext r usion die, and t he clear ance bet ween t he mandr el and t he die
wall det er mines t he wall t hickness of t he ext r uded t ube.

(a) Pi erci ng (b) Extr usi on

Fi g. Tube extrusi on
Classificat ion of Pipe and Tubing depending on met hod of manufact ure.
( i ) Seamless pipes.
Ext r usion is an excellent met hod of pr oducing seamless pipe and t ubing, especially for met als which
ar e difficult t o wor k.
( ii ) Welded pipes.


 Manufacturing Engineering 4.25
JOI N I N G PROCESS
All joining pr ocesses involving at omic bonding ar e of per manent in natur e. I n mechanical bonding, str ength
of t he joint i s less t han combined st r engt h of t he or i ginal member s. H owever i n at omi c bonding, t he
si t uat ion i s not necessar i ly so.
Classificat ion of joint ing pr ocess.
Joining pr ocess ar e classified accor ding t o t he composit ion of t he joint .
(i ) Autogeneous : I n aut ogeneous pr ocess, no fil ler mat er i al is added dur ing joi ni n.
e.g. all t ypes of soli d pahse welding and r esi st ance wel di ng
(ii ) H omogeneous : I n homogeneous pr ocess, fil ler mat er i al used t o pr ovide t he joint is same as t he
par ent mat er ial.
e.g. ar c, gas, and t her mi t wel di ng
(iii ) H eterogeneous : I n heter ogeneous pr ocess, filler material differ ent from the par ent mater ial is used.
e.g. solder ing and br azing .
Two mat er i al s whi ch ar e i nsol ubl e i n each ot her, such as i r on and si l ver, can be j oi ned by a
het er ogeneous pr ocess. Thi s may be achieved by usi ng a fi ll er mat er ial (e.g. copper and t i n) which is
solubl e i n bot h t he par ent mat er i al s (i.e. i r on and silver ).
WELDI N G
I t is t he met hod of joining met als by applicat ion of heat , wit hout t he use of solder or any ot her met al or
alloy having a lower melt ing point t han t he met als being joined.
Types of welding.
These may be divided int o t wo main gr oups.
(1) Pr essur e welding.
I n a pr essur e welding, t he met al joined is never br ought t o a molt en st age but it is heat ed t o a welding
t emper at ur e and t he act ual union is br ought about by t he applicat ion of pr essur e.
Types of pressure welding :
( i ) Forge welding
( ii ) Resist ance elect r ic welding :
(a) Butt welding
(b) Flash welding
(c) Spot welding
(d) Scam welding
(e) Pr oject ion welding
(2) F usion welding.
I n fusion welding, t he met al being joined is act ually melt ed and union is pr oduced on subsequent
soldification.
Pr inciples of F usion (liquid st at e) welding :
I n a fusi on pr ocess, t he mat er i al ar ound t he joi nt is melt ed in bot h t he par t s t o be joined. I f necessar y, a
mol t en fi l l er mat er i al i s al so added. Thus, fusi on wel di ng pr ocess may by ei t her aut ogeneous or
homogeneous.
M et allur igically, t her e ar e t hr ee dist inct zones in a welded par t :
(i ) Fusion zone
(ii ) H eat affect ed unmelt ed zone ar ound t he fusion zone
(iii ) Unaffect ed or iginal par t .
Factors governing fusion welding process :
(i ) Char act er i st ics of t he heat sour ce.
(ii ) Nat ur e of deposit ion of t he fi ll er mat er ial in t he fusion zone cal led wel d pool.
(iii ) H eat flow char act er i st ics i n t he joint .
(iv) Gas met al or sl ag met al r eact ions in t he fusion zone.
(v) Cooling of t he fusion zone with the associated cont r act ion, r esidual str esses, and metallur gical changes.
4.26 Manufacturing Engineering
Types of fusion welding :
(i ) Gas welding
(ii ) Elect r ic ar e welding
(iii ) Ther mit welding
H eat sour ce.
A heat sour ce, sui t able for weldi ng, shoul d r el ease t he heat in a isolat ed zone. M or eover, t he heat should
be pr oduced at a high t emper at ur e and at a high r at e.
Sour ces of heat .
(i ) Elect r ic ar c (as in var ious ar c weldi ngs)
(ii ) Chemi cal flame (as i n gas welding)
(iii ) Exot her mic chemical r eact ion (as i n t her mit welding)
(iv) Elect r ic r esist ance heat i ng (as in el ect r osl ag and ot her r esi st ance wel di ng pr ocesses).

GAS WELDI N G
I n gas welding, t he heat r equir ed t o pr oduce fusion of t he met al being welded is obt ained by bur ning some
gas issuing fr om t he nozzle of a blow pipe or t or ch. The gas fr om t he nozzle is alr eady mixed wit h t he
r equir ed amount of oxygen t o pr oduce a flame. The flame may be oxidising, neut r al or r educing. The
nat ur e of flame depends upon t he met al or alloy t o be welded.
Types of gas welding.
( i ) Oxy-acet ylene welding :
Oxygen and acet ylene can be st or ed in cylinder s and t heir flow t o t he welding t or ch is cont r olled by
valves. When acetylene and oxygen ar e mixed in pr oper pr opor tion, flame tempeatur es ar ound 3500C
can be achieved. The oxygen to acet ylene pr opor tion can be var ied to pr oduce eit her oxidising, r educing
or neut ur al flame. I t pr ovides differ ent t emper at ur es for differ ent met als.
( ii ) Air-acet ylene welding :
I n t his welding, t emper at ur e available is pr obably t he lowest in compar ison t o all ot her gas welding
pr ocesses.
The acetylene gas is supplied to the tor ch fr om a cyliner and air is dr awn into the tor ch fr om atmospher e
and it s quant it y can be adjust ed for pr oper combust ion by var ying t he opening of air inlet .
This t ype of welding is used for lead welding, low t emper at ur e br azing and solder ing oper at ions.
( iii )Oxy-hydr ogen welding :
The gas used in this pr ocess is hydr ogen instead of acetylene and temper atur e upto 2000C is obtained.
I t is best suit ed for welding t hin sheet s, low temper at ur e melt ing alloys and for br azing. No oxides ar e
for med in t he sur face if a r educing at mospher e is used. I n t his case flame adjust ment is difficult due
t o absence of dist inguishing colour t o judge t he pr opor t ion of hydr ogen and oxygen.
( iv) Oxy-L PG process :
This is similar t o t he above except t hat L iquefied Pet r oleum Gas is used wit h oxygen for pr oducing
t he flame. The t or ches ar e designed for handling lar ger volumes of gas, because L PG r equir es lar ge
quantity of oxygen (2 to 4 times) as compar ed to acetylene. The temper atur e obtained is about 25000C.
ELECTRI C ARC WELDI N G
Welding arc.
An ar c is an electr ic dischar ge between two elect r odes which takes place thr ough an electr ically conducting
hot ionised gas called plasma. An elect r ic ar c used for welding is called welding arc and is usually bet ween
a t hin r od (or coir e) and a plat e, it is t her efor e bell shaped.
A welding ar c is a high cur r ent low volt age elect r ic dischar ge oper at ing gener ally in t he r ange of 10 t o
2000 amper es and at 10 t o 50 volt s. I n a welding cir cuit , t he ar c act s as a load r esist or.
Welding ar c is usually divided int o five par t s
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.27
(i ) Cat hode spot
(ii ) Cat hode dr op zone
(iii ) Ar c column zone
(iv) Anode zone
(v) Anode spot
Ar c blow.
Nor mally, welding ar c is or ient ed along t he axis of elect r ode r at her t han along t he shor t est dist ance
bet ween elect r ode and t he wor kpiece. H owever, an elect r ic ar c may be deflect ed fr om it s int ended pat h by
var iet y of fact or s, such as deflect ion of ar c dur ing welding is called an ar c blow.
Fact or s caussing ar c blow.
(i ) I mpr oper posit ioning of gr ound (or ear t h) connect ion
(ii ) L ar ge fer r omagnet ic mass close t o welding sit e
(iii ) L ong ar c lengt h
(iv) H igh welding cur r ent
(v) Use of dc supply
TYPES OF ARC WELDI N G
(1) M et allic ar c welding.
I n t his pr ocess, met al elect r ode ser ves t o car r y t he ar c t o act as t he for m filler r od which deposit s
molt en int o t he joint . Coat ed elect r odes ar e used r esult ing in t he for mat ion of a layer of slag at t he
sur face of t he weld.
When an ar c is st r uck bet ween elect r ode and t he wor kpiece, bot h ends of elect r ode and t he wor kpiece
dir ect ly under t he t ip of elect r ode melt and become mixed. Pr essur e pr oduced by t he st r eam of ions
flowing fr om t he elect r ode causes a cr at er t o for m in t he molt en met al of t he wor kpiece, and molt en
met al fr om t he elect r ode falls int o t his cr at er. As t he ar c moves along t he joint , met al flows back int o
t he cr at er, t her efor e base met al and elect r ode met al get int imat ely mixed. M ost engineer ing met als
and alloy may be welded by t his pr ocess.
(2) Carbon ar c welding.
Types of carbon arc welding :
(i ) I ndir ect met hod : I t employs an ar c bet ween t wo car bon elect r odes.
(ii ) Dir ect met hod : I n t his ar c is st r uck bet ween a single car bon elect r ode and t he wor k.
(iii ) Car bon ar c pr ocess : I t is used for welding st eel sheet , copper and somet imes aluminium. I t is also
used t o melt small ar eas of met al t o be gouged.
(3) Submer ged ar c welding.
This pr ocess is an aut omat ic for m of t he metallic ar c welding pr ocess which can be used in t he st r aight
line joining of met als. A t ube which deliver s powder ed flux int o t he pr epar ed joint in advance of t he
elect r ode is built int o t he elect r ode holder. This powder ed flux envelops melt ing end of t he elect r ode
and complet ely cover s t he ar c. M uch of t he flux melt s and r ises t o t he t op of t he molt en weld met als,
wher e it for ms a coat ing of pr ot ect ive slag. Any unmelt ed flux is r emoved by a suct ion syst em and can
be r eused. The elect r ode is in t he for m of bar e coiled wir e and is gener ally copper plat ed t o ensur e low
r esist ance elect r ical cont act bet ween wir e and t he cont act shoes. This pr ocess is used for welding low
and medium car bon st eels, low alloy sheet s, copper, aluminium and t it anium.
(4) F lux cored ar c welding.
I n t his welding, t he flux is car r ied inside t he elect r ode which consist s eit her of a t ube or a st r ip of
met al folded ar ound t he flux. Car bon dioxide is used as an auxiliar y gas. I f such a gas shield is not
used, t hen flux should cont ain mat er ials which will decompose t o liber at e non-oxidising gases in t he
r egion of weld.
(5) E lect r o-slag welding.
I n t his welding, heavy sect ions can be joined in a single r un by placing t he plat es t o be welded in a
ver t ical posit ion so t hat molt en met al is deliver ed pr ogr essively t o t he ver t ical gap. I n t his pr ocess,
4.28 Manufacturing Engineering
t he ar c is used only t o init iat e melt ing and t her eaft er heat is gener at ed by elect r ical r esist ance offer ed
by t he slag which is sufficient ly conduct ive t o allow t he cur r ent t o pass t hr ough it fr om t he elect r ode
t o t he weld pool beneat h. As t he elect r ode wir e melt s, level of t he pool r ises and t he aut omat ic wat er
cooled weld shoes ar e r aised at a suit able r at e t o keep pace wit h solidificat ion and deliver y of molt en
met al. The molt en slag bat h above t he weld pool act s bot h as heat sour ce and shield t o pr ot ect t he
weld fr om oxidat ion. Dur ing welding slag t emper at ur e upt o 2000C ar e pr oduced. This leads t o
consider able melt ing at t he edges of t he wor kpieces so t hat int imat e mixt ur e of t he mat er ials of
elect r ode and wor kpieces t akes place.
This pr ocess is used for joining lar ge cast ing and for gings. M ild, low alloy and high alloy st eels and
t it anium can be welded by t his pr ocess.

SOLI D STAT E WEL DI N G

This pr ocesses can be car r ied out bot h at t he r oom t emper at ur e and at an elevat ed t emper at ur e wit hout ,
melt ing any par t of t he joining sur faces.
A solid phase weldi ng done at t he r oom t emper at ur e does not al low r ecr yst al li zat ion and gr ai n gr owt h at
t he int er face. This r educes duct i lit y of t he joi nt t o some ext ent . An incr ease in wor k ing t emper at ur e not
only incr eases t he duct i li t y but also elemi nat es some ot her defect s. The shape and size of voi ds at t he
int er face ar e modified consi der ably dependi ng on t he amount of diffusion.

TYPES OF SOLI D-STATE WELDI N G.

1. E lect r ical r esist ance welding.
( i ) Spot welding : I n t his welding pr ocess, t he par t s t o be joined ar e clamped fir mly bet ween a pair of
heavy elect r odes which ar e connect ed t o t he secondar y cir cuit of a st ep down t r ansfor mer syst em.
M aximum r esist ance in such cir cuit s exist s at t he sur face of t he t wo par t s t o be joined.
(ii ) Seam welding : I n t his pr ocess, a cont inuous weld is pr oduced by passing t he wor k bet ween
r otat ing wheel shaped electr odes which exer t t he welding pr essur e and conduct the welding cur r ent.
M et hods of seam welding.
(a) Cont inuous mot ion welding : I n t his welding, elect r odes r ot at e at const ant speed and welding
cur r ent eit her flows cont inuously or is int er r upt ed.
(b) I nt er mi t t ent pr ocess : I n t hi s wel di ng, a ser i es of over l appi ng spot wel ds i s pr oduced.
The elect r odes t r avel t he dist ance necessar y for each successive weld and t hen st op. Then
cur r ent is swit ched ON and the weld is made; t he whole pr ocess being contr olled aut omat ically.
( iii )Flash welding : This pr ocess can be used for joining t oget her t he ends of sheet s, r ods, wir es or
t ubes. The t wo wor k par t s ar e placed in t he clamping jaws of a machine, and as t he par t s ar e
br ought t oget her int o light cont act , a volt age sufficient ly high t o cause ar cing bet ween t he ends is
applied. Ar cing cont inues as t he t wo par t s advance, unt il t he wor k at t ains a welding t emper at ur e,
suffi ci ent pr essur e bei ng appl i ed t o pr oduce a cont i nuous wel d. Flashing and upset t i ng ar e
accompanied by t he expulsion of met al, slag and oxides fr om t he joint .
I n t his pr ocess, t he moving plat es should advance at t he cor r ect speed in r elat ion t o t he cur r ent
used. Too high speed st ops ar cing act ion bet ween wor k par t s r esult ing in inadequat e weld. I f speed
is t oo low, t he ar cing act ion may be int er mit t ent , and again heat ing will be insufficient t o for m a
good weld.
( iv)Butt welding : I n t his pr ocess, no ar cing t akes place bet ween sur face being joined; t he heat being
pr oduced solely by t he elect r ical r esist ance at t he but t ing sur faces t o t he passage of a cur r ent . The
pr essur e is applied befor e t he cur r ent begins t o flow and is maint ained t hr oughout t he cont act ar ea
unt il a sufficient ly high t emper at ur e has been r eached t o per mit t he for ging of a weld. Best r esult s
ar e gener ally obt ained if two pieces ar e equal in cr oss-sect ional ar ea and of equal specific r esist ance.
The sur faces to be joined must be clean, par allel and r easonably smooth, other wise local over heating
may occur in t he r egion of any pr oject ion.
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.29

(v) Projection welding : This is modificat ion of spot welding pr ocess, in which cur r ent flow and t he
r esult ant heat ing ar e localised t o a r est r ict ed ar ea by embossing one of t he par t s t o be joined.
Wher e t hick sect ions have t o be joined, pr oject ion welding can be used since spot welding would
not be possible due t o heavy cur r ent s and pr essur es r equir ed. I n pr oject ion welding, a bet t er heat
balance can be obt ained in difficult t o weld combinat ion of composit ion and t hicknesses, and t he
finished appear ance is oft en super ior, since elect r ode on t he finish side will have a layer cont act ing
ar ea which consider ably r educes elect r ode indent at ion. Elect r ode life is longer because of t he lar ge
cont act ar eas employed and use of har der high r esist ance alloys. Pr essur es and cur r ent densit it es
ar e also lower than in spot welding and these factor s will r educe wear and distor tion of the electr odes.
The desing of pr oject ion should for m easily wit hout causing any dist or t ion in t he par t dur ing
for ming and it should be st r ong enough t o suppor t init ial elect r ode pr essur e befor e t he cur r ent
begins t o flow. Dur ing welding, t he pr oject ion wit hout undue spr ead and should t hus leave t he
par t s in int imat e cont act .
(vi)Percussion welding. I n t his pr ocess, elect r ic ar c is mainly used t o heat t he welding member s
and only a pr essur e is ut ilized t o effect a weld. This pr ocess r elies on elect r ic ar c for heat ing r at her
t han on t he elect r ic r esist ance in t he met al. The met al pieces t o be welded ar c held apar t ; one in a
st at ionar y clamp and ot her in a sliding clamp backed up against a heavy spr ing pr essur e. Dur ing
welding, t he movable clamp is set fr ee and it car r ies wit h it t he piece t o be welded. When t he pieces
ar e about 1.5 mm apar t , t her e is a sudden dischar ge of elect r ic ener gy. This cr eates intense ar cing
over t he sur faces t o be welded and r ises t hem t o a high t emper at ur e. The ar c get s ext inguished by
t he per cussion blow of t he t wo par t s coming t oget her wit h sufficient for ce t o make t he weld.

(2) Solder ing and Br azing.

Solder i ng and br azi ng pr ocesses ar e car r i ed out by al lowing a mol t en fil ler mat er i al t o flow i n t he gap
bet ween par ent bodi es. Obviousl y, t he fi ller mat er ial has t o have a mel t ing poi nt much l ower t han
t h at of t h e par en t bodi es. Wh en f i l l er m at er i al i s a copper al l oy ( e.g. copper -zi n c an d
copper -silver ), t he pr ocess is called brazing. A similar pr ocess with a lead-t in alloy as t he filler mat er ial
is call ed solder ing. The most common heat sour ce for t hese pr ocesses is el ect r i cal r esist ance heat ing.
Advant ages of solder ing and br azing pr ocesses:
(i ) H eat i ng of t he par ent mat er ials is negl igi bl e t o cause any change in t hei r st r uct ur e or pr oper t ies.
(ii ) These can join mat er ials which ar e i nsolubl e in each ot her.
To pr oduce a per fect joint , ent ir e gap between t he par ent bodies must be filled up by the filler mater ial.
This i s achieved essent ial ly t hr ough a capill ar y act ion.
(3) Adhesive Bonding.
This pr ocess i s most commonl y used in t he air cr aft and aut omobil e indust r ies wher e sheet met als ar e
joined in var i ous configur at i ons.
Advant ages.
I n t hi s pr ocess t her e i s no uncer t aint y about t he fl ow of adhesi ve in t he joint , because t he adhesive is
fi r st appli ed on t he sur faces and t he joint i s made wi t h subsequent appli cat ion of heat and pr essur e.
D isadvant age.
I nher ent l ow st r engt h of t he r esul t i ng joint .
Types of bonding forces taking part in an adhesive joint :
(i ) van der Waals for ce : I t is due t o const ant movement of t he posi t i ve and negat ive char ges of
mol ecul es.
(ii ) Polar force bet ween adhesive and r elatively br itt le oxide film : I t is due to dipole adhesive molecules.
This for ce is nor mall y sever al t i mes i n magni t ude higher t han t he van der Waals for ce.
4.30 Manufacturing Engineering
DU TY CYCLE
I t is t he per cent age in t ime a power sour ce supplies cur r ent in successive t en minut e int er vals wit hout
exceeding a pr edet er mined r ise in t he t emper at ur e of it s vit al component s. Usually 60% dut y cycle is t he
st andar d indust r ial r at ing. A power sour ce wit h such a r at ing can supply it s r at ed out put for 6 minut es in
ever y t en minut e int er val of it s oper at ion.
Dut y cycle is one of t he most impor t ant r at ing specificat ion of a welding power sour ce and it det er mines
t he t ype of ser vice for which a power sour ce is designed. H eavy dut y indust r ial unit s for manual welding
ar e nor mally r at ed at 60% dut y cycle while for aut omat ic and oft en for semi-aut omat ic welding pr ocesses,
t he r at ing is 100%. L ight dut y power sour ces may be of as low as 20% dut y cycle.
When a welding power sour ce is r equir ed t o supply mor e t han it s r at ed out put cur r ent , it is possible t o do
so if it s dut y cycle is r educed.
H EAT FL OW CH ARACTERI STI CS
(1) Welding speed.
I n t he fusi on weldi ng pr ocesses, t he heat sour ce i s moving, except in spot welding wher e t he sour ce is
st at i onar y. Once t he st eady st at e i s r eached, even wi t h a movi ng heat sour ce, t he t emper at ur e
di st r i but ion r el at ive t o t he sour ce becomes st at ionar y. The most convenient way of analyzi ng such a
pr oblem wit h a movi ng sour ce is t o assume t he sour ce as st at ionar y and t he wor k pi ece t o move wi t h
same veloci t y in t he opposit e dir ect i on. This speed is call ed welding speed.
(2) Types of heat sources.
( i ) Plant heat source : The heat i s liber at ed in a small zone whi ch is i deali zed as a poi nt sour ce, and
t he heat fl ow fr om t he sour ce is t hr ee-dimensional.
( ii ) Line heat source : The heat i s liber at ed al ong a li ne and t he heat sour ce i s ideal ized as a li ne
sour ce in a few cases
e.g. in but t wel ding of r elat ivel y t hi n plat es.

 Manufacturing Engineering 4.31

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
8. I n met al cut t ing oper at ions discont inuous chips
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
ar e pr oduced while machining
1. The cut t ing edge of t he t ool is per pendicular t o (a) br it t le mat er ial
t he dir ect ion of t ool t r avel in
(b) ductile mat er ial
(a) or t hogonal cut t ing of met als
(c) har d mat er ial
(b) oblique cut t ing of met al
(d) soft mat er ial
(c) bot h (a) and (b)
(d) none of t hese 9. I n met al cut t ing oper at ions cont inuous chips ar e
pr oduced while machining
2. The cut ting edge of t he tool is inclined at an angle
less t han 90° t o t he dir ect ion of t ool t r avel in (a) br it t le mat er ial
(a) or t hogonal cut t ing of met als (b) ductile mat er ial
(b) oblique cut t ing of met als (c) har d mat er ial
(d) soft mat er ial
(c) bot h (a) and (b)
(d) none of t hese 10. When material is ductile and cutting speed is high,
3. Two component s of t he cut t ing for ces which ar e t hen
per pendicular ar e act ing on t he cut t ing t ool in (a) cont inuous chips ar e for med
(a) or t hogonal cut t ing of met al (b) cont i nuous chi ps wi t h bui l t -up edges ar e
(b) oblique cut t ing of met al for med
(c) bot h (a) and (b) (c) discont inuous chips ar e for med
(d) none of t hese (d) none of t hese
4. Or t hogonal cut t ing syst em is also known as 11. When mater ial is ductile and cutting speed is low,
(a) one-dimensional cut t ing syst em t hen chips for med ar e
(b) t wo-dimensional cut t ing syst em (a) cont inuous
(c) t hr ee-dimensional cut t ing syst em (b) cont inuous chips wit h build-up edges
(d) none of t hese (c) discontinuous
5. Thr ee component s of t he cut t ing for ces whi ch (d) none of t hese
ar e mut ual l y per pendi cul ar ar e act i ng at t he
12. When mater ial is br it t le, non duct ile and cut t ing
cut t ing edge in speed is low, t hen
(a) or t hogonal cut t ing of met als (a) cont inuous chips ar e for med
(b) oblique cut t ing of met als (b) cont i nuous chi ps wi t h bui l t -up edges ar e
(c) bot h (a) and (b) for med
(d) none of t hese (c) discont inuous chips ar e for med
6. I n or t hogonal cut t ing syst em (d) none of t hese
(a) cut ting t ool pr epar es a sur face par allel t o the
13. I n metal cutting oper ations, chips ar e for med due
wor k face
to
(b) chip flows over t he t ool face and dir ect ion of
(a) linear defor mat ion
t he chip flow velocit y is nor mal t o t he cutt ing
edge (b) shear defor mat ion
(c) m axi m u m ch i p t h i ck n ess occu r s at t h e (c) linear t r anslation
middle (d) none of t hese
(d) all of t hese 14. Discontinuous chips are formed dur ing machining
7. I n oblique cut t ing syst em of
(a) cut t i ng edge of t he t ool may or may not (a) cast ir on (b) mild st eel
pr epar e a sur face par allel t o t he wor k face (c) aluminium (d) none of t hese
(b) maximum chip t hickness may not occur at
t he middle 15. Cont inuous chips ar e for med dur ing machining
of
(c) mor e t han one cut t ing edges ar e in act ion
(a) cast ir on (b) mild st eel
(d) all of t hese
(c) aluminium (d) none of t hese
4.32 Manufacturing Engineering
16. Wit h incr ease of cut t ing speed, t he built -up edge 24. Angle bet ween t he shear plane and wor k sur face
(a) becomes longer is called
(b) smaller or finally does not for m (a) lip angle (b) r ake angle
(c) may or may not for m (c) cut t ing angle (d) shear angle
(d) none of t hese 25. A n gl e on w h i ch t h e st r en gt h of t h e t ool
17. M at er ial having highest cut t ing speed is depends is
(a) cast ir on (a) lip angle (b) r ake angle
(b) br onze (c) cut t ing angle (d) clear ance angle
(c) aluminium
26. For br it t le mat er ial like br ass, t he r ake angle
(d) high car bon st eel pr ovided is
18. M at er ial having lowest cut t ing speed is (a) zer o (b) negative
(a) cast ir on (c) positive (d) none of t hese
(b) br onze 27. For copper, t he r ake angle pr ovided is
(c) aluminium (a) zer o (b) positive
(d) high car bon st eel (c) negative (d) none of t hese
19. Chi ps wi t h bui l t -up edges ar e for med whi l e 28. Car bide t ipped t ools gener ally have r ake angle
machining (a) zer o (b) positive
(a) br it t le mat er ial (c) negative (d) none of t hese
(b) ductile mat er ial 29. For machining br ass by high speed st eel t ool, t he
(c) cast mat er ial r ake angle pr ovided is
(d) all of t hese (a) zer o (b) positive
20. I n metal cutting operations, shear angle is defined (c) negative (d) none of t hese
as t he angle made by t he shear plane wit h t he 30. Negat ive r ake angles ar e pr ovided t o
(a) t ool axis (a) give bet t er finish
(b) dir ect ion of t ool t r avel (b) incr ease st r engt h of cut t ing t ool point
(c) cent r al plane of wor k piece (c) decr ease t emper at ur e r ise at t he t ool-t ip
(d) none of t hese (d) all of t hese
21. Angle made by t he face of t ool and t he plane 31. Negat ive r ake angles ar e used for
par allel t o t he base of t he cut t ing t ool is called
(a) heavy loads (b) car bide t ools
(a) lip angle
(c) har d mat er ials (d) all of t hese
(b) r ake angle
(c) cut t ing angle 32. Cement ed car bide t ool ar e gener ally poor in
(d) clear ance angle (a) t or sion (b) t ension
(c) compr ession (d) shear
22. Angle bet ween t he t ool face and t he gr ound end
sur face of flank is called 33. Bi ndi ng mat er i al used i n cement ed car bi de
(a) lip angle t ools is
(b) r ake angle (a) nickel (b) cobalt
(c) cut t ing angle (c) chr omi um (d) silicon
(d) clear ance angle 34. Cut t ing t ool used on lat he, shaper and planer is
23. Angle bet ween t he t ool face and a line t angent t o (a) single point (b) t wo point
the machined sur face at the cutting point is called (c) t hr ee point (d) mult i point
(a) lip angle 35. Cut t i ng t ool used on mi l l i ng and br eachi ng
(b) r ake angle machine is
(c) cut t ing angle (a) single point (b) t wo point
(d) clear ance angle (c) t hr ee point (d) mult i point
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.33
36. A single point t ool has 44. I n a si ngl e poi nt t ool , t he angl e bet ween t he
(a) lip angle (b) r ake angle sur face of t he flank immediat ely below t he point
(c) cut t ing angle (d) all of t hese and a line dr awn fr om t he point per pendicular t o
t he base, is called
37. L ip angle of a single point t ool is gener ally in t he (a) side r elief angle
r ange
(b) end r elief angle
(a) 20° t o 40° (b) 40° t o 50°
(c) side r ake angle
(c) 50° t o 60° (d) 60° t o 80°
(d) back r ake angle
38. I n a single point t ool t he angle by which t he face
45. Vel oci t y of t ool r el at i v e t o w or k pi ece i s
of t he t ool is inclined t owar ds back is called
called
(a) side r ake angle
(a) cut t ing velocit y
(b) back r ake angle
(b) chip velocit y
(c) end r elief angle
(c) shear velocit y
(d) side r elief angle
(d) aver age velocit y
39. I n a single point tool, t he angle by which the face
46. Velocit y of t ool along t he t ool face is called
of t he t ool is inclined sideways, is called
(a) cut t ing velocit y
(a) side r ake angle
(b) chip velocit y
(b) back r ake angle
(c) shear velocit y
(c) end r elief angle
(d) aver age velocit y
(d) side r elief angle
40. Angle pr ovided in a single point t ool t o cont r ol 47. Vect or sum of cut t i ng and chi p vel oci t i es i s
chip flow is equal t o
(a) side r ake angle (a) shear velocit y
(b) back r ake angle (b) aver age velocit y
(c) end r elief angle (c) bot h (a) and (b)
(d) side r elief angle (d) none of t hese

41. To pr event t ool fr om r ubbing t he wor k , angl e 48. Velocit y of chip r elat ive t o t he t ool is act ing
pr ovided on t ools is (a) along t he t ool face
(a) lip angle (b) along t he shear plane
(b) r ake angle (c) nor mal t o t he shear plane
(c) clear ance angle (d) nor mal t o t he t ool face
(d) r elief angle
49. Velocity of chip r elative to the wor k-place is acting
42. Relief angles on high speed t ools gener ally var y (a) along t he t ool face
in t he r ange (b) along t he shear plane
(a) 0° t o 5° (c) nor mal t o t he shear plane
(b) 5° t o 10° (d) nor mal t o t he t ool face
(c) 10° t o 20° 50. Chip t hickness r at io is t he r at io of
(d) 20° t o 30° (a) cut t ing velocit y t o chip velocit y
43. I n a si ngl e poi nt t ool , t he angl e bet ween t he (b) dept h of cut t o chip t hickness
sur face of t he flank immediat ely below t he point (c) chip t hickness t o dept h of cut
and a plane at r ight angles t o t he cent r e line of (d) none of t hese
t he point of t ool, is called
51. Cut t ing r at io is t he r at io of
(a) side r elief angle
(a) chip velocit y t o cut t ing velocit y
(b) end r elief angle
(b) chip t hickness t o dept h of cut
(c) side r ake angle (c) cut t ing velocit y t o chip velocit y
(d) back r ake angle (d) none of t hese
4.34 Manufacturing Engineering
52. Chip compr ession fact or is equal t o 60. Feed depends upon
(a) chip t hickness r at io (a) dept h of cut
1 (b) r igidit y of machine
(b) chip thickness ratio (c) finish r equir ed
(d) all of t hese
(c) chip t hickness r at io × shear angle
(d) none of t hese 61. The aver age cut t ing speed for machining a cast
ir on by a high speed st eel t ool is
53. I n met al cut t ing oper at i ons, chi ps ar e for med (a) 10 m / min
due t o
(b) 22 m / min
(a) elast ic defor mat ion of met al
(c) 30 m / min
(b) plast ic defor mat ion of met al
(d) 300 m / min
(c) elast ic plast ic defor mat ion of met al
(d) all of t hese 62. The aver age cut t ing speed for machining a cast
ir on by a high speed st eel t ool is
54. I n met al machining, due t o plast ic defor mat ion (a) 10 m / min
of met al maximum heat is gener at ed in t he
(b) 22 m / min
(a) shear zone
(c) 30 m / min
(b) fr ict ion zone
(d) 300 m / min
(c) wor k-t ool cont act zone
(d) none of t hese 63. Cut t ing speed is gener ally low for
(a) soft mat er ial
55. I n met al machining, due t o fr ict ion bet ween t he
moving chip and t he t ool face, heat is gener at ed (b) castings
in t he (c) r egular shaped mat er ials
(a) shear zone (d) none of t hese
(b) fr ict ion zone 64. The aver age cut t ing speed for machining copper
(c) wor k-t ool cont act zone alloys by a high speed st eel t ool is
(d) none of t hese (a) 10 m / min
56. I n met al machining due t o bur nishing fr ict ion, (b) 22 m / min
heat is gener at ed in t he (c) 30 m / min
(a) shear zone (d) 200 t o 300 m/min
(b) fr ict ion zone 65. I n most high speed milling cutter s, positive r adial
(c) wor k-t ool cont act zone r ake angle is
(d) none of t hese (a) 10 – 15° (b) 7 – 10°
57. The coefficient of fr ict ion bet ween chip and t ool (c) 20 – 25° (d) 15 – 20°
can be r educed by r educing t he
66. I n machine t ools, chat t er is due t o
(a) dept h of cut
(a) fr ee vibr at ions
(b) widt h of t ool
(b) r andom vibr at ions
(c) effect ive r ank angle
(c) for ced vibr at ions
(d) any of t hese
(d) self-excit ed vibr ations
58. The dept h of cut depends upon
(a) cut t ing speed 67. The usual r at io of for war d and r et ur n st oke in
shaper is
(b) t ool mat er ial
(a) 2 : 1 (b) 1 : 2
(c) r igidit y of machine t ool
(c) 2 : 3 (d) 3 : 2
(d) all of t hese
68. I n pier cing and punching oper at ions, t he angle
59. Dept h of cut for r oughing oper at ion as compar ed
of shear is pr ovided on
t o finishing oper at ion is
(a) die
(a) mor e
(b) punch
(b) less
(c) bot h on punch and die
(c) same
(d) not pr ovided t o all
(d) none of t hese

69. I n pi er ci n g oper at i on , t h e cl ear an ce i s
pr ovided on
(a) die
(b) punch
(c) half on die and half on punch
(d) may be pr ovided on any member
70. I n dr awing oper at ion, incr ease of punch r adius
(a) has much i nfl uence on punch l oad and i t
decr eases
(b) does not influence t he punch load much
(c) punch load incr eases
(d) punch load depends on ot her fact or s
71. Angul ar cl ear ance pr ovi ded on di es i s of t he
or der of
(a) 5 t o 10°
(b) 3 t o 5°
(c) 1/2 t o 1°
(d) 0.1 t o 0.5°
72. Cent r e of pr essur e of a piece t o be blanked or
pier ced in power pr ess lies at
(a) c.g. of ar ea of piece
(b) c.g. of per imet er of piece
(c) cent r e of piece
(d) cent r e of per cussion
73. I n dr awing oper at ion, incr ease of die r adius
(a) has much i nfl uence of punch l oad and i t
decr eases
(b) does not influence t he punch load much
(c) punch load incr eases
(d) punch load depends on ot her consider at ions
74. Bending oper at ion should be per for med
(a) par allel t o t he gr ain dir ect ion
(b) at 30° t o t he gr ain dir ect ion
(c) at r ight angle t o t he gr ain dir ect ion
(d) t her e is no such cr it er ion
75. I n bending oper at ion, t he met al t akes shape of
(a) die
(b) punch
(c) aver age of t wo
(d) could t ake any shape
76. I n bl an k i n g oper at i on , t h e cl ear an ce i s
pr ovided on
(a) die
(b) punch
(c) half on die and half on punch
(d) may be pr ovided on any member
Manufacturing Engineering 4.35
77. Most practical method of taking care of springback
dur ing bending is t o
(a) tr y a sample, make the necessar y adjustment
and t r y again
(b) punching t he inside cor ner of bend
(c) use hollow concave punches
(d) under cut t ing t he punch so t hat t he mat er ial
is fr ee t o over bend
78. Sher adising is
(a) a zinc diffusion pr ocess
(b) an oxidising pr ocess used for aluminium and
magnesium ar t icles
(c) a pr ocess used for maki ng t his phosphat e
coat ings on st eel t o act as base
(d) t he pr ocess of coat ing of zinc by hot dipping
79. Aver age cut t ing speed in machining mild-st eel
by single point t ool of H .S.S. is
(a) 10 m / mt (b) 20 m / mt
(c) 30 m / mt (d) 40 m / mt
80. Tool life is said t o be over if
(a) poor sur face finish is obt ained
(b) sudden incr ease in power and cut t ing for ce
wit h chat t er ing t ake place
(c) over heat ing and fuming due t o fr ict ion st ar t
(d) all of t hese
81. Tool life is most affect ed by
(a) cut t ing speed
(b) t ool geomet r y
(c) feed and dept h
(d) micr ost r uct ur e of mat er ial being cut
82. Flank wear occur s mainly on
(a) nose par t, fr ont r elief face and side r elief face
(b) nose par t and t op face
(c) cut t ing edges
(d) all of t hese
83. Pr oper t y essent ial for a t ool mat er ial used for
high speed machining is
(a) r ed har dness and impact r esist ance
(b) r ed har dness and wear r esist ance
(c) t oughness and impact r esist ance
(d) r ed har dness, wear r esistance and toughness.
84. M ost machinable met al is one which
(a) pr oduces discont inuous chips
(b) per mit s maxi mum met al r emoval per t ool
grind
(c) r esult s in maximum lengt h of shear plane
(d) r esult s in minimum value of shear angle
4.36 Manufacturing Engineering
85. I t is possible t o cor r elat e t ool life wit h which of 93. Cr at er wear occur s mainly due t o
t he following pr oper t y of t he met al ? (a) abr asion
(a) gr ain size (b) diffusion
(b) t oughness (c) oxidation
(c) har dness (d) adhesion
(d) micr o const it uent s
94. Chips wit h built up edge can be expect ed when
86. The met al in machining oper at ion is r emoved by machining
(a) t ear ing chips (a) har d mat er ial
(b) dist or t ion of met al (b) br it t le mat er ial
(c) shear ing t he met al acr oss a zone (c) t ough mat er ial
(d) cut t ing t he met al acr oss a zone (d) ductile mat er ial

87. Aver age cut t ing speed in machining cast ir on by 95. Cr at er wear t akes place in a single point cut t ing
a single point cut t ing t ool of H .S.S. is t ool at
(a) 6 m / mt (a) flank
(b) 11 m / mt (b) side r ake
(c) 22 / mt (c) face
(d) 33 m / mt (d) tip
96. Best coolant and lubr icant for cast ir on is
88. Galvanising is
(a) wat er sol ubl e oi l s or sul phur based and
(a) zinc diffusion pr ocess
miner al oils
(b) an oxidising pr ocess used for aluminium and
(b) miner al and oils
magnesium ar t icles
(c) soluble oils
(c) a pr ocess used for making t hin phosphat e
coat ing on st eel t o act as a base or pr imer for (d) dry
enamels and paint s 97. Which of t he following t ool mat er ials has highest
(d) t he pr ocess of coat ing of zinc by hot dipping cut t ing speed ?
(a) car bon st eel
89. The fr ont r ak e r equi r ed t o machi ne br ass by
H .S.S. t ool is (b) t ool st eel
(a) 15° (b) 10° (c) HSS
(c) 5° (d) 0° (d) carbide

90. Best all-r ound coolant for car bide t ool is 98. M ain funct ion of t he cut t ing fluid is t o
(a) soluble oil (b) k er osene (a) pr ovide lubr icat ion
(c) t ur pent ine oil (d) compr essed air (b) cool t he t ool and wor kpiece
(c) wash away t he chips
91. Anodising is (d) impr ove sur face finish
(a) a zinc diffusion pr ocess
(b) an oxidising pr ocess used for aluminium and 99. Which of the following is used as cut t ing fluid for
magnesium ar t icles t h e t ur n i ng an d m i l l i n g oper at i on on al l oy
st eels ?
(c) a pr ocess used for making t hin phosphat e
coat ing on st eel t o act as a base or pr imer for (a) CO2
enamels and paint s (b) k er osene
(d) t he pr ocess of coat ing of zinc by hot dipping (c) soluble oil
(d) sulphur ised miner al oil
92. Best coolant and lubr icant for st eel and wr ought
ir on is 100. Cont inuous chips will be for med when machining
(a) wat er sol ubl e oi l or su l ph u r -based an d speed is
miner al oils (a) high
(b) miner al and fat t y oils (b) low
(c) soluble oils (c) medium
(d) dry (d) ir r espect ive of cut t ing speed
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.37

110. Pr ocess used for maki ng seaml ess t ube is

LEVEL-1
(a) ext r usion
101. I n hot wor k ing pr ocess (b) pier cing
(a) gr ai n st r uct ur e of t he met al i s r efined (c) for ging
(b) por osit y of met al i s lagel y eli minat ed (d) casting
(c) m ech an i cal pr oper t i es such as du ct i l i t y,
t ougnes elongat ion and r educt i on in ar ea ar e 111. Pr ocess used for maki ng nut s and bolt s is
impr oved (a) ext r usion
(d) al l of t hese (b) cold peeni ng
102. Pr ocess of incr easing t he cr oss-sect i on of a bar (c) hot pi er ci ng
and r educing i t s lengt h is call ed (d) up set t i ng
(a) spinning (b) upset ting
112. Pr ocess consist s of pushi ng t he met al insi de a
(c) dr awing down (d) r eaming
chamber t o for ce i t out by high pr essur e t hr ough
103. I n hot wor k ing pr ocess an or ifice, which is shaped t o pr ovide t he desir ed
(a) poor sur face fini sh is pr oduced for m of t he fini shed par t , is call ed
(b) scal e is for med on met al sur face (a) ext r usion
(c) cl ose t ol er ances can not be mai nt ained (b) pier cing
(d) al l of t hese (c) for ging
104. Cold wor ki ng (d) swaging
(a) r equi r es much hi gher pr essur e t han hot 113. Pr ocess used t o impr ove fat igue r esist ance of t he
wor king met al by set t i ng up compr essive st r esses in i t s
(b) incr eases har dness sur face, is call ed
(c) di st or t gr ain st r uct ur e and does not pr ovi de (a) ext r usion
an appr eciable r educt ion i n si ze
(b) pircing
(d) al l of t hese
(c) cold peeni ng
105. Cold wor k ing of met al incr eases (d) up set t i ng
(a) t ensile st r engt h (b) har dness
(c) yi el d st r engt h (d) al l of t hese 114. Pr ocess, in which t he cr oss-sect ional ar ea of bar s,
r ods or t ubes in t he desir ed ar ea is r educed by
106. Col d wor k i ng pr ocess can be appl i ed on t he r epeat ed bl ows, is call ed
component s having diamet er up t o
(a) ext r usion
(a) 12 mm (b) 25mm
(b) pier cing
(c) 49mm (d) 50mm
(c) r eaming
107. Parts of circular cross section which are symmetrical
about the axis of rotation are made by (d) swaging
(a) hot spi ni ng (b) hot for gi ng 115. Pr ocess of sh api n g t h i n m et al sh eet s by
(c) hot ext r ust i on (d) hot h per ci ng pr ocessing t hem against a for m is call ed
108. Plast ic defor mat ion of met al at high temper at ur e (a) spinning
i n t o a pr edet er m i n ed si ze or sh ape u si n g
(b) upset ting
compr essi ve for ces exer t ed t hr ough some t ype
of di e by a hammer a pr ess or an upset t i ng (c) dr awing down
machine, is call ed (d) r eaming
(a) ext r usion (b) pier cing
116. I n r ol l i ng oper at i ons, t he r ol l r ot at es wi t h a
(c) for ging (d) casting
sur face veloci t y
109. For ging of st eel i s done at a t emper at ur e of (a) lower t han t he speed of incoming met al
(a) 400°C
(b) exceedi ng t he speed of i ncomi ng met al.
(b) 800°C
(c) equal t o speed of t he i ncoming met al
(c) 1000°C
(d) 1300°C (d) none of t hese
4.38 Manufacturing Engineering
117. H ot pr ess for gi ng
(a) casues a st eadil y applied pr essur e i nst ead of
impact for ce
(b) is used t o for ce t he end of a heat ed bar int o a
desi r ed shape
(c) is a for ging oper at ion i n whi ch t wo halves of
a r ot at ing die open and cl ose r api dl y whi le
impact i ng t he end of t he heat ed t ube or shell
(d) i s a f or gi n g m et h od f or r ed u ci n g t h e
di met er of a bar and in t he pr ocess making it
longer
118. I n hot wor ki ng
(a) anneal ing oper at ion is not necessar y
(b) power r equir ement s ar e l ow
(c) sur face finish i s good
(d) gr ai n r efinement is possible
119. For ging of plain cor bon st eel i s car r i ed out at
(a) 750°C
(b) 900°C
(c) 1100°C
(d) 1300°C
120. Swaging
(a) causes a st eadil y applied pr essur e i nst ead of
impact for ce
(b) is used t o for ce t he end of a heat ed bar int o a
desi r ed shape
(c) is a for ging oper at ion i n whi ch t wo halves of
a r ot at ing die open and cl ose r api dl y whi le
impact i ng t he end of t he heat ed t ube or shell
(d) i s a f or gi n g m et h od f or r ed u ci n g t h e
di met er of a bar and in t he pr ocess making it
longer
121. M echani cal pr oper t i es of t he met al i mpr ove in
hot wor ki ng due t o
(a) r ecover y of gr ai ns
(b) r ecr yst allisat ion
(c) gr ai n gr owt h
(d) refinement of grain size
122. Roll for gi ng
(a) causes a st eadil y applied pr essur e i nst ead of
impact for ce
(b) is used t o for ce t he end of a heat ed bar int o a
desi r ed shape
(c) is a for ging oper at ion i n whi ch t wo halves of
a r ot at ing die open and cl ose r api dl y whi le
impact i ng t he end of t he heat ed t ube or shell
(d) i s a f or gi n g m et h od f or r ed u ci n g t h e
maki ng it longer
123. Pr oduct ion of cont our s in fl at blank is call ed
(a) blanking
(b) pier cing
(c) per for at ing
(d) punching
124. Upset for gi ng
(a) causes a st eadil y applied pr essur e i nst ead of
impact for ce
(b) is used t o for ce t he end of a heat ed bar int o a
desi r ed shape
(c) is a for ging oper at ion i n whi ch t wo halves of
a r ot at ing die open and cl ose r api dl y whi le
impact i ng t he end of t he heat ed t ube or shell
(d) is a for ging method for r educing the dimeter of
a bar and in the pr ocess making it longer
125. I n four high r olling mill the bigger rollers are called
(a) guide r ol ls
(b) back up r ol ls
(c) main r ol ls
(d) suppor t r ol ls
126. A polished and et ched sur face of the cr oss-sect ion
of a hot wor ked pr oduct wi ll be havi ng
(a) fi br e lik e st r uct ur e
(b) gr ai n field li ke st r uct ur e
(c) car bon pr ecipit at ed at boundar i es
(d) car bon in t he for m of fl ak es
127. Not ching is t he oper at ion of
(a) r emoval of excess met al fr om t he edge of st r ip
t o m ak e i t su i t abl e f or dr aw i n g w i t h ou t
wr inkling
(b) cut t i ng of t he excess met al at edge which was
r equir ed for gr i ppi ng pur pose dur ing pr ess
wor k ing oper at i on
(c) cut t ing i n a single l ine acr oss a par t of t he
met al st r ip t o allow bendi ng or for ming in
pr ogr essi ve di e oper at i on whi l e t he par t
r emains at t ached t o t he st r ip
(d) punching in which punch is st opped as soon
as t he met al fr act ur e is complet e and met al
is not r emoved but hel d in hole
128. L ancing i s t he oper at ion of
(a) r emoval of excess metal fr om the edge of str ip
t o mak e i t sui t abl e for dr awi ng wi t hout
wr inkling
(b) cut t i ng of t he excess met al at edge which was
r equir ed for gr i ppi ng pur pose dur ing pr ess
wor k ing oper at i on
(c) cut t ing i n a single l ine acr oss a par t of t he
met al st r ip t o allow bendi ng or for ming in
pr ogr essi ve di e oper at i on whi l e t he par t
r emains at t ached t o t he st r ip
(d) punching in which punch is st opped as soon
as t he met al fr act ur e is complet e and met al
is not r emoved but hel d in hole
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.39
129. L aser is pr oduced by 135. H emming i s t he oper at i on
(a) gr aphite (a) in which t he edges of sheet ar e t ur ned over
(b) r uby t o pr ovide st i ffness and a smoot h edge
(c) diamond (b) of pr oducing cont r ous in sheet met al end of
bending pr eviously r oll for med sect ions
(d) emer ald
(c) i n w h i ch a ser i es of i m pact bl ow s ar e
130. I n j ect i on m ou l di n g i s t h e i deal m et h od of t r ansfer r ed on dies so t hat solid or t ubul ar
pr ocessing wor k changes i n cr oss sect ion or geomet r ic
(a) plastics shape
(b) t her mo-set t i ng plast ics (d) empl oyed t o expand a t ubul ar or cyli ndr ical
(c) t her moplast ics part
(d) nonfer r ous mat er ials 136. Bulging i s t he oper at i on
131. Compr essi on moul di ng i s t he ideal met hod of (a) in which t he edges of sheet ar e t ur ned over
pr ocessing t o pr ovide st i ffness and a smoot h edge
(a) plastics (b) of pr oducing cont r ous in sheet met al end of
bending pr eviously r oll for med sect ions
(b) t her mo-set t i ng plast ics
(c) i n w h i ch a ser i es of i m pact bl ow s ar e
(c) t her moplast ics
t r ansfer r ed on dies so t hat solid or t ubul ar
(d) nonfer r ous mat er ials wor k changes i n cr oss sect ion or geomet r ic
132. Sl ugging is t he oper at ion of shape
(a) r emoval of excess metal fr om the edge of str ip (d) empl oyed t o expand a t ubul ar or cyli ndr ical
t o mak e i t sui t abl e for dr awi ng wi t hout part
wr inkling 137. Gear ar e shapi ng is r el at ed t o
(b) cut t i ng of t he excess met al at edge which was (a) template
r equir ed for gr i ppi ng pur pose dur ing pr ess (b) for m t oot h pr ocess
wor k ing oper at i on (c) hob
(c) cut t ing i n a single l ine acr oss a par t of t he (d) gener at ing
met al st r ip t o allow bendi ng or for ming in
pr ogr essi ve di e oper at i on whi l e t he par t 138. Gear s best mass pr oduced by
r emains at t ached t o t he st r ip (a) milling
(d) punching in which punch is st opped as soon (b) hobbin
as t he met al fr act ur e is complet e and met al (c) shapping
is not r emoved but hel d in hole (d) for ming
133. I n dr awing oper at ion t he met al flows due t o
139. Wh i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g i s a gear f i n i sh i n g
(a) duct ilit y
oper at i on ?
(b) wor k har deni ng
(a) Hobbing
(c) plast icity
(b) Shaping
(d) shear ing
(c) Milling
134. Tr imming is t he oper at ion of (d) Saving or bur nishi ng
(a) r emoval of excess metal fr om the edge of str ip
140. I n pr ess oper at oin, t he si ze of pi er ced hole i s
t o mak e i t sui t abl e for dr awi ng wi t hout
independent of t he size of
wr inkling
(b) cut t i ng of t he excess met al at edge which was (a) punch
r equir ed for gr i ppi ng pur pose dur ing pr ess (b) die
wor k ing oper at i on (c) aver age of punch and die
(c) cut t ing i n a single l ine acr oss a par t of t he (d) punch and clear ance
met al st r ip t o allow bendi ng or for ming in
pr ogr essi ve di e oper at i on whi l e t he par t 141. For dr awi ng oper at i on, t he best suit ed pr ess is
r emains at t ached t o t he st r ip (a) knuckle joint pr ess
(d) punching in which punch is st opped as soon (b) cr ank shaft and connect ing r od pr ess
as t he met al fr act ur e is complet e and met al
is not r emoved but hel d in hole (c) t oggle pr ess
(d) r ack and pinion pr ess
4.40 Manufacturing Engineering
142. Swaging i s t he oper at oin 148. Smal lest t hi ck ness whi ch can be measur ed by
(a) in which t he edges of sheet ar e t ur ned over sl ip gauges is
t o pr ovide st i ffness and a smoot h edge (a) 0.001 mm
(b) of pr oducing cont r ous in sheet met al end of (b) 0.01 mm
bending pr eviously r oll for med sect ions (c) 1.001 mm
(c) i n w h i ch a ser i es of i m pact bl ow s ar e (d) none of t hese
t r ansfer r ed on dies so t hat solid or t ubul ar
wor k changes i n cr oss sect ion or geomet r ic 149. Which machi ne par t is not cold for med ?
shape (a) Food cont ainer
(d) empl oyed t o expand a t ubul ar or cyli ndr ical (b) St ai nl ess st eel vessel
part (c) Cr ank shaft
143. Blanking and piercing oper ation can be per for med (d) H eat i ng duct
simulat aneously in
150. Odd pair is
(a) si mple die (a) Dimpling and flar ing
(b) pr ogr essi ve die (b) Welding and solder ing
(c) compound die (c) Thr eading and bor ing
(d) combinat i on die (d) H obbing and swaging
144. Cut t ing and for ming oper at ions can be done in
151. Effect t hat is associ at ed wi t h cold for ming is
si ngle oper at ion on
(a) st r ain har dening
(a) si mple die
(b) shr inkage
(b) pr ogr essi ve die
(c) sur face decolour i ng
(c) compound die
(d) sur face r oughness
(d) combinat i on die
152. Cl ose t ol er an ce of d i m en si on s i s easi l y
145. St r et ch for ming is t he oper at i on maint ained in cold for med par t s because
(a) in which t he edges of sheet ar e t ur ned over (a) di es ar e of exact diment i on
t o pr ovide st i ffness and a smoot h edge (b) no shr i nkage occur s
(b) of pr oducing cont r ous in sheet met al end of (c) st r engt h incr eases
bending pr eviously r oll for med sect ions (d) hi gher defor mi ng for ce i s appli ed
(c) i n w h i ch a ser i es of i m pact bl ow s ar e
153. I f t her e ar e bad effect s of st r ai n har dening on a
t r ansfer r ed on dies so t hat solid or t ubul ar
cold for med par t , t he par t must be
wor k changes i n cr oss sect ion or geomet r ic
shape (a) anealed
(b) t emper ed
(d) empl oyed t o expand a t ubul ar or cyli ndr ical
part (c) har dened
(d) nor malized
146. I n pr ess oper at i on, t he si ze of t he blanked par t is
dependent on t he size of 154. Advant age of col d for ming is
(a) punch (a) gr ai n r efinement t akes place
(b) die (b) st r engt h and har dness i ncr ease
(c) aver age of punch and die (c) no consequent heat t r eat ment is needed
(d) di e and clear ance (d) for ce r equi r ed i s r el at ively small
155. St r et ch for ming is a pr ocess in whi ch
147. A mast er gauge i s used by
(a) al l defor mat i ons occur i n t he di r ect i on of
(a) mast er s
st r et ch
(b) exper ienced t echnician
(b) all for ces ar e applied int he dir ect ion of str et ch
(c) al l machines
(c) advant age is t aken of pl ast ic st at e induced
(d) none of t hes due t o st r et ch
(d) no dies ar e used
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.41

156. Cor r ect combi nat ion in a col d bendi ng pr ocess is 163. Pr e-bendi ng is not possibl e in
(a) t hicker met al , small er bend angle, small er (a) t hr ee r ol l single pinch machi ne
bend r adius (b) t hr ee r ol l double pinch machi ne
(b) har der metal, smaller bend angle, lar ger bend (c) four r oll double pi nch machi ne
radius (d) pyr amid machine
(c) thinner metal, smaller bend angle lar ger bend
164. Roll ing machine is amenabl e t o NC CN C is
radius
(a) pyr amid machine
(d) thicker metal, lar ger bend angle, smaller bend
(b) t hr ee r ool single pinch machi ne
radius
(c) four r oll double pi nch machi ne
157. Ver nier cal iper is used t o measur e (d) t hr ee r ool double pinch machi ne
(a) ext er nal and i nt er nal di amet er of shaft s
165. Bar of sect ion can be col d bent by
(b) t hickness of par t s
(a) r oll bendi ng
(c) dept h of hol es
(b) r ot at ing die and wi per block
(d) al l of t hese
(c) ser i es of r ol ls
158. Bending pr ocess r equi r es highest for ce is (d) mat ching shape wheels
(a) Bot t om bendi ng
166. Dr awing pr ocess does not bel ong t o t he gr oup is
(b) Thr ee point bendi ng (a) deep dr awing
(c) Air bending (b) stamping
(d) none of t hese (c) pr essing
159. Bot t om of bend (t ensi on si de) does not mak e (d) shallow dr awing
cont act wit h t he di e in 167. A cylindr ical vessel wi t h fl at bot t om can be deep
(a) bot t om bendi ng dr awn by
(b) ai r bendi ng (a) si ngle act ion deep dr awi ng
(c) t hr ee point bendi ng (b) double act ion deep dr awi ng
(d) al l of t hese (c) t r iple act ion deep dr awi ng
(d) shallow dr awing
160. I n which cold bendi ng pr ocess, one set of punch
and die can pr oduce only one angl e of bendi ng ? 168. Ri ng r oll ing i s used
(a) Air bending (a) for pr oduci ng a seamless t ube
(b) Thr ee point bendi ng (b) t o i ncr ease t he t hi ck ness of a r i ng
(c) Bot t om bendi ng (c) t o decr ease t he t hi ck ness of a r i ng
(d) for pr oducing lar ge cyli nder
(d) None of t hese
169. I n r ing r ol li ng
161. Fl at t ening is a pr ocess in which a met al st r i p is
(a) inner r ol ler i s lar ger in di amet er but out er
(a) bent over 18° and t hen pr essed r oll er is power dr iven
(b) pr essed t o r emove ki nks and wr inkl es (b) out er r ol ler i s lar ger in di amet er but i nner
(c) bent t o cr eat e a smal l ki nk r oll er is power dr iven
(d) pr essed against r ubber pad (c) bot h r oll er s ar e equal in di amet er but i nner
162. I n flexible pr ess br ake die r oll er is power dr iven
(a) any ben d angl e i r r espect i ve of pun ch i s (d) lar ger out er r ol ler i s power dr iven
obtained 170. Cold or hot r oll ing does not pr oduce
(b) good sur face finish on t ensi on side of bend is (a) a hollow ci r cular sect i on
ensur ed
(b) a T sect i on
(c) smal ler bending for ce is r equir ed
(c) an I sect i on
(d) none of t hese
(d) a channel sect i on
4.42 Manufacturing Engineering
171. Pr ocess of ext r usion is li ke 179. M et al not good for impact ext r usion is
(a) a vi scous l ubr i can t pour i ng t hr ou gh t he (a) al loys of Zn and Sn
mout h of cont ainer (b) st ai nl ess st eel
(b) a t oot h past e comi ng out of it s t ube (c) low car bon annealed st eel
(c) har d par t icl es t hr own out of a nozzl e under (d) al loys of al uminium and lead
ai r pr essur e
180. M at er ial good for ext r usion is
(d) abr asive par t icle in t he for m of slur r y coming
(a) st ai nl ess st eel
out of an openi ng
(b) br ass cast i ng
172. A t oot h past e t ube can be pr oduced by (c) low car bon annealed st eel
(a) solid for war d ext ur si on (d) low car bon wor k har dened st eel
(b) sol id backwar d ext r usion
181. I n w h i ch f or gi n g m ach i n e an v i l on w h i ch
(c) holl ow back war d ext r usi on wor k pi ece is pl aced moves t owar d descending
(d) holl ow for war d ext r usi on punch ?
173. Seamless t ube can be pr oduced by (a) Boar d dr op hammer
(a) t wo high r ol li ng mi ll (b) Ai r li ft hammer
(c) Tr ip hammer
(b) r i ng r oll ing combined wit h st r et ch for mi ng
(d) H i gh ener gy r at e for ging machi ne
(c) pier cing
(d) st eam hammer for gi ng 182. Upset t i ng or col d headi ng is a
(a) r oll ing pr ocess
174. Swaging i s opposit e of
(b) ext r uding pr ocess
(a) for ging
(c) bendi ng pr ocess
(b) ext r usion
(d) for ging pr ocess
(c) pier cing
(d) none of t hese 183. For ext r usion pr ocess
(a) complex sect oins ar e pr oduced fr om bar stocks
175. Pr ocess pr oducing gr ain st r uct ur e wi t h gr ai ns
(b) good sur face fi ni sh and cl ose t ol er ance i s
aligned along geomet r ical shape of cr ank shaft is
gener at ed
(a) casting
(c) t he st r engt h of fi nished pr oduct is impr oved
(b) r olling due t o col d wor ki ng
(c) welding (d) al l of t hese
(d) none of t hese
184. For ming pr ocess which does not involve r ot at oin
176. Pr ocess cannot be used for pr oducing a cr ank of wor k piece is
shaft is (a) spinning (b) t hr ead r ol li ng
(a) casting (c) upset ting (d) r i ng r ol li ng
(b) r olling
185. Di ffer ent st eps in Bl ock ing, which i s fi nishi ng
(c) welding oper at i on i n f or gi n g ar e i n t h e f ol l ow i n g
(d) bending oper at i on i n for ging ar e i n t he foll owing or der
177. A poppet val ue can be pr oduced by (a) coining, t r imming, planishi ng
(a) r olling (b) t r immi ng, planishi ng, coi ni ng
(b) swaging (c) pl anishing, coining, t r immi ng
(c) combind for gi ng and ext r usi on (d) pl anishing, t r immi ng, coi ni ng
(d) st r et chi ng 186. The oper at ion t hat r emoves fins and flashes fr om
178. Needle is pr oduced by a for ged par t is
(a) swaging (a) combi nat i on of t r i mmi ng, pl ani shi ng and
coining
(b) ext r usion
(b) combinat ion of t r i mming and planishi ng
(c) machining
(c) combi nat ion of planishing and coini ng
(d) for ging
(d) t r imming
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.43
187. A hack saw blade cut on 195. H ack saw blade pr efer r ed for cut t ing br ass have
(a) for war d st r oke number of t eet h
(b) r et ur n st r oke (a) 14 per inch
(c) bot h (a) and (b) (b) 25 per inch
(d) depends upon dir ect ion of for ces (c) 32 per inch
(d) 40 per inch
188. The for ge hammer s used for pl ani shi ng and
196. Teet h of hacksaw blades ar e bend
coining ar e
(a) al t er nat ely r i ght or left and ever y t hir d or
(a) Ai r lift hammer s
four t h left st r aight
(b) H elve and t r i p hammer s
(b) t owar ds r ight
(c) Boar d dr op hammer s
(c) t owar ds left
(d) St eam hammer s
(d) none of t hese
189. The major pr oblem i n hot ext r usion is
197. A fi le wi t h 20 t eet h per inch is known as
(a) desi gn of punch
(a) r ough fi le
(b) desi gn of die
(b) smoot h fi le
(c) wear and t ear of die
(c) bast ar d file
(d) wear of punch
(d) second cut fi le
190. Ext ur sion pr ocess can effet i vely r educe t he cost
of pr oduct t hr ough 198. A fi le r emoves met al dur ing i t s
(a) mat er ial saving (a) for war d st r ock
(b) pr ocess i n t ooli ng cost (b) r et ur n st r ok
(c) savi ng in t ooling cost (c) bot h (a) and (b)
(d) savi ng in admini st r at ive cost (d) none of t hese

191. I n a soli d ext r usi on die, pur pose of k nock out pin 199. Fi le used for wood wor k is
is (a) si ngle cut fi le (b) double cut fi le
(a) shopping the par t to ext r ude t hr ough the hose (c) r asp cut fi le (d) none of t hese
(b) eject ing t he par t aft er ext r usi on 200. Sl ip gauges ar e made of
(c) allowing t he job to have ber tt er sur face finish (a) cast ir on (b) aluminium
(d) r educing t he wast e of mat er i al (c) al loy st eel (d) copper
192. Widt h of slot cut by a hacksaw blade as compar ed 201. When fi le i s moved t o and fr o over t he wor k i t is
t o widt h of bl ade is called
(a) mor e (a) dr aw filing
(b) less (b) cr oss fi li ng
(c) equal (c) pull nd push filing
(d) none of t hese (d) none of t hese
193. L engt h of hack saw blade is measur ed fr om 202. Scr i bing bl ock i s used t o
(a) cent er of hole at one end t o t he cent er of hole (a) locat e t he cent er of r ound bar s
at t he ot her end
(b) check t he t r ueness of fl at sur faces
(b) ext r eme end t o ext r eme end
(c) check t he accur ay of a li mit gauge
(c) 16 t imes t he widt h
(d) check t he diamet er of shaft s or st uds
(d) none of t hese
203. Sur face plat e i s used t o
194. H ack saw blade is specifi ed by i t s
(a) locat e t he cent er of r oung bar s
(a) width
(b) check t he t r ueness of fl at sur faces
(b) length
(c) check t he accur acy of a li mi t gauge
(c) mater ial
(d) check t he diamet er of shaft s or st uds
(d) number of t eet h
4.44 Manufacturing Engineering
204. Sl ip gauge i s used t o 212. I n el ect r i cal r esi st ance wel di ng, cl eani ng of
(a) locat e t he cent er of r ound bar s met als t o be welded is
(b) check t he t r ueness of fl at sur faces (a) immat er ial
(c) check t he accur acy of a li mi t gauge (b) impor tant
(d) check t he diamet er of shaft s or st uds (c) not effect ing t he welding
(d) none of t hese
205. Chisel s used for met al cut t i ng ar e
(a) har dened 213. I n electr ical r esistance welding, when the cur r ent
passes thr ough t he metal, the gr eatest r esistance
(b) annealed
is at t he
(c) t emper ed
(a) sur face
(d) al l of t hese
(b) point of cont act of elect r ode and met al
LEVEL-2 (c) point of cont act of met als t o be welded
(d) none of t hese
206. A single V and single U-but t welds ar e for sheet s
of appr oximat e t hickness 214. Welding of chr omium molybdenum st eels cannot
(a) 1 t o 5 mm use
(b) 5 t o 15 mm (a) t her mit welding
(c) 15 t o 25 mm (b) elect r ical r esist ance welding
(d) mor e t hat 25 mm (c) oxyacet ylene welding
(d) all of t hese
207. For welding plat es of t hickness less t han 5 mm,
bevelling of it s edges is 215. I n elect r ical r esist ance welding
(a) done t o a singe V or U-gr oove (a) volt age is high and cur r ent is low
(b) done to a double V or U-gr oove on one side (b) volt age is low and cur r ent is high
(c) done to a double V or U-groove on both sides (c) bot h volt age and cur r ent ar e high
(d) not r equir ed (d) bot h volt age and cur r ent ar e low

208. For welding plat es of t hickness mor e t han 12.5 216. I n elect r ical r esist ance welding voltage, r equir ed
mm, bevelling of it s edges is for heat ing is in t he r ange
(a) done t o a singe V or U-gr oove (a) 1 t o 5 volt s
(b) done t o a double V or U-gr oove on one side (b) 6 t o 10 volt s
(c) done t o a double V or U-gr oove on bot h sides (c) 11 t o 15 volt s
(d) not r equir ed (d) 16 t o 20 volt s
209. I n single V-but t welds, t he angle bet ween edges 217. I n electr ical r esist ance welding, pr essur e applied
is kept about var ies in t he r ange
(a) 40 t o 50 (b) 50 t o 60 (a) 50 t o 100 kgf/cm 2
(c) 60 t o 70 (d) 70 t o 90 (b) 100 t o 200 kgf/cm 2
210. I n a welding a flux is used t o (c) 250 t o 550 kgf/cm 2
(a) per mit per fect cohesion of met als (d) 600 t o 900 kgf/cm 2
(b) r emove t he oxides of t he met als for med at 218. I n el ect r i c r esi st an ce w el di n g, t w o copper
high t emper at ur e elect r odes used ar e cooled by
(c) bot h (a) and (c) (a) water (b) air
(d) none of t hese (c) bot h (a) and (b) (d) none of t hese
211. Pl ai n and but t wel ds can be used for sheet 219. Amount of cur r ent r equir ed in electr ic r esistance
shaving t hickness appr oximat ely welding is r egulat ed by changing
(a) 25 mm (a) input supply
(b) 40 mm (b) pr imar y t ur ns of t he t r ansfor mer
(c) 50 mm (c) secondar y t ur ns of t he t r ansfor mer
(d) 100 mm (d) all of t hese
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.45
220. Wel di ng in which t he met als t o be joi ned ar e 228. N umber of zones of heat gener at i on i n spot
heat ed t o a molt en st at e and allowed t o solidify welding ar e
in pr esence of a filler mat er ial, is called (a) 2 (b) 3
(a) plast ic welding (c) 5 (d) 8
(b) fusion welding
229. I n spot welding, t he t ip of elect r odes is of
(c) t her mit welding
(a) st ainless st eel (b) aluminium
(d) none of t hese
(c) copper (d) brass
221. An example of fusion welding is
230. I n spot welding, spacing bet ween t wo spot welds
(a) ar c welding (b) gas welding should not be less t han
(c) t her mit welding (d) for ge welding (a) d (b) 1.5 d
222. Welding in which met als t o be joined ar e heat ed (c) 3 d (d) 4.5 d
t o t he plast ic st at e and t hen for ged t oget her by wher e d is elect r ode t ip diamet er
ext er nal pr essur e wit hout t he addit ion t o filler
231. I n spot welding, t he elect r ode t ip diamet er (d)
mat er ial, is called
should be equal t o
(a) plast ic welding
(b) fusion welding (a) t (b) 1. 5 t
(c) t her mit welding (c) 3 t (d) 4.5 t
(d) none of t hese wher e t is t hickness of plat e t o be welded.

223. An example of plast ic welding is 232. M ult ispot welding pr ocess is

(a) ar c welding (a) seam welding
(b) gas welding (b) pr oject ion welding
(c) for ge welding (c) t her mit welding
(d) all of t hese (d) per cussion welding
233. A cont inuous spot welding pr ocess is
224. Spot -wel di ng, pr oj ect i on wel di n g an d seam
welding ar e classificat ion of (a) seam welding
(a) elect r ic r esist ance welding (b) pr oject ion welding
(b) t her mit welding (c) t her mit welding
(c) ar c welding (d) per cussion welding
(d) for ge welding 234. I f t wo pieces of differ ent met als ar e t o be welded
by pr oject ion welding, t hen pr oject ion should be
225. Welding pr ocess in which t wo pieces t o be joined made on t he met al piece having
are over lapped and placed between two electrodes, (a) higher conduct ivit y
is called
(b) lower conduct ivit y
(a) spot welding
(c) same conduct ivit y
(b) pr oject ion welding
(d) none of t hese
(c) seam welding
(d) but t welding 235. Welding pr ocess used for joining r ound bar s is
(a) spot welding
226. Spot welding is used for welding t op joint s in
plat es having t hickness (b) pr oject ion welding
(a) 0.25 mm t o 1.25 mm (c) seam welding
(b) 1.25 mm t o 2.50 mm (d) none of t hese
(c) 2.5 mm t o 3 mm 236. Seam wel di ng used for met al sheet s havi ng
(d) mor e t han 3 mm t hickness in t he r ange
(a) 0.025 t o 3 mm
227. M at er ial difficult t o be spot welded is
(b) 3 t o 6 mm
(a) st ainless st eel
(c) 6 t o 10 mm
(b) copper
(d) mor e t han 10 mm
(c) mild st eel sheet
(d) all of t hese
4.46 Manufacturing Engineering
237. I n pr oject ion welding, diamet er of t he pr oject ion 246. Welding pr ocess using a pool of molt en met al is
as com par ed t o t h i ck n ess of t h e sh eet i s (a) car bon ar c welding
appr oximately
(b) submer ged ar c welding
(a) half (b) equal
(c) TI C welding
(c) 1.5 t imes (d) double
(d) MI G welding
238. Welding of st eel st r uct ur es on sit e of a building
247. Welding pr ocess in which flux is used in t he for m
is done by
of gr anules is
(a) spot welding
(a) gas welding
(b) pr oject ion welding
(b) D.C. ar c welding
(c) seam welding
(c) submer ged ar c welding
(d) ar c welding
(d) t her mit welding
239. I n ar c welding, elect r ic ar c is pr oduced bet ween
t he wor k and t he elect r ode by 248. An arc is pr oduced between a bar e metal electr ode
and t he wor k in
(a) cur r ent flow (b) volt age differ ence
(a) gas welding
(c) cont act r esist ance (d) all of t hese
(b) D.C. ar c welding
240. I n ar c welding, t emper at ur e of heat of ar c is in
t he r ange (c) submer ged ar c welding
(a) 1000C to 2000C (d) t her mit welding
(b) 2000C to 4000C 249. Welded rod coated with fluxing mater ial is used in
(c) 4000C to 6000C (a) gas welding
(d) 6000C to 7000C (b) shielded ar c welding
(c) D.C ar c welding
241. I n ar c welding, cur r ent used is
(d) ar gon ar c welding
(a) A.C. cur r ent of high fr equency
(b) A.C. cur r ent of low fr equency 250. I n ar c welding, eyes need t o be pr ot ect ed against
(c) D. C. cur r ent (a) int ense glar e
(d) all of t hese (b) spar ks
(c) infr a-r ed r ays
242. I n ar c wel di ng, wi t h i ncr ease of t hi ck ness of
mat er i al t o be wel ded, t he wel di ng cur r ent (d) infr a-r ed and ult r a violet r ays.
r equir ement 251. I n which t ype of welding, a pool of molt en met al
(a) incr eases (b) decr eases is used ?
(c) r emains same (d) none of t hese (a) Electr oslag
243. I n ar c welding, t oo low welding speed r esult s in (b) Submer ged ar c
(a) wast age of elect r ode (c) MIG
(b) excessive pilling up of weld met al (d) TI G
(c) over hauling wit hout penet r at ion edges 252. Plain and but t welds may be used on mat er ials
(d) all of t hese upto appr oximately
244. Welding pr efer r ed for joining t hin foils is (a) 25 mm t hick
(a) gas welding (b) 40 mm t hick
(b) x-r ays and gamma r ays (c) 50 mm t hick
(c) micr o waves (d) 60 mm t hick
(d) all of t hese
253. M ain cr it er ion for select ion of electr ode diameter
245. Tr ansfer of met al fr om t he elect r ode occur s due in ar c welding is
t o molecular at t r act ion in (a) mat er ials t o be welded
(a) gas welding (b) t ype of welding pr ocess
(b) D.C. ar c welding (c) t hickness of mat er ial
(c) metallic welding (d) volt age used
(d) t her mit welding
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.47
254. Which of t he following cur r ent is pr efer r ed for 262. T-joint weld is used
welding of non-fer r ous met als by ar c welding ? (a) wher e longit udinal shear is pr esent
(a) A.C. low fr equency (b) wher e sever al loading is encount er ed and the
(b) A.C. high fr equency upper sur faces of bot h pieces must be in t he
(c) D.C. same plane
(d) All of t hese7 (c) t o joi nt t wo pi eces of met al s i n t he same
manner as r ivet s join met als
255. I n ar c welding, air is cr eat ed bet ween elect r ode (d) t o join t wo pieces per pendicular ly
and t he wor k by
(a) flow of cur r ent 263. I n M I G welding
(b) volt age (a) no flux is r equir ed
(b) welding speeds is high
(c) mat er ial char act er ist ics
(c) incr eased cor r osion r esist ance
(d) cont act r esist ance
(d) even unclean sur face can be welded t o obt ain
256. Open ci r cui t volt age for ar c wel di ng i s of t he sound welds
or der of
264. Copper is
(a) 18 - 40 volt s
(a) easily spot welded
(b) 40 - 95 volt s
(b) ver y difficult t o be spot welded
(c) 100 - 125 volt s
(c) good for spot welded as any ot her mat er ial
(d) 130 - 170 volt s
(d) pr efer r ed t o be welded by spot welding
257. M at er ial used for coat ing t he elect r ode is called
265. I t is not possible t o ar c weld all t ypes of met als
(a) pr ot ect ive layer (b) binder
wit h t r ansfor mer set because it does not have
(c) slag (d) flux pr ovision for
258. Plug weld joint is used (a) cont r ol of cur r ent
(a) wher e longit udinal shear is pr esent (b) cont r ol of volt age
(b) wher e sever e loading is encount er ed and t he (c) cont r ol of t ime dur at ion
upper sur faces of bot h pieces must be in t he (d) change of polar it y
same plane
266. Two sh eet s of sam e m at er i al but di f f er en t
(c) t o j oi n t wo pi eces of met al s i n t he same t hickness can be but t welded by
manner as r ivet s join met als
(a) adjust ing t he cur r ent
(d) t her e is not hing like plug weld joint
(b) t ime dur at ion of cur r ent
259. Welding pr ocess using non-consumable electr odes (c) pr essur e applied
is (d) changing t he size of one elect r ode
(a) L aser welding
267. Pr oject ion welding is
(b) MI G welding
(a) mult i-spot welding pr ocess
(c) TI G welding
(b) cont inuous spot welding pr ocess
(d) lon beam welding
(c) used t o for m mesh
260. When welding is going on, ar c volt age is of t he (d) used t o make cant ilever s
or der of
(a) 18 - 40 volt s 268. H alf cor ner weld is used
(b) 40 - 95 volt s (a) wher e longit udinal shear is pr esent
(c) 100 - 125 volt s (b) t o j oi n t wo pi eces of met al s i n t he same
manner as r ivet s join met als
(d) 130 - 170 volt s
(c) wher e efficiency of joint should be 50%
261. Gases used in t ungst en iner t gas welding ar e (d) none of t hese
(a) hydr ogen and oxygen
269. I n r esistance welding, volt age used for heat ing is
(b) CO2 and H 2
(a) 1 V (b) 10 V
(c) ar gon and neon
(c) 100 V (d) 1000 V
(d) ar gon and helium
4.48 Manufacturing Engineering
270. I n r esist ance welding, t he pr essur e is r eleased 280. A non-consumable elect r ode is used in
(a) just at t he t ime of passing t he cur r ent (a) gas welding (b) D.C. welding
(b) just aft er complet ion of cur r ent (c) A.C. ar c welding (d) ar gon ar c welding
(c) aft er t he weld cools 281. A consumable elect r ode is used in
(d) dur ing heat ing per iod (a) TI G welding
(b) MI G welding
271. Gr ey cast ir on is best welded by
(c) submer ged ar c welding
(a) TI G
(d) car bon ar c welding
(b) ar c
(c) MIG 282. Vol t age dr op acr oss t he ar c bet ween t he t wo
(d) oxy-acetylene elect r odes known as ar c volt age, incr eases as t he
ar c lengt h
272. Seam welding is (a) incr eases
(a) mult i-spot welding pr ocess (b) decr eases
(b) cont inuous spot welding pr ocess (c) r emains same
(c) used t o for m mesh (d) none of t hese
(d) none of t hese
283. I n ar c welding using dir ect cur r ent , amount of
273. Upt o what t hickness of plat e, edge pr epar at ion u sef u l ar c h eat at t h e an ode an d cat h ode
for welding is not r equir ed ? r espect ively ar e
(a) 4 mm (b) 5 mm
(a) one t hir d and t wo t hir d
(c) 8 mm (d) 10 mm
(b) t wo t hir d and one t hir d
274. Pr eheat ing is essent ial in welding (c) equal
(a) high speed st eel (b) st ainless st eel (d) none of t hese
(c) cast ir on (d) ger man silver
284. I n ar c welding using A.C. amount of useful heat
275. Gr ey cast ir on is usually welded by at t he anode and cat hode r espect ively ar e
(a) gas welding
(a) one t hir d and t wo t hir d
(b) r esist ance welding
(b) t wo t hir d and one t hir d
(c) ar c welding
(c) equal
(d) all of t hese
(d) none of t hese
276. Br azing met als and alloy commonly used ar e
(a) copper (b) copper alloy 285. I n TI G ar c welding, t he welding zone is shielded
by an at mospher e of
(c) silver alloys (d) all of t hese
(a) helium gas
277. For ge welding is best suit ed for
(b) ar gon gas
(a) st ainless st eel (b) high car bon st eel
(c) eit her (a) or (b)
(c) cast ir on (d) wr ought ir on
(d) none of t hese
278. Two sheet s of di ffer ent mat er i al s but same
t hickness can be spot welded by 286. TI G welding is pr efer r ed for
(a) adjust ing t he cur r ent (a) mild st eel
(b) t ime dur at ion of cur r ent (b) aluminium
(c) adjust ing t he pr essur e applied (c) silver
(d) changing t he size of neelect r ode (d) all of t hese
279. Wel di n g pr ocess, i n wh i ch el ect r ode i s n ot 287. Welding pr ocess pr efer red for cutting and welding
consumed is for non-fer r ous met als is
(a) t ungst en-iner t gas (TI G) welding (a) iner t gas ar c welding
(b) MI G welding (b) MI G welding
(c) D.C. ar c welding
(c) submer ged ar c welding
(d) ar gon ar c welding
(d) D.C. ar c welding
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.49
288. When t he wor k i s connect ed t o t he negat i ve 296. M olt en met al is pour ed for joining t he met als in
t er minal and t he elect r ode holder t o t he posit ive (a) ar c welding
t er minal, t he welding set up is said t o have (b) t her mit welding
(a) str aight polar it y (c) gas welding
(b) r ever sed polar it y (d) TI G welding
(c) both (a) and (b) 297. I n t her mit welding, heat is gener at ed fr om
(d) none of t hese (a) chemical r eact i on i nvol ving fi nel y divi ded
289. When t he wor k i s connect ed t o t he posi t i ve aluminium and ir on oxide
t er minal and t he elect r ode holder t o t he negat ive (b) combust ion of gases
t er minal, t he welding set up is said t o have (c) elect r ic ar c
(a) str aight polar it y (d) none of t hese
(b) r ever sed polar it y 298. I n t her mit welding, t her mit used is mixt ur e of
(c) bot h (a) or (b) (a) aluminium and ir on oxide
(b) aluminium and char coal
(d) none of t hese
(c) ir on oxide and char coal
290. I n welding copper alloys wit h TI G ar c welding (d) none of t hese
(a) dir ect cur r ent wit h r ever se polar it y (DCRP)
is used 299. I n t her mit welding, aluminium and ir on oxide
ar e mixed in t he pr opor t ion
(b) dir ect cur r ent wit h st r aight polar it y (DCSP)
is used (a) 1 : 1 (b) 1 : 3
(c) A. C. is used (c) 3 : 1 (d) 2 : 1
(d) all of t hese 300. Ther mit welding is used for
291. I n welding magnesium wit h TI G ar c welding (a) joining r ails, t r uck fr ames and br oken mot or
castings
(a) dir ect cur r ent wit h r ever se polar it y (DCRP)
is used (b) r epair ing br oken shear s
(b) dir ect cur r ent wit h st r aight polar it y (DCSP) (c) r eplacing br oken gear t eet h
is used (d) all of t hese
(c) A.C. is used 301. I n t her mit welding
(d) all of t hese (a) weld cools unifor mly
292. I n welding aluminium wit h TI G ar e welding (b) all par t of t he weld sect ion ar e molt en at t he
(a) dir ect cur r ent wit h r ever se polar it y (DCRP) same t ime
is used (c) pr oblem wi t h i nt er nal r esi dual st r esses is
(b) dir ect cur r ent wit h st r aight polar it y (DCSP) minimum
is used (d) all of t hese
(c) A.C. is used 302. Wel di ng pr ocess whi ch empl oys exot her mal
(d) all of t hese ch em i cal r eact i on f or dev el opi n g h i gh
t emper at ur e is
293. I n ar c welding, penet r at ion is deeper for
(a) t her mit welding
(a) DCRP
(b) gas welding
(b) DCSP
(c) ar c welding
(c) A.C.
(d) r esist ance welding
(d) none of t hese
303. Gr ay ir on is gener ally welded by
294. I n ar c welding, penet r at ion is minimum for
(a) gas welding (b) ar c welding
(a) DCRP (b) DCSP
(c) TI G welding (d) MI G welding
(c) A.C. (d) none of t hese
304. I n gas wel di ng, maximum fl ame t emper at ur e
295. Welding pr ocess, in which heat is pr oduced for
occur s at
welding by chemical r eact ion, is called
(a) inner cone (b) out er cone
(a) gas welding (b) t her mit welding
(c) next of inner cone (d) t ip of t he flame
(c) for ge welding (d) r esist ance welding
4.50 Manufacturing Engineering
305. I n gas w el di n g, f l am e t em per at u r e of t h e 315. Oxidising flame as compar ed to neutral flame has
oxyacet ylene gas used is inner cor e
(a) 1200C (b) 1800C (a) less luminous (b) shor t er
(c) 2400C (d) 3200C (c) mor e luminous (d) both (a) and (b)
306. Acet ylene gas is st or ed in cylinder s in 316. Neut r al flame is used t o weld
(a) solid for m (b) liquid for m (a) copper or br ass (b) cast ir on
(c) gaseous for m (d) all of t hese (c) st eel (d) all of t hese
307. Chemical used in pr oducing acet -ylene gas is 317. Rate of welding steel by carbur ising flame as com-
(a) car bon (b) cr ushed bone par ed t o neut r al flame is
(c) char coal (d) all of t hese (a) mor e (b) less
308. L ow pr essur e acet yl en e i s pr oduced at t h e (c) same (d) none of t hese
welding sit e by chemical r eact ion bet ween wat er 318. Oxidising flame is used t o weld
and
(a) brass (b) copper
(a) calcium chlor ide (b) calcium car bide (c) br onze (d) all of t hese
(c) calcium car bonat e (d) car bon
319. Car bur ising flame is used t o weld
309. I n gas welding, maximum t hickness of mat er ial (a) st eel, cast ir on, copper et c.
which can be welded wi t h a 30 mm diamet er
(b) br ass and br onze/c
welding r od is
(c) har d sufr acing mat er ials such as st ellit e
(a) 3 mm (b) 6 mm
(d) all of t hese
(c) 15 mm (d) 300 mm
320. Rat i o of ox ygen t o acet y l en e f or com pl et e
310. Filler mat er ial is essent ially used in combust ion is
(a) gas welding (b) spot welding (a) 1 : 1 (b) 1.5 : 1
(c) seam welding (d) all of t hese (c) 2 : 1 (d) 2.5 : 1
311. Gener ally the oxy-acet ylene welding is done with 321. I n gas wel di ng usi ng oxygen and acet yl ene
(a) neut r al flame (b) oxidising flame cylinder s, pr essur e of gas is mor e in
(c) car bur ising (d) all of t hese (a) acet ylene cylinder
(b) oxygen cylinder
312. Neut r al flame is obt ained by sup-plying
(c) equal in bot h t he cylinder s
(a) equal volumes of oxygen and acet ylene (d) none of t hese
(b) mor e volume of acet ylene and less volume of
oxygen 322. Temper at ur e of oxy-hydr ogen flame as compar ed
t o oxy-acet ylene flame is
(c) mor e volume of oxygen and less volume of
acet ylene (a) mor e (b) less
(d) none of t hese (c) same (d) none of t hese

313. Oxidising flame is obt ained by supplying 323. Ends of t wo pipes of unifor m cr oss-sect ion ar e
welded by
(a) equal volumes of oxygen and acet ylene
(a) spot welding (b) seam welding
(b) mor e volume of acet ylene and less volume of
oxygen (c) pr oject ion welding (d) upset butt welding
(c) mor e volume of oxygen and less volume of 324. The name key hole welding r efer s t o
acet ylene (a) Pr oject ion welding
(d) none of t hese (b) Per cussion welding
314. Car bur ising flame is obtained by supplying (c) Pulsed TI G welding
(a) equal volumes of oxygen and acet ylene (d) Plasma ar c welding
(b) mor e volume of acet ylene and less volume of 325. Black colour is gener ally paint ed on
oxygen (a) oxygen cylinder (b) acet ylene cylinder
(c) mor e volume of oxygen and less volume of (c) hydr ogen cylinder (d) none of t hese
acet ylene
(d) none of t hese
 Manufacturing Engineering 4.51

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (c) 29. (a) 30. (d)
31. (d) 32. (d) 33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (d) 37. (d) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (a)
41. (d) 42. (d) 43. (a) 44. (b) 45. (a) 46. (b) 47. (a) 48. (a) 49. (b) 50. (b)
51. (a) 52. (b) 53. (b) 54. (a) 55. (b) 56. (c) 57. (b) 58. (d) 59. (a) 60. (d)
61. (c) 62. (b) 63. (b) 64. (d) 65. (d) 66. (d) 67. (d) 68. (b) 69. (a) 70. (b)
71. (c) 72. (b) 73. (a) 74. (c) 75. (b) 76. (b) 77. (a) 78. (a) 79. (c) 80. (d)
81. (a) 82. (a) 83. (d) 84. (b) 85. (c) 86. (c) 87. (c) 88. (d) 89. (d) 90. (a)
91. (b) 92. (a) 93. (b) 94. (d) 95. (a) 96. (d) 97. (d) 98. (b) 99. (d) 100. (a)
LEVEL-1
101. (d) 102. (b) 103. (d) 104. (d) 105. (d) 106. (b) 107. (a) 108. (c) 109. (c) 110. (b)
111. (c) 112. (a) 113. (c) 114. (d) 115. (a) 116. (b) 117. (a) 118. (d) 119. (d) 120. (c,d)
121. (d) 122. (d) 123. (a) 124. (b) 125. (b) 126. (a) 127. (a) 128. (c) 129. (b) 130. (b)
131. (c) 132. (d) 133. (c) 134. (b) 135. (a) 136. (d) 137. (c) 138. (b) 139. (d) 140. (a)
141. (c) 142. (c) 143. (c) 144. (d) 145. (b) 146. (b) 147. (c) 148. (c) 149. (c) 150. (d)
151. (a) 152. (b) 153. (a) 154. (b) 155. (c) 156. (b) 157. (d) 158. (a) 159. (b) 160. (c)
161. (a) 162. (b) 163. (d) 164. (c) 165. (b) 166. (a) 167. (b) 168. (c) 169. (d) 170. (a)
171. (b) 172. (c) 173. (c) 174. (d) 175. (d) 176. (b) 177. (c) 178. (a) 179. (b) 180. (c)
181. (d) 182. (d) 183. (d) 184. (c) 185. (b) 186. (d) 187. (a) 188. (b) 189. (c) 190. (a)
191. (b) 192. (a) 193. (b) 194. (b) 195. (a) 196. (a) 197. (a) 198. (a) 199. (c) 200. (c)
201. (a) 202. (a) 203. (b) 204. (c) 205. (d)
LEVEL-2
206. (b) 207. (d) 208. (c) 209. (d) 210. (c) 211. (a) 212. (b) 213. (c) 214. (b) 215. (b)
216. (b) 217. (c) 218. (a) 219. (b) 220. (b) 221. (b) 222. (a) 223. (c) 224. (a) 225. (a)
226. (a) 227. (b) 228. (c) 229. (c) 230. (c) 231. (a) 232. (b) 233. (a) 234. (a) 235. (c)
236. (a) 237. (b) 238. (d) 239. (c) 240. (c) 241. (d) 242. (a) 243. (d) 244. (c) 245. (c)
246. (b) 247. (c) 248. (c) 249. (b) 250. (d) 251. (a) 252. (a) 253. (c) 254. (c) 255. (d)
256. (b) 257. (d) 258. (c) 259. (c) 260. (a) 261. (d) 262. (a) 263. (d) 264. (b) 265. (d)
266. (a) 267. (a) 268. (d) 269. (b) 270. (c) 271. (d) 272. (b) 273. (a) 274. (c) 275. (a)
276. (d) 277. (d) 278. (d) 279. (a) 280. (d) 281. (b) 282. (a) 283. (b) 284. (c) 285. (c)
286. (b) 287. (a) 288. (b) 289. (a) 290. (b) 291. (a) 292. (c) 293. (b) 294. (a) 295. (b)
296. (b) 297. (a) 298. (a) 299. (b) 300. (d) 301. (d) 302. (a) 303. (a) 304. (a) 305. (d)
306. (b) 307. (b) 308. (a) 309. (a) 310. (a) 311. (a) 312. (a) 313. (c) 314. (b) 315. (d)
316. (d) 317. (a) 318. (d) 319. (c) 320. (d) 321. (b) 322. (a) 323. (d) 324. (a) 325. (a)
 Metrology and Inspection 5.1

5
CHAPTER Metrology and Inspection
I N TERCH AN GEABI LI TY
When a syst em has been wor ked out , so t hat any one component will assemble cor r ect ly wit h any mat ing
component , bot h being chosen at r andom, t he met hod is called int er changeable syst em.

Concept of I nt er changeabi li t y
I t is ver y difficult t o manufact ur e any component or par t wit h exact dimensions due t o human inaccur acy or
machine or pr ocess incapabilit y. Thus for t he component s t o meet funct ional aspect as well as t o br ing down t he
cost of pr oduct ion, pr inciple of int er changeabilit y concept is int r oduced. I nt er changeable pr oduct ion means
pr oduct ion of par t s t o such a degr ee of accur acy t hat will ensur e an assembly which will meet t he funct ional
r equir ement s.

LI M I TS AN D FI TS
Advant ages
(1) Cost of t he assembly decr eases because of holes and shaft s can
be made at differ ent places wher e t he mat er ial and t he labour is
cheap.
(2) St andar dizat ion of hole and shaft is possible.
(3) Qualit y of pr oduct incr eases.
(4) maint enance of t he assemble becomes cheap and easy because
when eit her hole or shaft fail s one does not have t o t hr ough
away t he complet e assembly and t he failed par t s only needs t o
be r eplaced.

Si ze F ig. L imits and tolerances for hole and shaft

A number expr essing, in a par t icular unit , t he numer ical value of a lengt h.
Act ual size
I t is size of a par t as may be found by measur ement .
Limits of size
The t wo ext r eme per missible sizes bet ween which act ual size is cont ained.
M aximum limit of size
Gr eat er of t he t wo limit s of size is called maximum limit .
M inimum limit of size
Smaller of t he t wo limit s of size is called minimum limit .
Basic size
Basic size of component is fixed by t he designer fr om funct ional point of view. I t is ver y difficult t o achieve t his
size.
A lit t le var iat ion in t he basic size is r equir ed in pr oduct ion, which must be t oler able and is called t oler ance.
L imit s
L ar ger and smaller dimensions ar e called limit s, t her e being a high limit and a low limit .
Differ ence between high and low limits, is mar gin allowed for var iation in wor kmanship, and is called tolerance.
0.02
I f all the tolerance is allowed on one side of the nominal diameter  e. g. 25.00 0.00  , the system is called unilateral (uni

e
= one), while if it is divide, some being allowed on either side of the nominal diamet er e. g. 25.00 –0.
0.01
j
01 , t he syst em is
called bilateral (bi = two).
An int er changeable syst em is gener ablly called limit syst em or syst em of limit s and fit s.
A syst em of limit s must pr ovide infor mat ion fr om which most usual t ypes of engagement bet ween t wo mat ing
par t s may be obt ained.
 5.2 Metrology and Inspection
Allowances
An int ent ional differ ence bet ween t he hole dimension and shaft dimension for any t ype of fit is called allowance.
M aximum allowance is obt ained by subt r act ing minimum shaft size fr om t he lar gest hole size
M inimum allowance is obt ained by t he differ ence bet ween lar gest shaft size and t he smallest hole size.

FI TS
When t wo par t s ar e t o be assembled, t he r elat ion r esult ing fr om t he differ ence bet ween t heir sizes befor e
assembly is called a fit .
Basic size of a fit.
I t is t hat basic size which is common t o t wo par t s of a fit .
Var iat ion of fit .
This is t he ar it hmet ical sum of t oler ances of t wo mat ing par t s of fit .
Classificat ion of F it s
1. Depending on Act ual limits of hole or shaft
( i ) Clearance fit : I f lower limit of hole is lar ger t han the upper limit of shaft it is consider ed as clear ance fit.

( ii ) Transition fit : This t ype of fit appear s when t her e is over lap in t he t oler ance zones. Physically it
indicat es t hat when a par t is select ed r andomly fr om hole and a shaft lot , some of t he assemblies can be
made wit hout appliat ion of for ce and for some of t he assemblies for ce will be r equir ed.

( iii ) I nterference fit : I f maximum size of hole is smaller t han t he minimum size of shaft , t hen for ce has t o
be applied t o make t he assembly. Such fit s ar e called int er fer ence fit s.

2. Depending on value of clearance

To pr ovide t he var ious t ypes of engagement bet ween shaft and t he hole, t her e must be var iat ions in t he
differ ence bet ween t heir aver age sizes.
( i ) Running fit
A smoot h easy (but not loose) fit for t he pur pose of a moving bear ing pair.
Bet ween t he zones of int er fer ence and clear ance, t her e exist s a r ange of fit s which ar e neit her one nor
t he ot her (e.g. a ‘push’ fit ). These ar e called t r ansit ion fit s.
( ii ) Push fit
I t can be assembled wit h light hand-pr essur e (locat ing plugs, dowels, et c.).
To obt ain a for ce fit , shaft must be slight ly lar ger t han t he hole (int er fer ence fit ).
( iii )Dr iving or Press fit
I t can be assembled wit h hammer or by medium pr essur e. I t gives a semi-per manent fit such as is
necessar y for a keyed pulley on a shaft .
( iv) F orce fit
I t r equir es gr eat pr essur e t o assemble and gives a per manent fit . I t is used for wheels and hubs on shaft s
fr om which t hey ar e never likely t o be r emoved.
I n a r unning fit , t he shaft is slight ly less in diamet er t han t he hole (clear ance fit ).
T hese classification may be furt her subdivided by making such fit s as
(i ) Slack r un (ii ) Close r un (iii ) L ight dr ive (iv) H eavy dr ive et c.
 Metrology and Inspection 5.3

CLEARAN CE
I t is t he differ ence between t he sizes of the hole and shaft , befor e assembly, when this differ ence is posit ive.
M inimum and M aximum Clearance
I n a clear ance fit , minimum clear ance is t he differ ence bet ween minimum size of t he hole and maximum size of
t he shaft .
I n a t r ansit ion or clear ance fit , maximum clear ance is t he differ ence bet ween maximum size of t he hole and
minimum size of t he shaft .

I N TE RF E RE N CE
This is t he ar it hmet ical differ ence bet ween sizes of t he hole and shaft befor e assembly, when t his differ ence is
negat ive.
M inimum and M aximum I nt er fer ence
I n int er fer ence fit , t he minimum int er fer ence is ar it hmet ical differ ence bet ween maximum size of t he hole and
minimum size of t he shaft befor e assembly.

Fig. Disposition of maximum interference and minimum interference

I n int er fer ence or t r ansit ion fit , maximum int er fer ence is ar it hmet ical differ ence bet ween maximum size of t he
hole and maximum size of t he shaft befor e assembly.

DE V I ATI ON

I t is defined as algebr aic differ ence bet ween a size (act ual & maximum) and cor r esponding basic size.

U pper D eviat i on
I t is t he algebr aic differ ence bet ween maximum limit of size and cor r esponding basic size.

L ower D evi at i on
I t is t he algebr aic differ ence bet ween minimum limit of size and cor r esponding basic size.

F undament al D evi at ion

I t is one of the two deviations which is conventionally chosen to define position of tolerance zone in r elation to the
zero line.
 5.4 Metrology and Inspection

TOLERAN CE
Toler ance is equal t o algebr aic differ ence bet ween upper and lower deviat ions and has an absolut e value wit hout
sign. I n t he cont ext of t his t er minology for limit s and fit s, t he differ ence bet ween maximum limit of size and
minimum limit of size is called t oler ance.
I n t he figur e given below, toler ance etc. ar e shown too much exagger ated. I t is assur ed that shaft touches at the
bottom of hole and then ot her dimensions ar e consider ed. A line is assumed to be t her e in between upper
toler ance on shaft and lower toler ance on hole. This line is called zer o line. This also r efer s to basic size fr om axis
of the shaft or hole. All t oler ances and deviations ar e r efer r ed to fr om t his datum line.
Set t ing of t oler ance value alone is not sufficient t o define par t icular limit s, but posit ion of t he t oler ance zone
r elat ive t o t he basic size of t he feat ur e must also be specified.

Fig. Disposition of maximum clearance and minimum clearance

Tol er ance Zone

I n a gr aphical r epr esentation of toler ance, the zone bounded by two limit s of size of the par t is called toler ance
zone. I t is defined by its magnitude (i.e. toler ance) and by its posit ion in r elat ion to the zer o line.

Gr ades of Toler ance

I n a st andar dised syst em of limit s and fit s, gr oup of t oler ances ar e consider ed cor r esponding t o t he same level
of accur acy for all basic sizes.

St andar d Tol er ance

I t is a t oler ance belonging t o any one of t he st andar d gr ades.

St andar d Tol er ance U nit

A unit which is a funct ion of basic size and which is common to the for mula defining differ ent gr ades of toler ances.

U se of Limit s and Toler ances

I t ensur es t hat component s made in one fact or y may be assembled wit h mat ing par t s made in anot her and, by
eliminat ing necessit y for pr eliminar y t r ial of a fit . Par t s may be made and held in st ock unt il t hey ar e r equir ed.
The applicat ion of a syst em of limit s and fit is not confined t o cir cular holes and shaft s but may be applied t o any
set of condit ions wher e a par t icular t ype of fit is r equir ed. Ther efor e, it may be used for keys and keyways,
squar e and flat fit t ing combinat ions and similar applicat ions.

SH AF T
A term used by convention to designate all external features of a part, including those which are not cylindrical.
Basic Shaft
A shaft whose upper deviat ion is zer o, e.g. shaft h
Basic H ole
A hole whose lower deviat ion is zer o, e.g. hole H
Go Limit
I t r efer s t o upper limit of shaft and lower limit of a hole. Thus it cor r esponds t o maximum mat er ial condit ion.
 Metrology and Inspection 5.5

N o Go Limit
I t refers to the lower limit of a shaft and upper limit of a hole. Thus it corresponds to minimum material condition.
For shaft s a t o h , upper deviat ion is below t he zer o line and for shaft s j t o zc it is above t he zer o line.
For holes A t o H , lower deviat ion is above t he zer o line and for J t o zc it is below t he zer o line.
Upper deviat ion for shaft s is denot ed by es and lower deviat ion by ei . For holes t he cor r esponding deviat ions ar e
denot ed by ES and EI r espect ively.
I n t he specificat ions, for mulae ar e given t o det er mine fundament al deviat ion. e.g. for shaft s, fundament al
devi at i on (upper devi at i on es t o l ower devi at i on ei ) i s det er mi ned by means of for mul ae gi ven i n t he
Table below. Ot her deviat ions may be der ived dir ect ly using absolut e value of t he t oler ance I T by means of
algebr aic r elat ionship.
ei = es – I T
es = ei + I T
Formulae for fundamental deviations for shafts for sizes upto 500 mm :
Upper Deviation (es) Lower Deviation (ei)
Shaft In microns Shaft In microns
designation (for D in mm) designation (for D in mm)
a = – (265 + 1.3 D) for D  120 j 5 to 8 No formula

= – 3.5 D for D > 120 k 4 to k 8 = + 0.6 3

D
b = – (140 + 0.85 D) for D  160 k for grade  3 and  8 =0
= – 1.8D for D > 160
c = – 52 D0.2 for D  40 m = + (IT7 - IT6)
= – (95 + 0.8D) for D > 40 n = + 5D0.34
d = – 16D0.44 p = + IT7 + 0 to 5
r = geometric mean
of values ei
for p and s
e = – 11D0.41 s = IT8 + 1 to 4
for D  50
= + IT7 to + 0.4D
for D > 50
f = – 5.5 D0.41 t = IT7 + 0.63D
g = – 2.5 D0.34 u = + IT7 + D
v = + IT7 + 1.25D
h =0 x = + IT7 + 1.6D
y = + IT7 + 2D
z = + IT7 + 2.5D
za = IT8 + 3 + 3.15D
zb = + IT9 + 4D
zc = + IT10 + 5D
The deviat ion given in t he t able is t hat cor r esponding in pr inciple t o t he limit close t o t he zer o line, i.e., upper
deviat ion es for shaft s a t o h and lower deviat ion ei for shaft s j t o zc.
For holes also, deviat ions ar e der ived fr om t hose of t he cor r esponding shaft s as follows :
The gener al r ule is t hat , hole limit s ar e ident ical wit h t he shaft limit s of t he same symbol (let t er and gr ade) but
disposed on t he ot her side of t he zer o line, i.e upper deviat ion of hole, EI = es of shaft of t he same let t er symbol
but of opposit e sign.
I n t he hole basis syst em, differ ent clear ances and int er fer ences ar e obt ained by associat ing var ious shaft s wit h
a single hole whose lower deviat ion is zer o (H hole). This is st andar d pr act ice as it is ver y convenient t o make
cor r ect holes. I n shaft basis syst em, upper deviat ion of shaft is zer o.
 5.6 Metrology and Inspection
I n I .S. specificat ion, 18 gr ades of t oler ance ar e designat ed :
I T01, I T0, I T1 t o I T16.
These -ar e called standar d t olerances and t heir numer ical values have been det er mined in ter ms of t he st andar d
t oler ance unit i , expr essed as
i (micr ons) = 0.45 3 D + 0.001 D.
D = geometr ic mean of lower and upper diameter s of a particular diameter step in which diameter lies. (in mm).
This for mula has been empir ically calculat ed on t he basis of for mer nat ional st andar ds of ot her count r ies and
consider s t he fact t hat in most usual cases, t he t oler ance var ies mor e or less par abolically in t er ms of diamet er
for t he same manufact ur ing condit ions.
Relative magnitude of each grade
Gr ades I T5 I T6 I T7 I T8 I T9 I T10 I T11 I T12 I T13 I T14 I T15 I T16
Values 7i 10i 16i 25i 40i 64i 100i 160i 250i 400i 640i 1000i

Factors affecting magnitude of tolerance

(i ) Size : I t is accommodat ed by t he fundament al t oler ance limit
i = 0.45 D + 0.001D.
(ii ) Qualit y.

LI M I T SYSTE M
L imit s and allowance depend upon
(i ) Nominal size; e.g. whet her 25 mm, 100 mm, et c.
(ii ) Class of fit r equir ed
(iii ) Qualit y of pr oduct .

Basic of Fit (or Limit) System

A fit or limit syst em consist s of a ser ies of t oler ances ar r anged t o suit a specific r ange of sizes and funct ions, so
t hat limit s of size may be select ed and given t o mat ing component s t o ensur e specific classes of fit .
This syst em may be ar r anged on t he following basis :
1. H ole basis system
I n t his syst em, limit s on t he hole ar e kept const ant and t he var iat ions necessar y t o obt ain t he classes of fit
ar e ar r anged by var ying t hose on t he shaft .

‘s’ denotes shafts to give various fits with hole

2. Shaft basis syst em
I n t his syst em, limit s on t he shaft ar e kept const ant and var iat ions necessar y t o obt ain t he classes of fit ar e
ar r anged by var ying t he limit s on t he holes.
I n indust r ial pr act ice, hole basis syst em is used because many holes ar e pr oduced by st andar d t ooling, e.g.
r eamer s, dr ills et c., whose size is not adjust able. Subsequent ly t he shaft sizes ar e mor e r eadily var iable
about t he basic size by means of t ur ning or gr inding oper ations. Thus hole basis syst em r esults in consider able
r educt ion in r eamer s and ot her pr ecision t ools as compar ed t o a shaft basis syst em because in shaft basis
syst em due t o non-adjust able nat ur e of r eamer s, dr ill et c. gr eat var iet y (of sizes) of t hese t ools ar e r equir ed
for pr oducing differ ent classes of holes for one class of shaft for obt aining differ ent fit s.

‘H ’ denotes hole to give various fits with shafts

 Metrology and Inspection 5.7

I SO System
This syst em allows for 27 t ypes of fit and 18 gr ades of toler ance, cover ing a size r ange of 0 to 3150 mm.
I n t his system , holes ar e designated by capital letter s ABCDE... etc.,
and shaft ar e designat ed by small letter s cover ing the same r ange.
The 18 accur acy gr ades ar e cover ed by the numer als 01, 0, 1, 2, 3, .... 16.
For specifying any par t icular hole or shaft , t he r ule is t o wr it e t he let t er followed by t he numer al denot ing
t oler ance gr ade, e.g. H 8 for a hole and f6 for a shaft . A fit involving t hese t wo element s is wr it t en as H 8-f6
or H 8/f6.

LI N EAR AN D AN GU LAR M EASU REM EN T

M easur ing inst r ument ar e designed for :
(i ) L ine measur ement (for measur ing dist ance bet ween t wo lines) like st eel r ule et c.
(ii ) End measur ement (for measur ing dist ance bet ween t wo sur faces) like micr omet er scr ew gauge et c.
Classificat ion of M easur ing inst rument s
Depending on t he accur acy which can be at t end measur ing inst r ument s ar e classified as follows :
(i ) Non-pr ecision inst r ument s
(ii ) Pr ecision inst r ument s.
L ine gr aduat ed measur ing I nst rument s
These incor por at e gr aduat ion spacing r epr esent ing known dist ance. These ar e used for dir ect measur ement of
specific dist ance wit hin t heir capacit y r ange.
These ar e used in a gr eat var iet y of measur ing inst r ument s.
Types of L ine graduat ed mesuring inst rument s
( i ) L ine graduat ed rules and t apes
These ar e used for dir ect lengt h compar ison and t hey have no auxilar y device.
( ii ) L ine gr aduat ed bar st andar ds

CAL L I PE RS
For t he par t s which can’t be measur ed dir ect ly wit h the scale, the assist ance of calliper s is essent ial. Thus, it act
as accessor ies t o scale. The calliper consist s of t wo legs hinged at t op, and ends of legs-span t he par t t oo be
inspect ed. This span is maint ained and t r ansfer r ed t o t he scale.
Classificat ion of Calliper s
(i ) Fir m joint calliper
(ii ) Fir m joint divider
(iii )Spr ing calliper
Ot her classificat ion of Calliper s
(i ) Out side calliper
(ii ) I nside calliper
(iii )Tr ansfer calliper
(iv) H ermo phrodite calliperrs : I t is also calle old leg calliper and is a main t ool consist ing of one divider and
one calliper leg. Thus it is used in layout wor k.
I t can have t wo t ypes of legs :
(a) Not ched legs
(b) Cur ved legs.
D ial calliper.
These pr ovide a t ypical dir ect - r eading capabilit y of 0.02 mm. These unit ar e quit e flexible offer ing a t ypical
measur ement r ange of 150 mm wit h accessor ies available for r ange ext ension as well as specific measur ement
accessor ies.

SU RFACE PLATE
I t pr ovide dat um or r efer ence sur face for measur ement . Sur face plat e t er ms t he basis of measur ement and is a
must for met r ology labor at or y wher e inspect ion wor k is car r ied out . I t is also used t o check flat ness of anot her
sur face.
 5.8 Metrology and Inspection

Angle Plate
This is an accessor y needed wit h sur face plat e for measur ement pur poses. I t 's t wo sur faces ar e per pendicular t o
each ot her. I t is available in var ious designs.
Cast ir on angle plat es ar e widely used for wor kshop and inspect ion pur pose.
Angle plat e ar e available in t wo gr ades depending upon t heir accur acy
( i ) Grade 1 angle plates
These ar e of size 3 t o 6 when not finished on t heir int er ior faces ar e webbed.
( ii ) Grade 2 angle
These plat es may or may not be webbed.

V-BL OCK
These ar e widely used for wor kshop and inspect ion pur pose for checking out r oundness of t he cylinder ical
wor kpieces and for mar king cent r es accur at ely et c. Gener ally t he angle of V is 90 and t hese ar e available in
wide var iet y of shapes. I n case of V-Block, t he wor king sur faces ar e flanks of vees, base and face, t op and side
faces.
Depending upon accur acy, V-blocks specifies int o t wo gr ades :
(i ) Gr ade A (ii ) Gr ade B.
Two t ype of V-block commonly used one of t hem being deeper and wider t han t he ot her.

L ar ger vee block having one vee only for special pur pose such as checking t r iangle effect s or t aps and ot her
t hr ee-flut ed t ools, 120 degr ee include angle vee -blocks ar e also available t o hold cylindr ical pieces.

STRAI GH T EDGE
These ar e used for checking st r aight ness and flat ness of par t s in conjuct ion wit h t he sur face plat es and spir it
level. These may be made of st eel or cast -ir on. I t is widely used for t est ing machine t ool slide ways. They ar e
heavily gibbed and bow shaped t o pr event dist or t ion.

Types of Str aight Edges

(i ) Tool-maker ’s st r aight edge (ii ) Wide-edge st r aight edge
(iii ) Angle st r aight edge (iv) Box st r aight edge
Tolerance in flatness : I t is defined as maximum per missible dist ance separ at ing t wo imaginar y par allel
planes, wit hin which t he sur face under consider at ion can just be enclosed.
Tolerance in squareness : I t is defined as maximum per missible dist ance separ at ing t wo imaginar y par allel
planes, wit hin which t he sur face under consider at ion can just be enclosed.

SPI RI T LEV ELS

These ar e used for measur ing small angle of inclination and also enable t he position of a sur face to be det er mined
wit h r espect t o t he hor izont al.
A spir it level consist s of a sealed glass t ube, gr ound on it s inside sur face t o a convex for m wit h a lar ge r adius of
cur vat ur e R. A scale is engr aved on t he glass at t he t op of t he t ube. The t ube is near ly filled wit h et her such t hat
only a small volume r emains at t he t op par t of t hese t ube, which cont ains et her vapour s in t he for m of a bubble.

FRAM E LEVEL
I t is used for checking ver t ical sur faces.
Side edges of t he fr ame level ar e made st r ict ly squar e wit h t he base. A glass t ube filled wit h et her is mount ed in
t he base. For checking ver t ical sur faces, side edge of t he fr ame level is placed int o exact cont act wit h t he
sur face and r eading of t he bubble not ed down. Posit ion of t he fr ame level in t r ansver se dir ect ion is checked by
anot her less accur at e t ube.
 Metrology and Inspection 5.9

Principle B
l
B

Glass tube is set in t he base adjusted in such a way that when base is hor izont al,
bubble r ests at the centr e of the scale, which is engr aved on the glass. When base R
A

of the level is moved out of the hor izont al, then bubble tr ies t o r emain at t he 
highest point of the tube and t hus moves along t he scale. h

Relat ions bet ween movement of bubble and ot her condit ions : O L A
L et B be t he t op of t he t ube r adius and posit ion of t he bubble when base is at OA (hor izont al). I f base is t ilt ed
t hr ough an angle  and base occupies posit ion OA ', t hen bubble will move t hr ough dist ance L t o B ',
wher e angle BOB ' = 
ar c (l ) = .R  l = R
h
h = L .   =
L
R. h
 l =
L
R.
I f is t aken is seconds, t hen l = (one r adian equals 206,365 seconds of an ar c)
206,265
Scale spacing or t he dist ance bet ween adjacent gr aduat ion is gener ally about 2mm.
2206,265
Thus, for R = 206 m,  = = 2 sec
206,000
The inclinat ion of 2" causes bubble movement of 2 mm. This is sensit ive spir it level and is r ecommended for
r esear ch labor at or y.

U N I VERSAL SU RFACE GAU GE

This is most ver sat ile inst r ument used in non-pr ecision measur ement . I t is gener ally used wit h sur face plat e
for layout wor k and inspect ion.
M any t ime sur face gauge is ver y successfully used for cent r ing t he wor k at lat he. I t is capable of pr ecision
measur ement also when used in conjuct ion wit h dial indicat or.

FEELER GAU GE
These ar e used t o measur e widt h of t he gap bet ween t wo par allel flat faces
e.g. in gauging of t he clear ance bet ween pist on and cylinder.
I t consist of a nar r ow st r ip of sheet made t o a given t hickness. The complet e set consist s of a number of gauging
blade of differ ent t hickness assembled t oget her. Their wor king depends ent ir ely on t he sense of feel. The feeler
blade should neit her be for ced bet ween sur faces nor should it slide fr eely r at her t he cor r ect blade will give a
char act er ist ic gauge bit t ype of feel. I t is necessar y t hat , t wo blades should be joined t oget her for not ing any
dimension.
Feeler gauge gener ally compr ise of a ser ies of gauging blades of differ ent gr ades and t hicknesses var ying fr om
0.03 t o 1 mm assembled in pr ot ect ive shealt h.
M aximum var iat ion wit h t hickness of blade should not exceed
0.04 mm per blades upt o and including 0.3 mm t hick
0.006 mm for blades over 0.3 mm in t hickness.

AN GLE GAU GE
These ar e similar t o feeler gauges. A set of angle gauge consist of 18 blades wit h t heir ends cut at var ious angle
fr om 2 t o 45 degr ee.
Angle gauge or angle t emplat e as shown in t he figur e is pieces of gauge st eel 10°38 
43° 28
33°
which have been accur at ely for med t o t he angle engr aved on t hem. These ar e
used by fit t ing t hem in t ur n on t he piece t o be gauged, unt il it is found t hat fit s
per fect ly. The fit t ing is judged by holding wor k and gauge in fr ont of a light and
obser ving if any light is visible bet ween gauge and wor k. Since a gap of 0.025
mm is easily seen, t his met hod is limit ed as r egar ds accur acy mainly by accur acy
of t he gauges t hemselves and ext ent of t he r ange of angles r epr esent ed.
5.10 Metrology and Inspection

VERN I ER I N STRU M EN TS
Principle of vernier : When t wo scales or division slight ly differ ent in size ar e used, t hen differ ence bet ween
t hem can be ut ilised t o enhance t he accur acy of measur ement .

Ver nier Calliper

I t essent ially consist of two st eel r ules and these can slide along each other. One of the scale, i.e. main scale is
engr aved on a solid L-shaped fr ame. On this scale on gr aduation ar e divided into 20 par ts so that one small division
equals 0.05 cm. One end of the fr ame contains a fixed jaw which is shaped into a contact tip at its extr emity.

Reading of Ver nier Scale

To under st and t he wor king of ver nier scale, assume t hat each small division of t he main scale is 0.025 unit s.
The ver nier scale cont ains 25 divisions and t hese coincide exact ly wit h 24 divisions of main scale.
1 1
So, one ver nier division = of 24 scale division, i.e. 24  0.025 = 0.024 unit s.
25 25
Therefor e, difference between one main scale small division and one ver nier division (least count of the instr ument)
equals 0.025 – 0.024, i.e. 0.001 unit s, i.e., if zer o of main scale and zer o of ver nier coincide, t hen fir st ver nier
division will r ead 0.001 unit less t han t he 1 small scale division.
I f zer o ver nier scale lies in bet ween t wo small divisions on main scale, it s exact value can be judged by seeing
as t o which ver nier division is coinciding wit h main scale division.
Thus r ead a measur ement fr om a ver nier calliper, note the units,
t en t h an d f or t een t h w h i ch t h e zer o on t h e v er n i er
has moved for m t he zer o on t he main scale.
Not e down t he ver nier division which coincides wit h a scale division and add t o pr evious r eading t he number of
t housands of a unit indicat ed by t he ver nier divisions
e.g. r eading in t he scale shown in t he figur e is : 3 unit s + 0.1 unit + 0.075 + 0.008 = 3.183 unit s.
When using ver nier calliper for inter nal measur ements, width of the measur ing jaws must be taken into account.
Ver nier H eight Gauge
This is also a sor t of ver nier calliper, equipped wit h a special base block and ot her at t achment s which make t he
inst r ument suit able for height measur ement . The ver nier height gauge is mainly used in t he inspect ion of par t s
and layout wor k.
Speci fi cat i on
Ver nier height gauge is specified by specifying
(i ) Range of measur ement (ii ) Type of scales desir ed
(iii ) Any par t icular r equir ement in r egar d t o t he t ype of ver nier desir ed.
Gener ally all par ts of the height gauges ar e made of good qualify steel, or stainless steel also in cer tain cases.
Test for Accur acy
Er r or s in t he r eading at any por t ion which for measur ing r ange of height gauge should not exceed
± 0.02 mm for measur ing r ange of height gange of 250 mm
± 0.04 mm for above 250 mm and upt o 750 mm
± 0.05 mm for r ange of mor e t han 750 mm.
Ver nier Dept h Gauge
I t is used for measur ing dept h of holes, r ecesses and dist ances fr om a plane sur face t o pr oject ion. I n t his
gr aduat ed scale can be slide t hr ough t he base and ver nier scale r emains fixed.
 Metrology and Inspection 5.11

M I CROM ETERS
M icrometer Screw Gauge
I t essent ially consist of an accur at e scr ew having about 10 t o 20 t hr ead per cm and r evolves in a fixed nut . End
of t he scr ew for ms t one measur ing t ips and ot her measur ing t ip is const it ut ed by a st at ionar y anvil in t he base
of t he fr ame.
The scr ew is t hr eaded for cer t ain lengt h, t his por t ion is called sleeve and it s end is t he measur ing sur face. The
spindle is advanced or r efr act ed by t ur ning a t himble connect ed t o spindle. The spindle is slide fit over the bar rel
an d bar r el i s t he f i xed par t at t ached wi t h t h e fr ame. Th e bar r el i s gr aduat ed i n u ni t of 0.05 cm ,
i.e. 20 division per cm, which is lead of t he scr ew for one complet e r evolut ion.
The t himble has got 25 devisions ar ound it s per ipher y on cir cular por t ion. Thus it sub-divides each r evolut ion of
t he scr ew in 25 equal par t s i.e. each division cor r esponds t o 0.002 cm.
A lock nut is pr ovided for locking a dimensions by pr event ing mot ion of t he spindle.

Rat chet st op is pr ovided at t he end of t himble cap maint ain sufficient and unifor m mesur ing pr essur e so t hat
st andar d condit ion of measur ement ar e at t ained. Rat chet st op consist of an over iding clut ch held by a weak
spr ing. When spindle is br ought in cont act wit h t he wor k at t he cor r ect pr essur e, t he clut ch st ar t slipping and
no fur t her movement of t he spindle t akes palce by r ot at ion of r at chet . I n t he backwar d movement , it is posit ive
due t o shape of r at chet .
Backlash : I t is lack of mot ion of t he spindle when r ot at ion of t himble is changed in dir ect ion.
M easuring range : I t is t ot al t r avel of t he measur ing spindle for a given micr omet er.
Total error : I t cor r esponds t o t he maximum differ ence of or dinat es of t he cummulat ive er r or.

Cummulat ive E r r or
I t is t he deviat ion of measur ement fr om t he nominal dimension det er mined at any opt imal point of measur ing
r ange. I t includes effect of all possible individual er r or s such as er r or s of t hr ead, er r or of measur ing faces et c. I t
can be det er mined by some t est wit h slip gauge.
When t est ed of 20°C, t ot al er r or should not exceed following values :
FG 4  L IJ m
For gr ade 1, t ot al er r or =
H 100 K
For gr ade 2, t ot al er r or =
FG10  L IJ m
H 50 K
wher e L = upper limit of t he measur ing r ange in mm.

Reading of M icr omet er

I n or der t o make possible t o r ead upt o 0.0001 inch in micr omet er scr ew gauge,
a ver nier scale is gener ally made on t he bar r el. The ver nier scale has t wo
st r aight lines on bar r el and t hese coincides wit h exact division on t he t himble.
Thus one small division on t himble is fur t her subdivided int o 10 par t s and for
t aking r eading one has t o see which of the ver nier scale division coincides wit h
a division of t he t himble.
Accor dingly r eading for a given ar r angement on
main bar r el : 0.120"
thumble : 0.014"
ver nier scale : 0.0001"
 Tot al r eading = 0.1342"
Befor e t aking r eadings, anvil and spindle must be br ought toget her car efully and init ial r eading not ed down. I t s
caliber at ion must be checked by using st andar d gauge block.
5.12 Metrology and Inspection
I n metric micr ometer, pitch of scr ew thr ead is 0.5 mm, so t hat one r evolution of
the scr ew moves it axially by 0.5 mm. Main scale on bar r el has least divisions of
0.5 mm. The thimble has 50 divisions on its cir cumfer ence.
0.5
 One division on t he t himble = mm = 0.01 mm
50
I f vernier scale is also incorporated, then subdivisions of thimble can be estimated upto an accuracy of 0.001 mm.
Reading of micr omet er in above figur e is
3.5 mm on bar r el and 7 divisions on t himble = 3.5 + 7 × 0.01 = 3.57
St ick M i cr omet er
I t is designed for measur ement of longer int er nal lengt h. I t s accur acy is of t he or der of ± 0.005 mm t hr oughout
t he r ange.

M icr omet er D ept h Gauge

I t is used for measur ing dept h of holes slot s and r ecessed ar ea. The lengt h of micr omet er dept h gauge var ies
fr om 0 t o 255 mm.
The scale her e is caliber at ed in t he r ever se dir ect ion. The accur acy again depend upon sense of t ouch.

T hr ead M i cr omet er
I t is used for t he measur ement of pit ch diamet er but accur acy is influenced by helix angle of t he t hr ead.

Scr ew T hr ead M icr omet er Calliper

I t is used for accur at e measur ement of t he pit ch diamet er of scr ew t hr eads.

Out side M icr omet er Calliper

I t is designed for fast , easy and pr ecise measur ment of lar ge wor k having dimension above 250 mm.

V-Anvil M icr omet er Calliper

Any out of r oundness can be quickly checked in centr eless gr inding and machining oper ation. Dir ect r eading
eliminates use of special featur es. I t can be used for measur ing odd-flut ed taps, milling cutter s, reamer s etc.

Blade Type M icr omet er

I t is ideally suit ed for fast and accur at e measur ement of cir cular for med t ools, diamet er and dept h of all t ypes of
nar r ow gr ooves, slot s, keyways, r ecesses et c. I t has non-r ot at ing spindle which advances t o cont act t he wor k
wit hout r ot at ion.

M icr omet er for M easur ing T hickness of Cylinder Wall

Or dinar y micr omet er can not be used for measur ing t hickness of wall of a t ube, sleeve or bush because of
concavit y of the inter nal sur face. The micr ometer s meant for t his pur pose, fixed anvil is pr ovided wit h a spher ical
measur ing sur face and fr ame is cut away on t he out side t o per mit t he anvil being int r oduced int o t ubes of
diamet er as small as 7.5 mm.
I n anot her design, anvil is made of cylindr ical for m, it s axis being per pendicular t o t he axis of t he spindle.

Gr oove M i cr omet er
These micr omet er s ar e designed for measur ing gr ooves, r ecesses and shoulder s locat ed inside a bor e. These
have st andar d (12.7 mm) diamet er disc 6.35 mm diamet er discs ar e used t o r each har d t o get at locat ion inside
small bor e.
All disc, having t hicknesses of 0.75 mm and ar e har dened and lapped t o minimise par allax and t o achieve a
higher degr ee of accur acy.
These gr oove micr omet er measur e not only t hickness and spacing of gr ooves' but also measur e fr om an edge t o
a land or fr om shoulder t o gr oove. M icr omet er s ar e sat in-chr ome finished t hr oughout .
Appl i cat i ons

(a ) Outside measurement (b) I nside measurement (c) Edge to Edge measurement

(add 1.5 mm to Reading) (add 0.75 mm to Reading)
 Metrology and Inspection 5.13

(d) Edge to Edge measurement (e) Edge to Edge measurement with (f) Edge to Edge measurement with
(add 0.75 mm to Reading) locating disc. locating disc.
(add 1.5 mm to Reading) (Add 0.75 mm to Reading)

Digital M icrometer
These offer direct reading to 0.0001 mm. and employ liquid display operating on a alkaline manganese batter y.

Differential Screw M icrometer

A ver y high degr ee of accur acy can be obt ained in t he micr omet er scr ew gauges ut ilising t he pr incipl e of
differ ent ial scr ew on t he oper at ing spindle. I n such micr omet er, t he scr ew has t wo t ypes of pit ch one smaller
and one lar ger.

CYLI N DER GAU GE

The cylinder gauge is ideal gauge for deter mining t aper ing, out of r ound or scor ed cylinder. Dial indicator shows
inst antly condit ion of cylinder to two t housandth of a cm. Adjustable r ods ar e fur nished to make it mor e ver satile.
The dial is mounted at r ight angles to the sled. Sled has two line cont act points which ar e at all times in alignment
wit h the walls of the cylinder. Two har dened contacts points, which ar e independently cause the needle to tr avel
over the dial featur e a unique double spr ing action making the gauge self centr ing and obsoletely non-collapsible.
Handles of var ious for ms and locking mechanism ar e also pr ovided.
I n case of deep bor es, i.e. cylinder of int er nal combust ion engines, st eam engine et c, it is fr equent ly necessar y
not only t o measur e diamet er at a given dept h but also t o check t he hole
(i ) cylindr ical shape
(ii ) t aper effect .

F ollowing I nstr ument s are M ainly U sed for T his Pur pose
K eilpar t Gauge
This is a commer cial gauge and it s oper at ion is just similar t o t he gauge descr ibed aboved. I t consi st s of one
measur ing head and one movable measur ing head. The movement of movable measur ing r od is t r ansmit t ed t o
dial indicat or by push r od t hr ough a spr ing act uat ed hinged member. Thus hor izont al movement of t he r od is
t r ansmit t ed int o ver t ical dir ect ion and diamet er indicat or gives indicat ion of var iat ion of size.
Aut omobile Cylinder Bor e Gauge
This is another commer cially used gauge for estimating quickly the wear in automobile cylinder s. I t consists of
ser ies of steel balls ar r anged in cir cular holder. These balls come in contact with t he sur face of the cylinder.
This t ype of gauge will not measur e ovalit y or det ect sur face imper fect ions but it gives mean diamet er at t he
plane of t he measur ement . I t can be r eadily used t o indicat e t aper ed cylinder bor e.
Telescope int er nal gauge is used for measur ing int er nal diamet er dur ing machining oper at ion.
Ball Type Plug Gauge
These ar e used for measur ement of diamet er of bor es. These also det ect s ovaling t aper effect and also indicat e
sur face finish. This gauge is based on t he pr inciple of t hr ee equally spaced balls of same size which ar e moved
out war d by spr ing loaded cone.
Taper Par allel Gauges
These ar e used for measur ement of diamet er of ver y small hole which ar e t oo small t o per mit t he ent r y of
int er nal micr omet er.
Pin Gauge
The diamet er of lar ge bor es which cannot easily measur ed by micr omet er or ver nier et c. can be measur ed by
means of a bar wit h spher ical ends, t he lengt h of which is slight ly less t han t he diamet er t o be measur ed. The
bar is placed in t he bor e wit h it s ends in cont act wit h t he bor e sur face, it s axis t hus being a chor d of t he cir cle.
K eeping one end in cont act wit h t he bor e sur face, ot her end is br ought t o make cont act at ot her side.
Two posit ions ar e shown by full and dot t ed lines, t he dist ance bet ween t wo point s of cont act is measur ed and
fr om t his dimension, and t he lengt h of t he pin gauge diamet er on t he bor e is det er mined.
 5.14 Metrology and Inspection

B is cent r e of t he dot t ed cir cle along which fr ee end of t he gauge moves. AB is diamet er D.
BP1 and BP2 r epr esent t wo posit ion of bar of lengt h L .
By pr oper t y of int er sect ion, BP × PA = P1P × PP2 = l 2
Since BP2 = BP12 – P1P2 = L 2 – l 2
 BP = L2  l 2
l2
 PA =
L2  l 2
1
l2 F l I
2
= L  G1 

2 F l2 I
L2  l 2 
H L JK GH JK
D = BP + PA =  L 1
2
L2  l 2 2L2
l2
 D  L+
2L
D D F
2
 L = l  l  1 – l L
I
 Er r or in D, D =
l
 l 
L L GH
2L JK
FG l IJ of t he er r or in t he measur ement of l.
H ence, er r or in t he diamet er is only a small fr act ion
HLK
SLI P GAU GE
These ar e in the for m of r ectangular pr isms, ver y accur ately made in var ying lengths. They ar e made of har dened
st eel having flat par allel sur face. These ar e called gauge block . Their specific use is in t est ing t he lengt h of a
finished component .

Gr ade of Slipgauge
Bur eau of I ndian St andar d for slip gauges specifies t hr ee gr ades of slip gauges :
( i ) Grade I : These ar e used for pr ecise wor k, such as t hat car r ied out in a good class r oom. Typical uses
include set t ing up sine bar s and sine t ables, checking gap gauges and set t ing dial t est indicat or s t o zer o.
( ii ) Grade I I : This is t he wor kshop gr ade. Typical use include set t ing up machine t ools, posit ioning milling
cut t er s and checking mechanical widt h.
I t is int ended for use in sur face gauge. I t is also called height t r ansfer gauge. I t is used t o check accur acy
or par al leli sm of sur face, and t o t r ansfer measur ement in l ayout wor k by scr ibing t hem on a ver t i cal
sur face.
( iii )Grade 0 : These ar e commonly called inspect ion gr ade and it s use confined t o t ool r oom or machine shop
inspect ion.
Grade 00 : These ar e kept for wor k of highest pr ecision only.
Caliberation grade. This is a special gr ade, wit h act ual size of t he slips st at ed or caliber at ed on a special char t
supplied wit h t he set .
Examples of maximum permissible error in mean length of gauge at 20 °C:

N omi na l Gr ade 0 mi cr on Gra de I m icron Gr a de I I mi cr on

10 0.02 0.10 0.35
20 0.04 0.15 0.45
30 0.10 0.30 0.75
100 0.20 0.50 1.20
 Metrology and Inspection 5.15

OPTI CAL M ETH ODS

Advantages.
(i ) Simplicity (ii ) Non-cont act measur ement s
(iii ) Ver satility (iv) Cost effect iveness
(v) Feasible solut ions.

Optical I nstruments for Angular M easurement

1. Aut o coll imat or :
Thi s i s an opt i cal i nst r ument used for measur ement of smal l angul ar di ffer ence. For smal l angul ar
measur ement , aut ocollimat or pr ovides a ver y sensit ive and accur at e appr oach. Aut ocollimat or is essent ially
infinit y t elescope and collimat or combined int o one inst r ument .
Pr inciple of wor king :
O is a point sour ce of light placed at pr inciple focus of a collimat ing lens. The r ay of light fr om O incident on
t he lens will now t r avel as a par allel beam of light . I f t his beam now st r ikes a plane r eflect or which is nor mal
t o t he opt ical axis, it will be r eflect ed back along it s own pat h and focused at t he same point O. I f plane
r eflect or be now t ilt ed t hr ough a small angle , t hen par allel beam will be deflect ed t hr ough t wice t his angle,
and will be br ought t o focus at  in t he same plane at a dist ance x fr om O.
Obviously OO' = x = 2 f
wher e f = focal lengt h of t he lens.

For high sensitivity, i.e. for lar ge value of x for a small angular deviation , a long focal lengt h is r equir ed.
F act or s gover ning specificat ion of Aut ocollimat or
( i ) F ocal lengt h.
I t det er mines basic sensit ivity and angular r ange. Longer the focal length, lar ger is t he linear displacement
for a given r eflect or t ilt but maximum r eflect t ilt which can be accommodat ed is consequent ly r educed.
Sensit ivit y is t her efor e t r aded against measur ing r ange.
( ii ) Effect ive apert ur e.
The maximum separ at ion bet ween r eflect or and aut ocollimat or or wor king dist ance, is gover ned by
effect ive aper t ur e of t he object ive and angular measur ing r ange of t he inst r ument becomes r educed at
long wor king dist ance. I ncr easing maximum wor king dist ance by t he effect ive aper t ur e t hen demands a
lar ger r eflect or for sat isfact or y image cont r ast .
Aut ocollimat or design t hus involves many conflict ing cr it er ia and for t his r eason a r ange of inst r ument is
r equir ed t o opt ically cover ever y applicat ion.
Air cur r ent in t he opt ical pat h bet ween aut ocollimat or and t he t ar get mir r or cause fluct uat ion in t he r eading
obt ained. The effect is mor e pr onounced as dist ance fr om aut collimat or t o t ar get mir r or incr eases. Also er r or
may occur due t o er r or s in flat ness and r eflect ivt iy of t he t ar get mir r or which should be of high qualit y.
2. Angle dekkor.
I t is a t ype of collimat or which car r ies t wo scales :
(i ) Fixed hor izont al scale : I t can be always seen t hr ough t he eyepiece
(ii ) I lluminat ed ver t ical scale : I t is focussed on hor izont al scale
The t wo scale ar e mut ually at 90° t o each ot her and t hese dir ect ly measur es angular deviat ions. I t is also
possible t o view t he r eflect ion fr om t wo or mor e sur faces simult aneously, t hr ough t he eyepiece. I n or der t o
compar e t hem, scale of t he inst r ument ar e so caliber at ed t hat each small division of bot h scale r epr esent s an
angl e of one minut e. The t wo r eadi ng of t he scal es at t he point of t heir int er sect ion r epr esent r elat ive
angular posit ion of t he sur face being t est ed.
 5.16 Metrology and Inspection

FOCU SSI N G TELESCOPE

I t is also called micro-alignment t elescope. I t is an impor t ant and power ful opt ical inst r ument used t o check and
ensur e geomet r ical int egr it y of component and t heir assembly.
I t is based on t he concept s of geomet r ic opt ics and is simple and st r aight for war d t o use.
M icr o-alignment t elescope is used t o measur e deviat ion fr om st r aight line of sight t o set and check alignment ,
squar eness, st r aight ness, flat ness, par allelism, ver t icaling and level.
M icrot elescope is used t o r ead dir ectly t o scale and is able t o focus down t o zer o dist ance fr om t he fr ont object ive.
Pr imar y opt ical axis is concent r ic wit h par allel t o t he out side of t he t ube t o wit hin 6.4 µm and 3 seconds ar e
r espect ivley. The t ube it self is cylindr ical t o wit hin 5µm.
I n pr act ice set t ing accur acy achieved is 50 µm at a dist ance of 30 met r es ar e pr opor t ionally for longer and
shor t er dist ances down t o 3 met r es.

I N T E RF E RROM E T RY
I n engineer ing applicat ion, wavelengt hs of light s ar e used for ext r emely accur at e measur ement s of sur face
flat ness, slip gauge and ot her end gauges. These light waves have wavelengt hs of t he or der of 0.000375 t o
0.000675 mm and by est imat ion of widt h of light s int er fer ence bands, measur ement t o wit hin 0.000025 or
0.00005 mm ar e possible.
I nt er fer ence met hods ar e suit able for det er mining absolut e size of caliber at ion and r efer ance gr ade gauge I .

Gauge Requir ement s

(i ) Flat end faces must be flat and par allel t o each ot her.
(ii ) They must have high degr ee of sur face finish.
(iii ) Act ual size must agr ee wit h it s nominal size t o wit hin a ver y small t oler ance.
(iv) Edges must be pr oper ly r ounded off and debur r ed.

I nt er fer r omet er s
The int er fer r omet er is suit able for measur ing set s of slip gauge upt o 100 mm.

Type of I nt er fer r omet er s

( i ) N PL-H ilger gauge interferrometer : Among t hem most pr ominent is NPL -H I L GER gauge int er fer r ometer.
I n the design of this inter fer r ometer, batches of upto 20 gauge of differ ent size setup ar e used for measur ement
in oper at ion.
(ii )Laser interferrometer : I t is used t o check and caliber at e machine t ool for var ious geomet r ic feat ur e
dur ing assembly. Bet t er accur acy t han gages or indicat or s. I t is also used t o aut omat ically compensat e for
posit ioning er r or s in coor dinat e measur ing machined and Comput er Numer ical Cont r ol machines.

ST RAI GH T N E SSS
I t is defined as deviat ion of sur fae fr omidealst r aight line.
M easur ement of St r aight ness
At may places it is r equir ed t hat t he sur face must be per fect ly st r aight ,
e.g. in a lat he it is desir ed t hat t ool must move in st r aight pat h t o gener at e per fect cylinder and it is possible
only when t he cont r olling guideways ar e t hemselves st r aight .
Also st r aight line or plane is t he basis of measur ement in most met hods.
St r aight ness can be measur ed in following t hr ee ways :
( i ) Straight edge : I t is a piece of block of which one sur face is exact ly st r aight . By keeping t his sur face on t he
machine par t under invest igat ion, t he amount of light coming fr om t he ot her side is being obser ved. I f ver y
small amount of light is coming fr om t he int er face, it means measur ed sur face is st r aight .
( ii ) Spirit level : Sur face under examinat ion is divided int o number of segment s equal t o t he size of spir it
level. Spir it level is t her e kept fr om one segment t o anot her and posit ion of bubble in it is not ed down. The
deviat ions of bubble for m t he cent er posit ion ar e r ecor ded. Spir it is used in it due t o it s low viscosit y.
 Metrology and Inspection 5.17
(iii ) Autocollimator : As shown in t he figur e below, r eflect or of aut ocollimat or is moved on t he sur face and
deviat ions  ar e ar e r ecor ded in t er ms of S = 2f . H ence char act er ist ic can be plot t ed on t he paper. By
joining fir st and last point , a st r aight line can be for med and deviat ions of t he sur face fr om t his ideal
st r aight line can be not ed down.

Fig. Autocollimat or

FLATN ESS
Flat ness is defined as t he depar t ur e of sur face fr om ideal flat sur face. I nit ially
aut ocollimat or or spir it level is moved along t hr ee differ ent dir ect ions AB, BC
and CA as shown in t he figur e. These movement s will have t hr ee r efer ence
point s A, B and C for ident it y. Thr ough t hese point s a plane can be defined. Now
aut ocollimat or move pr act ically in all t he possible dir ect ions and char act er ist ic
F ig. M ovem en t of a u to-
of sur face is not ed down. The deviation of sur face fr om t he r efer ence plane is
c o l l i m a t o r o v e r su r f a c e
called flatness.

F lat ness Test ing

Simplest for m of flat ness t est ing is possible by compar ing t he sur face wit h an accur at e sur face.
M at hemat ically, flat ness er r or of t he sur face st at es t hat depar t ur e fr om flat ness is minimum separ at ion of pair
of par allel planes which will be in just cont act all point s on t he sur face.
Flat ness deviat ion (er r or s of flat ness) ar e indicat ed as follows :
(i ) µ or mm per met r e when convexit ies ar e allowed as well as concavit ies.
(ii ) Concave t o .....µ or mm, when bet ween t he ends, only concave sur face ar e allowed.
(iii ) Convex t o .... or mm, when bet ween t he ends, only convex sur faces ar e allowed.
Flat ness of sur face can be t est ed by
(i ) Sur face plat e (ii ) Optical flats (iii ) Pr ecision level
(iv) aut ocol limet er (v) I nt er fer r omet er s (vi ) Beam compar at or.
Deviat ion of lar ge sur face such as sur faces t able or machine t able fr om t he t r ue plane may be det er mined by t he
use of eit her a spr it level or an aut ocollimat or.

SQU ARE N E SS
Squar eness Test ing
Squar ness of sur face can be t est ed by following means :
( i ) Square tester : Engineer s t r y squar e aut ocollimet er and some specially designed for t he pur pose, called
square tester.
( ii ) I ndicator method : This met hod is suit able for checking t he squar eness of block whose opposit e faces ar e
supposed to par allel. I t is assumed that squar eness of t he block has alr eady been assur ed to r easonable accur acy
by t he use of squar e et c. as ot her wise full sensit ivit y of t he met hod can’t be obt ained. The inst r ument for t his
pur pose is designed by N.P.L . and is ver y suit able for checking squar eness while manufact ur ing a squar eblock.
The inst r ument consist of par allel st r ip (fr ame wor k) and a flat base a knife edge and some ot her for m of
indicat or is mount ed on t he fr ame wor k.

Cor r ect ion of Squar eness E r r or

The pur pose of det er mining er r or in squar eness of a wor kpiece is t hat it may be cor r ect ed, ot her wise knowing
t he er r or will not be of much value.
Assume t hat t wo r eading obt ained denot ed pr eviously ar e l 1 and l 2 and dist ance bet ween cont act point is l . L et
lengt h of t he squar e block AD be L .
l1  l 2 L
Then er r or in squar eness = 
2 l
5.18 Metrology and Inspection

ROU N DN ESS AN D CI RCU LARI TY

Oft en t he t er ms r oundness and cir cular it y ar e used int er changeably.
Roundness is defined as a condit ion of a sur face of r evolut ion (like cylinder, cone or spher e) wher e all point s of
t he sur face int er sect ed by any plane per pendicular t o a common axis, in case of cylinder and cone (or passing
t hr ough a common cent r e in case of spher e) ar e equidist ant fr om t he axis (or cent r e). Since axis and cent r e
donot exist physically, measur ement s have t o be made wit h r efer ence t o sur faces of t he figur es of r evolut ion
only, what ever is measur ed by r efer r ing t o t he sur face of r evolut ion is t he cir cular contour. I t may be under st ood
t hat while r oundness expr esses a par t icular geomet r ic for m of a body of r evolut ion in all t he t hr ee dimensionns,
cir cular cont our is t he char act er ist ic for m of t he ent ir e per ipher y of plane figur e. For measur ing r oundness, it
is only t he cir cular it y of t he cont our which is det er mined.

M easur ement of Roundness

1. D iamet r al met hod
I n t his met hod, measur ing plunger s ar e locat ed 180 apar t and diamet er is measur ed at sever al places. This
met hod is suit able only when specimen is ellipit ical or has an even number of lobes. Diamet r al check does
not necessar ily disclose effect ive size or r oundness. This met hod is unr eliable in det er mining r oundness.
2. Cir cumfer ent ial comfining gauge
I t is a shaft confined in a r ing gauge and r ot at ed against a jet indicat or pr obe.
I t is useful for inspect ion of r oundness in pr oduction. H owever t his met hod r equir e a separ at e highly accur at e
mast er for each size par t t o be measur ed. The clear ance bet ween par t and gauge is cr it ical and r eliabily. This
t echnique does not allow measur ement of ot her r elat ed geomet r ic char act er ist ic, such as concent r icit y,
flat ness of shoulder s et c. This values obt ained ar e dependent on t he shape of t he specimen.

SPECIMEN CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CONFINING
GAUGE

CENTRE
CENTRE CYLINDRICAL
PART
INDICATOR

3. Rot at ing on cent r e

Some par t s (such as shaft ) may be inspect ed for r oundness while mount ed on cent r es. I n t his case, r eliabilit y
is dependent on many fact or s like angle of cent r es, alignment of cent r es, r oundness and sur face condit ions
of t he cent r e and cent r e holes, and r un out of piece. Out of st r aight ness of t he par t will cause a doubling
r unout effect and appear t o be r oundness er r or.
4. U sing a V-block
Set up employed for assessing cir cular it y er r or (lobing) by using a V-block is shown in t he figur e. Vee-block is
placed on a sur face plate and the wor k t o be checked is placed upon it . A sensit ive dial indicat or is fir mly fixed
in a st and and it s feeler made t o r est against t he sur face of t he wor k. Wor k is r ot at ed t o measur e r ise and fall
of wor kpiece. For det er ming number of lobes on t he wor kpiece, t he wor kpieces is fir st t est ed in a 60 V-block
anot her in a 90 V-block. Then number of lobes is equal t o number of t imes t he indicat or point er deflect s
dur ing r ot at ion of t he wor kpiece t hr ough 360. I dea of t est ing wor kpiece in t wo V-block is t hat when an
ellipit ically shaped par t is r ot at ed on 4V-block is t hat when an ellipt ically shaped par t is r ot at ed on 9V-block
of an angle 60, no change in r eading is indicated, wher eas if same par t is r ot at ed on a angle 90 angle an vee-
block, t wo maximum and t wo minimum r eadings on t he indicat or.
 Metrology and Inspection 5.19

Types of V-block
(i ) F ixed angle V-block : Dependi ng on number of l obes on a par t , fol l owi ng angles of V-bl ock s ar e
r ecommended for measur ement of cor r ect r oundness by V-block met hod :

L obes Angl e of V-bl ock

Thr ee point out of roundness 60
Five lobed par t 108
Seven-lobed par t 12834

( ii ) Adjustable angle V-block : I t is usually difficult t o aser t ain number of lobes of a par t and have lar ge
number of fixed angle V-blocks. V-Block which can be adjust ed t o cor r ect angle t o show out of r oundness
is bet t er choice.
V-block met hod is limit ed in t he det er minat ion of r oundness of par t s because it is suit able only when
number of lobes is known and is unifor mly ar r anged, which is never t he case.

Adjustable 3-Jaw
V-Block inside micrometer

For wor kshop pur pose, V-block method is quite accur at e as it is capable of indicat ing nor mal r equir ement
of accur acy. H owever for ver y pr ecise job wher e mor e r eliable and mor e accur at e r esult s ar e desir ed, t he
second met hod is r ecommended which is quicker and also eliminat es t he effect of angle of t he block and
t he number of lobes on apar t , but of cour se, is ver y cost ly one.
5. T hree point probe
Thr ee-pr obe wit h 120 spacing is ver y useful for det er mining effect ive size in cases of doubt ful geomet r y of
par t . They per for m like a 60 V-block. I t will show no er r or for 5 and 7 lobes, magnify er r or for 3 lobes par t s.
6. Accur at e spindle
(i ) Par t fixed, ext er ior spindle wit h pr obe r ot at es
(ii ) Pr obe fixed, par t r ot at es wit h spindle.

M ETH OD OF M EASU RI N G SU RFACE FI N I SH

Ther e ar e t wo met hods used for measur ing finish of machined par t :
1. Surface inspect ion by compar ison met hods
I n compar ison method, sur face textur e is assesed by obser vation of the sur face. But these method ar e not
r eliable as these can be misleading if compar ison is not made with sur face pr oduced by same techniques.
( i ) Touch inspect ion
M ain limit at ion of t his met hod is t hat t he degr ee of sur face r oughness can't be assessed. This met hod
can simply t ell which sur face is mor e t ough. I n t his met hod, finger is moved along t he sur face at a
speed of about 25 mm per second and ir r egular it ies as small as 0.01 mm can be easily det ect ed. A
modificat ion of it is possible by using a t able t ennis ball, which is r ubbed over t he sur face and vibr at ion
fr om t he ball t r ansmit t ed t o hand and sur face r oughness judged t her e by.
( ii ) Visual inspect ion
This method is limited to r ougher sur face and r esult var y fr om per son to per son. Mor e accur ate inspection
can be done by using illuminat ed magnifier.
( iii ) Scr at ch inspect ion
I n t his met hod, a soft er mat er ial like lead or plast ic is r ubbed over t he sur face t o be inspect ed.
5.20 Metrology and Inspection
(iv) M icroscopic inspection
Thi s i s best met hod for exami ni ng t he sur face fi ni sh but i t suffer s due t o l i mi t at i on t hat onl y
a smal l por t ion of t he sur face can be inspect ed at a t ime. Thus sever al r eadi ngs ar e r equi r ed t o
get an aver age val ue. I n t hi s met hod, a mast er fi nished sur face is placed under t he mi cr oscope
and compar ed wi t h t he sur face under i nspect i on. I n anot her met hod, a st r ai ght edge i s pl aced
on t he sur face t o be inspect ed and a beam of light s pr oject ed at an angle of about 60° t o t he wor k
piece. Thus shadows cast int o t he sur face scr at ches ar e magnified and sur face ir r egullar it ies can be
studied.
(v) Sur face phot ogr aphs
I n t his met hod, magnified phot ogr aphs of t he sur face ar e t aken wit h differ ent t ypes of illuminat ion. I n
case of ver tical illuminat ion, defect s like ir r egular it ies and sur face appear as dar k spots and flat por t ion
of t he sur face appear as br ight ar ea.
I n case of oblique illuminat ion, r ever se is t he case.
Phot ogr aph wit h differ ent illuminat ion ar e compar ed and r esult s assessed.
( vi ) M icr o int er fer r omet er
I n this method, an optical flat is placed on the sur face to be inspected and illuminated by a monochr omatic
sour ce of light . I nt er fer ence bands ar e st udied t hr ough a micr oscope. Defect s, i.e. scr at ches in t he
sur face appear as int er fer ence line ext ending fr om dar k bands int o t he br ight bands. The dept h of
defect s is measur ed in t er ms of fr act ion of t he int er fer ence band.
( vii )Wallace surface dynamomet er
This is a sor t of fr ict ion met er and consist s of a pendulum in which t est ing shoes ar e clamped applied.
I n t his met hod, pendulum is lift ed t o init ial posit ion and allowed t o swing over t he sur face t o be t est ed.
I f sur face is smoot h, t hen t her e will be loss sect ion and pendulum swings for a longer per iod. Thus t ime
measur e is a dir ect measur e of sur face finish.
( viii )Reflect ed light int ensit y
I n t hi s met hod, a beam of l i ght of k nown quant i t y i s pr oj ect ed upon t he sur face. Thi s l i ght i s
r ef l ect ed i n sever al di r ect i on i n beam of l esser i nt en si t y an d ch an ge i n l i gh t i n t en si t y i n
di ff er en t di r ect i on i s m easu r ed by ph ot ocel l . T he m easu r ed i nt en si t y ch anges ar e al r eady
calli ber at ed by means of r eading t aken fr om sur face of k nown r oughness by some ot her sui t able
met hod.
2. D ir ect inst r ument M easur ment s
( i ) St ylus pr ob inst r ument

Skid Pickup

Stylus
( a ) Pr ofi lomet er
This is dynamic I nst r ument similar in pr inciple t o a gr amophone pick-up. A finely point ed st ylus
mount ed in t he pick up unit is t r ansver sed acr oss t he sur face
( b) Tomlinson sur face met er
This inst r ument uses mechanical-cum-opt ical mean magnificat ion.
The di amond st yl us on t he sur face fi ni sh r ecor der i s hel d by spr i ng pr essur e agai nst t he
sur face of a l apped st eel cyl i nder. The st yl us i s al so at t ached t o body i nst r ument by a l eaf
spr i n g an d h ei gh t i s adj u st abl e t o en abl e t h e di am on d t o be posi t i on ed con v en i en t l y.
The l apped cyl i nder i s suppor t ed on one si de by t he st yl us and on t he ot her si de by t wo
fi xed r ol l er s. The st yl us i s r est r ai ned fr om al l mot i on except t he ver t i cal by t he t ensi on i n
coil and leaf spr ing. The t ensile for ces in t hese t wo spr ings ar e also keep t he lapped st eel cylinder
i n posi t i on bet ween st yl us and pai r of fi xed r oll er. A l ight spr i ng st eel ar m is at t ached t o t he
hor izont al lapped st eel cylinder and it car r ies at it s t ip a diamond scr iber which wear s against a
smoked glass.
 Metrology and Inspection 5.21

When measur ing surface finish body is traver sed acr oss the surface by a screw r otated by a synchronous
mot or. Any ver tical movement of t he st ylus caused by the sur face ir r egular ities, causes the hor izontal
lapped st eel cylinder t o r oll. By it s r olling, t he light ar m at t ached t o it s end pr ovides a magnified
movement on a smoked glass plat e.
The ver t ical movement coupled wit h hor izont al movement pr oduces a t r ace on t he glass magnified
in ver t ical dir ect ion and t heir being no magnificat ion in hor izont al dir ect ion. Then smoked glass
tr ace is fur ther pr ojected at 50 or 100 magnification for examination. This instr ument is compar atively
cheap one and gives r eliable r esult s.
( c) Taylor-H obson Taly surf
Taly sur f is an elect r ic inst r ument wor king on car r ier modulat ing pr inciple. The inst r ument also
gives same infor mat ion as t he pr evious inst r ument, but much mor e r apidly and accur at ely. I t r ecor ds
st at ic displacement of t he st ylus and is dynamic inst r ument line pr ofilomet er.

(ii ) M – system and E– system

( a ) Centre line average method (CLA) or M ean line system (M – system) :
I t is ver y-widely used and all the instr ument for measur ing sur face r oughness available in the count r y
ar e designed t o measur e in t his syst em. I t is mor e useful and sat isfact or y means of cont r olling at t he
point of pr oduct ion, t he consist ency of r esult s fr om a pr ocess when pr oduct ion par amet er have been
est ablished. Sur face r oughness is expr essed by Ra.
( b) E (Envelope syst em) syst em
I t has bet t er definit ion of peak measur e and it is mor e easily applied t o t he sur face finish inst r ument
based on int er fer ence pr inciple.
( iii ) Ot her met hods of measuring sur face r oughness
(a) Taper sect ioning (b) Gloss measur ement (c) Diffr act ion t echnique
(d) Tact ile t est (e) Pneumat ic gauging (f) Ther mal compar at or.
 5.22 Metrology and Inspection

Roughness Grade N umber

Var ious r oughness gr ade Number s NI t o N12 in 5 gr oups ar e specified as under by I SP.

Roughness gr ade number Roughness value, R a µ m Roughness symbol

N12 50 –
N11 25
N10 12.5 
N9 6.3
N8 3.2 
N7 1.6
N6 0.8
N5 0.4 
N4 0.2
N3 0.1
N2 0.05 
N1 0.025

I N SPECTI ON OF SCREW TH READ

1. Effect ive D iamet er M easurement
The effect ive diamet er or pit ch diamet er can be measur ed by following met hods :
( i ) M icr omet er met hod
I f cor r ect ly adjusted, this micr ometer gives pit ch diameter. This value should match with given r elation.
Pit ch dia = D – 0.6403 p (in case of whit wor t h t hr ead)
wher e 0.6403 p = dept h of t hr ead
D = out side diamet er
p = pitch
( ii )Wir e met hods
( a ) One-wire method : I n t hi s met hod, one wi r e i s pl aced
bet ween t wo t hr eads at one side and on t he ot her side anvil Micrometer
Anvil
of t he measur ing micr omet er cont act s wit h t he cr est .
Act ual measur ement over wir e on one side and t hr eads on
ot her side.
= size of gauge ± differ ence in t wo micr omet er r eading.
Thi s met hod i s used for measur i ng effect i ve di amet er of
counter pit ch thr ead ‘p' and dur ing manufact ur ing of t hr eads.
The difficulty of this method is that, micr ometer axis may not
remain exactly at r ight angle to the thread axis.
( b) Two wire method : Effect ive diamet er of a scr ew t hr ead may be ascer t ained by placing t wo wir e or
r ods of identical diameter between flankes of thr ead and measur ing distance over the outside. Effective
diamet er is t hen calculat ed.
E= T+p
wher e, T = dimension under t he wir e = M – 2d
M  dimension over t he wir e
d = diamet er of each wir e.
The value of p depends upon t he diamet er of wir e and pit ch of t he t hr ead.
p = 0.9605 p – 1.1657d (for whit wor t h t hr ead)
p = 0.866 p – d (for met er t hr ead)
 Metrology and Inspection 5.23
(c) Three wire method : I t is most accur at e met hod for measur ing effect ive diamet er.

E M

FG1  cosec x IJ p x
Dist ance over t he wir e, M = E + d H 2K
–
2
cot
2
wher e, E = effect ive diamet er
r = r adius of t he wir e
d = diamet er of wir es.
2. Checking “ Thread from and “ Angle” by optical projection of thread
This met hod is applicable only t o ext er nal t hr eads because int er nal t hr eads cannot be pr oject ed.
The st andar d t ype of pr oject or is used which consist ing of a pr oject or lamp, a condensor lens or collimat or,
pr oject ion lens and t he scr een.
The scr ew t hr ead t o be examined is placed in t he par allel beam of light bet ween condensor lens and t he
pr oject or lens.
The moder n pr oject or s ar e equipped wit h wor k holding fixtur e, pr oject ion lamp and t he lenses sit uat ed on
t op of t he cabinet and scr een at t he fr ont . The light r ays fr om t he lens ar e dir ect ed downwar ds int o t he
cabinet , and hence t o t he scr een by a syst em of pr isms and mir r or s, br inging ever y t hing wit hin t he r each
of t he oper at or.
Enlar ged image of t he t hr ead for m appear s on t he gr ound-glass scr een on which is mount ed t he t emplat e
or dr awing of t he for m made t o scale equal t o magnificat ion of t he lens. I n t his way, t wo for ms (i.e. ideal
and pr oject ed) ar e compar ed.
One of the difficult ies in pr oject ing scr ew t hr ead is t he fact t hat for m is
specified on an axial plane. So cor r ect ion for it must be consider ed.
The nor mal pit ch is less t han axial pit ch p and is given by
pN = p cos 
wher e, = helix angle

M EASU REM EN T OF PI TCH

1. Ext ernal T hreads
( i ) Screw pitch or profile gauge : Such a gauge consist s of ser ies of t hr ead for ms wit h var ying pit ch. One
which coincides per fect ly wit h t he t hr ead under t est given t he pit ch. The accur acy of measur ement
depends upon t he met hod of slit t ing and is used t o judge t he per fect ness.
( ii ) M icr oscopic met hod : I t is a mor e accur at e met hod. Scr ew t hr eads can be inspect ed and t hen pr ofile
angles and linear pit ches checked wit h t he aid of a go micr ometr ic micr oscope. Effect ive pit ch diamet er s
can also be measur ed by t his met hod.
( iii ) For st ill mor e accur at e pur poses, it is necessar y t o employ a special scr ew pit ch measur ing machine by
which act ual pit ch er r or of individual t hr eads can be measur ed. The pit t er and mat r ix ar e t ypical
example of pit ch measur ing machine.
2. I nt er nal T hreads
Pitch of internal thread can be measured on any standard pitch machine by using an adaptor. This adaptor carries
a bar which can be inserted into r ing, the stylus being fitted to the bar end engaging with the thread in the usual
manner. The ring gauge is mounted on a face plate or on the head stock of the machine, which will accomodate
rings upto several indicators. For ver y large r ings, a special setup on a sur face plate is necessary, utilising an
indicator and slip gauge.
G — St ylus
Q — Rod holding st ylus R
L — L ine for adjust ing st ylus G.
This is ar r anged opposit e t o point er K .
M — L ocking scr ew for Q.
T — I ndicat or point er which is ar r anged t o r ead zer o while
t aking micr omet er r eading.
5.24 Metrology and Inspection

Types of T hr ead Gauges

1. Plug scr ew gauge
For gauging nut or int er nal t hr eads it is obvious t hat full for m plug gauge made accur at ely t o minimum
dimension of int er nal t hr ead which will ensur e t hat all dimensions of t he t hr ead ar e not less t hat minimum
if it will assembled wit h t he t hr ead.
M ajor, minor and effect ive diamet er will be checked and it will ensur e t hat size of pit ch, angle or for m of t he
t hr ead is not r educing below minimum. I t is not possible t o judge individual er r or of a par t icular component .
A plain NOT GO gauge is r equir ed for minor diamet er, effect ive diamet er and major diamet er. NOT GO
major diamet er gauge has it s major diamet er on t he cor r esponding upper limit of t he wor k wit h it s flank and
minor diamet er being well clear ed off t he wor k dimension.
I n or dinar y pr act ice, NOT GO effect ive diamet er gauge is t he only one used apar t for m full for m GO gauge.
This gauge is necessar y to ensur e that thr eads of t he wor k ar e not thin even though major and minor diameter
ar e within the limits.
Gauging parallel int ernal screw t hreads :
Following t hr ee gauges ar e r ecommended :
( i ) GO and N OT GO plug gauge : To check t oler ance on t he minor diamet er.
( ii ) GO screw plug gauge : To check minimum effect ive diamet er.
(iii ) N OT GO screw plug gauge : To check maximum effect ive diamet er.
2. Ring scr ew gauge
For pr oduct ion gauging of bolt s, equivalent mat ing sur face of t he bolt t hr eads is called r ing guage. As in case
of plug gauges of a syst em of limit , gauges can be pr ovided by full for m NOT GO and GO effect ive diamet er
r ing gauge. The NOT GO r ing gauge is t r uncat ed in it s minor diamet er and clear ed on it s major diamet er.
Fir st st ep in using a set of r ing t hr ead gauge is t o r ead legend st amped on t he r ings. The legend should give
size and pit ch.
e.g. 7/16-20 NF means t he wor kpiece should be of "7/16" out side or major diamet er having 20 t hr eads per
inch (Nat ional fine t hr eads ser ies). The pit ch diamet er upper limit is 0.4050" which should also be st amped
on t he gauge. NOT GO gauge member should also have same legend except diamet er would be 0.4024"
(cor r esponding t o lower limit ). Somet ime class of fit also appear s on t he r ing.
A t hr ead r ing cannot or dinar ily be used t o analyse the individual er r or pr esent in t he scr ew. I f pit ch diameter
is over size, t he r ing will not engage of cour se neit her will it t ur n on an over size major diamet er, if minor
diamet er is off (i.e. scr ew who be r oot s ar e filled wit h dir t or made fr om wor k die or lat he t ool) t he gauge will
blind. Excessive scr ew t hr ead lead er r or s, like t aper will or dinar ily be det ect ed aft er a few t ur ns of r ing
gauge, wher e fine t hr eads ar e being gauged. Car e must be exer cised not t o for ce t he t hr eads of t he r ing
gauge for scr ew.

Taylor ’s Pr inciple Applied t o Scr ew T hr eads Gauge

A GO gauge should check bot h geomet r ic feat ur e, size and t hus be of full for m, wher eas NOT GO gauge should
check only one dimension. I n line wit h t his, GO gague is made of full for m t o t he full lengt h of t hr ead t o t he
maximum diamet er of t hr ead. I f NOT GO t hr ead gauge is also made of full for m, t hen vir t ual r educt ion in
effect ive diamet er due t o pit ch er r or s may give misleading r esult s.
To over come t his difficult y and t o account for Taylor ’s pr inciple, NOT GO gauge for t he t hr eads ar e made t o
check for major diamet er and t he effect ive diamet er which is not influenced by t he er r or s in pit ch or for m of t he
thr ead.

Gauge Wear
The wear t akes place mor e r apidly in scr ew t hr ead gauge t han in plain gauge. The allowance r ecommended by
B.S.I for wear on gener ally used solid r ing and plug gauge is 0.05 mm. Ther efor e, fr equent checking of solid
pat t er n gauge is necessar y.

F unct ions of Var ious Types of Gauges

( i ) Solid or adjust able GO screw ring gauge
I t is employed for checking maximum mat er ial limit of t he vir t ual pit ch diamet er. The solid GO gauge has
t o be inspect ed per iodically for wear wit h wear check plug. M aximum size of t he pit ch diamet er of t he Go
scr ew r ing gauge is checked by NOT GO check plug gauge. Adjust able GO scr ew r ing gauge is t o set wit h
t he set t ing plug and cont r olled by t he wear check plug.
 Metrology and Inspection 5.25
( ii ) Wear check plug for solid and adjust able GO ring gauge
I t checks t he maximum wear limit s of t he pit ch diamet er of t he GO scr ew r ing gauge and should not ent er
by mor e t hen 1 t ur n when scr ewed fr om eit her side of t he GO scr ew r ing gauge.
( iii ) GO screw calliper gauge
I t checks maximum limit of vir t ual pit ch diamet er in an axial plan t aking int o account er r or s of pit ch and
flank angle. This gauge violat es Taylor ’s pr inciple in t he r espect t hat it does not det ect er r or s of for m,
depar t ur e fr om soundness and per iodic er r or s of pit ch.
( iv) N OT GO screw calliper gauge
I t checks minimum limit of pit ch diamet er checking of t he wor k by t his gauge, i.e. it is not passing by mor e
t han t wo t hr eads over t he wor k should be car r ied in at least for t hr ee posit ions evenly dist r ibut ed over t he
ci r cumfer ence.

M EASU REM EN TS OF GEAR

I nspect ion of Gear
I nspect ion of gear ar e mainly of t wo t ypes :
1. Analyt ical inspect ion
Anal yt i cal i nspect i on of gear mean al l t he i ndi vidual el ement s of gear t eet h ar e check ed. Thi s met hod i s
sl ow and t edi ous and not of much use for i ndust r y. The discr et e er r or of pi t ch , t oot h pr ofi l e et c can’t gi ve
a t r ue over al l assessment of t he accur acy of a gear. I t i s not easy t o assess accur at ely how t hese el ement al
values combi ne i n pr act i ce t o gi ve a pr escr i bed per for mance under oper at i onal condi t i on. Al l er r or s i n
pi t ch pr ofi l e cause var i at i ons in t he uni for mi t y of r ot ar y mot i on and er r or s in t oot h al ignment or h el i x
angl e r esul t i n t he concent r at i on at smal l ar eas inst ead of bei ng di st r i but ed uni for ml y.
Analyt ical inspection of gear consist in det er mining following t eet h elements in which err or s ar e caused due
t o manufact ur ing er r or s :
(i ) Pr ofile (ii ) Spacing (iii ) Pit ch
(iv) Runout eccent r icit y concent r icit y (v) Thickness of t oot h (vi ) Lead
(vii )Backlash
2. F unct ional inspect ion
I t consist of car r ying out r unning t est of gear wit h anot her gear which is moved accur at e and called cont r ol
gear or mast er gear t o det er mine composit e vibr at ion, noise level or var iat ion in act ion.
Rolling t est
I t is most commonly used t est under pr oduct ion condit ion. I n r olling t est , gear t o be t est ed is act ually
compar ed wit h a har dened and gr ound mast er gear.
This t est r eveals t hat any er r or s in t oot h for m, pit ch and concent r icit y of pit ch line. This t est is gener ally
per for med on a most commonly used machine Par kson gear t est er.
M easurement of t oot h t hickness
Toot h t hickness is gener ally measur ed at pit ch cir cle and is t her efor e pit ch line t hickness of t oot h.
M ethods of measuring Gear tooth thickness
(i ) By gear t oot h ver nier calliper (ii ) Const ant chor d met hod
(iii ) Base t angent met hod (iv) M easur ement by dimension over pins.
Toot h t hickness can be ver y convenient ly measur ed by a gear t oot h ver nier calliper. I t is gener ally measur ed
at pit ch cir cle and is t her efor e, r efer r ed as pit ch-line t hickness of t oot h. C
OA = R
d
Chor dal thickness, w = AB = 2 AD A E B
D
360
AOD =  =
4N

wher e N = number of t eet hs.
 w = 2AD = 2 OA sin  = 2R sin 360/4N.
O
P.C.D 2R
Module = = (Wher e, P.C.D  Pit ch cir cle diamet er )
Number of t eet h N
N. m
 R =
2
Nm
sin
360 FG IJ = Nm sin  90 
 w = 2
2 4N H K N 
5.26 Metrology and Inspection
Also, chor dal addendum, d = OC – OD
Nm
But OC = OE + addendum = R + m = m
2
Nm FG 90 IJ
and OD = R cos =
2
cos HNK
Nm
m–
Nm F 90 I N m  1  2 – cos  90  
cosG J =
 d =2 2 H N K 2  N  N 
I n case of helical gear s,above expr ession have t o be modified t o t ake int o account change in cur vat ur e along
pit ch line.
N
Ver t ical number of t eet h, for helical gear =
cos3

Nm n FG 90 .cos IJ ,
3 Nm n LM1  2 cos  – cosFG 90 cos IJ OP
3
3
 w = 3
cos 
sin
HN K d= 3
cos  MN N HN K PQ
These for mula is applied when back lash is ignor ed.

Checking Pr ofile of I nvolut e Shape of Gear

Pr ofile er r or is deviat ion of act ual t oot h fr om t he t heor et ical pr ofile in t he designed r efer ence plane of r ot at ion.
For t est ing pr ofile, t ip r elief and any por t ion of t he t oot h sur face below t he act ive pr ofile is not consider ed.

M et hods of Checking
1. I nspect ion of profile using dividing head and height gauge
This is a ver y t ime consuming met hod but best suit ed for caliber at ion of mast er involut e.
I t is t her efor e useful only for ver y pr ecise component s and involut e mast er cams.
2. Gear involut e measur ing machine
I t i s desi gned for check i ng i nvol ut e pr ofi l es of t he spur and ot her gear s. Thi s machi ne i s sui t abl e for
i nspect i on of gear havi ng modul e fr om 1 t o 10 mm havi ng maxi mum out si de di amet er upt o 300 mm.
Permitted tolerances on the profile error
Accuracy class or Grade of gear Profile tolerance in microns
1 2.0 + 0.06 K
2 2.5 + 0.10 K
3 3.0 + 0.16 K
4 4.0 + 0.25 K
5 5.0 + 0.40 K
H er e K is t oler ance and given by
K = m + 0.1 D
wher e, m = module
D = pit ch circle diamet er

M easur ement of Gear Pitch

Gear pit ch can be measur ed in t he following ways.
1. Cumulat ive cir cular pit ch er r or over a span of t eet h
2. Adjacent pit ch er r or or pit ch var iat ion
3. Base pit ch var iat ion.

Composit e M et hod of Gear Checking

Composit e t est ing of gear s consist in measur ing t he var iat ion in cent r e dist ance when a gear is r olled in t ight
mesh (double flank cont act ) wit h specified or mast er gear.
Types of Checki ng
1. Tot al var iat ion
Tot al composit e var iat ion is t he cent r e dist ance var iat ion in one complet e r evolut ion of t he gear being
inspected;
 Metrology and Inspection 5.27
2. Tooth to tooth composite variation
Toot h t o t oot h composit e var iat ion in t he cent r e dist ance var iat ion as t he gear is r ot at ed t hr ough any
360
incr ement of . A unifor m t oot h t o t oot h var iat ion shows pr ofile var iat ion wher eas sudden jump
N
indicat es t he pit ch var iat ion.
Composit e t ype a checking t akes car e of all t he er r or s in t he year.
Par kinson Gear Test er
The pr inciple of t his cent r e is t o mount a st andar d gear on a fixed ver t ical spindle for t he gear t o be t est ed on
anot her similar spindle mount ed on sliding car r iage, maint aining t he gear s in mesh by spr ing pr essur e.
Test er ar e available for t est ing spur gear, Bevel gear, helical gear, and wor m gear.
Checking of Gears U sing Grat ings
A gear could eit her be t est ed by checking involut e pr ofile, helix pr ofile and pit ch or wher e fast er speed of
measur ement is desir ed by met hod using int er act ion of all of above par amet er s, i.e composit e t est (meshing
gear under t est wit h a per fect ly mast er gear ).
M echanical met hods of t est ing demands t he highest st andar ds of mechanical accur acy which some how is
limit ed. H owever wit h gr at ing, it possible t o measur e lar ge absolut e angular and linear displacement t o
great accuracy. A big advantage of the gr ating is its output in the for m of digital pulses which can be conveniently
manipulat ed by digit al elect r onic t echniques.
Gear t r ansmission er r or s ar e measur ed convenient ly using gr at ing.
Gear Toot h Calliper
I t is used t o measur e t hickness of gear t eet h at t he pit ch line or chor dal t hickness of t eet h and dist ance fr om
t op of a t oot h t o t he chor d. Thickness of a t oot h at pit ch line and addendum is measur ed by an adjust able
t ongue, each of which is adjust ed in dependent ly by adjoining scr ew on gr aduat ed bar s. The effect of zer o
er r or s showed so t aken int o consident ion.
Const ant Chor d M et hod
Bot h chor dal t hickness and chor dal addendum ar e dependent upon t he number of teet h. H ence for measur ing
a lar ge number a gear s for set , each having differ ent number of t eet h would involve separ at e calculat ion.
Const ant chor d of a gear is measur ed wher e t oot h flanks t ouch t he flanks of t he basic r ack. The t eet h of t he
r ack ar e st r aight and inclined t o t heir cent r e line at t he pr essur e angle.

ALI GN M EN T TEST
1. On L athe M achine
Befor e var ious t est s on any machine t ool ar e car r ied out , it is essent ial t hat it should be inst alled in t r uly
hor izont al and ver t ical planes. I n hor izont al plane, bot h longit udinal and t r ansver se dir ect ions ar e equally
impor t ant . I f bed is not inst alled t r uely in hor izont al t r ansver se dir ect ion, t wist will be int r oduced. Thus
movement of saddal can’t be in a st r aight line and t r ue geomet r ic cylinder can’t be gener at ed.
The level of machine bed in longitudinal and tr ansver se dir ections is gener ally t ested by a sensitive spr it level.
St r aight ness of bed in longit udinal dir ect ion for a long beds can also be det er mined by ot her met hod e.g.
using st r aight edge, aut o collimat er s or by t wo wir e met hod. But t he t est in t r ansver se dir ect ion can be
car r ied out only by spr it level.

I t is desir ed that por t guideway should be convex only as cutting forces and weight of carrige act downwar d on it.
I f fr ont guideways are concave, then effect will be cumulative. The tendency of carriage, under cutting forces is to
lift upwards fr om rears and this is traversed by a gib placed underneath the guideways with the result, an upward
force acts on the rear guideway, which must therefore be made concave.
Tr ansver se level may be in any dir ect ion, but no t wist can be t oler at ed.
5.28 Metrology and Inspection
( a ) Parallelism of Tail stock guideways with M ovement of carriage
I f t ail st ock guideways ar e not par allel wit h t he car r iage movement , t her e will be some offset of t he t ail
st ock cent r e and t his r esult in t aper t ur ning.
To check par allelism of t he t ailst ock guideways in bot h t he planes i.e. hor izont al and ver t ical, a block is
placed on t he guideways as shown in t he figur e and faler of t he indicat or is t ouched on t he hor izont al
and ver t ical sur faces of t he block. The dial indicat or is held in t he car r iage and car r iage is moved.

Fig. Error indicated by the pointer of dial indicator.

( b) Pit ch accur acy of L ead screw
The accur acy of t hr eads cut on any machine depends upon accur acy of it s lead scr ew.
Test for t his is per for med by fixing a posit ive st op on the lat he bed. Against t he st op, lengt h bar s and slip
gauges can be locat ed.
A suit able met hod for r ecor ding pr ogr essive and per iodic er r or s is by using a suit ably divided scale,
which is placed close to the line of centres. A microscope is rigidly mounted on the car riage in a conveniently
posit ion t o not e r eading on t he scale.
2. Alignment Test on M illing M achine
Machine is always carefully adjusted and aligned on the test stand or is assembly department of the manufacture.
M achine should be car efully levelled up by means of spr it level befor e st ar t ing wit h act ual t r ial t est machine
t ools for t he wor kshop must be able t o pr oduce wor k pieces of given accur acy wit h in pr escr i bed limit ,
consist ent ly and wit hout r equir ing ar t ist ic skill on t he par t of t he oper at or.
Test to be applied Test Diagram Gauges and M ethod Permissible Error
2 3 4 5
Cut t er spindle Axial (A) Clock I ndicat or A. 0.01 mm
Slip or Float (B) Test t wo places at 180° B. 0.01 mm

Eccent ricit y of
Ext er nal Diamet er
I nt er nal t aper for t r ue Clock I ndicat or
running slowly move
mandr el for
maxi mum
eccent ricity

(A) Near est t o spindle nose A. 0.01 mm

(B) At a dist ance of 300 mm B. 0.025 mm

Wor k Table St at ionar y mandr el. 0.025 mm per

Table sur face par allel Clock indicat or s 300 mm
wit h ar bor r ising Under mandr el
t owar ds over ar m

Test t able sur face

for max. t r avel
 Metrology and Inspection 5.29
3. Alignment tests on pillar type drilling M achine
(i ) Flatness of clamping surface of base
This t est is per for med by placing a st r aight edge on t wo gauge block on t he base plat e in var ious
0.1
posit ion and er r or not ed down by inser t ing t he feeler gauge. This er r or should not exceed mm
1000
clamping sur face and sur face should be concave only.
( ii ) F lat ness of clamping surface of t able
This t est is per for med in t he same manner on t est (i ) but on t he t able.
( iii ) Perpendicularity of drill head guide t o t ie base plat e
Squar eness (per pendicular it y) of dr ill head guide t o t he base plat e is t est ed in
(i ) ver t ical plane passing t hr ough axes of bot h spindle and column.
(ii ) plane at 90 t o t he plane
( iv) Perpendicularit y of spindle sleeve wit h base plat e
This t est is per for med in bot h t he planes specified in t est (iii ) and in t he similar manner wit h differ ence
t hat fr ame levels ar e t o be placed on spindle sleeve and base plat e.
(v) True running of spindle t aper
For t his t est , t est mandr el is placed in t aper hole of spindle and dial indicat or is fixed on t he t able and
t eet h made t o scan t he mandr el.
Spindle is r ot at ed slowly and r eading of indicat or not ed down.
Er r or should not exceed
0.03
mm for machine wit h t ape upt o mor se number 2
100
0.04
mm for machine wit h t aper lar ger t han mor se number 2.
300

( vi ) Parallelism of spindle axis wit h vert ical movement

This t est is per for med in t wo plane (A) and (B) at r ight angle t o each ot her. This t est mandr el is fit t ed in
t he t aper ed hole of t he spindle and dial indicat or is fixed on t he t able wit h it s feeler t ouching mandr el.
(vii )Squareness of clamping surface of table to its axis
For t his t est , dial indicat or is mount ed in t he t aper hole of t he spindle and it s feeler is made t o t ouch
sur f ace of t he t abl e. Tabl e i s sl owl y r ot at ed an d r eadi ng of di al gau ge not ed down , wh i ch
0.05
should not exceed mm diamet er..
300
 5.30 Metrology and Inspection

TOLERAN CE AN ALYSI S I N M AN U FACTU RI N G AN D ASSEM BLY

Toler ance can be defined as t he magnit ude of per missible var iat ion of dimension or ot her measur ed or cont r ol
cr it er ia fr om t he specified value. Toler ances have t o be allowed because of t he inevit able human failing and
machine limit at ions which pr event ideal achievement s dur ing fabr icat ion.
I n or der t o maint ain economic pr oduct ion and facilit at e t he assembly of component s, it is necessar y t o allow a
limit ed deviat ion fr om t he designed size.
Toler ance const it ut es an engineer ing legalit y for deviat ion fr om t he ideal value and for mulat ion of t oler ance
should be given due consider at ion.

F act or Affect ing Select ion of Toler ance

( i ) Funct ional r equir ement , i.e. per mit t ed deviat ion in size must per mit t he assembly t o funct ion cor r ect ly.
( ii ) Standar disation.
( iii ) M anufactur ing needs.
Wher e t he funct i onal per for mance pr ovi des some l at i t ude, t hen t ol er ances choi ce may be infl uenced and
det er mined by fact or s like st andar disat ion, met hods of t ooling and manufact ur ing equipment available.
The numer ical values of t oler ances may r ange acr oss t he ent ir e spect r um of measur ement s and funct ional
r equir ement is t aken as t he only cr it er ion t o decide t he value of t oler ance.

D i sadvant ages
(i ) Too many differ ent tolerances which mean excessive amounts of calculations and studies to establish tolerance
values.
(ii ) Excessive amount of special t ooling.
(iii ) Complicat ions in inspect ion et c.
I f a limit ed number of st andar d t oler ances ar e est ablished and t oler ances ar e chosen fr om t hese, so t hat t hese
ar e slight ly closer t han the funct ion dict ates, t hen advant ages of fewer var iat ions of t ooling, few calculations and
incr eases unit quant it ies because of r epeat ed use of t he same designs ar e obt ained.

N eed for Toler ances

( i ) Var iat ions in t he pr oper t ies of mat er ial being machined which pr oduce er r or s.
( ii ) Pr oduct ion machines t hemselves have some inher ent inaccur acies built int o and have t he limit at ions t o
pr oduce per fect par t s.
( iii ) I t is impossible for an oper at or t o make per fect set t ing. I n set t ing up t he machine, i.e. in adjust ing t he t ools
and wor kpiece on t he machine, some er r or s ar e likely t o cr eep in.
An at t empt t o ent ir ely over come t hese fact or s wit h a view t o obt ain ideal condit ions would r esult in exhor bit ant
cost s. The par t s should, t her efor e, be made as inaccur at e as t oler able t o sat isfy t he funct ional r equir ement s.
Thus t oler ances ar e specified t o t he dimensions of all manufact ur ed par t s and t hese should be just enough t o do
t he int ended job and not bet t er.
Thus toler ance is a compr omise between t he accur acy r equir ed for pr oper functioning and abilit y t o economically
pr oduce t his accur acy.

Repr esent at ion of Toler ances

Toler ances ar e basically specified in t wo for ms.
( i ) U nilat er al t oler ances
I n t hese, t ot al t oler ance is r elat ed t o a basic dimension, and is in one dir ect ion only. This for m of t oler ance
is usually indicat ed when t he machining of making par t s is called for, as t his gr eat ly assist s t he oper at or.
The oper at or machines the upper limit of shaft (lower limit for a hole) knowing fully well t hat he st ill has t he
whole t oler ance left for machining befor e t he par t s ar e r eject ed.
M et hods of specifying unilat eral t oler ances
( a ) Specify as limit ing dimensions
Diamet er of hole : 25.000 mm, 25.002 mm
Diamet er of shaft : 24.999 mm, 24.997 mm
 Metrology and Inspection 5.31
( b) One limit ing size may be specified wit h it s t oler ances
Diamet er of hole : 25.000 + 0.002, – 0.000 mm
Diamet er of shaft : 25.000 + 0.000, – 0.002 mm
(c) Nominal size may be specified for bot h par t s, wit h a not at ion showing bot h allowance and t oler ance.
Diamet er of hole : 25.000 + 0.002, – 0.000 mm
Diamet er of shaft : 25.000 – 0.001, – 0.003 mm
H er e dimension is allowed t o var y only in one dir ect ion.
(ii ) Bilateral tolerances :
I n bilat er al t oler ance, t ot al t oler ance is specified on bot h sides (plus and minus) of t he basic dimension.
These t oler ances usually have plus and minus t oler ance of equal amount , but not necessar ily always. This
syst em per mit s t he oper at or t o t ake full advant age of t he limit syst em especially in posit ioning a hole.
Bilat eral t oler ances may be expr essed as :
25.000 + 0.001, – 0.002 mm
This system is used in machining pr ocess like dr illing in which dimensions ar e most likely t o deviat e in one
dir ect ion only (dr illing hole is always over size r at her t han under size).
Bilat er al t oler ance syst em defines t he t heor et ically desir ed size of t he basic size.
This syst em is used in mass pr oduct ion wher e machine set t ing is done for t he basic size. Under such
condit ions, if t oler ances ar e specified and unilat er al, t hen t hese should be changed t o bilat er al t oler ances
by changing t he basic size.
The basic size should be midway bet ween upper and lower limit s.

ASSEM BLY LI N E BALAN CI N G

Line balancing is the appor tionment of sequential wor k activities int o wor k stations in or der to gain a high
utilisation of labour and equipment, and ther efor e, minimum idle t ime. Compatible wor k activities ar e combined
int o appr oximat ely equal time gr oupings that do not violate the or der (or pr ecedence) in which they must be done.
Once a line is oper at ing at full capacity, t he cycle t ime at which t he complet ed pr oduct s leave the pr oduct ion line
will be given by
available time / period AT
Cycle Time (CT) = =
output units required / period output
I t t he t ime r equir ed at any st at ion exceeds t hat which is available t o one wor ker, addit ional wor ker may have t o
be added t o t he st at ion.
Theor et ical or ideal number of wor ker s needed on t he assembly line will be given by
(worker time / unit)  (output units / period)
Theor et ical minimum number of wor ker s =
available time / period
= t
FG IJ
output units / period
=
t
H K
available time / period CT
COM PARAT ORS
The compar at or is an inst r ument used for compar ing t he dimensions of a component wit h a st andar d of lengt h.
Essent ial Part s of a Comparator
(1) A fixed sur face fr om which all measur ement s ar e t aken.
(2) A ver y sensit ive indicat or which will show t he movement of a sliding piece usually t er minat ing in an anvil
wit h a cur ved face.
(3) Some means of set t ing t he cur ved face (r efer r ed t o in 2) at adjust able dist ance fr om sur face (1).
This ar r angement is used t o measur e t he differ ence bet ween lengt h or diamet er of a component and a st andar d
of lengt h, usually made up of slip gauges.
Thus the pur pose of a compar ator is to detect and display the small differ ences between unknown linear dimension
and lengt h of t he st andar d. The differ ence in lengt h is det ect ed as a displacement of a sensing pr obe. The
impor tant and essent ial funct ion of the instr ument is t o M agnify or Amplify t he small input displacement so t hat
it is displayed on an analog scale.
 5.32 Metrology and Inspection

U ses of Comparators
(i ) To inspect newly pur chased gauges.
(ii ) I n mass pr oduct ion, wher e component s ar e t o be checked at a ver y fast r at e.
(iii ) As labor at or y st andar ds fr om which wor king or inspect ion gauge ar e set and cor r elat ed.
(iv) I n sel ect i ve assembl y of par t s, wher e par t s ar e gr aded i n t hr ee gr oups dependi ng upon t hei r t ol er ance.
(v) As wor king gauges, t o pr event wor k spoilage and t o maint ain r equir ed t oler ance at all impor t ant st ages of
manufactur e.

Types of Compar at or s
1. M echanical Compar at or
A mechanical compar at or employs mechanical means for magnifying t he small movement of t he measur ing
st ylus br ought about due t o t he differ ence bet ween st andar d and t he act ual dimension being checked. The
met hod of magnifying t he small st ylus movement in all t he mechanical compar at or s is by means of lever s,
gear t r ains or by t heir combinat ions.
2. E lect r ical Compar at or
These compar at or s have lit t le or no moving par t s and hence can r et ain t heir accur acy over per iods and also
t he sensit ivit y can be adjust ed at will. A higher magnificat ion can be achieved as compar ed t o mechanical
compar at or s.
3. Pneumat ic Compar at or
Pneumat ic compar at or s wor k on t he pr inciple t hat of an air jet . Upon decr easing t he st and-off dist ance, t he
pr essur e on t he back gr ound of jet will incr ease. This pr essur e is called back pr essur e and can be dir ect ly
r elat ed t o t he measur ement .

F i g . P r in ci p l e of a n a ir jet

Types of Pneumat ic Comparat or s

These compar at or s can be fur t her be divided int o t hr ee :
( i ) F low t ype

Fig. Rotameter
The design of head is decided by the geomet r ic feat ur e under measur ement . Depending upon t he dist ance
t her e will be back pr essur e ‘P2’ and t he differ ence bet ween (P2 – P1) decides posit ion of t he float . This
float is having aer ofoil shape blades so t hat due t o t he flow of air it r ot at es. I f it is st at ionar y, it will st ick
to the wall of r otameter and due to static fr iction between float and tube, the system will become insensitive
t o small change in back pr essur e ‘P2’. The t ube is slight ly t aper ed t o maint ain linear r elat ionship in t he
measur ement because air is compr essible.
 Metrology and Inspection 5.33
(ii ) Differential type
This compar at or is used t o compar e t wo sur face i.e., which sur face is at a higher level and which is lower.
Two pr essur e st r eams P1 and P2 does not mix wit h each ot her as shown in bellow. One st r eam goes inside
t he bellow and ot her r emains on t he out er sur face. Depending upon posit ion of bellow fr om t he neut r al
posit ion, it can be known t hat which sur face is higher and which is lower.

Bellow

( iii ) Back pressur e t ype

Back pr essur e r eadings can be not ed down fr om t he manomet er.

4. M echanical Comparators
(a) Usually cheaper t han t he ot her devices.
(b) Does not r equir e any ext er nal power supply t o oper at e.
(c) Accur acy in inspect ion is independent of accur acy in manufact ur ing differ ent linkages.
(d) Usually it has linear scale.
(e) M or e moving linkages which br ing down t he accur acy.
(f) Range of t he inst r ument is limit ed.
(g) Due t o t he iner t ia of moving linkages makes t he compar at or sensit ive t o machine vibr at ions.
Air gauging has r ecent ly incr eased due t o it s ver y high amplicat ions as no physical cont act is made eit her
wit h t he set t ing gauge or t he par t being measur ed.
Based on the physical phenomenon on which the operation of pneumatic gauges is based these may be classified
as :
(i ) Flow or velocit y t ype compar at or. I t oper at e by sensing t he manomet r y r at e of air flow.
(ii ) Back pr essur e t ype compar at or. I t oper at e by sensing t he velocit y differ ent ial pr essur e acr oss a vent ur i
chamber.
5. Opt ical Compar at or s
I n optical compar at or s, magnificat ion is obt ained wit h t he help of light beams which have advant age of being
st r aight and weight less. Opt ical compar at or s have t heir own built -in illuminating device which t ends to heat
t he inst r ument and t hus accur acy is liable t o suffer. I n mechanical opt ical compar at or s a small displacement
of t he measur ing plunger is amplified fir st by a mechanical syst em consist ing of pivot ed lever s and fur t her a
simple opt ical syst em involving t he pr oject ion of an image is amplified.
6. E lect r onic Compar at or s
I t is based on t he pr inciple of applicat ion of fr equency modulat ion or r adio oscillat ions. I t pr ovides a r eliable
means of measur ing ext er nal and int er nal measur ement s wit h a r emar kable accur acy and ease.
5.34 Metrology and Inspection

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
7. Pr ocess capabilit y of t he machine t ool is
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
(a) t o pr oduce maximum number of component s
1. The case wit h which obser vat ions can be made in unit t ime.
accur at ely is called (b) equal t o t he mean value of component
(a) r eadability (b) sensit ivity (c) equ al t o t h e t h r ee t i m es t h e st an dar d
(c) accur acy (d) r eputability deviation
2. Accur acy of measur ing equipment is (d) equal t o six t imes t he st andar d deviat ion.
(a) t he closeness wit h which a measur ement can 8. A bor e 14.67 mm in a wor kpiece can be measur ed
be read directly from a measur ing instr ument. by
(b) a measur e of how close t he r eading is t o t he (a) st eel r ule (b) pneumat ic gauges
t r ue size. (c) mi cr omet er (d) plug gauge
(c) the differ ence between measur ed value and 9. Scale sensit ivit y is defined as t he r at io of
act ual value (a) change i n scal e r eadi ng t o cor r espondi ng
(d) the smallest change in measur e that can be change in point er deflect ion
measured (b) least r eading of scale t o r ange of scale
3. Er r or s ar e gener ally di st r ibut ed in accor dance (c) l east r eadi ng of scal e t o uni t measur abl e
wit h t he Gaussian dist r ibut ion is quantity
(a) cont r ollable er r or s (d) least count of scale t o t or ange of scale
(b) calibr at ion er r or s 10. A thr ee-lobed par t if checked on 60° V-block would
(c) avoidable er r or s pr ovide magnificat ion of t he r adial out -of-r ound
char act er ist ics
(d) r andom er r or s
(a) 1 t ime (b) 2 t imes
4. Figur e given below shows the dimension obtained
on a component by a certain instrument. (c) 3 t imes (d) 4 t imes
11. A five-lobed par t , if gauged in t he V-block would
pr oduce t he magnificat ion of t he r adial out -of-
r ound char act er ist ics
(a) 0 t ime (b) 1 t ime
(c) 2 t imes (d) 3 t imes
This inst r ument is 12. A mast er gauge is a/an
(a) pr ecise but not accur at e (a) new gauge
(b) accur at e but not pr ecise (b) int er nat ional r efer ence standar d
(c) neit her pr ecise nor accur at e (c) st andar d gauge for check i ng accur acy of
gauges used on shop floor s
(d) sensit ive.
(d) gauge used by exper ienced t echnicians
5. Toler ance ar e specified
13. Expr essing a dimension as 32.5/32.3 mm is t he
(a) t o obt ain desir ed fit s case of
(b) because it is not possible t o manufact ur e in (a) unilat er al t oler ance
size exact ly (b) bilat er al t oler ance
(c) t o obt ain high accur acy (c) limit ing dimensions
(d) t o have pr oper allowance (d) none of t hese
6. The fact t hat how closely t he inst r ument r eading 14. M oir e fr inges ar e obser ved when
follows t he measur ed var iables is called
(a) an opt ical flat is placed over smoot h sur face
(a) fidelity
(b) a mi cr oscope i s used t o obser ve su r face
(b) accur acy t ext ur e
(c) t hr eshold sensit ivit y (c) index gr at ing is moved over scale gr at ing
(d) pr ecision (d) whit e light is diffused t hr ough a pr ism
 Metrology and Inspection 5.35
15. T h e su r f ace r ou gh n ess on a dr aw i n g i s 24. To inscr ibe lines par allel t o t he edges of a par t ,
r epr esent ed by t he inst r ument used is
(a) cir cles (b) squar es (a) ver nier calliper s
(c) zig-zag lines (d) tr iangles (b) scr ew gauge
16. I n i nt er fer omet r i c met hods, pat h di ffer ence (c) her maphr odit e calliper s
bet ween one br ight band and t he next is var ied (d) combinat ion set .
by
25. Which of the following ar e not contr ollable er r or s?
(a) half wave lengt h
(a) Calibr at ion er r or s
(b) t wo wave lengt h
(b) Envir onment al er r or s
(c) one quar t er wavelengt h
(c) Avoidable er r or s
(d) t wo wave lengt hs
(d) Random er r or s
17. The ‘best si ze wi r e’ for measur i n g ef fect i ve
diamet er of t hr eads is of diamet er 26. A scal e w h ose gr adu at i on m ar k s ar e i n a
di scont i nuou s manner and ar e composed of
p sec  p cos aligned number s indicating directly the numer ical
(a) (b)
2 2 value of t he quant it y measur ed is called
p cos (a) linear scale (b) equidist ant scale
(c) (d) none of t hese
4 (c) r egular scale (d) digit al scale
wher e, p = pit ch of t hr ead 27. The thr ead micr ometer measur es
 = semi-angle of t hr ead (a) major diamet er of t he t hr ead
18. On a t r iple t hr ead scr ew (b) minor diamet er of t he t hr ead
(a) lead = pit ch (b) lead = 3 pit ch (c) effect ive diamet er of t he t hr ead
1 (d) r oot diamet er of t he t hr ead
(c) lead = pit ch (d) lead = 9 pit ch 28. V-block is used in t he wor kshop t o check
2
(a) r oundness of a cylindr ical wor k
19. T h e m et h od of f r act i on al coi n ci den ces i n
int er fer omet r y t echniques is used for (b) sur face r oughness
(a) measur ement of end gauges (c) t aper on a job
(d) none of t hese
(b) flat ness of sur face
29. Repeat abilit y of measur ing equipment is
(c) linear displacement measur ement s
(a) t he closeness wit h which a measur ement can
(d) sur face r oughness measur ement be r ead dir ectly fr om a measur ing inst r ument
20. Aut ocollimat or is used for (b) a measur e of how close t he r eading is t o t he
(a) par allelism measur ement t r ue size
(b) st r aight ness measur ement (c) differ ence between measured value and actual
(c) flat ness measur ement value
(d) angular measur ement (d) t he capabilit y t o indicat e t he same r eading
again and again for a given measur and
21. The pitch cir cle r adius r p and base cir cle r adius r b
30. The pur pose of r atchet scr ew in micr omet er scr ew
of a gear ar e r elat ed by t he r elat ionship
gauge is t o
( = pr essur e angle) (a) lock a dimension
(a) r b = r p cos  (b) r b = r p sin  (b) impar t blow mot ion
(c) r b = r p t an  (d) r b = r r (cos – ) (c) maint ain sufficient and unifor m measur ing
22. Syst emat ic er r or s ar e pr essur e
(a) r andomly dist r ibut ed (d) t ake car e of wear of scr ew t hr eads.
(b) r egular ly r epet it ive in nat ur e LEVEL-1
(c) distributed on both + ve and – ve sides of mean
value 31. Ext er nal t aper can be accur at ely measur ed wit h
(d) unpr edictable t he help of
23. The maximum amount by which t he r esult differ s (a) sine bar and slip gauge
fr om t he t r ue value is called (b) dividing head
(a) cor r ect ion (b) discrepancy (c) combinat ion set
(c) er r or (d) accur acy (d) cl inomet er
5.36 Metrology and Inspection
32. St ick micr omet er s ar e designed for measur ing 39. The M -syst em and E-syst em i n met r ol ogy ar e
(a) bor e of cylinder s r elat ed wit h measur e-ment of
(b) longer ext er nal lengt hs (a) gear s
(c) cylindr icity (b) scr ew t hr eads
(c) flatness
(d) longer int er nal lengt hs
(d) sur face finish.
33. A sine bar is specified by
40. All t he t hr ead char act er ist ics can be measur ed
(a) it s t ot al lengt h
pr ecisely wit h
(b) cent r e dist ance bet ween t he t wo r oller s
(a) scr ew pit ch gauge
(c) size of t he r oller s (b) micr omet er wit h V-anvil
(d) weight of sine bar. (c) t ool r oom micr oscope
34. The number of slip gauges in a set ar e (d) t hr ead gauge
(a) 87 (b) 45 41. The advantage of ver nier caliper over micr o-meter
(c) 103 (d) 31 is t hat it
(e) all of t hese (a) is easier and quicker t o use
35. T h e essen t i al r equ i r em en t f or accu r acy of (b) is mor e accur at e
measur ement wit h a sine bar is (c) can be used to make both inside and outside
(a) flat ness of upper sur face measurements over a range of sizes
(b) equalit y of size and r oundness of r oller s (d) all of t hese
(c) exact distance between r oller axes and mutual 42. I n layout wor k, a pencil should not be used t o
par allelism. dr aw lines on met al because
(d) par allelism of r ol ler s t o upper sur face and (a) it will wipe off easily
equalit y of axis dist ance as fr om sur face (b) t he line will be t oo wide for accur at e wor k
(e) all of t hese (c) lines will smudge and be difficult t o see
36. I n a sine bar t he st andar d lengt h is measur ed (d) all of t hese
(a) fr om edge t o edge 43. The basic unit in angular measur ement is
(b) between inner cir cumfer ences of two r oller s (a) degr ee (b) minut e
(c) bet ween out er cir cumfer ence of t wo r oller s (c) second (d) r ight angle
(d) bet ween t he cent r es of t wo r oller s 44. M illimet r e scale in a micr omet er is mar ked on
(a) bar r el (b) thimble
37. Accur acy of set t ing a sine bar
(c) spindle (d) anvil
(a) decr eases appr eciably wit h st eep angle
45. Cir cular scale of t he micr omet er is mar ked on
(b) is poor for small angles
(a) anvil (b) bar r el
(c) is maximum when angle of measur ement is
45C (c) r at chet (d) thimble
(d) none of t hese 46. The following t ype of gauges has gauging sections
combined on one end
38. Figur e below shows a case of er r or in r elat ive
(a) combinat ion gauge
locat ion of sur faces. This case is for
(b) limit gauge
(c) Go and No Go gauge
(d) pr ogr essive gauge
47. Accur acy is
(a) r epeat abilit y of a measur ing pr ocess
(b) er r or of j u dgem en t i n r ecor di n g an
obser vat ion
(c) abi l i t y of i nst r ument t o r epr oduce same
(a) misalignment (b) axial r unout
r eading under ident ical sit uat ions
(c) r adial r unout (d) squar eness er r or
(d) agr eement of t he r esult of a measur ement
wit h t he t r ue value of t he measur e quant it y
 Metrology and Inspection 5.37
48. The least accur at e measur ing device is  d
(a) L = H tan  tan (45 –  )
(a) air gauge 2 2
(b) micr omet er scr ew gauge
(b) L = H cot
 d FG
 IJ
(c) opt ical pr oject or  tan 45 –
2 2 2H K
(d) st eel scale
49. A compar at or for it s wor king depends on (c) L = H tan
d FG  IJ
(a) accur at ely calibr at ed scale
2 H
tan 45 –
2 K
(b) compar ison with standar d such as slip gauges (d) None of t hese
(c) accur at e micr omet er gauge 54. Following figur e shows t he measur ement of
(d) opt ical devices
50. Pr ecision is
(a) r epeat abilit y of a measur ing pr ocess
(b) agr eement of t he r esult of a measur ement
wit h t he t r ue value of t he measur ed quant it y
(c) abilit y of an inst r ument t o r epr oduce same
r eading under ident ical condit ions
(d) all of t hese
(a) r oundness
51. Following figur e shows t he pr inciple of
(b) r adius of cur vat ur e
Hole
tolerance (c) cylindr icity
(d) flatness
55. The r adius of a pulley block is measur ed as shown
Number of
hole in t he figur e is calculat ed by
gradings

Tolerance
on shaft

(a) t r aceabilit y
l–d (l – d ) 2
(b) int er changeability (a) R = (b) R =
8d 4d
(c) matched fit s
(d) select ive assembly (l – d ) 2 (l – d ) 2
(c) R = (d) R =
52. M ost accur at e inst r ument is 8d 2d
(a) st eel scale 56. The r adi us of concave sur face can be easi l y
(b) micr omet er scr ew gauge det er mined by a dept h micr omet er as shown in
(c) ver nier caliper t he figur e. Radius of cur vat ur e R is equal t o
(d) opt ical pr oject or
53. A pl ug of di amet er d r est s i n an angl e as shown
i n fi gur e. A n equat i on gi vi ng di st ance L i n
t er ms of d, H and  woul d be

d2 h d2 h
(a)  (b) –
8h 2 8h 2

d2 d2
(c) h (d) h
4h 8h
5.38 Metrology and Inspection
57. The accessor y of slip gauges is 65. The cor r ect way of designat ing fit , is
(a) scr ibing and cent r e point s Hg g7
(b) measur ing jaws (a) (b)
g7 H8
(c) holder
(d) base 50 H g H8
(c) (d) – 50
(e) all of t hese g7 g7
58. The later al faces of slip gauges ar e at r ight angles
66. Dr illed holes and honed holes, could be designated
cor r ect t o wit hin
by following gr ades r espect ively
(a) ± 1 degr ee (b) ± 30 minut es
(a) H 5, H 11 (b) H 6, H 10
(c) ± 10 minut es (d) ± 1 minut e
(c) H 8, H 6 (d) H 10, H 5
59. According to accuracy, slip gauges are classified under
67. Sensit ivit y of measur ing equipment is
which of the following number of accuracy classes
(a) closeness wit h which a measur ement can be
(a) t wo (b) t hr ee
r ead dir ect ly fr om a measur ing inst r ument
(c) four (d) five
(b) a measur e of how close t he r eading is t o t he
60. A pr ot ect or in slip gauges is pr ovided t o t r ue size
(a) pr ot ect slip gauges when not is use (c) differ ence between measured value and actual
(b) take up all the wear when in use value
(c) clean t he slip gauges (d) t he smallest change in measur and t hat can
(d) facilit at e wr inging of slip gauges be measur ed
68. Expressing a dimension as 25.3+0.05 mm is the case of
LEVEL-2
(a) unilat er al t oler ance
61. The r at io of t he sur face ar ea A and t he volume V
(b) bilat er al t oler ance
of a cylinder of diamet er d and lengt h l is
(c) limit ing dimensions
A 6d A 4l (d) all of t hese
(a) = (b) =
V l V d 69. Sur face r oughness on a dr awing is r epr esent ed
by
A ld A 2d  4l
(c) = (d) = (a) tr iangles
V dl V dl
(b) cir cles
62. The t wo slip gauges in pr ecision measur ement
(c) squar es
ar e joint ed by
(d) r ect angles
(a) assembling (b) sliding
70. The di amet er of fi ni sh t ur ned shaft can best
(c) adhesion (d) wr inging
be check ed wi t h a
63. Plug gauges ar e used t o (a) combinat ion set
(a) measur e t he diamet er of t he wor kpieces (b) slip gauge
(b) measur e t he di amet er of t he hol es i n t he (c) height gauge
wor kpieces
(d) micr omet er scr ew gauge
(c) check diamet er of t he holes in t he wor kpieces
71. A ccu r at e cen t r i n g of w or k m ou n t ed i n an
(d) check lengt h of holes in t he wor kpieces independent chunk can be deter mined by using a
64. Ter m “ Allowance” i n li mit s and fit s is usuall y (a) cent r e gauge (b) height gauge
r efer r ed t o (c) dial indicat or (d) sur face gauge
(a) minimum clear ance bet ween shaft and hole 72. I n limit s and fit s syst em, basic shaft syst em is
(b) maximum clear ance bet ween shaft and hole one whose
(c) differ ence of t oler ance of hole and shaft (a) lower deviat ion is zer o
(d) di f f er en ce bet w een m ax i m u m si ze an d (b) upper deviat ion is zer o
minimum size of the hole (c) minimum clear ance is zer o
(d) maximum clear ance is zer o
 Metrology and Inspection 5.39
73. To ch eck t h e di am et er a t wi st dr i l l wi t h a 80. For gr ade I T 7, value of t oler ance is equal t o
mi cr omet er, t he measur ement must be t ak en (a) 8 i (b) 10 i
acr oss t he
(c) 16 i (d) 24 i
(a) mar gins of t he dr ill
81. Planer gauge is used for
(b) flut es of t he dr ill
(a) t est ing flat ness of sur face
(c) lips of t he dr ill
(b) adding t o ut ilit y of measur ement s on sur face
(d) web of t he dr ill plate
 0.00
74. Expr essing a dimension as 18.3  0.02 mm is t he (c) angular measur ement
case of
(d) all of t hese
(a) unilat er al t oler ance
82. I S specificat ions specify ver nier caliper s as t ype
(b) bilat er al t oler ance A, B and C. This classificat ion is based on
(c) limit ing dimensions (a) accur acy
(d) none of t hese (b) least count
75. I S : 919 on limit s and fit s specifies which of t he (c) r ange
fol l owi ng number s of gr ades of fundament al
(d) int er nal or ext er nal measu-r ement and for
t ol er an ces, an d f u n dam en t al dev i at i on s
mar king pur pose
r espectively
83. The cr oss-sect ion of st r aight edges upt o 180 mm
(a) 25, 18 (b) 25, 16
lengt h is
(c) 18, 22 (d) 18, 25
(a) r ect angular
76. Basic shaft and basic hole ar e those whose upper
(b) cir cular
deviations and lower deviations r espectively ar e
(c) I -section
(a) + ve, – ve (b) – ve, + ve
(d) elliptical
(c) zer o, zer o (d) none of t hese
84. Opt ical micr omet er is used t o
77. The st andar d t oler ance unit is equal t o
(a) measur e small linear displacement s
(a) 0.45 e 3
j
D + 0.001 D (b) measur e sur face pr ofiles
(c) measur e sur face r oughness
(b) 0.45 e D j + 0.001 D
4
(d) set ver y small displacement by r ot at ing t he
glass block t hr ough r elat ively lar ge angles
(c) 0.45 e D j + + 0.01 D
3
85. I n pr ecision polygon, a cent r al hol e and small
holes ar e dr illed t hr ough t he t hickness
(d) 0.45 e D j + 0.01 D (a) for mount ing pur poses
4

(b) t o achieve high accur acy

wher e D i s geomet r i c means of t he l ower
and upper diameters of a particular diameter (c) for ease of manufact ur e
step. (d) t o make t hem light
78. Eden-Rolt compar at or is a popular instr ument for 86. Pr eci si on pol ygons ar e cal i br at ed fr om fi r st
t he pr inciples using
(a) calibr at ion of slip gauges (a) one aut ocollimat or
(b) absolute measurement of length of slip gauges (b) t wo aut ocollimat or s
(c) measur ement of flat ness (c) t hr ee aut ocollimat or s
(d) measur ement of angles (d) t wo pr ecision spir it levels
79. I t is desir able t o handle t he slip gauges wit h a 87. Bevel pr ot r act or is used for
clot h or chamois leat her in or der t o (a) angular measur ement
(a) avoid injur y t o hands (b) linear measur ement
(b) pr ot ect t he sur faces of slip gauges (c) height measur ement
(c) insulat e t hem fr om t he heat of t he hand (d) flat ness measur ement
(d) none of t hese
5.40 Metrology and Inspection
88. Clinomet er is r elat ed wit h
(a) Engineer ’s par allels
(b) angle gauges
(c) spir it level
(d) bevel pr ot r act or
89. A compar ator
(a) needs t o be calibr at ed
(b) need not be calibr at ed
(c) cont ains a calibr at ed scale
(d) i s h i gh l y accu r at e ov er i t s com pl et e
measur ing r ange
90. T he essent i al con di t i on f or i nt er -f er om et r y
measur ement is
(a) an air gap (a wedge) of var ying thickness must
exist bet ween t he t wo sur faces
(b) an opt ical flat is r equir ed
(c) wor k sur face must be r eflect ive
(d) monochr omat ic sour ce of light is r equir ed
(e) all of t hese
91. The minimum t oler ance t o which mechine can
possi bl y be expect ed t o wor k adn pr oduce no
defect i ve under t he speci fi ed condi t i ons, of a
manufact ur ing pr ocess or a machine is called it s
(a) pr ocess capability st udy
(b) machine accur acy st udy
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) none of t hese
92. Toler ances ar e specified
(a) t o obt ain desir ed fit s
95. I n unilat er al t oler ance
(a) di mensi oi n i s al l owed t o var y onl y i n one
dir ect ion
(b) t ot al t oler ance is r elat ed t o a basic dimen-
sion
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) none of t hese
96. Accur acy of measur ing equipment is
(a) t he closeness wit h which a measur ement can
be r ead di r ect l y f r om a m easu r i n g
inst r ument
(b) a measur e of how close t he r eading is t o t he
t r ue size
(c) t he differ ence bet ween measur ed value and
actual value
(d) t he smallest change is measur ed t hat can be
measur ed
97. Pr ecision of measur ing equipment is
(a) t he closeness wit h which a measur ement can
be r ead di r ect l y f r om , a m easu r i n g
inst r ument
(b) a measur e of how close t he r eading is t o t he
t r ue size
(c) the difference between measured value and actual
value
(d) t he smallest change in measur and t hat can
be measur ed
98. Repeat abilit y of measur ing equipment is
(a) measur e of how close t he r eading is t o t he
t r ue size

(b) because it is not possible t o manufact ur e a (b) t he differ ence bet ween measur ed value and
size exact ly actual value

(c) t o obt ain high accur acy (c) t he smallest change in measur and t hat can
be measur ed
(d) t o have pr oper allowance
(d) t he capabilit y t o indicat e t he same r eading
93. Toler ances ar e basically specified in again and again for a given measur and.
(a) unilat er al for m (b) bilat er al for m 99. Advant age of ver nier caliper over micr omet er s is
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of t hese t hat it
94. Bilat er al t oler ance (a) is easier and quicker t o use
(a) usuall y have pl us and minus t oner ance of (b) is mor e accur at e
equal amount (c) can be used t o make bot h inside and out side
(b) specifies t he t ot al t oler ance on bot h sides of measur ement s over a r ange of sizes
t he basic dimension (d) none of t hese
(c) may be expr essed as 100. Combinat ion set can be used t o
25.000 + 0.001 – 0.002 mm (a) check angular sur faces
(d) syst em defines t he t heor et ically desir ed size (b) dr aw cir cles and ar cs
of t he basic size
(c) scr ibe lines
(e) all of t hese
(d) all of t hese
 Metrology and Inspection 5.41

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (d) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (d)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (d) 24. (c) 25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (c)

LEVEL-1
31. (a) 32. (d) 33. (b) 34. (e) 35. (e) 36. (d) 37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (d) 40. (c)
41. (c) 42. (a) 43. (d) 44. (a) 45. (d) 46. (d) 47. (d) 48. (d) 49. (b) 50. (a)
51. (d) 52. (d) 53. (c) 54. (b) 55. (c) 56. (a) 57. (e) 58. (c) 59. (d) 60. (b)

LEVEL-2
61. (d) 62. (d) 63. (c) 64. (a) 65. (c) 66. (d) 67. (d) 68. (b) 69 (a) 70. (d)
71. (c) 72. (b) 73. (a) 74. (a) 75. (d) 76. (c) 77. (a) 78. (a) 79. (c) 80. (c)
81. (b) 82. (d) 83. (a) 84. (d) 85. (a) 86. (b) 87. (d) 88. (c) 89. (a) 90. (e)
91. (c) 92. (b) 93. (c) 94. (d) 95. (c) 96. (b) 97. (a) 98. (d) 99. (d) 100. (a)
101. (d) 102. (d) 103. (c) 104. (d) 105. (b) 106. (a) 107. (c) 108. (d) 109. (a)
 6
C H A P TE R
Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic
Machinery
F L U I D PROPERTI ES
( i ) M ass density () .
I t is mass per unit volume.
Mass of t he fluid
 =
Volume of t he fluid
Dimensionally,  = ML– 3
I n M K S unit , it is expr essed in met r ic slugs per met er cube (slug/m 3).
I n SI unit s, it is expr essed in Newt ons per met er cube (N/m 3).
Densit y of liquid may be consider ed as const ant but densit y of gases var ies wit h t he var iat ion of
pr essur e and temperat ur e.
( i i ) Specific weight .
I t is weight of fluid per unit volume.
weight of fluid
 =
volume of t he fluid
I n M K S syst em, it is measur ed in kg/m 3.
I n SI syst em, it is measur ed in N/m 3.
To conver t  in SI unit s mult iply  (M K S) by 9.81. The specific weight of wat er is 9810 N/m 3.
Specific weight of a fluid var ies due t o
(a) change of gr avit y
(b) effect of pr essur e and t emeper at ur e
(i i i ) Specific volume ( vs).
I t is defined as volume per unit mass.
I n M K S unit it is measur ed in m 3/slug.
I n SI syst em it is measur ed in m 3/kg.
(iv) Specific gr avit y (S).
I t is defined as t he r at io of weight densit y (or densit y) of a fluid t o t he weight densit y (or densit y) of a
st andar d fluid. The st andar d liquid is wat er and t he st andar d gas is air. I t is a dimensionless quantit y.
M at hemat ically,
weight density (or density) of liquid
For liquids, S =
weight density (or density) of water
weight density (or density) of gas
For gases, S =
weight density (or density) of air
(v) Viscosit y (D ynamic viscosit y).
I t is defined as t he pr oper t y of fluid which offer s r esist ance
t o t he movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent
layer of t he fluid.
L et t wo fluid layer s at dist ances y and (y + dy ) fr om t he
sur face have velocit y values u and (u + du ) as shown in t he
figur e.
The t op layer causes a shear st r ess on t he adjacent lower
layer while t he lower layer causes a shear st r ess on t he
adjacent t op layer. The shear st r ess () is pr opor t ional t o F ig. Velocity variation near
t he r at e of change of velocit y wit h r espect t o y . a solid boundary
6.2 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery

du
M at hemat ically, 
dy
du
or =·
dy
wher e,  is const ant of pr opor t ionalit y known as coefficient of dynamic viscosit y
du
is called velocit y gr adient .
dy

=

du FG IJ
dy H K
Unit of viscosit y.
I n M K S syst em : kgf – sec/m 2
I n C.G.S. syst em : dyne – sec / cm 2. 1 dyne-sec/cm 2 is called one poise.
I n S.I . syst em : Newt on – sec / m 2 = Ns / m 2
(vi ) Kinemat ic viscosit y (  ).
I t is t he r at io of t wo physical pr oper t ies of a fluid. I t is defined as t he r at io bet ween dynamic viscosit y
and densit y of t he fluid
 viscosity
M at hemat ically, = =
 density
Unit of kinemat ic viscosit y .
FT L T
M 2  2 2
=
unit of 
= L =
2
T L = L , wher e F = ML
unit of  M M T T2
L3 L3
I n M K S and SI syst em : m /s. 2

I n CGS syst em : cm 2/s. One cm 2/s is known as one St oke.

One st oke = one cm 2/sec =

FG 1 IJ 2
= 10– 4 m 2/sec
H 100 K
The pr act ical unit of kinemat ic viscosit y is cent i st oke.
1
1 cent ist oke = st oke.
100
Newt on’s law of viscosit y.
I t st at es t hat , shear st r ess on a fluid element layer is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o t he r at e of shear st r ain.

M at hamat ically,  = 
FG du IJ
H dy K
CLASSI FI CI ATI ON OF FLU I DS
(i) I deal fluid: Thi s flui d is incompr essibl e and possesses no
viscosit y. Such a fluid is only an imaginar y fluid. All exist ing
fluids have some viscosit y.
(i i ) Real fluid: A fluid t hat possesses viscosit y is called a r eal
fluid. I n act ual pr act ice, all fluids ar e r eal fluids.
(i i i ) N ewtonian fluids: A r eal fluid in which t he shear st r ess is
dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o t he r at e of shear st r ain (or velocit y
gr adient ) is called Newt onian fluid.
(iv) N on-N ewtonian fluids: A r eal fluid in which t he shear st r ess
i s n ot pr opor t i on al t o t h e r at e of sh ear st r ai n
(or velocit y gr adient ) is called non-Newt onian fluid.
(v) I deal plastic fluid: A fluid in which t he shear st r ess is mor e
t han t he yield value and t he shear st r ess is pr opor t ional t o
t he r at e of shear st r ain (or velocit y gr adient ) is called ideal
plast ic fluid.
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.3
RH EOLOGI CAL CLASSI FI CATI ON OF FLU I DS.
du
Newt onian fluids Non-Newt onian fluids :   
dy
du
= 
dy
e.g. air, wat er and many Pur ely viscous fluids Viscoelast ic fluids
ot her engineer ing fluids Time-I ndependent Time-Dependent
behaveasNewtonianfluids
under nor mal (i ) Pseudoplast ic fluids (i) Thixot r opic fluids Viscoelast ic fluids
cir cumst ances.
du FG IJ
n
du
n
FG IJ du
 E

dy H K
,n<1   
dy H K
+ f(t ) 
dy
e.g. fine par t icle e.g. cr ude oils wher e E is modulus of
suspensions bent onit ic elast icit y
(ii ) Dilament fluids (ii) Rheopect ic fluids L iquid solid
FG du IJ n
,n 1
FG du IJ n

H dy K 
H dy K + f(t ), e.g. combinat ions
in pipe flow and
e.g. ult r afine ir r egular f(t ) incr eases par t icle polymer ised fluids wit h
suspensions dr ag r educt ion feat ur es.

(iii ) I deal plast ics or (iii) Rar e liquid-solid

Bingham fluids suspensions.
FG du IJ n
  0  
H dy K
e.g. wat er suspensions
of clay and fly ash.

VARI ATI ON OF VI SCOSI TY WI TH TEM PERATU RE.

Viscosit y of liquids decr eases wit h t he incr ease of t emper at ur e while viscosit y of t he gases incr eases wit h
t he incr ease of t emper at ur e.

For liquids,
LM 1
 = 0 1  t  t 2
OP
N Q
For gases,  = 0 + t –  t 2
CLASSI FI CATI ON OF FLU I DS BASED ON DEN SI TY AN D VI SCOSI TY.
Type of fluid Density Viscosity

I deal fluid const ant zer o

I ncompr essible fluid const ant non-zer o
I nviscid fluid const ant or var iable zer o
Real fluid var iable non-zer o
du
Newt onian fluid const ant or var iable =
dy

du
Non-Newt onian fluid const ant or var iable  
dy
p
Per fect gas zer o or non-zer o
RT
6.4 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery

CLASSI FI CATI ON OF FLOWS BASED ON M ACH N U M BER.

Type of flow M ach number, M
I ncompr essible flow M less t han 0.3
Compr essible subsonic flow M bet ween 0.3 and 1
Tr ansonic flow M r anging bet ween values less t han 1 and mor e t han 1
Super sonic flow M gr at er t han 1 but less t han 5
H yper sonic flow M gr eat er t han 5

COM PRESSI BI L I T Y
I t is t he r ecipr ocal of bulk modulus of elast icit y ‘k ’ and is defined as t he r at io of compr essive st r ess t o
volumet r ic st r ain.
V
L et V = volume of gas enclosed in a cylinder dV
p = pr essur e of gas when t he volume is V
L et pr essur e be incr eased t o (p + dp), so t hat cor r esponding
volume decr ease t o (V – dV)

FG dV IJ
 Volumet r ic st r ain = – H VK Cylinder Piston

[negat ive sign is due t o decr ease of volume when pr essur e value incr eases]

Bulk modulus, K =
Increase of pressure
=
dp
=–
FG dp IJ V
Volumetric strain FG dV IJ H dV K
H 
V K
1
Compr essibilit y =
K
SU RFACE TEN SI ON ( )
I t is defined as t he t ensile for ce act ing on t he sur face of a liquid in cont act wit h a gas or on t he sur face
bet ween t wo immiscible liquids such t hat the contact sur face behaves as if it is a membr ane under t ension.
The value of t his for ce per unit lengt h of t he fr ee sur face is same as t he sur face ener gy per unit ar ea.
I t is expr essed in S. I . syst em as N/m.
 Sur face t ension on a liquid dr oplet :
d 2
p =  d
4
4
 p=
d
wher e, d = diamet er of dr oplet
p = pr essur e inside t he dr oplet .
Wit h decr ease of diamet er of t he dr oplet , t he pr essur e int ensit y inside t he dr oplet incr eases.
 Sur face t ension on a hollow bubble :
8
p =
d
 Sur face t ension on a liquid jet :
2
p =
d
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.5

CAPI L L ARI T Y.

I t is defined as a phenomenon of r ise or fall of a liquid sur face in a small t ube  

r elat ive t o t he adjacent gener al level of liquid when t he t ube is held ver t ically
in t he liquid. The ter m used is capillar y r ise or capillar y fall. I t s value depends
upon specific weight of t he liquid, diamet er of t he t ube and sur face t ension of Diameter
h of tube = 2r = d
t he liquid.

d 2
For equilibr ium,  h  w =   d cos 
4
wher e  = angle made by sur face layer in t he glass t ube wit h glass t ube
w = specific weight of t he liquid Capillary rise

4  cos 
 h =
wd
For wat er, t he value of  is near ly zer o.
I f a glass is dipped in mer cur y, t he level of mer cur y in t he t ube will be lower
t han t he gener al level of t he out side liquid.
h
 2 
For equilibr ium, d cos = wh d
4 Mercury

4  cos 
or h=
wd
Value of  for mer cur y 

FLU I D STATI CS
I n fluid st at ics, fluids (liquids and gases) ar e at r est . Ther e is no r elat ive mot ion bet ween adjacent or
neighbour ing fluid layer s. The velocit y gr adient , which is equal t o change of velocit y bet ween t wo adjacent

du
fluid layer s divided by t he dist ance bet ween t he layer s i.e. will be equal t o zer o.
dy

Shear st r ess which is equal t o 

FG u IJ will also be zer o.
H y K
For ces act ing on t he fluid par t icles.
(i ) Due t o pr essur e of fluid nor mal t o t he sur face
(ii ) Due t o gr avit y (or self weight fo fluid par t icles)
Vapour pr essur e.
Pr essur e exer t ed by t he vapour for med at t he fr ee sur face of a liquid is called vapour pr essur e. This
phenomenon of vapor isation is due to the sur face molecules escaping the liquid by over coming the molecular
at t r act ive for ces by vir t ue of t heir t r anslat ional moment um.
Difference bet ween vaporisat ion and boiling :
Vapor isat ion occur s if vapour pr essur e < pr essur e above a liquid sur face at a t emper at ur e.
Boiling occur s if vapour pr essur e = pr essur e above a liquid sur face at a t emper at ur e.
Pascal’s law.
This law st at es t hat int ensit y of pr essur e at a point in a st at ic fluid is same in all t he dir ect ions.
6.6 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery

Pressure variat ion in a fluid at rest.

p A –
FG p  p . zIJ A + w (A  z) = 0
H z K
p
 =w
z
or p = wz
wher e, p = pr essur e above at mospher ic pr essur e
Fig. Forces on a fluid element
z = dept h of t he point fr om fr ee sur face

p
z= and t his is known as pr essur e head.
w

Absolut e pr essur e.
I t is defined as t he pr essur e which is measur ed wit h r efer ence t o absolut e vacuum pr essur e.
Gauge pr essure.
I t is defined as t he pr essur e which is measur ed t aking at mospher ic pr essur e as t he dat um.
Vacuum pr essur e.
I t is defined as t he pr essur e below t he at mospher ic pr essur e. The dat um in t his case is t he at mospher ic
pr essur e.
Mathematically, Absolut e pr essur e = At mospher ic pr essur e + Gauge pr essur e
i.e. pabs = pat m + pgauge
Vaccum pr essur e = At mospher ic pr essur e – Absolut e pr essur e

F orce on plane and curved surfaces.

du
H er e, = 0.
dy

Thus for ces act ing on t he fluid par t icles will be

(i) due t o pr essur e of fluid nor mal t o t he sur face
(ii) due t o gr avit y (or self weight of fluid par t icles).

Total pressure and Centre of pressure.

Tot al pr essur e is defined as t he for ce exer t ed by a st at ic fluid on a sur face eit her plane or cur ved, when t he
fluid comes int o cont act wit h t he sur face. This for ce act s always nor mal t o t he sur face.
wher e, A = t ot al ar ea of t he sur face

x = distance of centr e of gravity of the area from fr ee sur face

of fluid
G = cent r e of gr avit y of t he plane sur face
P = cent r e of pr essur e (a point )

h = dist ance of cent r e of pr essur e fr om fr ee sur face of fluid

w = specific weight of t he fluid
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.7

Tot al pr essur e over t he ar ea, P = w A x

Dist ance of cent r e of pr essur e fr om fluid sur face,

IG k2
h = x + = x + G
Ax x
wher e I G and K G ar e moment of iner t ia of t he sur face about an axis passing t hr ough t he cent r e of gr avit y
of t he sur face lying on it s plane par allel t o t he fluid sur face and r adius of gyr at ion of t he body. Cent r e of
pr essur e lies below t he cent r e of gr avit y of t he ver t ical sur face.
I nclined plane surface submerged in a fluid.

F ig. (a) F ig. (b)

Consider Fig.(a). Tot al pr essur e on one face of t he lamina, P = w A x

Ver t ical dept h of t he cent r e of pr essur e fr om t he fluid sur face

I G sin2  k 2 sin 2 
h= x + = x + G
Ax x

kG2 sin 2 
 When  = 0, t hen = 0, and cent r e of gr avit y (G) and cent r e of pr essur e (P) coincide.
x

k G2
 When  = 90, t he value of h = x + which is same as for ver t ical submer sion.
x

Consider Fig. (b) t o find t ot al pr essur e and t he cent r e of pr essur e of a cur ved sur face submer ged in a fluid.

The cur ved sur face AB lies submer ged inside t he fluid.
Consider a small ar ea dA at a dept h of h fr om wat er sur face. Tot al pr essur e p over t his small ar ea dA act s
nor mal t o t he sur face.

Tot al pr essur e over t he whole cur ved ar ea, P = z

area
wh  dA

Tot al for ce on t he cur ved sur face, p = px2  p2y

py
and inclinat ion of r esult ant wit h hor izont al is given by, t an  =
px
6.8 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery

Geometric properties of plane figures.

S. N o. F igur e Figure with C.G. Area and M oment

shown on it of I nertia
1. Rectangle A = bd
bd 3
IG =
12

d 2
2. Cir cle A=
4

d 4
IG =
64

d 2
3. Semicir cle A=
8

d 4
I G = 0.11r 4; I 0 =
8
1
4. Tr iangle A= bd
2

bd 3 bd 3
IG = ; I0 =
36 12
d
5. Tr apezium A= (a + b)
2

a 2  4ab  b 2 Fd I 3
IG =
a b
GH 36 JK
2bd 8
6. Par abola A= ; IG = bd 3
3 175
16 2
I0 = bd3; I 01 = bd3
105 7
 bd  bd 3
7. Ellipse A= ; IG =
4 64
Per imet er (appr oximat ely)
 
(b  d ) or {1.5 (b  d ) – bd }
2 2

BU OYAN CY AN D FLOTATI ON .
A body may float in liquid in fully immer sed
st at e or in a par t ly immer sed st at e.
Cent re of buoyancy.
I t is the cent r oid of t he displaced fluid. I t is
t he point wher e buoyant for ce is supposed
t o act .

(a)
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.9
M et acent r e.
When a float ing body is t ilt ed by a small angle, t he point of int er sect ion of line joining pr evious buoyant
cent r e and cent r e of gr avit y G, and ver t ical t hr ough t he new buoyant cent r e is called M et acent r e. Thus
met acent r e is t he int er sect ion of buoyant for ce and cent r eline of t he body. I t is t he point about which a
float ing body oscillat es when it is t ipped or made unst able.
Not at ions used :
F B = buoyant for ce
V = volume of float ing body
x = x coor dinat e of cent r e of element ar y ar ea fr om r efer ence axis
x = dist ance fr om t he axis t o t he line of act ion of buoyant for ce
Refer figur es (a) and (b)
(b)
BM = dist ance bet ween met acent r e and t he buoyant cent r e
GM = met acent r ic height , i.e. dist ance bet ween cent r e of gr avit y and met aceent r e.
I I
We have, BM = , and GM = – BG
V V
P0 x
 GM = [for P0 and x r efer Fig. (b)]
W tan 
The body is in
(a) st able equilibr ium if M is above G or GM is posit ive.
(b) unst able equilibr ium if M is below G or GM is negat ive.
(c) neut r al equilibr ium if M coincides wit h G or GM = 0.
L ar ger is t he met acent r ic height (GM ), mor e st able is t he body.
M AN OM ET RY.
M anomet er s ar e used for t he measur ement of fluid pr essur e by measur ing height of t he same or anot her
const ant densit y fluid at r est .
Refer r ing figur e below, a liquid under pr essur e is cont ained in a pipe of diamet er D. Anot her t ube is fit t ed
on t o t his pipe wit h t he end of t ube opening t o at mpsher e.
Patm
Patm

1 density

 density
 density
h D h1
P

pressure 'P' h
D

Fig. direct vertical tube manometer, i.e. piezometer Fig. U tube manometer
P = gh + Patm P + gh = P atm + 1gh 1
 (P – P atm) = (1h 1 – h)g

Patm
P D

h h1


F ig. I nclined tube manometer

P + gh = P atm + 1gh 1 sin 
 (P – P atm) = (1h 1 sin  – h)g
6.10 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery
D ifferent ial manomet er s.
These manomet er s ar e used fr equent ly in flow syst ems t o est imat e t he pr essur e at a point wit h r espect t o
t hat at anot her by differ ence.
Upr ight differ ent ial manomet er is convenient when 3 >1 and 2. This syst em will be adopt ed when t he
fluids A and B ar e not allowed t o come in cont act wit h each ot her.
M anomet er fluid wit h densit y 3 is per mit t ed t o have cont act wit h bot h t he fluids A and B.

B1 P2

p3
h3
h1
P1 A

p1
h2 p2
0 0

U pr ight differ ent ial manomet er I nver t ed different ial manometer

Pressure balance across O – O Pressure balance across O – O
P 1 + 1gh 1 + 2gh 2 = P 2 + 3gh 3 P 1 – 1gh 1 =P 2 – 2gh 2 – 3gh 3
 (P 1 – P 2) = (2h 2 – 1h 1 – 2h 3)g  (P 1 – P 2) = (2h 2 – 1h 1 – 3h 3)g

FLU I D KI N EM ATI CS
Types of Fluid Flow.
(i ) L aminar and t urbulent flows:
M ain differ ence in laminar and t ur bulent flows is t he r andomness and impr act icabilit y of t ur bulent
flow as compar ed to t hat in laminar flow. A t ur bulent flow compr ises of mor e ir r ever sibilit y. Tur bulent
losses ar e pr opor t ional t o V 2 wher eas laminar losses ar e pr opor t ional t o V.
( ii ) St eady and unst eady flows:
I n st eady flow, t ime r at e of change of a par t icular pr oper t y (or flow par amet er ) at a given sect ion is
equal t o zer o. Thus if u is point velocit y at a sect ion and for all inst ant s of t ime,

du
if = 0, t hen flow is st eady;
dt

du
if  0, t hen flow is unst eady..
dt
( iii ) U nifor m and non-uniform flows:
du
I n case of non-uni for m fl ow, t he change of say vel oci t y per uni t di st ance i.e. i s non zer o.
dx
The val ues of vel oci t y at t wo di st ant sect i ons at t he same i nst ant of t i me ar e t o be seen.

I f t hey ar e differ ent , it is non-unifor m ot her wise it is unifor m.

( iv) Viscous and non-viscous flows:
Viscous flow makes due consider at ion of t he viscosit y effect s (r eal fluids) and non viscous flows
develop ideal fluid theor y. I deal fluid is fr ict ionless, incompr essible fluid, but a per fect gas should not
be confused wit h an ideal fluid. I n ideal fluid, t he flow pr ocess is r ever sible.
I n adiabat ic flow, no heat is t r ansfer r ed t o and fr om t he fluid. Rever sible adiabat ic flow is isent r opic.
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.11
(v) Compr essible and incompr essible flows:
When var iat ion of mass densit y of a fluid is consider ed, t he t r eat ment is t hat of compr essible flows
other wise it is incompr essible. Wat er at pr essur e mor e than 600 kPa is to be tr eat ed as compr essible.
( vi ) One t wo and t hree dimensional flows:
I f changes of velocit y, pr essur e et c. ar e neglect ed in t r ansver se t o main flow dir ection, t he t r eatment
is t hat of one-dimensional flow and if consider ed, it is t hat of t wo mensional flow, i.e.
du
if = 0, it is one-dimensional
dy

du
if  0 , it is t wo-dimensional.
dy
A t hr ee dimensional flow is a flow in which t he velocit y component s u , v   in t hr ee mut ually
per pendicular dir ect ions ar e funct ions of space coor dinat es x, y, z and t ime t .

( vii ) Rot at ional and ir r ot at ional flows:

du dv dw dv du dw
If = , = , = ; t he flow is ir r ot at ional ot her wise it is r ot at ional.
dy dx dy dz dz dx
For r ot at ional flow, t he cr oss der ivat ives of velocit y component s in t wo mut ually per pendicular
dir ect ions ar e unequal.
Also symbolically, if V r efer s t o velocit y.
St eady U nsteady
One dimensional flow V = f (x ) V = f (x, t )
Two dimensional flow V = f (x, y ) V = f (x, y, t )
Thr ee dimensional flow V = f (x, y, z) V = f (x, y, z, t )
( viii ) Sub-crit ical, cr it ical or super -crit ical (for open channel) flow
( ix) Sub-sonic, sonic or super sonic (for compressible fluids) flow
N ot e: All t he above t ypes of flow can exist independent of each ot her, making it possible t o have var ious
combinat ions.

STREAM LI N ES.
I t is an imaginar y line dr awn in a flow field such t hat a t angent dr awn at any point on t his line r epr esent s
t he dir ect ion of velocit y vect or. Fr om t he definit ion, it follows t hat t her e can be no flow acr oss a st r eam
line.
Consider a par t icle moving along a st r eam line for a shor t dist ance ds, having it s component s dx, dy and
dz along t he t hr ee mut ually per pendicular axes.
L et velocit y component s of V s in x , y , and z dir ect ions be u, v and w r espect ively.
Time t aken by a fluid par t icle t o move t hr ough a dist ance ds along a st r eam line wit h a velocit y V s is
ds
t =
Vs

dx dy dz
which is t he same as t = = =
u v w

dx dy dz
H ence differ ent ial equat ion for a st r eam line is, = =
u v w
6.12 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery
Forms of energy present in t he fluid.
(i) Elevat ion
(ii) K inetic
(iii) Pr essur e head
(iv) I nt er nal ener gy
P1 V2 P V2
Gener al equat ion is, + z1 + 1 + H m = 2 + z2 + 2 + J [I 2 – I 1 + q] ... (1)
1 2g 2 2g
wher e J = mechanical equivalent of heat
(I 2 – I 1) = change of int er nal ener gy
H m = ext er nal sour ce of ener gy supplied at a cer t ain r at e
q = heat unit s per unit weight of flowing fluid t r ansfer r ed out of t he fluid t o t he sur r oundings.
I n equat ion (1)
(i) I f r at e of loss of heat is such t hat t emper at ur e of t he syst em r emains const ant , t hen I2 = I1
(ii) For well insulat ed syst ems, q = 0
(iii) I f t her e is no ext er nal supply of heat ener gy, H m = 0
(iv) For incompr essible flow, 1 = 2 = 
(v) The quant it y [J (I 2 – I 1) + J q] r efer s, t o fr ict ional head loss = h L
P1 V2 P V2
Equat ion (1) t hen r educes t o, + z1 + 1 = 2 + z2 + 2 + h L
 2g  2g
LM P  z  V OP
2

Somet imes, h L is neglect ed being small, t hen

N  2 g Q becomes a const ant value.
The above gener al energy equat ion is applicable for
(i) ideal and r eal fluids
(ii) liquid and gases or vapour s and
(iii) compr essible and incompr essible fluids
VELOCI TY AN D ACCELERATI ON S.
L et V be t he r esult ant velocit y at any point in a fluid flow. L et u, v and w be it s component s in t he x, y and
z dir ect ions. The velocit y component s ar e funct ions of space co-or dinat es and t ime.
M at hemat ically, t he velocit y component s ar e given as :
u = f 1 [ x, y, z, t ], v = f 2 [ x, y, z, t ], and w = f 3 [ x, y, z, t ]
Result ant velocit y, V = | ui + vj+ wk| = u 2  v 2  w2
du u dx u dy u . dz u
ax = = . + . + +
dt x dt y dt z dt t
dx dy dz
But = u, = v , and =w
dt dt dt
du u u u u
 ax = =u + v +w +
dt x y z t
dv u u u u
Similar ly, ay = =u + v +w +
dt x y z t
dw w w w w
and az = = u v w 
dt x y z t
V
For st eady flow, =0
x
wher e V is r esult ant velocit y
u v w
 = = =0
t t t
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.13

L ocal acceler at ion.

I t is defiend as t he r at e of change of velocit y wit h r espect t o t ime at a given point in a flow field.
u v w
, and ar e known as local acceler at ions.
t t t
Convect ive acceler at ion.
I t is defined as t he r at e of change of velocit y due t o t he change of posit ion of fluid par t icles in a fluid flow.
u v w
I n t he above expr essions for ax, ay and az , it excludes t he fact or s , and .
t t t
VELOCI TY POTEN TI AL.
The velocit y pot ent ial is not a physical quant it y which could be dir ect ly measur ed and t her efor e, it s zer o
posit ion can be ar ibt r ar ily chosen.
I t is defined as a scalar funct ion of space and t ime such t hat it s negat ive der ivat ive wit h r espcet t o any
dir ect ion gives t he fluid velocit y in t hat dir ect ion. I t is denot ed by t he symbol .
M at hemat ically, velocit y pot ent ial is defined as  = f (x, y, z ) for st eady flow such t hat
  
u = – ;v = – and w = –
x y z
wher e u, v and w ar e component s of velocit y in x, y and z dir ect ions r espect ively.
The cont iunit y equat ion for incompr essible st eady flow is

–
FG
 IJ

–
 FG –
 IJ FG IJ
x H
x

yK y

zH z K =0
H K
2  2  2
or   =0
x 2 y 2 z2
V 2 = 0,
which is L aplace equat ion for 
Any value of  t hat sat isfies L aplace equat ion will cor r espond t o some case of fluid flow.
St r eam F unct ion ( ).
I t is defined as the scalar function of space and time, such that its partial derivative with r espect to any
direction gives the velocity component at r ight angles to that dir ection. I t is defined for two dimensional flow.
Proper t ies of st r eam funct ion.
(i) I f st r eam funct ion  exist s, it is a possible case of fluid flow which may be r ot at ional or ir r ot at ional.
(ii) I f st r eam funct ion sat isfies t he L aplace equat ion, it is a possible case of an ir r ot at ional flow.
The pr oduct of slope of equipot ent ial line and t he slope of st r eam line at t he point of int er sect ion is
equal t o – 1. Thus equipot ent ial lines ar e or t hogonal t o t he st r eam lines at all point s of int er sect ion.
)
Flow N et s –2

(
E qu i pot en t i al l i n es an d st r eam l i n es i n t er sect each ot h er 
)   + 2
–
or t hogonally. The st r eamlines and equipot ent ial lines for m a net (
h
of mut ually per pendicular lines which is called flow net .  + 

The flow net i s a gr aphical r epr esent at ion of t wo dimensional, 90°
90°

ir r otat ional flow and consists of a family of str eamlines inter sect ing
or t hogonally a famil y of equi pot ent ial lines and in t he pr ocess
for ming small cur vilinear squar es. Figure shows a flow net , in
which  value decr eases in t he dir ect ion of flow.
I f t he di st ance bet ween st r eaml i nes at some smal l r egi on of fl ow i s h, and t he di st ance bet ween
equipot ent ial lines is s, t hen for a flow net , s  h. The smaller t hese dimensions, t he bet t er will be t he
r epr esent at ion of flow. This concept may be explained fr om t he r elat ion
 
=
h s
I f  = , t hen  h = s
6.14 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery
M et hods of drawing F low net s.
(i) By mat hemat ical analysis
(ii) By hydr aulic models
(iii) By gr aphical met hods
(iv) By elect r ical analogy
Equat ion of M ot ion.
Accor ding t o Newt on’s second law of mot ion, t he net for ce F x act ing on a fluid element in t he x dir ect ion is
equal t o mass m of t he fluid element mult iplied by t he acceler at ion ax in t he x -dir ect ion.
Thus mat hemat ically, F x = max
For ces pr esent in t he fluid flow.
(i) F g, gr avit y for ce
(ii) F p, t he pr essur e for ce
(iii) F v, for ce due t o viscosit y
(iv) F t , for ce due t o t ur bulence
(v) F e for ce due t o compr essibilit y
Thus in t he above equat ion,
net for ce, F x = (F g)x + (F p)x + (F v)x + (F t )x + (F c)x
(i) I f for ce due t o compr essibilit y F e, is negligible, t hen r esult ing net for ce
F x = (F g)x + (F p)x + (F v)x + (F t )x
and equat ions of mot ion ar e called Reynold equations of motion.
(ii ) For flow, wher e F t is negligible, t he r esult ing equat ions of mot ion ar e called Navier-St okes equat ions.
(iii) I f t he fl ow i s assumed t o be i deal , vi scous for ce F v i s zer o and equat i ons or mot i on ar e cal l ed
Euler ’s equat ions of mot ion . 

CON TROL VOLU M E AN ALYSI S FOR M ASS M OM EN TU M AN D EN ERGY CON SERVATI ON

Cont r ol volume. D
I t is an ident ified volume fixed in space. A cont r ol volume
may eit her be infinit esimally small or as lar ge as desir ed.
A cont r ol volume is bounded by a cont r ol sur face. C

An infinitesimal contr ol volume is called differential control A

volume. A differ ent ial cont r ol volume is assumed t o have

ver y small but non-zer o dimension. I t s volume is denot ed Control volume ABCDA
by V and it s cont r ol sur face by s. B
Differential control
M ass equat ion. volume

This is also called cont inuit y equat ion . Consider t he fluid between t wo sect ions A and B. Since t her e can be
no flow acr oss t he walls of t he t ube, aft er a given t ime t , t he same fluid will be cont ained bet ween A ' and
B '. Since under st eady condit ions of flow, mass of t he fluid bet ween A and B r emains const ant , t he mass
ent er ing t he sect ion at A will be equal t o t he mass leaving at B.
B B
Thus 1A 1s1 = 2A 2s2 A A
A2
s1 s
Dividing by dt , 1A 1 = 2 A 2 2 A1
t t
2
s1 s 1
As t  0,  u1 , 2  u 2
t t
u1
 1A 1u 1 = 2A 2u 2 (cont inutiy equat ion) u2
dV
and A 1u 1 = A 2u 2 = s1 s 2
dt
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.15
M OM EN TU M EQU ATI ON .
I t is based on t he second law of mot ion, i.e. net for ce act ing in any dir ect ion is equal t o r at e of change of
moment um in t hat dir ect ion, i.e.
linear impulse = change in linear moment um
I n t he x dir ect ion, I nit ial linear impulse linear impulse = Final linear moment um
 Q. t . v x1 F x . t = Q. t . v x2
Q
or F x = Q (v x2 – v x1) =
g
b g
vx2  vx1
wher e v x2 and v x1 = component s of velocit y in x -dir ect ion of point s 1 and 2.
F x = component for net for ce in x -dir ect ion.
Q
For pipe flow, p1 A 1 – p2 A 2 = b
g
v2  v1 g
wher e suffix 1 indicat es upst r eam point and suffix 2 indicat es downst r eam point .
V 1 and V 2 ar e aver age velocit ies at sect ions 2 and 1 of pipe.
M oment of moment um equat ion.
I f a fluid par t icle of mass m moves along a cur ved pat h such t hat it s dist ance fr om t he axis of r ot at ion (i.e.
fixed cent er ) changes wit h t ime, t hen r adial dist ance will be differ ent at differ ent posit ions of t he par t icle.
I f t he flow ent er s t he cont r ol volume at a unifor m velocit y v 1 and at a st eady r at e, t hen
moment um of flow ent er ing cont r ol volume = Q v 1
I f t his flows has a r adius r 1, t hen
moment of moment um of flow ent er ing cont r ol volume = Q v 1 r 1
Similar ly, if v 2 and r 2 ar e velocit y and r adius at t he out let of cont r ol volume, t hen
moment of moment um of flow leaving t he cont r ol volume = Q v 2 r 2
Accor ding t o moment of moment um pr incipal, t he r esult ing t or que is equal t o t he t ime r at e of change in
moment of moment um.

Ther efor e T = Q (v 2 r 2 – v 1 r 1)
BERN OU LLI ’S EQU ATI ON .
Assumpt ions.
(i) I deal fluid
(ii) Cont inuit y of flow
(iii) St eady and incompr essible flow.
p
Euler ’s ener gy equat ion is,  gdz  v  v = 0

I nt egr at ing, we get
dp
 z z z
 gdz  vdv = const ant

For an incompr essible flow, = const ant

p v2
  gz  = const ant (Ber noulli’s ener gy equat ion)
 2
p v2
or  z = const ant
g 2g
p p
= = pr essur e ener gy per unit weight of fluid or pr essur e head
g 
v2
= kinet ic ener gy per unit weight or kinet ic head
2g
z = pot ent ial ener gy per unit weight or pot ent ial head
6.16 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery

APPLI CATI ON S OF BERN OU LLI ’S EQU ATI ON .

I t is applied t o t he pr oblems of
(i) flow under a sluice gat e which is a const r uct ion in an open channel
(ii) fr ee liquid jet
(iii) r adial flow
(iv) fr ee vor t ex mot ion.

FLOW TH ROU GH AN ORI FI CES.

F low t hr ough small orifices :
Jet of wat er or fluid has minimum ar ea at vena cont r act a.

Area of jet at vena cont r act a

Coefficient of cont r act at ion,CC =
Ar ea of opening
= 0.61 for d << H 1

Ber noulli’s equat ion gives, U t = 2 gH 1 and U a = Cv 2 gH 1

wher e U t and U a ar e t heor et ical and act ual velocit ies at vena cont r act a.
I f t her e is no fr ict ion, Cv = 1.
Other wise Cv = 0.97 t o 0.99
Q = ar ea  velocit y

= Cc a Cv 2 gH 1 = Cd a 2 gH
wher e, Cd = dischar ge coefficient = Cc  Cv
Deter minat ion of coefficient of velocit y (Cv).
By t he t r aject or y met hod
x
Cv =
4 yH

F low t hrough large orifice :

When d is not ver y small compar ed t o H 1 or H 2 ,

dQ = Cc B dH 2gH

I nt egr at ing over H 1 and H 2 gives

2
Q= Cc 2g.B H 3/2 3/2
2  H1
3

Neglect ing velocit y of appr oach, we get

2
LMF U 20 I 3/2
F U 20 I 3/2 OP
Q=
3
Cc 2g.B
MNGH H 2 
2g JK GH
 H1 
2g JK PQ
I f velocit y of appr oach is t aken int o account , value of Cc for lar ge or ifices used ar e obt ained fr om
st andar d char t s.
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.17
LAM I N AR FLOW
I n laminar flow the fluid par ticles move along st r aight , par allel paths in layer s or laminae. The magnitudes
of t he velocit ies of adjacent laminae ar e not same.
Characteristics of laminar flow.
(i) The flow is gover ned by t he law r elat ing t o r at e of angular defor mat ion, i.e.
dv
=  for flow in x dir ect ion.
dy
(ii) Ther e is pr act ically no int er fer ence of fluid par t ilces of one layer over t hose of adjacent layer.
(iii) Ther e is “ no slip” condit ion occur s at t he boundar y.
(iv) The flow is r ot at ional.
(v) Ther e is continuous dissipation of ener gy due t o viscous, shear and ener gy must be supplied exter nally
t o maint ain t he flow.
(vi) Ener gy loss is pr opor t ional t o fir st power of velocit y and viscosit y.
V. l 
(vii) Flow r emains laminar as long as < Rcr it ical .

Cr it ical velocit y.
The velocit y at which t he flow changes fr om laminar t o t ur bulent is called cr it ical velocit y . I t is t he velocit y
at lower cr it ical Reyolds number. I t is differ ent for differ ent fluids.
A flow is mor e likely t o be laminar if
(i) velocit y v is low
(ii) widt h or diamet er of passage is small
(iii) densit y  is low
(iv) viscosit y of t he flowing fluid is high.
The above four var iables ar e gr ouped in t he for m of a non-dimensional par a called Reynolds number, Re.
Reynolds number.
Reynolds det er mined a non-dimensional quant it y called Reynolds number (R).
 Vd Vd
For cir cular pipe flowing full, Re = 
 
wher eV = mean velocit y
d = diamet er of pipe
 = kinemat ic viscosit y of t he fluid
 = mass densit y of fluid
µ = absolut e viscosit y
For non-cir cular cr oss-sect ion, r at io of t he cr oss-sect ional ar ea t o t he wet t ed per imet er is called h ydr aulic
r adius (R). I t is used in t he Reynolds number, viz.

Re =
b g
V 4R


wher e, =  = kinemat ic viscosit y

Flow t hr ough a pipe (or closed conduit ) is
L aminar at Re values less t han 2000 t ur bulent at Re values mor e t han 3000.
I n t r ansit ion st age at Re values bet ween 2000 and 3000.
 L aminar flow depends upon: vel oci t y of fl ow, ar ea of sur face i n cont act , t emper at ur e of fl ui d
independent of nat ur e of sur face in cont act and pr essur e of flow.
 Tur bulent flow depends upon squar e of velocit y of flow, ar ea of sur face in cont act , t emper at ur e, densit y
of fluid and nat ur e of cont act and is independent of pr essur e of flow.
6.18 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery
U pper and lower cr it ical Reynolds number :
The Reynolds number above which t he flow changes fr om laminar t o t ur bulent is called lower cr it ical
Reynolds number . Velocit y of t he fluid cor r esponding t o t he lower cr it ical Reynolds number called lower
critical velocity .
Similar ly, Reynolds number and t he velocit y which t ur bulent flow may change t o laminar flow ar e call ed
upper cr it ical Reynolds number and upper cr it ical velocit y r espect ively . The cr it ical Reynolds number in
differ ent sit uat ions may be differ ent depending upon choice of t he char act er lengt h l , in place of t he
diamet er d chosen for pipe flow.

Case Char acterist ic lengt h U pper cr it ical

Reyonlds N umber
1. Pipe flow
2. Open channel flow (a) H ydr aulic mean dept h R 4000
(b) Flow dept h, y 2000
3. Par allel plat es Spaced ‘a’ apar t 300
4. M ovement of small spher e Spher e diamet er 3000
t hr ough st ationar y fluid

Dischar ge velocit y is given by,

h
u = k.= (– ) k
d p rz b g
l dl
The law is valid for velocit ies upt o 3 t o 4.5 mm/sec.
Relat ion bet ween Shear st r ess and Pressure gradient .

p 2u
For st eady t wo dimensional unifor m flows,   2 =0
x y
u  p z
But    , t her efor e 
y  x y
i.e. pr essur e gr adient in t he dir ect ion of flow is equal t o t he shear gr adient nor mal t o t he dir ect i on of
mot i on.
St oke’s law.
Resist ing for ce dr ag on a small spher e moving under laminar condition in a viscous fluid was fir st calculat ed
by St okes and is known as St oke’s solut ion.
Tot al dr ag, F D = 3  µ Vd
Out of which  µ V d is cont r ibut ed by the pr essur e and r emaining 2 µVd is contr ibut ed by t he shear str ess
on t he body.
The spher e aft er a shor t dist ance of fall in t he viscous fluid at t ains a const ant velocit y called t er minal
velocit y . To at t ain t his equillibr ium of t he spher e under t he st eady st at e condit ion, t he dr ag for ce and
buoyant for ce must add up t o balance t he weight of t he falling spher e.
 d3
At equilibr ium, F D = 3. . V. d . =
6
b
s  g
d2
and t er minal velocit y, V =
18 
b
s   g
Above expr essions ar e valid for R < 1 and is known as Stokes’law.
Dr ag for ce.
The dr ag for ce exper ienced by t he spher e is gener ally expr essed as
 V2
CD = FD .A
2
wher e, A = ar ea of cr oss-sect ion of t he moving body nor mal t o t he dir ect ion of mot ion
CD = known as t he coefficient of dr ag.
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.19
St eady laminar flow in hor izont al circular pipe (H agen-Poisuile equat ion).
For st eady laminar flow t o occur in t he pipe, a pr essur e gr adient is maint ained in t he dir ect ion of flow
which over comes t he fr ict ional for ces (or shear for ces) opposing t he flow. I t is also assumed t hat t he
pr essur e is dist r ibut ed unifor mly acr oss t he pipe cr oss-sect ion.
Shear stress distribution : Figur e shows a hor izont al pipe of r adius conveying a viscous incompr essible
fluid of viscosit y µ.  0

ro dr 
r dp U p r 2
= . r Umax (p +
p
dr)  r2
2 dl r

This r elat ion holds goods for laminar as well as t ur bulent flow. The negat ive sign indicat es t hat t he
pr essur e is decr easing in t he dir ect ion of flow.
r dp
At r = maximum,  0 = (– ) 0 .
2 dl
and at r = 0, = 0
Velocity distribution : Velocit y dist r ibut ion for laminar flow is given by

u =  b g 41 FGH  pl IJK er 2

0  r2 j
This is equat ion of a par abola, so t he maximum velocit y var ies par abolically along t he diamet er.
M aximum velocity (U max) : M aximum velocit y will be obt ained, if r = 0, i.e. at t he cent er.

U max = b g 41 FGH pl IJK . r 0

2

1 F p I
Q = b g G J . r
8  H l K
Discharge : 0
2

Average or M ean velocity of flow through the pipe : I t is obt ained fr om cont inuit y equat ion,

V 

Q
r02
b g 81 FGH  pl IJK . r
  2
0

L et aver age velocit y V occur s at r adius r 1, t her efor e equat ing u t o V, we get

bg 81 FGH  pl IJK .  r

2
0 =  b g 41  pl er 2
0  r2 j
H ead loss : Fr om H agen-Poiseulli’s equat ion for laminar flow,
p1  p2 8 V L 32  V L
H ead loss, h l =   .
  r02  d2

128 VL
Also, hl =
  d4
Relat ion bet ween Darcy’s frict ion coefficient f and Re.
For laminar flow t hr ough cir cular pipe (i.e. for Re < 2000),
16
f =
Re
F r2 I
Local velocity in t er ms of maximum velocit y, u = U max 1  GH r02
JK
6.20 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery
CORRECTI ON FACTORS.
Kinet ic ener gy cor rect ion fact or ( ).
Due t o viscosit y, t he velocit y dist r ibut ion acr oss any cr oss-sect ion in r eal fluid flow is non-unifor m and
V2
boundar y r esist ance and t her efor e kinet ic ener gy per unit weight given by does not r epr esent t he
2g
t r ue kinet ic ener gy acr oss t he sect ion. To compensat e t he discr epancy, a coefficient known as kinet ic
ener gy cor r ect ion fact or () is used.
 =
1
z FGH IJK
A A V
v
dA V

wher e v = velocit y at any point in t he cr oss-sect ion. Average

velocity
V
 = 1.0 for unifor m velocit y dist r ibut ion
Vmax Velocity
 = 1.02 t o 1.05 for t ur bulent flows Distribution
 = 2.0 for laminar flow.
M oment um cor rect ion fact or (  ).
Due t o non-unifor m distr ibution of velocity, the actual momentum tr ansfer r ed acr oss the sect ion is differ ent

t han t hat comput ed using t he aver age velocit y. I t is given by

z FGH IJK
2
1 v
 = dA
A V
For laminar flow in pipe, = 1.33
and for t ur bulent flow in pipe,  var ies fr om 1.01 t o 1.07.
BOU N DARY LAYER
The nar r ow r egion sit uat ed in t he vicinit y of a solid boundar y wher e t he effect s of viscosit y ar e confined is
called boundar y layer . The dr ag for ce exper ienced by a solid body immer sed in a flowing fluid can be
explained only wit h t he boundar y layer concept .
The motion of fluids wit h very lit tle fr iction [ver y low viscosity] amounts t o fluid flow at ver y lar ge Reynolds
number.
For such flows, Pr andt l made t he following obser vat ions :
(i) Viscous effect s ar e confined t o a ver y t hin layer, called boundar y layer , near t he solid sur face.
(ii) The flow out side t he boundar y layer can be consider ed fr ict ionless or ideal.
Boundary layer growt h over a flat plat e.
U U

U
Parabolic
distribution
 of velocity

X
x
Leading edge

F ig. Velocity distribution and growth of boundary layer over a flat plate at zero incidence placed i n parallel flow
U  denot es undist ur bed velocit y or fr ee st r eam velocit y. I n t he downst r eam dir ect ion fr om t he leading
edge, t hickness of t he r et ar ded layer  incr eases cont inuously, i.e. t hickness of the boundar y layer incr eases
along t he plat e in t he downst r eam dir ect ion. The viscous shear wit hin t he boundar y layer will be high due
t o t he exist ence of high velocit y gr adient .
Under cer t ain condit ions of flow and boundar y configur at ion, t hickness of t he boundr y layer incr eases
consider able in t he downst r eam dir ect ion so much, so t hat flow in t he boundar y layer get s r ever sed.
The decler at ed fluid par t icles ar e for ced away and boundar y layer is separ at ed fr om t he solid boundar y.
This phenomenon is called boundar y layer separ at ion . I t occur s in case of flow past blunt bodies like
cir cular cylinder s and spher es. A r egion of highly deceler at ed flow exist s downst r eam of such bodies.
This r egion is called wake zone.
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.21
BOU N DARY LAYER TH I CKN ESS.
(1) N ormal t hickness ( ).
The t r ansi t i on fr om zer o vel oci t y at t he sol i d st at i onar y boundar y t o t he fr ee st r eam vel oci t y
U  out side t he boundar y layer t akes place asympt ot ically. Boundar y layer is usually defined as t hat
dist ance fr om t he boundar y wher e velocit y differ s by 1% fr om t he fr ee st r eam velocit y,
i.e. y = for u = 0.99 U 

(2) D isplacement t hickness (  ).

The boundar y layer for mat ion and t he r esult ing velocit y dist r ibut ion has t he effect of displacing t he
flow r at e slight ly out war d fr om t he solid boundar y as compar ed wit h t he pot ent ial flow (or ideal flow)
t hat would exist in t he absence of t his boundar y layer.
Displacement t hickness may be defined in any one of t he following ways :
(i) I t is the dist ance measur ed per pendicular t o t he boundar y by which t he fr ee st r eam is displaced on
account of for mat ion of boundar y layer, or
(ii) I t can be defined as an addit ional wall t hickness t hat would have t o be added t o compensat e for t he
r educt ion in flow r at e on account of boundar y layer for mat ion.
I t is obt ained fr om t he expr ession

z (U z FGH1  Uu IJK dy
 
1
 =  – u ) dy =
U 0 0 

The quant it y ( U  – u ) is called velocit y defect .

(3) M oment um thickness ( ) .
This is defined in a way similar t o t he flow r at e displacement t hickness. This is obt ained fr om t he
expr ession

z
u
 u FG IJ
 =
0 U
1
H
U  dy K
N ote: For par allel flow past a flat plat e held at zer o incidence, t he appoximat e r elat ionship among
t he t hr ee t hickness of a boundar y layer descr ibed above is
= 3= 7.5 
(4) Energy t hickness ( e).
The r easoning in t he case is same as for t he case of momet um t hickness. This can be obt ained fr om
t he expr ession
F I
z u2

u
e =
U
1
U 2
GH dy JK
0
With t he ener gy t hickness known, t he loss of ener gy per unit t ime can be det er mined fr om t he r elation
1
E L = bU 3
2
Charact er ist ies of boundary layer.
6.22 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery

Consider t he boundar y layer for med on a flat plat e kept par allel t o flow of fluid of velocit y U .
 incr eases as dist ance fr om leading edge x incr eases, i.e. x

1
 decr eases as U  incr eases, i.e. 
U
 incr eases as kinemat ic viscosit y incr eases, i.e. 

FG U IJ , t her efor e  decr eases as x incr eases.

HK

 0  0

p
 I f pr essur e incr eases in t he downst r em dir ect ion, i.e. is posit ive, flow near t he boundar y is fur t her
x
r et ar ded, boundar y layer gr owt h is fast er and boundar y layer is suscept ible t o separ at ion.
p
 I f pr essur e decr eases in t he downst r em dir ect ion, i.e.  is negat ive, t he boundar y layer gr owt h is
x
r educed.
 Var iat ion of , 0 and for ce F et c char act er ist ics ar e gover ned by iner t ial and viscous for ces, t her efor e
Ux UL
t hey ar e funct ions of eit her or , i.e. Reynolds number..
 
 When Rx < 2  102, boundar y layer is laminar velocit y dist r ibut ion is par abolic
When Rx > 4  105, boundar y layer is t ur bulent
When 4  105 > Rx > 2  105, boundar y layer is in t r ansit ion.
 Cr it ical value of Reynolds number at which boundar y layer changes fr om laminar t o t ur bulent depends
upon tur bulence in fr ee steam flow, sur face r oughness, pr essure gr adient, plate cur vature and temperatur e
differ ence bet ween fluid and boundar y.
 Velocity dist r ibution in laminar boundar y layer follows par abolic law while that in tur bulent layer follows
logar it hmic law or power law.
L aminar boundary layers on a flat plate.
Flow in t he init ial st ages of boundar y layer development shows char act er ist ics of laminar mot ion. Viscous
for ces slow down t he par t icles near t he solid boundar y. The Reynolds number in t he boundar y layer is
expr essed as
FG x IJ
Re = U 
H vK
wher e x = dist ance fr om leading edge.
Dimensionless boundary layer thickness depends upon
(i ) fr ee st r eam velocit y, U 
(ii ) dist ance x measur ed fr om t he leading edge
(iii ) t he kinemat ic viscosit y v of t he fluid.
For a t wo dimensional laminar boundar y layer, it is given by

 v 5
=5 =
x Ux RE
Nominal t hickness of t he boundar y layer is given by

vx
 =5 U
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.23

LAWS OF FLU I D FRI CTI ON

A fluid in mot ion is always subject ed t o a cer t ain r esist ance. Such a r esist ance is gener ally assumed t o be
due t o fr ict ion. I n r ealit y, t his r esist ance is mainly due t o sliding of t he adjacent fluid layer s.
A liquid will have a st eady st r eamline (viscous) flow at low velocit ies only. Aft er r eaching a cer t ain velocit y,
t he flow changes int o a t ur bulent flow wit h t he appear ance of eddy cur r ent s.
For fluids in mot ion, t he fr ict ional r esist ance obeys cer t ain laws.
Laws of fluid friction for steady streamline flow.
(1) Fr ict ional r esist ance is pr opor t ional t o velocit y, sur face ar ea of cont act and t emper at ur e.
(2) Fr ict ional r esist ance is independent of pr essur e and nat ur e of t he sur face of cont act .
The flow est ablishment lengt h is given by
L = 0.057 R d ... for laminar flow
and L = 0.7 R d ... for t ur bulent flow
wher e, d = diamet er of t he pipe
R = Reynolds number of flow.

L aws of frict ion for t urbulent flow.

(1) Fr ict ional r esist ance is pr opor t ional t o squar e of t he velocit y.
(2) Fr ict ional r esist ance is independent of t he pr essur e.
(3) Fr ict ional r esist ance is pr opor t ional t o densit y of t he fluid.
(4) Fr ict ional r esist ance slight ly var ies wit h t emper at ur e.
D ar cy’s fr ict ion fact or.
64
I n smoot h pipes (due t o Blasius), f =  for laminar flow
R
0.3164
and f = for t ur bulent flow
e
R1 / 4 j
H EAD LOSSES.
(i ) M ajor head losses. H ead loss due t o fr ict ion falls in t his cat egor y and is given by Dar cy - Weisbach’s
equat ion
f l V2 32  V l
hf = =
2 gd  d2
wher e, l = lengt h of pipe
V = aver age velocit y of flow
 = specific waight of fluid
 = coefficient of dynamic viscosit y.
F I
Now, hf =
4 fl V 2
=
fl Q 2 GGsubst it ut ingV  Q JJ
d 2g 3.0258d 5 H e / d / 4j K
2

Chezy’s for mula : V = C mi

hf
wher e, i =
l
A d
m= = for a cir cular sect ion
P 4
Vw
C = Chezy’s const ant =
f'
6.24 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery
Value of f in Dar cy Weisbach for mula.
4 fl V 2 d V
The coefficient f in t he for mula, hf =. is a funct ion of t he Reynolds number, Re =
d 2g 
16
(a) When Re < 2000, f= ... (H agen Poiseuille)
Re
0.079
(b) When Re < 2000 and Re < 1,00,000, f = ... (Blasius)
Re1/4
(c) When Re < 1,00,000 t hen value of f can be found fr om
1
= 2 log10 Re . 4f 0.8 ... (K ar man Pr andt l)
4f
(i i ) M inor head losses.
V2
(a) At the ent rance : h l = 0.5
2g
(b) Due t o sudden cont r act ion : I f V 2 is velocit y in t he cont r act ed por t ion, t hen
F 1  1I 2
V 22
hl = GH C JK
c 2g
wher e, CC = coefficient of cont r act ion is nor mally t aken as 0.62
Vs2
or h l = 0.5
2g
(c) Sudden expansion : I f V 1 and V 2 ar e velocit ies in t he pr e-enlar gement and enlar ged sect ion
r espect ively, t hen

ht =
bV1  V1 g 2

2g
(iii) Ot her head losses.
Ot her head losses ar e t hose in bends, pipe fit t ing and joiner ies such as valves, r educer s, T-junct ions,
et c.
V2
I f V is velocit y of flow in t he pipe, t hen t hese losses ar e expr essed in t er ms of velocit y head as K
2g
t imes velocit y head
KV 2
i.e hl =
2g
wher e, K is called loss coefficient .


 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.25
GAS TU RBI N ES
The gas t ur bine obt ains it s power by ut ilizing t he ener gy of a jet or bur nt gases and air, velocit y of t he jet
being absor bed as it flows over sever al r ings of moving blades which ar e fixed t o a common shaft . I t t hus
r esembles a st eam t ur bine and it s blades ar e designed in t he same manner as shown in t he velocit y
diagr ams of st eam t ur bines. The gas t ur bine r equir es an air compr essor which is usually dr iven off it s own
shafting. This absor bs a consider able pr opor tion of the power pr oduced and thus lower s the over all efficiency.
Gas t ur bines have been const r uct ed t o wor k on t he following fuels :
coal gas, pr oducer gas, blast fur nace gas, oil and pulver ized coal
TYPES OF GAS TU RBI N ES.
(1) Const ant pressure gas t urbine.
I n t his t ype, fuel is bur ned at const ant pr essur e and t he cycle used is same as t he Joule cycle. The
t ur bine is of t he r eact ion t ype using oil fuel and is fit t ed wit h an axial flow air compr essor.
The r ot or consist s of five r ings of moving blades. The mult i-st age r ot ar y air compr essor is coupled t o
t he r ot or shaft .
The t ot al air supply is dr awn fr om t he sur r ounding at mospher e by t he compr essor and is compr essed
t o t he combust ion pr essur e of 1 t o 4 at omospher e, it is t hen for ced int o t he combusion chamber. Par t
of t his air is used as combust ion air for t he oil which ent er s t he bur ner, t he r emainder is for ced
t hr ough t he annular space bet ween wall of t he combust ion chamber and t he bur ner jacket . The air
r eceives heat fr om t he bur ner jacket and also mixes wit h t he pr oduct s of combust ion chamber and t he
bur ner jacket . This r aises t emper at ur e and volumeof t he air. The use of a ver y lar ge quant it y of air in
excess of t he combust ion air pr event s t emper at ur e of t he mixt ur e fr om r eaching values which ar e t oo
high for t he met al of t he r ot or blades. I t also pr event s t he bur ner fr om becoming t oo hot .
(2) Simple open cycle gas t ur bine (const ant pr essure heat addit ion) or Air st andard Br ayt on
(or joule) cycle.

F ig. Representat ion of Joule cycle on

h-s or (T-s) diagram
F ig. Simple open cycle gas t ur bine
Refer r ing figur e, we can obt ain t her mal efficiency on t he basis of 1 kg of wor king fluid flow.
Heat supplied = q = h 3 – h 2
= cp(T 3 – T 2) if cp is assumed const ant in pr ocess 2-3.
H eat r eject ed = h 4 – h 1
= cp(T 4 – T 1) if cp is assumed const ant in pr ocess 4-1.
Net wor k = H eat supplied – H eat r eject ed
= cp{(T 3 – T 2) – (T 4 – T 1)}
6.26 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery
This net wor k may also be found fr om t he differ ence bet ween t ur bine and compr essor wor k.
1 p2
 Ther mal efficiency, t h = 1  (  1)
.... [since r p = pressure ratio = ]
p1
rp 
Fr om t his equat ion, t her mal efficiency of t he Br ayt on cycle is same as t hat of t he Ot t o cycle.
N ote. For t ur bine and compr essor wor k we have neglect ed t he change in kinet ic and pot ent ial ener gies.
ACTU AL BRAYTON CYCLE.
T – s diagr am for an act ual Br ayt on cycle is shown in
figur e.
Pr essu r e l oss i n t h e com bu st i on ch am ber i s
r epr esent ed by p3 – p2'.
I n t his cycle
1– 2 is isent r opic compr ession.
1– 2' is act ual compr ession.
3– 4 is isent r opic expansion.
3– 4' is act ual expansion.
Isentropic compression work w
Compr essor efficiency, c =  c
Actual compression work wca

h2  h1 c p (T2  T1 )
Based on st at ic values,   c = 
h2 '  h1 c p (T2 ' T1 )
H er e 1 kg of air passing t hr ough t he compr essor is assumed
T2  T1
or c =
T2 'T1
Actual turbine work wta
Tur bine efficiency, t = Isentropic turbine work  w
t

(w t )  t  c  w c
or t ha =
qa. c
Fr om t his equat ion, t her mal efficiency is incr eased by impr oving eit her t or c or bot h.
Air rate (AR).
I t is defined as t he air flow r equir ed per kWh out put .
ma mass of air required ma 3600
AR = =

k Wh out put

k Wh out put
ma
FGwnet IJ 
wnet in kJ / kg
H
3600 K
The r ecipr ocal of air r at e is called specific power. Air r at e is act ually t he cr it er ion of size of t he plant , i.e.
lower t he air r at e, t he smaller t he plant .
Work rat io (WR).
I t is defined as t he r at io of net wor k t o t he t ur bine wor k.
wnet
WR =
wt
Opt imum pr essur e r at io for maximum cycle t her mal efficiency.

p2 FG p IJ
1
r p (opt ) = p 
x Hp K
2
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.27

M et hods t o improve efficiency and specific out put of simple cycle.

(1) Regener at ion.
This is done by pr eheat ing air wit h t he t ur bine exhaust , t hus saving t he fuel consumpt ion.
(2) I mpr oving t ur bine out put .
This is done by following met hods.
(i ) Reheating : The whole expansion in t he t ur bine is achieved in t wo or mor e st ages and r eheat ing
is done aft er each st age.
(ii ) I ncr easing t he value of maximum cycle t emper at ur e, i.e. t ur bine inlet t emper at ur e.
This r equires
(a) bet t er qualit y of fuel
(b) new mat er ials which can wit hst and high t emper at ur es
(c) blade cooling met hods.
(iii ) I mproved turbine efficiency. I t depends on design impr ovement s.
(3) Reducing compr essor input .
This is done by following met hods.
(i ) I ntercooling. Compr essor wor k is r educed by int er cooling t he air bet ween compr essor st ages.
(ii ) By lowering inlet temperature to compressor. I t is not pr act icable because t his will incr ease
t he pr essur e r at io.
(iii ) By increasing compressor efficiency. This depends upon t he design impr ovement .

RECI PROCAT I N G AI R COM PRESSORS

Recipr ocat ing air compr essor s ar e used for pr oducing high pr essur e air. At omspher ic air is dr awn int o a
cylinder dur ing suct ion st r oke of pist on and is compr essed by t he pist on dur ing t he r et ur n st r oke; t he
pist on dr iven by power fr om a ext er nal sour ce. I f air is admit t ed t o one side of t he pist on being only, t he
compr essor is called single act ing. A double-act ing compr essor admit s air t o each side of t he pist on
al t er nat ely. Whi lst one face of t he pist on is per for ming t he suct i on st r oke, ai r on t he ot her face i s
compr essed.
Use of compr essed air deliver ed by t he compr essor
(i ) To dr iver a compr essed air engine
(ii ) For pr oducing an air blast for wor k-shop
(iii ) For spr aying t he fuel int o cylinder of t he diesel engine.
Air compr essor s ar e also used for cooling lar ge buildings. Fr esh air is dr awn int o t he compr essor and
compr essed adiabat ically, which causes a lar ge incr ease in t emper at ur e. H igh-pr essur e air leaving t he
compr essor is cooled by means of cold wat er. This cool high pr essur e air is t hen par t ially expanded
adi abat i cal l y i n anot her cyl i nder, whi ch r educes i t s t emper at ur e t o much bel ow t he sur r oundi ng
at mospher e, t he cold air is t hen cir culat ed t hr ough t he duct s of building.

P2 3 2 2 2
PV = c (isothermal)
T

PV r = c (Adiabatic) P2

PV n = c (Polytropic) 2 P1

2
2
P1 4 1
1
V S
V2 V1
F ig. T heoretical p-V diagram for a single
r eci pr ocat ing ai r compr essor.
6.28 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery
Sequence of operat ions represent ed on t he diagram
(i ) Operation 4 – 1 : Volume of air V 1 aspir at ed int o t he compr essor at pr essur e p1 and t emper at ur e T 1.
(ii ) Operation 1 – 2 : Air compr essed accor ding t o t he law pV n = C fr om pr essur e p1 t o p2.
Volume decr eases fr om V 1 t o V 2. Temper at ur e incr eases fr om T 1 t o T 2.
(iii ) Operation 2 – 3 : Compr essed air of volume V 2 and at pr essur e p2 wit h t emper at ur e T 2 deliver ed
fr om t he compr essor.
Work done (neglect ing clear ance volume).
L et p1 and v 1 be t he init ial condit ion of air befor e adiabat ic compr ession, p2 and v 2 be t he final condit ion
aft er compr ession.
Then wor k done per cycle in dr iving t he compr essor,

FG  IJ R|F p I  1 U|
W = p1 V 1
H   1K S|GH p JK
2

1 V|
T 1
W
I f compr esson follow t he law, pV n = const ant , t hen wor k r equir ed t o dr ive t he compr essor will be a similar
expr ession except t hat n must be subst it ut ed for . P

FG n IJ R|SFG p IJ U| P2 6 3 2
n 1 pvn = c
n
W = p1 V 1 2
 1V

H n  1K |H p K |W
T 1
P1 5
v3
4
v4
1
v1
I f p1 is in k Pa and V 1 is in m 3, t hen W will in k N-m. Effective swept
v

volume = v1 – v4
WN Swept volume
Power r equir ed t o dr ive compr essor = kW = v1 – v 3 = v s
60 Clearance Total volume = v1
wher e, N = number of complet e cycles per minut e. volume = v3 = v c

R|F p I n 1 U|
F n IJ P (V
Wor k done (wit h clear ance volume), W = GH – V ) SGH p JK
2
n
 1V
n  1K 1 1 |T
4 1 |W
TWO-STAGE COM PRESSOR.
p
L et compr ession follow t he law, pV n = const ant , and int er cooling be p3
e
pvn = c
incomplet e, so t hat point d has not r eached t he isot her mal
Let p1 and V 1 r epresents condition of air enter ing low pr essur e cylinder, p2 c
p2 and V 2 r epr esent condit ion of air ent er ing high pr essur e cylinder d pvn = c
and p3 be t he final pr essur e of t he air.
Isothermal
Tot al wor k r equir ed t o dr ive t he compr essor per cycle will be t he sum p1
a b
of wor k r equir ed in low pr essur e and high pr essur e cylinder s.
v2 v1 v
L LMF p I n 1 OP LMF p I n 1 OPOP
FG n IJ MM p V MMGH p JK2
n
 1P  p V MG J 3
n
 1P P
Tot al wor k r equir ed, W =
H n  1K M 1 1
PQ MNH p K
2 2
PQPQ
N N 1 2

I f compr essions ar e adiabat ic,  should be used in place of n .

I f int er cooling is per fect , point d will be on t he isot her mal line, t hen
p1V 1 = p2V 2

FG n IJ LMM FG p IJ OP
n 1 n 1

W = p1 V1 2
n Fp I
 G J 3
n
2P

H n  1K M H p K Hp K PQ
N 1 2

WN
Power r equir ed =
60
wher e N = number of r evolut ions per minut e.
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.29
M U LT I STAGE COM PRESSOR. p

I n mul t i st age compr essor s, ai r i s compr essed i n sever al

6 9 3 5
st ages inst ead of full compr ession being per for med in single Delivery Without
cy l i n der. I n pr i n ci pl e, i t i s equ i val en t t o n u m ber of Pressure Inter cooling
(P3 or P d )
compr essor s in ser ies, t he air passing fr om one cylinder t o Perfect
H.P. Inter cooling
t he next , t he pr essur e incr easing in each cylinder. pvn = c
 Cycle 8156 is single st age compr essor.
Intermediote 7 4
 Cycles 8147 and 7456 ar e t wo st age compr essor wit hout Pressure 2 pv = c
int er cooling bet ween cylinder s. (P 2) LP
8
1
 Cycles 8147 and 7236 ar e that a two-stage compr essor with Intake
Pressure v
per fect int er cooling bet ween cylinder s. (P 1 or P s)

Per fect int er cooling.

I t means t hat aft er t he i nit i al compr essi on in t he L .P. cyl i nder, wi t h i t s consequent t emper at ur e r i se,
ai r i s cool ed i n an i nt er cool er s back t o i t s or i gi nal t emper at ur e, i.e. T 2 = T 1, in whi ch case point 2 li es
on i sot her mal t hr ough poi nt 1.
Condit ion for maximum efficiency.
I f inital pr essur e p1 and final pr essur e p3 ar e fixed, t hen best value of inter mediat e pr essur e p2 t hus found
will denot e at what pr essur e t o exhaust t he fir st st age, so t hat wor k done on t he compr essor will be
mini mum.
n 1
p1, V 1 and t er m is a const ant .
n
Since for maximum efficiency, pr essur e r at io in each cycle is same, t her efor e
p2 p
= 3
p1 p2
For maximum efficiency, int er mediat e pr essur e is geomet r ic mean of t he init ial and final pr essur e, i.e.

p2 = p1 p3

mn
LMF p  1I n 1
mn
OP
For m st age compr essor, wor k done per cycle, W =
n 1
p1 V1 MMGH p JK
m
 1P
PQ
N 1

This equat ion applies t o any t ype of compr essor or mot or and even t o vapour engines, pr ovided n  .
Condit ions for maximum efficiency.
(i ) Air is cooled t o t he init ial t emper at ur e bet ween t he st ages.
(ii ) Pr essur e r at io in each st age is same.
(iii ) Wor k r equir ed for each st age is same.
I sot her mal hor sepower compr essor.
Theor et ical hor sepower of compr essor is calculat ed on t he assumpt ion t hat t he compr ession cur ve of t he
p-v diagr am is an isot her mal. Then
I sot her mal wor k done per cycle = ar ea of p - v diagr am
V2
= p1 V 1 loge r = p1V 1 log
V1
p1 V1 log e r  N
I sot her mal hor sepower =
60
wher e N = number of cycles per minut e
6.30 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery

I ndicat ed hor se power of a compr essor.

I t is t he hor sepower obt ained fr om t he act ual indicat or car d t aken dur ing a t est on t he compr essor.

isot her mal horsepower

Compr essor efficiency =
indicat ed hor sepower

I sot her mal efficiency.

isot her mal horsepower

I sot her mal efficiency = = 70% (gener ally)
shaft hor sepower

wher e shaft hor sepower is t he br ake hor sepower r equir ed t o dr ive t he compr essor.
Adiabat ic efficiency.
I t is t he r at io of hor sepower r equir ed t o dr ive t he compr essor compar ed wit h t he ar ea of hypot het ical
diagr am assuming adiabat ic compr ession.

FG  IJ p V LMF p I  1 OP N
MMGH p JK

2
 1P 
H   1K 1 1
PQ 60
Adiabatic efficiency = N 1

power required t o dr ive t he compr essor

Volumet r ic efficiency.
I t is t he r at io of volume of air inhled at STP t o t he swept volume of t he pist on.

volume of air inhaled at S.T.P.

Volumet r ic efficiency =
swept volume of pist on

Value of t he volumet r ic efficiency var ies bet ween 70 and 90 per cent accor ding t o t he t ype of compr essor.

Compar ison bet ween Recipr ocat ing and Rot ar y air compr essor s.
S.N . Par t i cular s Reci pr ocat i ng Rot ar y
1. Suitability Suit able for low dischar ge Suit able for handing lar ge
of air at high pr essur e volumes of air at low
pr essur es
2. Oper ation speed L ow High
3. Air supply Pulsating Continuous
4. Balancing Cyclic vibr at ions occur L ess vibr at ions
5. L ubr icat ing syst em Gener ally complicat ed Gener ally simple lubr icat ion
syst ems ar e r equir ed
6. Qualit y of air Cont aminat ed wit h oil Air deliver ed is r elat ively
deliver ed mor e clean
7. Air compr essor size L ar ge for given dischar ge Small of same dischar ge
8. Fr ee air handled 250-300 m 3/min 2000-3000 m 3/min
9. Deliver y pr essur e 800 t o 1000 bar Nor mally below 10 bar
10. Usual standar d of I sot her mal compr ession I sesnt r opic compr ession
compr ession
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.31
Compar ison bet ween Axial flow and Cent rifugal compr essors.
S.N . Par t i cular s Axial flow compr essor s Cent r ifugal compr essor s
1. Pr essur e r at io 1.2 : 1 (For high pr essur e) 4:1
r at io mor e number of
st ages ar e r equir ed)
2. I sesnt r opic efficiency 85 t o 88% (wit h moder n) 70%
aer o-foil blades)
3. Flexibilit y of oper at ion L ess M or e (due t o adjust able per -
whir l and diffuser vanes)
4. Fr ont al ar ea L ess (main cause in M or e
adopt ing t he axial flow
compr essor s for air cr aft )
5. Effect of deposit for - Per for mance affect ed Per for mance not affect ed
mat ion on t he sur face
of impeller r ot or.
6. St ar t ing t or que H igh L ow compar at ively
7. Suit abilit y Used univer sally wit h Suit able for super -char ging
lar ge gas t ur bines I .C. engines and for comp -
r essor s for r efr iger ant s and
indust r ial gases
8. Efficiency vs. L ess flat M or e flat compar at ively
speed cur ve

CEN T RI FU GAL COM PRESSORS

These in it s simplest for m consist s of a number of cur ved vanes fit t ed
symmet r ically. The r ot or r ot at es in an air t ight volut e casing wit h inlet and
out let point s. The casing for t he compr essor is so designed t hat kinet ic
ener gy of t he air is conver t ed int o pr essur e ener gy befor e it leaves t he
casing as shown in t he figur e.

AXI AL FLOW COM PRESSOR

I n axial flow compr essor s, t he gas essent ially flows par allel t o t he axis. I t consist s of a number of r ot at ing
blade r ows fixed on a r ot at ing dr um and st at or blades ar e fixed on casing in alt er nat e r ows.
E ach st age con si st s of on e m ovi n g r ow of bl ades an d on e r ow of f i xed bl ades. T h e en t h al py
and pr essur e of gas r ises as it passes thr ough r otating blades. This happens at the expense of a r eduction in
r elat ive velocit y, t he absolut e velocit y of t he gas incr easing along t he axis of r ot or due t o wor k input . This
incr ease in kinet ic ener gy is par t ly conver t ed int o pr essur e ener gy as t he air passes t hr ough diver ging
fixed blades. These fixed blades help t he gas t o r each next set of moving blades for fur t her compr ession.
The blades are generally made of aerofoil section to reduce losses caused by turbulence and boundary separation.
6.32 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery

I n axial flow compr essor s, t he dr um wit h r ot or blades, r ot at es inside a casing wit h a fixed or st at or blades.
H YDRAU LI C M ACH I N ES (TU RBI N ES)
Efficiencies of Tur bines.
(i ) H ydraulic efficiency ( h ).
H ydr aulic efficiency of t ur bine is t he r at io of power developed by t he r unner, i.e. wat er hor sepower
(W.H .P.) t o t he net power supplied by t he wat er at t he ent r ance t o t he t ur bine. These t wo power s
differ by t he amount of hydr aulic losses.
W. H.P.
h =
b
w Q  Q H 75 g
wher e, Q = quant it y of wat er act ually st r iking t he r unner,
Q = quant it y of wat er dischar ged dir ect ly t o t he t ail r ace wit hout st r iking t he t ur bine r unner
W.H.P.
I f Q is negligibly small, t hen h =
b wQH 75 g
( ii ) M echanical efficiency ( m ).
M ech ani cal effi ci en cy of t ur bi ne i s t he r at i o of power obt ai ned fr om sh aft of t he t ur bi ne,
i.e. shaft or br ake hor sepower. (S.H .P. or B.H .P.) t o t he power developed by t he r unner (i.e. W.H .P.).
These t wo power s differ by t he amount of mechanical losses viz. bear ing fr ict ion et c.

m =
b
B.H. P. or S.H. P. g
W.H. P
( iii ) Volumet ric efficiency ( v ).
Volumet r ic efficiency is t he r at io of quant it y of wat er act ually st r iking t he r unner and t he quant it y of
wat er supplied t o the t ur bine. These t wo quant ities differ by the amount of wat er t hat slips dir ect ly t o
t he t ail r ace wit hout st r iking t he r unner.
Q
v =
Q  Q
(iv)Overall efficiency o ).
Over all efficiency of t he t ur bine is t he r at io of power available at t he t ur bine shaft t o t he power
supplied by t he wat er at t he ent r ance t o t he t ur bine.

o =
b g
B.H.P. or S.H.P.
bNet power available at the turbine entranceg
Over all efficiency of t he t ur bine, o = h × m
 o = b × v × m
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.33

CLASSI FI CATI ON OF H YDRAU LI C TU RBI N ES.

M oder n t ur bines classified on t he following basis.
(1) Act ion of fluid on t he moving blades
(2) Dir ect ion of flow of fluid in t he r unner
(3) Specific speed.
(4) Disposit ion of shaft
(1) Classificat ion according t o act ion of fluid on moving blades.
(i ) I mpulse turbine : These r equir es high head and small quant it y of flow.
The fluid is br ought in ending in a nozzle. The whole pr essur e ener gy of wat er is t r ansfor med int o
kinet ic ener gy. The fluid coming out of t he nozzle in t he for m of a fr ee jet is made t o st r ike on a
ser ies of bucket s mount ed on t he per ipher y of a wheel. The fluid is deliver ed t o t he wheel on a par t
of it s cir cumfer ence filling or st r iking only a few of t he bucket s at a t ime. M ost ly, in hydr aulic
t ur bines, t he wheel r evolves in open air, i.e. t her e is no differ ence of pr essur e in t he wat er at t he
inlet t o t he r unner and t he dischar ge. Ther efor e, casing of an impulse t ur bine has no hydr aulic
funct ion t o per for m. I t is necessar y only t o pr event splashing and t o lead t he wat er t o t he exit and
also act s as a safeguar d against accident s. This t ur bine is also called a fr ee jet t ur bine.
( ii ) Reaction turbine : These r equir es low head and high r at e of flow.
The fluid befor e ent er ing t he t ur bine has pr essur e as well as kinet ic ener gy. All pr essur e ener gy is
not t r ansfor med int o kinet ic ener gy as in case of impulse t ur bine. The moment on t he wheel is
pr oduced by bot h kinet ic and pr essur e ener gies.
Types of r eact ion tur bines:
(a) For medium head and medium flow
(b) For low head and lar ge flow.
N ote : The fluid leaving t he t ur bine has st ill some of t he pr essur e as well as kinet ic ener gy. The pr essur e
at t he inlet t o t he t ur bine is much higher t han t he pr essur e at t he out let . Thus t her e is a possibilit y of fluid
flowing t hr ough some passage ot her t han t he r unner and escape wit hout doing any wor k. H ence a casing
is absolut ely essent ial due t o t he differ ence of pr essur e in r eact ion t ur bine.
(2) Classificat ion according t o direct ion of flow of fluid in t he runner.

H ydr aulic Turbines

Tangent ial Radial flow Axial flow Mixed (r adial and axial)
flow t ur bine t ur bi ne tur bine flow t ur bine

Out war d r adial I nwar d r adial

flow t ur bine flow t ur bine
(cent r ifugal t ype) (centr ipet al t ype)
(3) Classificat ion accor ding t o specific speed.
Specific speed ( N s ) is defined as the speed of a gemet r ically similar hypothet ical fluid machine handling
unit dischar ge against a unit head.

N Q
Ns =
b gH g 3/ 4

wher e, Q = dischar ge m 3/s

N = speed in r pm
g = gr avit at ional const ant m/s2
H = head under which t he machine oper at es.
6.34 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery

N P N Q
For t ur bines, N s = 5/4 ; and for pumps, Ns =
H H 3/4
QH
wher e power gener at ed by shaft , P=  o k W ( = pq)
1000
The specific speed can be used t o compar e differ ent t ypes of pumps and t o compar e differ ent t ypes of
t ur bines t o select pick t he t ype of pump or t ur bine most suit able for a given wor k.
For small specific speeds, r adial flow gives best efficiency and for high specific speeds axials flow
machi nes ar e most effi ci ent . The mi xed fl ow machi nes ar e most effi ci ent at t he i nt er medi at e
r ange of specific speeds.
Specific speed of hydraulic t ur bines.

Type of turbine Type of runner

Specific speed
P in H P P in kW
Pelt on Slow 10 t o 20 8.5 t o 17
Nor mal 20 t o 28 17 t o 24
Fast 28 t o 35 24 t o 30
Fr ancis Slow 60 t o 120 50 t o 100
Nor mal 120 t o 180 100 t o 150
Fast 180 t o 300 150 t o 250
Kaplan – 300 t o 1,000 250 t o 850

H eads of hydraulic t urbines.

The head act ing on a t ur bine may be defined in t wo ways as follows :

( i ) Gross head.
I t is defined as t he differ ence bet ween head r ace level and t he t ail r ace level when no wat er is
flowing. The gr oss head is oft en called st at ic head or t ot al head and it may be r epr esent ed by H 1.

(ii )N et or effective head.

I t is t he head available at t he ent r ance t o t he t ur bine. I t is obt ained by subt r act ing fr om t he gr oss
head all t he losses of head t hat may occur as wat er flows fr om head r ace t o t he ent r ance of t he
t ur bine. The losses of head ar e mainly due t o fr ict ion occur r ing in penst ocks, canal, et c.
Thus, if H r epr esent s net head and h f is t ot al loss of head bet ween head r ace and t he ent r ance of t he
t ur bine, t hen
H = H g – hf
For a r eact i on (or encased) t ur bine, net head is equal t o differ ence bet ween pr essur e head at t he
ent r ance t o t he t ur bine plus velocit y head in t he penst ock at t his point plus elevat ion of t his point
above t he assumed dat um and elevat ion of t he t ail wat er plus velocit y head in t he dr aft t ube at it s
exi t .
FP V I F 2
V22 I
... H = G w  2g  Z J – G Z JK
H K H
1 1
1 2 
2g
For an impulse t ur bine, net head is equal t o differ ence bet ween pr essur e head at t he ent r ance t o
t he nozzle plus velocit y head in t he penst ock at t his point plus elevat ion of t his point above t he
assumed head dat um and elevat ion of t he t ail wat er.

FP  V Z I
2

... H = GH w 2 g JK
1 1
1 – Z2
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.35
PELTON WH EEL TU RBI N ES
This t ur bine is of t he par allel flow impulse t ype. This is suit able for highe heads. The quant it y of wat er
r equir ed t o wor k t he Pelt on wheel is less as t he ener gy head is lar ge. The wat er r eaching t he t ur bine
comes t hr ough penst ocks fr om t he r eser voir. The nozzle issues a power ful jet whcih impinges on t he
bucket s placed at t he out er per ipher y of t he wheel. These vanes ar e of t he for m of double hemispher i cal
cups. The jet st r ikes t he cent r al diving edge of t he double cups. Thus, jet get s deflect s on each si de. The
wat er aft er impar t ing it s ener gy t o t he t ur bine, is dischar ged int o t he t ail r ace. The needle valve pr ovides
necessar y r egulat ion of t he dischar ge t o t he t ur bine.

F ig. Pelt on wheeel

REACT I ON TU RBI N ES
The pr incipal dist inguishing feat ur es of a r eact ion t ur bine ar e t hat only a par t of t he t ot al head of wat er is
conver t ed int o velocit y head befor e i t r eaches t he r unner, and t hat t he wat er complet ely fills all t he
passages in t he r unner.
Types.
(1) Fr ancis t ur bine
(2) K aplan tur bine.
(1) F rancis t urbine.
Wat er is led t o t he t ur bine t hr ough t he penst ock pipe whose
end is connect ed t o t he spir al casing of t he t ur bine. This spir al
casing dir ect s t he wat er evenly t o t he guide blades. The wat er
t hen passes t hr ough t he r unner and finally goes t o t he t ail
r ace t hr ough t he dr aft t ube. The closed type Francis turbine is
shown in t he figur e.
Types of closed type F rancis t urbines.
( i ) H orizontal type : I t is used for medium and high heads and ver t ical t ype for medium and low
heads.
( ii ) Vertical types : I t is used for medium and low heads.

(2) K aplan and Pr opeller t ur bines.

I n t hese r unner i s essent i al l y a pr opel l er wor k i ng i n
r ever se and blades ar e mount ed so t hat blade angles can
be adjust ed t oget her by means of suit able gear ing while
t he machine is in oper at ion.
The guide vanes or wicket gates of entr y ar e also adjustable.
This machine is much suit able for low heads, say upt o
36 m. An el ect r i c gener at or coupl ed t o a K apl an t ype
r unner may be enclosed in a fair ing within a fair ed tunnel.
H eads as low as 3.6m may be used. A number of vanes ar e
fixed t o t he boss (or hub).
When t he vanes ar e composit e wit h t he boss, t he t ur bine
is called propeller t ur bine. When t he vanes ar e adjust able
t he t ur bine is called K aplan t ur bine.
6.36 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery
DRAFT TU BE
Dr aft t ube is a pipe or passage of gr adually incr easing cr oss-sect ional ar ea which connect s r unner exit t o
t he t ail r ace. I t may be made of cast or plat e st eel or concr et e. I t must be air t ight and under all condit ions
of oper at ion it s lower end must be submer ged below t he level of wat er in t he t ail r ace.
U ses of draft tube.
( i ) I t per mit s negat ive or suct ion head t o be est ablished at t he r unner exit , t hus making it possible t o
inst all t he t ur bine above t he t ail r ace level wit hout loss of head.
( ii ) I t conver t s a lar ge pr opor t ion of velocit y ener gy r eject ed fr om t he r unner int o useful pr essur e ener gy.
PERFORM AN CE CH ARACTERI ST I C CU RVES FOR TU RBI N ES.
The t ur bines ar e gener ally designed t o wor k at par t icular values of H , Q, P, N and 0 which ar e called
designed condit ions. But oft en t ur bines ar e r equir ed t o wor k at condit ions differ ent fr om t hose for which
t hey have been designed. Ther efor e, it is essent ial t o det er mine exact behaviour of t he t ur bines under
var ying condit ions by car r ying out t est s eit her on t he act ual t ur bines or on t heir small scale model s.
The r esul t s of t hese t est s ar e usual l y gr aphi cal l y r epr esent ed and t he r esul t i ng cur ves ar e cal l ed
char act er ist ic cur ves. For t he sake of convenience, t he char act er ist ic cur ves ar e plot t ed in t er ms of unit
quantities.
U nit speed (N u).
Speed of t he t ur bine under unit head is called unit speed.
N
Nu =
H
U nit discharge (Q u).
The dischar ge flowing t hr ough t he t ur bine under a unit head is called unit dischar ge.
Q
Qu =
H
U nit power (P u ).
Out put of t he t ur bine under a unit head is called unit power .
P
Pu =
H3 2
Specific speed (N s).
The speed of specific r unner is called specific speed.
N P
Ns =
H5 4
For any ot her t ur bine also exact ly same r elat ionship for N s may be der ived.
CEN TRI FU GAL PU M PS
Cent r ifugal pump is used t o r aise liquids fr om a lower t o a higher level by cr eat ing r equir ed pr essur e wit h
t he help of cent r ifugal act ion. I n gener al it can be defined as a machine which incr eases t he pr essur e
ener gy of a fluid, as a pump may not be used t o lift wat er at all, but just boost t he pr essur e in a pipeline.
Whir ling mot ion is impar t ed t o t he liquid by means of backwar d cur ved blades mount ed on a wheel called
impeller . Liquid enter s the impeller at the centr e (eye) of the pump and dischar ges into the case sur rounding
t he impeller. The pr essur e head developed by cent r ifugal act ion is ent ir ely due t o velocit y impar t ed t o t he
liquid by t he r ot at ing impeller and not due t o any displacement or impact .
At t he ent r ance t o t he impeller, since t her e ar e no guide vanes (as in t he case of t ur bines), t he dir ect ion of
absolut e velocit y of liquid at t his point of t he impeller is not dir ect ly known. H owever, for best efficiency
of t he pump, it is commonly assumed t hat t he liquid ent er s t he impeller r adially, i.e. absolut e velocit y of
t he liquid at t he ent r ance t o t he impeller (or at t he inlet t ip of t he impeller vane) is r adial in dir ect ion.
Thus in t his case,  = 90 and velocit y of whir l V w at inlet is equal t o zer o. Again, it is desir ed t hat t he
liquid ent er s and leaves t he vane wit hout shock. This can be ensur ed if inlet and outlet t ips of the vane ar e
par allel t o t he dir ect ion of t he r elat ive velocit ies at t he t wo t ips.
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.37
CAVI TAT I ON
I t is defined as t he phenomenon of for mat ion of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a r egion wher e
pr essur e of t he liquid falls below it s vapour pr essur e and sudden collapsing of t hese vapour bubbles in a
r egion of higher pr essur e. When vapour bubbles collapse, a ver y high pr essur e is cr eat ed. The met all ic
sur faces, above which t he liquid is flowing, is subject ed t o t hese high pr essur es, which cause pit t ing act ion
of t he sur face. Thus, cavities ar e for med on t he met allic sur face and also consider able noise and vibr at ions
ar e pr oduced.
Caviat ion includes for mat ion of vapour bubbles of t he flowing liquid and collapsing of t he vapour bubbles.
For mat ion of vapour bubbles of t he flowing liquid t akes place only whenever pr essur e in any r egion falls
below vapour pr essur e. When pr essur e of t he flowing liquid is less t han it s vapour pr essur e, t he liquid
st ar t s boiling and vapour bubbles ar e for med. These vapour bubbles ar e car r ied along wit h t he following
liquid to higher pr essur e zones wher e these vapour s condense and bubbles collapse. Due to sudden collapsing
of t he bubbles on t he met allic sur face, high pr essur e is pr oduced and met allic sur faces ar e subject ed t o
high local st r esses. Thus t he sur faces ar e damaged.
Effect s of cavit at ion.
(i ) The met allic sur faces ar e damaged and cavit ies ar e for med on t he sur faces.
( ii ) Due t o sudden collapse of vapour bubble, consider able noise and vibr at ions ar e pr oduced.
( iii ) Efficiency of a t ur bine decr eases due t o cavit at ion. Due t o pit t ing act ion, sur face of t he tur bine blades
becomes r ough and t he for ce exer t ed by wat er on t he t ur bine blades decr eases. H ence wor k done by
wat er or out put hor se power becomes less and t hus efficiency decr eases.
The hydr aulic machines subject ed t o cavit at ion ar e cent r ifugal pumps and r eact ion t ur bines.

6.38 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE

OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 8. The flow of wat er in a pipe of diamet er 3000 mm

can be measur ed by
1. I n Red wood viscomet er
(a) Vent ur imet er (b) Rot amet er
(a) absolut e value of viscosit y is det er mined
(b) part of the head of fluid is utilised in overcoming (c) Pilot t ube (d) Or ifice plat e.
fr iction 9. W h i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g i s di m en -si on l ess
(c) fluid dischar ges thr ough or ifice with negligible par amet er ?
velocit y (a) Pr essur e coefficient
(d) compar ison of viscosit y is done.
(b) Fr oude number
2. Cent r e of buoyancy is
(c) Dar cy Weisbach fr ict ion fact or
(a) point of inter section of buoyant force and centre
line of t he body (d) None of t hese
(b) cent r e of gr avit y of t he body 10. A small plast ic boat loaded wit h pieces of st eel
(c) cent r oid of displaced volume fluid r ods i s fl oat ing i n a bat h t ub. I f t he car go i s
(d) mid point bet ween C.G. and met acent r e. dumped int o t he wat er allowing t he boat t o float
3. Length of mer cur y column at a place at an altitude empt y, t he wat er level in t he t ub will
will var y wit h r espect t o t hat at gr ound in a (a) r i se (b) fall
(a) linear r elat ion (c) r emains same (d) r ise and t hen fall
(b) hyper bolic r elat ion
11. St eady flow occur s when
(c) par abolic r elat ion
(a) pr essur e does not change along t he flow
(d) manner fir st slowly and t hen st eeply
(b) velocit y does not change
4. When power is tr ansmitted through a considerable
dist ance by means of wat er under pr essur e, t he (c) condit ions change gr adually wit h t ime
maximum power is t r ansmit t ed when fr ict ional (d) condit ions do not change wit h t ime at any
loss of head is point
(a) one t hir d of t he t ot al head supplied
12. A flow in which each liquid par ticle has a definite
(b) half of t he t ot al head supplied pat h and t heir pat hs do not cr oss each ot her, is
(c) 10% of t he t ot al head called
(d) 17.7% of t he t ot al head. (a) Steady flow (b) Unifor m flow
5. A r ot amet er is a device used t o measur e (c) St r eamline flow (d) Tur bulent flow
(a) velocit y of fluid in pipes
13. Buoyant for ce is
(b) velocit y of gauges
(c) vot ex flow (a) r esultant of upthrust and gr avity forces acting
on t he body
(d) flow of fluids
(b) r esult ant for ce on t he body due t o t he fluid
6. Reynolds number for pipe flow is given by
sur r ounding it
vD vD
(a) (b) (c) r esultant of static weight of body and dynamic
  t hr ust of fluid
vD vD
(c) (d) (d) equal t o t he volume of liquid displaced by t he
  body
7. Wit h r ise in gas t emper at ur e, dynamic viscosit y
of most of t he gases 14. I n a r ect angular not ch, t he r at io of per cent age
dischar ge
(a) incr eases er r or in is
measur ement of head
(b) decr eases 1
(c) does not change significant ly. (a) 1 (b)
2
(d) none of t hese 3 3
(c) (d)
4 2
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.39

15. Cavit at ion is caused by 24. The gener al equat i on of cont inui t y for t hr ee-
dimensional flow of a compressible fluid for steady
(a) high velocit y
flow is
(b) low bar omet r ic pr essur e
u v w u v w
(c) high pr essur e (a)   =0 (b)   =0
x y z x y z
(d) low pr essur e
u v w u v w
(c)   = 1 (d )   = u.v.w..
16. I f t he par t icles of a fluid at t ain such velocit ies x y z x y z
t hat var y fr om point t o point in magnit ude and wher e u, v and w ar e component s of velocit y in
dir ect ion as well as fr om inst ant , t he flow is x, y and z dir ect ions r espect ively

(a) Unifor m flow (b) Steady flow 25. A lar ge Reynold number is indicat ion of
(a) smoot h and st r eamline flow
(c) Tur bulent flow (d) L aminar flow
(b) laminar flow
17. I n a t ur bulent flow in a pipe (c) steady flow
(a) Reynolds number is gr eat er t han 10000 (d) highly t ur bulent flow
(b) fluid par t icles move in st r aight lines 26. Non unifor m flow occur s when
(c) head loss var ies linear ly wit h flow r at e (a) di r ect i on and magni t ude of vel oci t y at al l
point s ar e ident ical
(d) shear st r ess var ies linear ly wit h r adius
(b) velocit y of successive fluid par t icles, at any
18. The fr ict ion r esist ance in pipe is pr opor t ional t o point , is same at successive per iods of t ime
V 2, accor ding t o (c) magnit ude and dir ect ion of velocit y do not
(a) Fr oude-number (b) Reynolds-Weber change fr om point t o point in t he fluid
(c) Dar cy-Reynolds (d) Weber -Fr oude (d) velocit y, dept h, pr essur e, et c. changes point
t o point in t he fluid flow
19. I n laminar flow, maximum velocity at the centre
27. I n st eady flow of a fluid, t he acceler at ion of any
of pipe is how many times to the aver age velocity ?
fluid par t icle is
(a) Two (b) Thr ee (a) constant (b) var iable
(c) Four (d) None of t hese (c) zer o (d) never zer o

20. Pitot tube is used to measur e the velocity head of 28. For measur ing flow by a vent ur imet er, it should
be installed in
(a) st ill fluid (b) laminar flow
(a) ver t ical line
(c) t ur bulent flow (d) flowing fluid (b) hor izont al line
21. I n equilibr ium condit ion, fluids ar e not able t o (c) inclined line wit h upwar d flow
sustain (d) in any dir ect ion and in any locat ion
(a) shear for ce 29. Fr oude number is significant in
(b) r esist ance t o viscosit y (a) su per son i cs, as w i t h pr oj ect i l e an d j et
pr opulsion
(c) sur face t ension
(b) full immer sion or complet ely enclosed flow,
(d) geomet r ic similit ude as wit h pipes, air cr aft s wings, nozzles et c.,
(c) si mul t aneous mot i on t hr ough t wo fl ui ds
22. Flow occur r ing in a pipeline when a valve is being
wher e t her e i s a sur face of di scont i nui t y,
opened is gr avit y for ces, and wave maki ng effect , as
(a) steady (b) unsteady wit h ship’s hulls
(c) laminar (d) vor t ex (d) all of t hese

23. Tot al pr essur e on 1 m  1 m gat e i mmer sed 30. The fluid for ces consider ed in t he Navier St okes
equat ion ar e
ver t ically at a dept h of 2 m below t he fr ee wat er
sur face will be (a) gr avit y, pr essur e and viscous
(a) 1000 kg (b) 2000 kg (b) gr avit y, pr essur e and t ur bulent
(c) 4000 kg (d) 8000 kg (c) pr essur e, viscous and t ur bulent
(d) gr avit y, viscous and t ur bulent
 6.40 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery
31. The dept h of cent r e of pr essur e in r ect angular 37. Separ at i on of fl ow occur s due t o r educt i on of
lamina of height h wit h one side in t he liquid pr essur e gr adient t o
sur face is at (a) zer o
h
(a) h (b) (b) negligibly low value
3
2h h (c) t he ext ent such t hat vapour for mat ion st ar t s
(c) (d) (d) none of t hese
3 2
32. Reynolds number is significant in 38. The magnit ude of wat er hammer depends on the
(a) su per son i cs, as w i t h pr oj ect i l e an d j et (a) lengt h of pipeline
pr opulsion (b) speed at which t he valve is closed
(b) full immer sion or complet ely enclosed flow, (c) elastic proper ties of the liquid flowing thr ough
as wit h pipes, air cr aft wings, nozzles et c. t he pipe and pipe mat er ial
(c) si mul t aneous mot i on t hr ough t wo fl ui ds (d) all of t hese
wher e t her e i s a sur face of di scont i nui t y,
39. A cylinder is kept on a hor izont al boundar y past
gr avit y for ces, and wave making effect , as
which an ideal fluid flows per pendicular t o t he
wit h ship’s hulls cylinder axis. I t will exper ience
(d) all of t hese (a) no lift for ce
33. Two dimensional flow occur s when t he (b) some lift for ce
(a) dir ect ional and magnit ude of t he velocit y at (c) lift for ce in ver t ically downwar d dir ect ion
all point s ar e ident ical (d) lift for ce in ver t ically upwar d dir ect ion
(b) velocit y of successive fluid par t icles, at any 40. Wh en t h e w at er f l ows ov er a r ect an gu l ar
point , is same at successive per iods of t ime su ppr essed wei r, t he pr essur e beneat h t he
(c) magnit ude and dir ect ion of velocit y do not nappe is
change fr om point t o point in t he fluid (a) ver y high
(d) fl ui d par t icles move in a plane or par all el (b) slight ly above at mospher ic
pl an es and t he st r eaml i n e pat t er ns ar e
(c) at mospher ic
ident ical in each plane
(d) negat ive
34. A st r eamline is defined as t he line
(a) par allel t o cent r al axis flow 41. The specific speed of a hydr aulic t ur bine is given
(b) par allel t o out er sur face t o pipe by
(c) of equal velocit y in a flow N P P N
(a) (b)
(d) along which t he pr essur e dr op is unifor m H 5/4
H 5/4
NP NP
35. M at ch number is significant in (c) (d)
H 3/2 H 3/2
(a) su per soni cs, as wi t h pr oj ect i l es an d j et
pr opulsion 42. For supplying feed wat er t o a boiler which of t he
(b) full immer sion or complet ely enclosed flow, following pump is not used ?
as wit h pipes, air cr aft s wings, nozzles et c. (a) St eam inject or
(c) si mul t aneous mot i on t hr ough t wo fl ui ds (b) Recipr ocat ing pump
wher e t her e i s a sur face of di scont i nui t y, (c) M ultist age centr ifugal pump
gr avit y for ce, and wave making effect s, as
(d) Gear pump
wit h ship’s hull
(d) all of t hese 43. I n hydr aulic coupling, as t he r at io of t he speed
2 2 dr i ven sh aft t o dr i vi ng sh af t i n cr eases, t h e
   
36. For an ir r otational flow t he equat ion  efficiency
 x 2  y2
is called (a) decr eases
(a) Ber noulli’s equat ion (b) incr eases
(b) Cauchy Riemann’s equat ion (c) r emains const ant
(c) Euler ’s equat ion (d) is independent of speed r at io
(d) L aplace equat ion.
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.41
44. Pump select ed for pumping sewage is 51.The hydr aulic r adius is given by
(a) Recipr ocat ing pump (a) wet t ed per imet er divided by ar ea
(b) Open impeller cent r ifugal pump (b) ar ea divided by squar e of wet t ed per imet er
(c) M ultist age centr ifugal pump (c) squar e r oot of ar ea
(d) Scr ew pump (d) ar ea divided by wet t ed per imet er
45. I n a cent r ifugal pump when deliver y valve is fully 52.Specific speed (met r ic) = k ×specific (FPS), wher e
closed, t he pr essur e of fluid inside t he pump will k has t he value of
(a) become zer o (a) 1 (b) 1.75
(b) r educe (c) 2.37 (d) 0.67
(c) incr ease 53.The cavit at ion and pit t ing can be pr event ed by
(d) r emain unalt er ed cr eat ing which one of t he following condit ions?
46. Under shot water wheels ar e those on which wat er (a) Reducing t he pr essur e head
acts (b) Reducing t he velocit y head
(a) pur ely by impulse (c) I ncr easing t he elevat ion head
(b) par t ly by impulse and par t ly by r eact ion (d) Reducing t he piezomet r ic head
(c) pur ely by r eact ion 54.Pr essur e r ise due t o wat er hammer in a penst ock
(d) none of t hese depends on
47. I n t h e case of pel t on t ur bi n e i n st al l ed i n a (a) wat er l evel i n t he r eser vior, and el ast ici t y
hydr aulic power plant , t he gr oss head available is of wat er
t he ver t ical dist ance bet ween (b) densit y of wat er
(a) for ebay and t ail r ace (c) r oughness of pipe
(b) r eser voir level and t ur bine inlet (d) all of t hese
(c) for ebay and t ur bine inlet
55.A pumped st or age plant is a
(d) r eser voir level and t ail r ace
(a) high head plant
48.A hydr aulic coupling belongs t o t he cat egor y of (b) r un-off r iver plant
(a) power absor bing machines (c) peak load plant
(b) power developing machines (d) base load plant
(c) ener gy gener at ing machines 56.Whi ch of t he following st at ement s about gear
(d) ener gy t r ansfer machines pumps ar e t r ue?
I . Gear pumps ar e best suit ed for high pr essur es
49.For pumping molasses, it is pr efer able t o employ
and small dischar ges.
(a) r ecipr ocating pump
I I . Gear pumps ar e self pr iming.
(b) cent r ifugal pump wit h double shr ouds I I I . Efficiency of a gear pump depends on t he slip.
(c) open impeller pump I V. The dischar ge is inver sely pr opor t ional t o t he
(d) mult ist age centr ifugal pump axial lengt h of t he gear t oot h.
(a) I and I V only (b) I I and I I I only
50.I n t he case of a cent r ifugal pump, cavit at ion will
occur if (c) I I I and I only (d) I I and I V only
(a) it oper at es above t he minimum net posit ive 57.I n t he figur e below, which cur ve r epr esent s t he
suct ion head con di t i on f or back w ar d cu r v ed v an es i n a
(b) it oper at es below t he minimum net posit ive cent r ifugal pump?
suct ion head (a) Cur ve A
(c) t he pr essur e at t he inlet of t he pump is above (b) Cur ve B
t he at mospher ic pr essur e
(c) Cur ve C
(d) t he pr essur e at t he inlet of t he pump is equal
t o t he at mospher ic pr essur e (d) Cur ve D
6.42 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery
58.I n all r eact ion t ur bines, maximum efficiency is 66.Jet pumps ar e oft en used in pr ocess indust r y for
obtained, if t heir
(a) guide vane angle is 90° (a) high efficiency
(b) blade angle of t he r unner s is 90° at t he inlet (b) easy maint enance
(c) blade angle of t he r unner s is 90° at t he out let (c) lar ge capacit y
(d) angle of t he absolut e velocit y vect or at t he (d) capaci t y t o t r an spor t gases, l i qui ds an d
out let is 90° mixt ur es of bot h
59.The shut off head will be near ly 67.Spout ing velocit y is
(a) Zer o (b) 18.0 m (a) ideal velocit y of jet
(c) 25.5 m (d) 35 m (b) 50% of ideal velocit y of jet
(c) act ual velocit y of jet
60.Double hemispher ical bucket s ar e used in
(d) velocit y of jet under some specified condit ions
(a) Kaplan tur bine (b) Fr ancis t ur bine
(c) Pr opeller t ur bine (d) Pelt on wheel 68.The comparison between pumps operating in ser ies
and in par allel is
61.A r ecipr ocating pump (a) Pumps oper ating in ser ies boost the dischar ge,
(a) r equir es pr iming wher eas pumps oper ating in par allel boost the
(b) r equir es air vessel head.
(c) r equir es high oper at ing speeds (b) Pu m ps oper at i n g i n par al l el boost t h e
(d) is used for viscous fluids only dischar ge, wher eas pumps oper at ing in ser ies
boost t he head.
62.Air vessel in a r ecipr ocat ing pump is used t o (c) I n bot h cases t her e woul d be a boost i n
(a) obt ain cont inuous supply of wat er at unifor m dischar ge only.
r at e (d) I n bot h cases t her e would be a boost in head
(b) incr ease deliver y onl y.
(c) r educe suct ion head
69.A pelt on t ur bine is consider ed suit able for which
(d) r emove any ent r apped air fr om wat er of t he following head ?
63.A t aper ed dr aft t ube as compar ed t o a cylindr ical (a) 10 t o 12 met r es (b) 20 t o 30 met r es
dr aft t ube (c) 35 t o 50 met r es (d) 100 t o 250 met r es
(a) pr event s hammer blow and sur ges 70.M at er ial for wat er t ur bine should have
(b) r esponds bet t er t o load funct ions (a) high cr eep r esist ance
(c) conver t s mor e of kinet ic head int o pr essur e (b) high t emper at ur e r esist ance
head (c) high cor r osion r esist ance
(d) pr even t s cavi t at i on even u nder r edu ced (d) low duct ilit y
dischar ges
64.The specific speeds of r adial vane pump, mixed
LEVEL-1
flow pump and axial flow pump ar e NS1, NS2 and 71. The coefficient of dischar ge (Cd ) of an or ifice
NS3 r espect ively. Then var ies wit h
(a) NS1 > NS2 > NS3 (a) Reynold number (b) Weber number
(b) NS3 > NS2 > NS1 (c) Fr oude number (d) M ach number
(c) NS2 > NS3 > NS1 72. The shear st r ess dist r ibut ion for a fluid flowing
(d) NS3 > NS1 > NS2 in bet ween t he par allel plat es, bot h at r est , is
65.Cen t r i f u gal pu m ps oper at i n g i n ser i es wi l l (a) const ant over t he cr oss-sect ion
r esult in (b) maximum at the mid-plane and varies linearly
(a) higher dischar ge wit h dist ance fr om mid-plane
(b) r educed power consumpt ion (c) zer o at the mid-point and var ies linear ly with
dist ance fr om mid-plane
(c) higher head
(d) zer o at t he plat es and var ies exponent ially t o
(d) low speed oper at ion
mid-point
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.43

73. Fr iction dr ag is generally lar ger than the pr essure 80. T he dr ag coefficient for laminar flow var ies as
dr ag in (wher e Re = Reyonlds number )
(a) flow past a spher e (a) Re (b) Re– 1
(b) flow past a cylinder (c) Re1/2 (d) Re– 1/2
(c) flow past an air foil
81. I f one of t he walls moves in t he dir ect ion of flow
(d) flow past a t hin sheet .
wi t h uni for m vel oci t y whil e t he ot her wal l i s
74. Capillar it y is due t o st at i onar y, t hen t he r esul t i ng fl ow bet ween
(a) Cohension par allel walls is called
(b) Adhesion (a) Plug flow
(c) Adhesion and cohesion (b) St oke’s flow
(d) Gr avity (c) Couet t e flow
75. Pr inciple of similit ude for ms t he basis of (d) Euler ’s flow
(a) compar ing t wo ident ical equipment s 82. I n ser ies-pipe applications
(b) designing models so t hat t he r esult can be (a) head loss t hr ough each pipe added t o obt ain
conver t ed t o pr ot ot ypes t he t ot al head loss
(c) compar i ng si mi l ar l y bet ween desi gn and (b) head loss is same t hr ough each pipe
act ual equipment
(c) fr ict ion fact or is assumed for each pipe
(d) hydr aulic design
(d) flow incr eases
76. I f V is t he mean velocit y of flow, t hen accor ding
83. For pipe flow, at const ant diamet er, capacit y is
t o Dar cy-Weisbach equation for pipe flow, ener gy
pr opor t ional t o
loss over a lengt h of pipe is pr opor t ional
(a) V (b) 1/V (a) head (b) head

(c) V 2 (d) (c) head3/2 (d) head2

V
84. The velocit y dist r ibut ion for flow bet ween t wo
77. H ead loss in t ur bulent flow in a pipe
fixed par allel plates
(a) var ies dir ect ly as velocit y
(a) is const ant over t he cr oss-sect ion
(b) var ies inver sely as squar e of velocit y
(b) is zer o at t he plat es and incr eases linear ly t o
(c) var ies appr oximat ely as squar e of velocit y t he midplane
(d) var ies inver sely as velocit y. (c) var ies par abolically acr oss t he sect ion
78. The hor izont al component of for ce on a cur ved (d) i s zer o i n m i ddl e an d i n cr ease l i n ear l y
sur face is equal t o t he t owar ds t he plat es
(a) pr oduct of pr essur e at it s cent r oid and ar ea 85. The most economi cal sect ion of a r ect angul ar
(b) weight of liquid r et ained by t he cur ved ar ea channel for maximum discharge is obtained when
(c) for ce on a ver t ical pr oject ion of t he cur ved it s dept h is equal t o
sur face (a) half t he br eadt h
(d) weight of liquid ver t ically above t he cur ved (b) t wice t he br eadt h
sur face (c) same as t he br eadt h
79. Tot al pr essu r e on t h e t op of a cl osed (d) one t hir d t he br eadt h.
cylindr ical vessel of r adius r filled wit h liquid is
86. Region downst r eam fr om t he st r eamline wher e
pr opor t ional t o
separ at i on t ak es pl ace fr om t he boundar y i s
1
(a) r (b) known as
r
1 (a) wake (b) lift
(c) (d) r 2
r2 (c) drag (d) cavit ation
 6.44 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery

87. A low pr essur e of t he or der of 10– 10 t or r can be 94. One hor se power is equal t o
measur ed in a chamber wit h (a) 102 watt s
(a) M anomet er (b) 75 watt s
(b) Bour don vacuum gauge (c) 550 watt s
(c) Pir ani gauge (d) 735 watt s
(d) I onisat ion chamber 95. Recipr ocat ing pumps ar e no mor e t o be seen in
88. To avoid a cor r ect ion for t he effect of capillar it y i n du st r i al appl i cat i on s (i n com par i son t o
in manomet er s, diamet er of t ube should be cent r ifugal pumps) because of
(a) less t han 1 mm (a) high init ial and maint enance cost
(b) less t han 3 mm (b) lower dischar ge
(c) less t han 4.5 mm (c) lower speed of oper at ion
(d) all of t hese (d) necessit y of air vessel
89. The r iver flow dur ing floods can be classified as 96. The maximum cont inuous power available fr om
(a) st eady unifor m flow a h y dr oel ect r i c pl an t u n der m ost adv er se
hydr aulic condit ions, is called
(b) unst eady unifor m flow
(a) Base power
(c) st eady non-unifor m flow
(b) Fir m power
(d) unst eady non-unifor m flow
(c) Pr imar y power
90. Wake always occur s (d) Unpr edictable
(a) befor e a separ at ion point
97. The movable wicket gat es of a r eact ion t ur bine
(b) aft er a separ at ion point ar e used t o
(c) befor e and aft er a separ at ion point (a) cont r ol t he flow of wat er passing t hr ough t he
(d) none of t hese tur bine
91. I n a flow field, at t he st agnat ion point (b) cont r ol t he pr essur e under which t he t ur bine
is wor king
(a) pr essur e is zer o
(c) st r engt hen t he casing of t he t ur bine
(b) t ot al ener gy is zer o (d) r educe t he size of t he t ur bine
(c) pr essur e head is equal t o velocit y
98. A Four neyr on t ur bine is
(d) all the velocity head is conver ted into pr essur e
(a) out war d flow r eact ion t ur bine
head.
(b) inwar d flow r eact ion t ur bine
92. Tot al dr ag on a body is t he sum of (c) out war d flow impulse t ur bine
(a) pr essur e dr ag and velocit y dr ag (d) inwar d flow impulse t ur bine
(b) fr ict ion dr ag and velocit y dr ag
99. The degr ee of r eact ion of a t ur bine is defined as
(c) fr ict ion dr ag and pr essur e dr ag t he r at io of
(d) pr essur e dr ag, velocity dr ag and fr iction dr ag. (a) st at ic pr essur e dr op t o t ot al ener gy t r ansfer
93. Specific speed of a pump and specific speed of a (b) t ot al ener gy t r ansfer t o st at ic pr essur e dr op
t ur bine ar e (symbols have t he usual meaning) (c) change of velocit y ener gy acr oss t he t ur bine
t o t he t ot al ener gy t r ansfer
N Q N P
(a) and r espect ively (d) velocit y ener gy t o pr essur e ener gy.
H 3/4 H 5/4
N Q N P 100. I n a cent r ifugal pump inst allat ion while st ar t ing,
(b) 3/4 and 3/4 r espect ively t he posit ion of deliver y valve is
H H
(a) fully open
N Q N P
(c) 5/4 and 5/4 r espect ively (b) fully closed
H H
(c) half open
N Q N P (d) mor e t han half open
(d) 5/4 and 5/4 r espect ively
H H
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.45
101. For at t aining a non-over loading char act er ist ic in 108. I n axial flow t ur bines, wat er ent er s
cent r ifugal pumps (a) r adially but leaves axially
(a) back war d bent vanes ar e pr efer r ed over
(b) axially but leaves r adially
for war d bent vanes
(b) f or w ar d ben t v an es ar e pr ef er r ed ov er (c) at an angle but leaves axially
backwar d bent vanes (d) axially and leaves axially
(c) for war d bent vanes ar e pr efer r ed over vanes LEVEL-2
r adial at out let
(d) vanes r adi al at out l et ar e pr efer r ed over 109. When pr essur e p, flow r at e Q, diamet er D, and
backwar d vanes density d, a dimensionless gr oup is r epr esented by
102. Which one of t he following st at ement s r egar ding pQ 2 p
r ecipr ocat ing pumps is cor r ect ? (a) 4 (b) 2 4
dD dQ D
(a) Friction head is mainly responsible for causing
cavi t at i on i n a r eci pr ocat i ng pump at t he pD4d pD 4
(c) (d)
beginning of t he suct ion st r oke. Q2 dD 2
(b) E f f ect of accel er at i on pr essu r e on 110. Vi scosi t y i s t he most i mpor t ant pr oper t y i n t he
recipr ocating pumps appears parabolic and has (a) t r avel of a bullet t hr ough air
t he maxi mum effect at t he mi ddl e of t he
(b) wat er jet issuing fr om a fir e air
deliver y st r oke.
(c) for mat ion of soap bubbles
(c) Air vessel r educes t he acceler at ion head and
consequently reduces the effect of fr iction head (d) flow of cast or oil t hr ough a t ube.
also. 111. A t ype of flow in which t he fluid par t icles while
(d) The maximum per mi ssible suct ion lift in a moving in t he dir ect ion of flow r ot at e about t heir
dou bl e act i n g r eci pr ocat i n g pu m p i s mass cent r e, is known as
independent of vapour pr essur e. (a) steady flow (b) unifor m flow
103. On an immer sed body in a flowing fluid t he lift (c) laminar flow (d) r ot at ional flow
for ce is
(a) due t o buoyant for ce. 112. I f pr essur e at any point in t he liquid appr oaches
(b) always in t he opposit e dir ect ion t o gr avit y the vapour pr essur e, liquid star ts vapor ising and
(c) due t o wake phenomenon cr eates pocket s or bubbles of dissolved gases and
vapour s. This phenomenon is
(d) t he dynamic fluid-for ce component nor mal t o
appr oach velocit y (a) sur face t ension (b) adhesion
104. A plot bet ween power gener at ed in M W and t ime (c) vapor isation (d) cavit ation
is known as 113. Fir e hose nozzle is gener ally made of
(a) L oad cur ve (b) L oad dur at ion cur ve (a) diver gent shape (b) conver gent shape
(c) L oad fact or (d) Demand cur ve (c) cylindr ical shape (d) par abolic shape.
105. A cent r ifugal pump t akes t oo much power, due t o
114. Dischar ge of br oad cr ested weir is maximum in the
(a) low speed (b) air in wat er
head of wat er on downst r eam si de of wei r as
(c) air leakage (d) heavy liquid
compar ed t o head on t he upst r eam si de of t he
106. I n r eact ion t ur bine t he dr aft t ube is used t o weir is
(a) transpor t water to downstream without eddies (a) one-half (b) one-t hir d
(b) r econver t kinet ic ener gy t o flow ener gy by a (c) two-thir d (d) t hr ee-four t h
gr adual expansion of t he flow cr oss-sect ion
(c) incr ease t he effect ive head 115. F or si m i l ar l y, i n addi t i on t o m odel s bei n g
(d) pr event air fr om ent er ing geomet r ically similar t o pr ot ot ype, t he following
in bot h cases should also be equal
107. A dr um of r adius R full of a fluid of densit y d is
r ot at ed at  r ad/sec. The incr ease in pr essur e at (a) r at io of iner t ial for ce t o for ce due t o viscosit y
t he out er edge of t he dr um will be (b) r at i o of i n er t i al f or ce t o f or ce du e t o
gr avit ation
2 R2 d 2 R d
(a) (b) (c) r at io of iner t ial for ce t o for ce due t o sur face
2 2 t ension
Rd  R d2 (d) all t he four r at ios of iner t ial for ce t o for ce
(c) (d)
2 2 due t o viscosit y, gr avit at ion, sur face t ension
and elast icit y
 6.46 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery

116. Dischar ge over a shar p-edged r ect angular not ch 123. L oss of head due t o fr i ct i on i n a pi pe of uni for m
of widt h w and dept h h is equal t o di amet er wi t h vi scous fl ow i s equal t o
2 2 (a) Reynolds number (Re)
(a) C d w 2 gh 5/ 2 (b) C d w 2 gh
3 3 1
(b)
2 8 Re
(c) C d w 2 gh 3/ 2 (d) C d w 2 gh 3/ 2
3 15 4
(c)
Re
117. I n a fr ee vor t ex mot ion, t angent ial velocit y of
t he wat er par t icles is pr opor t ional t o 16
(d)
(a) r (b) r2 Re
(c) 1/r (d) 1/r 2 124. H ydr aul i c gr ade l i ne for any fl ow syst em as
wher e, r = dist ance fr om t he cent r e. compar ed t o ener gy line is
118. To r eplace a pipe of diameter D by n par allel pipes (a) above (b) below
of diamet er d, t he for mula used is (c) at same level (d) uncer t ain
D D
(a) d = (b) d = 1/ 2 125. The effect of negative pr essur e beneath the nappe
n n i n case of fl ow of wat er over a r ect angul ar
D D suppr essed weir is t o
(c) 3/ 2 (d) 2 / 5
n n (a) decr ease t he dischar ge
119. Ver t i cal com pon en t of pr essu r e f or ce on a (b) incr ease t he dischar ge
submer ged cur ve sur face is equal t o
(c) incr ease fr ict ional r esist ance
(a) weight of liquid ver t ically above t he cur ved
(d) r educe fr ict ional r esist ance
sur face and ext ending upon t he fr ee sur face
(b) for ce on a ver t ical pr oject ion of t he cur ved 126. Gr adually var ied flow is
sur face (a) st eady unifor m flow
(c) pr oduct of pr essur e at cent r oid and sur face (b) st eady non-unifor m flow
ar ea
(c) unst eady unifor m flow
(d) hor izont al component
(d) unst eady non-unifor m flow
120. The fluid for ces consider ed in t he Navier -St okes
127. A flui d i n whi ch r esi st ance t o defor mat i on i s
equat ion ar e
independent of t he shear str ess, is known as
(a) gr avit y velocit y and viscous
(a) Bingham plastic fluid
(b) gr avit y, pr essur e and t ur bulent
(b) Pseudo plast ic fluid
(c) pr essur e, viscous and t ur bulent
(c) Dilatant fluid
(d) gr avit y, viscous and t ur bulent
(d) Newt onian fluid
121. For a flow t o be r ot at ional, velocit y nor mal t o
128. Pr essur e dr ag r esult s fr om
t he plane of ar ea should be equal t o t he
(a) skin-fr iction
(a) angular velocit y vect or
(b) defor mation dr ag
(b) half t he angular velocit y vect or
(c) development of a st agnat ion point
(c) t wice t he angular velocit y vect or
(d) occur r ence of a wake
(d) zer o
129. Tur bulent flow is hydr aulically smoot h if r at io
122. Cont i n u i t y equ at i on f or an i n com pr essi bl e
fluid is height of r oughness pr oject ion
is less t han
(a) A 1 V 1 = A 2V 2 (b) 1 A 1 V 1 = 2 A 2V 2 t hickness of laminar sub - layer

A 1V1 A V 1 A 1  A (a) 1.00 (b) 0.75

(c) = 2 2 (d) = 2 2
1 2 V1 2 (c) 0.50 (d) 0.25

wher e V = velocit y,  = densit y and A = ar ea

 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.47
130. Bluff body sur face 138. I f t he char act er ist ics of a pump ar e as shown in
(a) is smoot h so t hat fr ict ion can be neglect ed t he figur e, t hen abscissa r epr esent s
(b) coincides wit h st r eamlines (a) head
(c) does not coincide wit h st r eamlines
(b) RPM
(d) per pendicular t o st r eamlines
(c) dischar ge
131. Cent r e of pr essur e on an inclined plane is
(a) at t he cent r oid (b) above t he cent r oid (d) power
(c) below t he cent r oid (d) at met acent r e 139. To obt ai n r el at i on for t he speci fi c speed, t he
assumpt ion made is t hat all pumps
132. Separ ation of flow occur s when pr essur e gr adient
(a) ar e similar
(a) t ends t o appr oach zer o
(b) of a given t ype ar e similar
(b) becomes negat ive
(c) of a given t ype ar e geomet r ically similar
(c) changes abr upt ly (d) ar e hydr aulically similar
(d) r educes t o a value when vapour for mat ion
star ts 140. Water tur bines may be put in the decr easing or der
of specific speed as
133. The fr ict ion head lost due t o flow of a viscous (a) Pr opeller t ur bine, React ion t ur bine, I mpulse
fluids t hr ough a cir cular pipe of lengt h L and tur bine
diamet er d wit h a velocit y v, and pipe fr ict ion (b) Pelton wheel, Fr ancis tur bine, Kaplan t ur bine
fact or ‘f’ is
(c) React ion t ur bine, I mpulse t ur bine, Pr opeller
tur bine
4 f L v2 4 f L v2
(a)  (b)  (d) Pr opeller t ur bine, I mpulse t ur bine, React ion
d 2g d 2 2 g
tur bine

v2 4 f L v2 141. M ixed flow t ur bines ar e

(c) (d) 
2g d 2g (a) r adial inwar d flow type
(b) r adial out war d flow t ype
134. The r ate of change of linear moment um is equals (c) par t ly r adial par t ly axial
to
(d) par allel flow type
(a) act ive for ce (b) r eact ive for ce
142. A foot valve is pr ovided on
(c) t or que (d) wor k done
(a) Centr ifugal pumps
135. Component of the for ce of fluid on the body (which (b) Kaplan tur bines
is gener ally inclined t o t he dir ect ion of mot ion of
(c) Pelt on wheels
t he body) par allel t o t he dir ect ion of mot ion is
(d) All of t hese
called
(a) drag (b) lift 143. Which one is differ ent fr om t he ot her s ?
(c) wake (d) thr ust (a) Axial flow impeller
(b) M ixed flow impeller
136. Ener gy loss in flow t hr ough nozzle as compar ed
(c) War ped vane impeller
t o vent ur imet er is
(d) Shr ouded impeller
(a) same (b) mor e
(c) less (d) unpr edictable 144. I n a r eact ion t ur bine
(a) it is possible t o r egulat e t he flow wit hout loss
137. The r at e of change of moment of moment um
(b) it must be placed at t he foot of t he fall and
r epr esent s t he
above t he t ail r ace
(a) for ce ext er t ed by fluid (c) wor k done i s pur el y by t he change i n t he
(b) t or que applied by t he fluid kinet ic ener gy of jet
(c) wor k done by t he fluid (d) only par t of the head is conver t ed into velocity
(d) power developed by t he fluid befor e wat er ent er s t he wheel
 6.48 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery
145. The discharge thr ough a rectangular weir varies as 154. A hydr aulic int ensifier nor mally consist s of
(a) H (b) H 1/2 (a) t wo cylinder s, t wo r ams and a st or age device
(c) H 2 (d) H 5/2 (b) a cylinder and a r am
146. The hydr aulic gr adient line is always (c) t wo co-axial r ams and t wo cylinder s
(a) below t he t ot al ener gy line (d) a cylinder, a pist on, st or age t ank and cont r ol
(b) par allel t o t he bot t om valve
(c) above t he t ot al ener gy line 155. Accor di n g t o t he l aws of pr opor t i onal i t y for
(d) none of t hese homologous turbines, dischar ge is pr opor tional to

147. I n involut e casing t he velocit y of wat er (a) D H (b) D 2 H

(a) decr eases but pr essur e incr eases (c) D 2 H 3/2 (d) D 2 H
(b) and pr essur e bot h incr ease 156. Any change in load is adjust ed by adjust ing on
(c) and pr essur e bot h decr ease tur bine
(d) incr eases but pr essur e decr eases (a) net head (b) absolut e velocit y
148. The pump which is differ ent fr om ot her s is (c) blade velocit y (d) flow
(a) Simplex pump (b) Plunger pump 157. For pumping viscous oil, pump used will be
(c) Pist on pump (d) Cent r ifugal pump (a) cent r ifugal pump (b) r ecipr ocating pump
(c) t ur bine pump (d) scr ew pump
149. I f a cent r ifugal pump is noisy in oper at ion, it may
be due t o 158. The cavitation in r eaction type hydr aulic tur bines
is avoided by
(a) faulty pr iming
(a) using highly polished blade
(b) suct ion head t oo high
(b) using st ainless st eel r unner
(c) air in wat er
(c) installing t he t ur bine below the tail r ace level
(d) mechanical defect
(d) all of t he above
150. Fr ancis t ur bine is best suit ed for 159. Pr opeller t ur bine is best suit ed for
(a) medium head applicat ion fr om 24 t o 180 m (a) medium head applicat ion fr om 20 t o 180 m
(b) high head inst allat ion above 180 m (b) low head inst allat ion up t o 30 m
(c) low head inst allat ion upt o 30 m (c) high head inst allat ion above 180 m
(d) all t ypes of heads (d) all t ypes of heads
151. H ydr aulic accumulat or is used for 160. A hydr aul i c jump can occur under al l of t he
(a) accumulat ing oil following condit ions except :
(b) supplying lar ge quant it ies of oil for ver y shor t (a) on t he upst r eam side of t he sluices
dur ation (b) at t he foot of t he spillways
(c) supplying ener gy when main supply fails (c) wher e t he gr adient suddenly changes fr om a
(d) accumulating hydr aulic ener gy st eep slope t o a flat slope
152. Run away speed of a hydr aulic tur bine is the speed (d) when wat er moving in shoot ing flow impact s
wi t h wat er h avi n g a l ar ger dept h wi t h
(a) at full load
st r eaming flow
(b) at which t ur bine r unner will be damaged
161. As per the aer ofoil theor y of K aplan tur bine blade
(c) at whi ch t he t ur bi ne r unner i s al l owed t o design, guide angle is as t he angle bet ween
r evol ve fr eel y wi t hout l oad and wi t h t he
(a) lift and r esult ant for ce
wicket gat es wide open
(b) dr ag and r esult ant for ce
(d) cor r espon di n g t o m ax i m u m ov er l oad
per missible (c) lift and t angent ial for ce
(d) lift and dr ag
153. Accor di ng t o t he l aws of pr opor t i on al i t y f or
homologous t ur bines, speed is pr opor t ional t o 162. Power r equir ed t o dr ive a cent r ifugal pump is
pr opor t ional t o (D = impeller diamet er )
(a) H /D (b) H/D (a) D (b) D 2
(c) H / D2 (d) HD (c) D 3 (d) D 4
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery 6.49
163. Rat io of maximum load t o r at ed plant capacit y is 165. For cent r ifugal pump
known as (a) head  speed2 (b) head  diamet er 2
(a) L oad fact or (c) power  speed 3
(d) none of t hese
(b) Ut ilizat ion fact or
166. For smal l di schar ge at hi gh pr essur e, pump
(c) M aximum load fact or
pr efer r ed is
(d) Capacity fact or
(a) centr ifugal (b) axial flow
164. A double act ing r ecipr ocat ing pump compar ed t o
(c) pr opeller (d) r ecipr ocat ing
single act ing pump will have near ly
(a) double efficiency (b) double head
(c) double flow (d) double weight

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (b)

11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (d) 16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (d)

21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (d) 29. (c) 30. (a)

31. (c) 32. (b) 33. (d) 34. (c) 35. (a) 36. (d) 37. (c) 38. (d) 39. (a) 40. (d)

41. (a) 42. (d) 43. (b) 44. (b) 45. (d) 46. (a) 47. (b) 48. (d) 49. (c) 50. (d)

51. (d) 52. (d) 53. (d) 54. (d) 55. (a) 56. (b) 57. (c) 58. (d) 59. (d) 60. (d)

61. (b) 62. (a) 63. (c) 64. (b) 65. (c) 66. (b,d) 67. (a) 68. (b) 69. (d) 70. (c)
LEVEL-1
71. (a) 72. (c) 73. (b) 74. (c) 75. (b) 76. (b) 77. (d) 78. (c) 79. (d) 80. (d)

81. (a) 82. (d) 83. (c) 84. (a) 85. (c) 86. (d) 87. (a) 88. (d) 89. (d) 90. (b)

91. (b) 92. (c) 93. (a) 94. (d) 95. (a) 96. (b) 97. (b) 98. (a) 99. (a) 100. (b)

101. (a) 102. (c) 103. (b) 104. (a) 105. (b) 106. (b) 107. (a) 108. (a)

LEVEL-2
109. (a) 110. (c) 111. (c) 112. (a) 113. (c) 114. (d) 115. (* ) 116. (c) 117. (c) 118. (d)

119. (a) 120. (a) 121. (c) 122. (a) 123. (d) 124. (b) 125. (b) 126. (b) 127. (d) 128. (d)

129. (d) 130. (c) 131. (c) 132. (c) 133. (a) 134. (c) 135. (a) 136. (a) 137. (b) 138. (c)

139. (c) 140. (a) 141. (c) 142. (a) 143. (d) 144. (d) 145. (d) 146. (a) 147. (a) 148. (d)

149. (d) 150. (a) 151. (c) 152. (c) 153. (a) 154. (c) 155. (b) 156. (d) 157. (d) 158. (d)

159. (b) 160. (a) 161. (a) 162. (d) 163. (b) 164. (c) 165. (a) 166. (d)
6.50 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery
EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
42. Boi l er feed pump has t o suppl y wat er at
hi gher pr essur es– mor e t han t he pr essur e of
st eam. Gear pumps ar e never used for such
ser vi ces.
N2
43. I n fluid coupling, efficiency =
N1
Thus var iat ion of efficiency wit h speed r at io is
linear.
48.A hydr aulic coupling consists of a pump unit fitted
on t he dr iving shaft and a t ur bine unit on t o t he
dr i ven shaft . These t wo uni t s ar e housed i n a
common casing in such a manner t hat out put of
t he pump is fed t o t he t ur bine unit which r ot at es
and drives the driven shaft. The medium fluid used
is gener ally oil.
49. Molasses is highly viscous ther efor e open impeller
should be used. Nor mally a scr ew pump is used
for pumping highly viscous fluids.
53. When absolut e local pr essur e at any point in a
conduit car r ying a liquid appr oaches t he vapour
pr essur e pv of the liquid, dissolved gases and liquid
vapour emer ge out of t he liquid as bubbles. These
bubbles may t r avel t o r egions of higher pr essur e
and collapse. At t he point of bubble collapse, t he
boundar y get s damaged. The phenomenon of
for mat ion, t r avel and collapse of vapour bubbles
is cal led cavitation.
56. Gear pumps ar e best sui t ed for l ow pr essur es
(1000 k N /m 2) and smal l di schar ges (l ess t han
30 lps). These ar e self pr iming and ar e oft en used
t o pr ime lar ge cent r ifugal pumps.
FG N IJ
Dischar ge, Q = K .C (D– C). L H 60K
wher e L = axial lengt h of t eet h,
C = cent r e t o cent r e distance bet ween axes
of gear s.
D = out side diamet er of gear.
58. I n case of r eact ion t ur bines, maximum efficiency
is obt ained when absolut e velocit y vect or at t he
out let is 90°.
59. By ext r apolat ing Q vs H cur ve, t he shut off head
which is cor r esponding t o Q = 0 is 35.5 m.
60. Bucket s ar e double hemispher ical in shape. These
bucket s ar e made of cast ir on, br onze or st ainless
st eel .
61. A r ecipr ocat ing pump is self pr iming. I t oper at es
at low speeds. I t is not suit able for viscous liquids,
paper pulp, molasses, et c.
62. Air vessel smoot hens wat er dischar ge which is
ot her wise pulsat ing. Air vessel may be fit t ed on
suct ion side and/or deliver y side.
63. A t aper ed dr aft t ube is used for low specific speed
ver t ical shaft t ur bines. I t s maximum cone angle
is 8°. I f angle is mor e t han t his, wat er does not
t ouch t he inner walls, causing vor t ices and loss of
head. M aximum efficiency obt ained in t his tube is
9%. The t ube must dischar ge sufficient ly below
t he t ail wat er level.
65. Ser ies oper at ion is achieved by having one pump
di schar ge i nt o t h e suct i on of t he next . Thi s
ar r angement i s used pr imar il y t o incr ease t he
dischar ge head.
LEVEL-1
97. The pur pose of guide vanes or wicket gat es is t o
dir ect wat er t o ent er int o t he r unner vanes at a
suit able angle t o avoid any wast age of ener gy due
t o shock and t o conver t par t ly pr essur e ener gy of
t he ent er ing wat er i nt o ki net i c ener gy. I t also
r egulates supply of wat er accor ding t o t he load on
t he t ur bine.
 Industrial Engineering 7.1

7
C H A P TE R
Industrial Engineering

PRODU CT I ON PLAN N I N G
I n pr oduct ion, pr oduct s ar e manufact ur ed by t he t r ansfor mat ion of r aw mat er ial (int o finished goods).
Planning looks ahead, ant icipat es possible difficult ies and decides in advance as t o how t he pr oduct ion, best , be
car r ied out .
Cont r ol phase makes sur e t hat t he pr ogr ammed pr oduct ion is const ant ly maint ained.

FU N CTI ON S OF PRODU CTI ON PLAN N I N G

A pr oduct ion planning and cont r ol syst em has following funct ions t o per for m, some befor e t he ar r ival of r aw
mat er ials and t ools, and ot her s while t he r aw mat er ial under goes pr ocessing.
For ecast ing
Pr ior planning
(1) Planning phase Pr oduct design
Active planning Pr ocess planning and r out ing
M at er ial cont r ol
Tool cont r ol
Loading
Scheduling
(2) Action phase Dispatching
Pr ogr ess r epor t ing Data pr ocessing
(3) Cont r ol phase
Expediting
Cor r ect ive act ion
Replanning
(1) Planning phase
( i ) Pr ior planning :
(a) For ecast ing : Est imat ion of t ype, quant it y and qualit y of fut ur e wor k.
(b) Pr oduct design : Collect ion of infor mat ion r egar ding specificat ions, bill of mat er ials, dr awings, et c.
( ii ) Act ive planning :
(a) Pr ocess planning and r out ing : Finding t he most economical pr ocess for doing a wor k and (t hen)
deciding how and wher e t he wor k will be done.
(b) M at er ial cont r ol : Det er minat ion of t he r equir ement s and cont r ol of mat er ials.
(c) Tool cont r ol : Det er minat ion of t he r equir ement s and cont r ol of t ools used.
(d) L oading : Assignment of wor k t o manpower, machiner y, et c.
(e) Scheduling : I t is t he t ime phase of loading and deter mines when and in what sequence t he wor k will
be car r ied out . I t fixes t he st ar t ing as well as t he finishing t ime for t he job.
(2) Act ion phase
Dispat ching : I t is t he t r ansit ion fr om planning t o act ion phase. I n t his phase t he wor ker is or der ed t o st ar t
t he act ual wor k.
(3) Cont r ol phase
( i ) Pr ogr ess r epor ting.
( a ) Dat a r egar ding t he job pr ogr ess is collect ed.
(b) I t is int er pr et ed by compar ison wit h t he pr eset level of per for mance.
( ii ) Cor r ect ive act ion.
( a ) Expedit ing : I t means t aking act ion if t he pr ogr ess r epor t ing (j) indicat es a deviat ion of t he plan fr om
t he or iginally set t ar get s.
( b) Replanning : Replanning of t he whole affair becomes essent ial, in case expedit ing fails t o br ing t he
deviat ed plan t o it s act ual (r ight ) pat h.
 7.2 Industrial Engineering

FU N CTI ON AL ORGAN I SATI ON OF PRODU CTI ON PLAN N I N G AN D

CON T ROL .
PRODUCTI ON PLANNI NG AND CONTROL

PRODUCTI ON I NVENTORY PRODUCTI ON TRAFFI C

PLANNI NG CONTROL CONTROL
Production Material
Budget Budget
Manufact uring Stores Record Manufact uring Receiving
Met hods and keeping and Subsidiary
Processes Orders
Machinery Material Routing Shipping
and Equipment Requirements
Plant Layout Stores-Keeping Scheduling – I nt ernal
Machine Loading Transportat ion
Tool Design Solveging Dispatching
Operat ion Sheets Expediting
and instraction Follow-up
Cords
Mot ion and Tool-Keeping
Time Study
Machines and
Manpower
Requirements

Master Schedule

Types of Pr oduct ion Syst em

1. Cont inuous
2. I nt er mit t ent

CON T I N U OU S PRODU CTI ON SYSTE M

I t involves a continuous or almost continuous physical flow of mat er ial. I t makes use of special purpose machines,
and pr oduces st andar dized it ems in lar ge quant i t i es e.g. chemical pr ocessing, ci gar et t e manufact ur i ng, and
cement manufact ur i ng
Classificat ion of Cont inuous Pr oduct ion Syst em
( i ) M ass and fl ow li ne pr oduct i on
( ii ) Cont inuous or pr ocess pr oduct ion.

I N TE RM I TTE N T PRODU CTI ON SYSTE M

I t is specified by t he int er mit t ent or int er r upt ed flow of mat er ial t hr ough t he plant . I t makes use of gener al
pur pose machines and pr oduces component s differ ent in nat ur e and in small quant it ies.
e.g. machine shops, r epair and maint enance shops, welding shops, et c.

Classificat ion of I nt er mit t ent Pr oduct ion Syst em

( i ) Bat ch pr oduct ion
(ii ) Job pr oduct ion.
 Industrial Engineering 7.3

ROU T I N G
Rout ing pr escr ibes t he sequence of oper at ions wher e and by whom t he wor k will be done. I t for ms t he basis for
loading and scheduled funct ion of planning.
The r outing plan is usually made in advance of pr oduction in continuous manufact ur ing system of pr oduction,
however, r outing decisions ar e often made in the shop floor which includes last minute changes.
The design of for mat used for t he r out ing sheet depends upon t he t ype of manufact ur ing syst em. Usually it is
made simpler by t he usage of differ ent symbols and not at ions for quick and easy ident ificat ion. Row pr ocedur es
ar e evolved, based on t he nat ur e of t he pr oduct ion syst em and t he complexit ies of or ganisat ion.
I n int er mit t ent t ype of pr oduct ion syst ems, r out ing has t o det er mine for ever y bat ch wher e t he oper at ion is t o
be done and t hr ough which r out e.
I n case of cont i nuous manufact ur i ng syst ems, t he manufact ur i ng l i ne l ayout i s cl ear and fi xed and t h e
r out i ng becomes mechani cal . I t does not pose much of a pr obl em because al l fol l ows t he same r out e.

L OAD I N G
I n planning pr oduct ion, shop or der s have t o be conver t ed int o wor k load on individual wor k machines or gr oups
of machines. The pr oduct ion manager must know the loading on each equipment /machine in or der t o deter mine
whet her capacit y ut ilisat ion is full or ot her wise. H e should also indent ify over loads and under loads on each
machine t o assist pr oduct ion planning t o balance t he load. M anual syst ems gener ally used t o load oper at ions
against act ual capacit y by cr eat ing a bar char t on a load boar d. The design of t he loading boar d is made t o suit
t he specific needs of t he syst em. The boar d compr ises of a list of r esour ces (machines) on t he left , a t ime scale
acr oss t he t op and bar s of differ ent lengt hs against each r esour ce t o indicat e t he ext ent of loading.

SCH E D U L I N G
Under pr oduct ion cont r ol syst em usually t hr ee t ypes of schedules ar e pr epar ed.
( i ) M ast er schedules
I t indicat es t he dat a on which var ious jobs in hand ar e r equir ed t o be complet ed. M ast er Schedule is like a
cont r ol boar d and a key schedule about all pr oduct ion act ivit ies.
( ii ) Oper at ion schedule
I n t his, t ime is fixed for doing a par t icular piece of wor k wit h a given machine.
( iii ) D et ailed oper at ion schedule
I n t his, t ime r equir ed for doing each det ailed oper at ion of given job is shown. While doing so, machine t o be
used or t he pr ocess t o be followed is t aken int o account .

I N VEN TORY (OR STOCK OF GOODS)

I nventory is a physical stock items that a production enterprise keeps in hand for efficient running of its production.
I nvent or y consi st s of r aw mat er i al s, component par t s, suppl i es or fi ni shed assembl i es et c. whi ch ar e
pur chased fr om an out side sour ce and t he goods manufact ur ed in t he int er pr ise it self.
I nvent or y cont r ol may be defined as, t he syst emat ic locat ion, st or age and r ecor ding of goods in such a way t hat
desir ed degr ee of ser vice can be made t o t he oper at ing shops at minimum ult imat e cost .
I nvent or y ser ves as t he buffer or safet y against it s planning, sudden demand cont inuous pr oduct ion et c.
Any for m of invent or y is a sign of inefficiency.
L evel of invent or y may be r educed by :
(i ) bet t er planning
(ii ) cont inuous monit or ing of st ock (on-line)
(iii ) r eliable vendor s
(iv) use of Just in-Time (JI T) concept s.

PU RPOSE OF I N V EN TORY CON TROL

I nvent or y cont r ols ar e needed t o have pr oper t r ack of t he invent or y, i.e. t o find t hat t he available movable
mat er ial and t o find out t hat mat er ial of r equir ed size and qualit y in r equir ed quant it y is availabl e so t hat
manufact ur ing wor k does not suffer at all. Each depar tment has and is likely t o get t he desir ed mat er ial wit hout
loss of t ime and wit h least labour. The cont r ols ar e obser ved and exer cised so t hat obsolet e it ems ar e separ at ed
fr om used it ems and also space shor t age pr oblem is solved. I nvent or y has been divided in differ ent cat egor ies so
t hat t her e is no pr oblem about laying hand on t he r equir ed mat er ial.
 7.4 Industrial Engineering
Such a cont r ol aims at having per iodic invent or y check up and t hose who ar e supposed t o exer cise cont r ol ar e
t o ensur e t hat t he needed mat er ial is pur chased and st ocked when t hat is available at economical pr i ces, so
that manufactur e is not r equir ed to unnecessar ily wast e the money. I nventor y means keeping unto and accur ate
r ecor d of t he available mat er ial and t he object ive of t his cont r ol is t o ensur e t hat t his r ecor d is pr oper ly and
car efully kept .

TYPES OF I N VEN TORY

1. Raw I nvent or y
I t includes all such it ems which ar e supplied by some ot her fir m in t he for m of r aw mat er ial, for t he concer n
t o which t hese ar e supplied. These r aw mat er ials ar e used in t he finished pr oduct in some for m or t he ot her.
2. Pr ocess I nvent or y
These ar e used in pr ocess of manufact ur e and as such t hese ar e neit her r aw mat er ial nor finished goods.
3. F i ni shed I nvent or y
These ar e finished goods and r eady t o be t aken in st or e and st ock for sale pur pose.

QU ALI TY STAN DARDS

Ther e ar e six impor t ant st andar ds used as a t ool t o cont r ol inver t or y :
1. St andar d or der
I t means quantity to be purchased at any time. I t is the difference between maximum and minimum quantity.
2. L ead or pr ocur ement t ime
I t is a t ime which is calculat ed by a fir m on t he basis of past exper ience. I t is t he t ime t hat lapses bet ween
pr epar ing of invoices for t he placement of or der s and t he t ime t aken for t he supply of mat er ials.
3. M aximum st or e
I t is upper limit of t he invent or y and is t he lar gest quant it y which should be kept in st or es t aking int er est s
of t he company int o consider at ion.
4. M ini mum st or es
I t indicat es lower limit of t he invent or y, t he safet y mar gin can be used in case of emer gency. This quant it y
also includes abnor mal r equir ement s of t he fir m.
5. St ock holdi ng
I t means holding of stock so that inventor y does not go out of stock. I t is also means a buffer stock which can
be utilised when mater ial falls even below the minimum level. I t takes car e of shor tage of inventor y in the
mar ket and helps in r educing the var iety of items to be handled. I t also helps in deciding quick mater ials at the
time of need and necessity.
6. Or der i ng poi nt
I t means a point which indicates time to initiate a purchase order. It is the quantity of material required between
the exhaustion of available stocks and the supply during the interval between placement of an order and delivery of
materials.

VARI ABLES I N I N VEN TORY CON TROL

1. Cont r ol l abl e
(i ) H ow much quant it y acquir ed or or der ed
(ii ) Fr equency and t iming of acquisit ion or or der ing
2. U ncont r ol l abl e
(i ) H olding cost (C1) in Rs/unit pr oduct /unit t ime or I nvent or y car r ying cost
This cost consist s of expendit ur e made for
(a) I nsur ance (b) Stor age and handling
(c) Obsolescence and Depr eciat ion (d) Det er i or at on
(e) Taxes (f) I nt r est et c
(ii ) Shortage cost or stock out cost (C2) in Rs/unit pr oduct /unit t ime or back or der cost
This cost in associat ed wit h t he shor t age of goods.
 Industrial Engineering 7.5
( iii ) Set up cost (M tg cost) or Order cost (Procurement) or Replenishment cost in Rs/order or setup
Set up cost includes expendit ur es made on
(a) Calling quotation (b) Pr ocessing quot at ions
(c) Placing pur chase or der ed (d) Receiving and I nspection
(e) Ver ifying and payment of bills (f) Ot her incident char ge.
( iv) Demand : Number of unit s r equir ed per or der
I t is of t wo t ypes :
(a) Det er minist ic — known demand (b) I ndet er minist ic — not fixed or not cer t ain
(v) Amount delivered : H ow much quant it y of t he pr oduct /goods, supplied/or der ed at a t ime
( vi ) Lead time : Time elapsed (pass by) bet ween placing of or der and r eceiving t he goods (finished)
I nvent or y M odel
Ext r eme M aximum
A K N or mal M axi mum

Aver age
I nvent ory U sage
N umber of i t ems q

B
E C N or mal M inimum
O t
0 5 10 15 20 25
t Ext r eme M i ni mum
D
Ti me dur at i on (days)
q
R =  q = Rt
t
wher e, R = r at e of demand
q = quant it y
t = cycle t ime
Point B, C and E— Re-or der t ime
Reor der quant ity — BK and CK
CODI FI CATI ON OF M ATE RI ALS
I t helps in object ive descr ipt ion of var ious ar t icles and descr ibes an ar t icle fr om gener al t o par t icular. A good
codificat ion has enough flexibilit y and can cover all t he mat er ials r eceived in t he concer n. Not only t his but it
has enough pr ovision for unfor eseen cont ingencies. I t becomes easy t o specify mat er ial at ever y st age. These
days codification is applied t o all component s and pr oduct s as well as r aw mat er ials, semi-finished and finished
goods.
M N E M ON I CS or Alpha N umeric Syst em
SS 02 208

St ainless St eel Diamet er of r od L engt h of r od

N umer ic
0 2 6 5 3 025
     
Raw mat er ial Metal M.S Bar Round Dia in mm
I nvent ory Turnover Rat io (I TR).
Annual consumpt ion
ITR =
Aver age invent or y
PU RPOSE OF H OLDI N G I N VEN TORY
1. D i scont i nuit y fact or
I nvent or y is int ended t o make pr ovision for discont inuit y of funct ion, such as pur chasing, pr oduct ion,
dist r ibut ion and sales wit h r espect t o t ime. By having invent or y bet ween t he above st ages each funct ion
could be decoupled and able t o per for m at opt imum levels wit hout a br eak.
7.6 Industrial Engineering
2. U ncer t aint y fact or
I t pr ovides pr ot ection against unexpect ed var iation in t he funct ion with a view to have some safety chushion.
3. E conomic fact or
I t pr ovides a means for obt aining economic lot sizes and gaining quant it y discount s.
DI SADVAN TAGE OF H OLDI N G I N VEN TORY
1. L ocked up wor king capit al
The invest ment in invent or ies r epr esent a sizable sum common t o all indust r ies. As invent or ies r epr esent
usuable but idle r esour ces, holding t he invent or ies involves locked up wor king capit al, which will not br ing
any r et ur ns.
2. St or age
The invent er ies ar e t o be st or ed pr oper ly wit hout any det er ior at ion and unaut hor ised r emoval.
3. Absol escen ce
Wit h t he emer ging t echnology, many of t he it ems pur chased ear lier and st or ed may not be of any use.
These it ems would be lost in value and had t o be disposed off.
I N VE N TORY FU N CTI ON COSTS
I t r epr esent t he cost s associat ed wit h t he funct ions of t he invent or y syst em. While developing an opt imal
invent or y policy, t he cr it er ion is t he minimisat ion of t ot al cost .
M ajor Component s of I nvent or y Cost s t
l Cos
( i ) Ordering cost (C o) Tota
Co
s t

ing
This r epr esent s expenses involved in placing an or der wit h t he out side rr y
Ca
supplier. This includes t he cost s involved in pr ocessing and or der ing for Cost Orde
ring
pur chase, expedit ing over t he or der s, r ecei ving t he consignment and cos t
econ
o
cost mic
inspect ion. I t is expr essed as cost in r upees per or der .
( ii ) Set up cost (CSC) Order of quantity (Q) — 
The par allel of t he or der ing cost when t he it ems ar e pr oduced wit hin t he or ganisat ion, is t he set -up cost .
This r epr esent s init ial pr oduct cost in changing over t he exist ing pr oduct ion r un t o pr oduce t he or der ed
it ems. I t is expr essed as cost in r upees per or der .
Bot h t he or der ing cost and set up cost ar e independent of t he quant it y or der ed.
( iii ) Carrying cost (C c)
This r epr esent s cost of holding and st or age of invent or y. I t is pr opor t ional t o t he amount of invent or y and
t he t ime over which it is held.
( iv) Shor t age cost
This r epr esent s loss t o t he fir m due t o non-availabilit y of t he it em, when it is r equir ed.
(v) U nit cost
I t r efer s t o t he nominal cost of t he invent or y it em per unit .
I t is pur chase pr ice of t he it em if it is bought fr om out side. I t is t he pr oduct ion cost of t he it em pr oduced
wit hin t he or ganisat ion.
I f it is assumed as const ant and independent of t he quant it y or der ed, it does not affect invent or y cont r ol
decisions.
Consider quantity discounts, wher e unit cost var ies for differ ent or der quantities, then the effect of quantity
discount s separ at ely have t o be consider ed separ at ely. The unit cost is expr essed as r upees per unit .
The inventor y decisions ar e based on t he t otal invent or y cost s as an out come of t he decisions. The car r ying
cost is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o t he or der quant it y (Q), i.e. when t he or der quant it y per or der is incr eased,
t he car r ying cost is incr eased. When t he or der quant it y is incr eased, t he number of or der s per unit t ime
will be less and hence t he or der ing cost would decr eases (i.e. inver sely pr opor t ional t o or der quant it y (Qs).
Tot al invent or y cost = car r ying cost + or der ing cost .
E conomic or der quant it y (E OQ)
The or der quant it y (Q) for which t he t ot al cost is minimum is called Economic Or der Quant it y (EOQ). This
may be expr essed in t er ms of unit s or in t er ms of r upee value of t he unit s or der ed.
I n t he case of pur chasing, it is called Economic or der Quant it y .
I n t he case of pr oduct ion of it em wit hin t he or ganisat ion is called ‘Economic Bat ch Size'.
 Industrial Engineering 7.7

DE TE RM I N I STI C M ODE LS
While making invent or y decisions it is r equir ed t hat some for m of mat hemat ical analyt ical model is applied
and used. I n t he det er minist ic models, t he dat a values ar e known and r emains same dur ing t he per iod under
st udy.
Det er minist ic M odel I (A)
Economic lot size for mulae for opt imum pr oduct ion quant it y ‘q’ per cycle for a single pr oduct , so as t o minimise
t ot al aver age cost /unit t ime.
t t
0 qdt = 0 Rt .dt
I nvent or y
level

q = Rt
St orage
St ock
t ime
O A
dt
t ime (days)
Assumpt i ons
1. The demand is unifor m (consumpt ions) at a r at e (number of it em unit s t ime), i.e. demand R is fixed
2. Pr oduct ion/Supply r at e is unifor m
Demand q
= =
0 0
or Pr oduct ion is inst ant aneous.
3. L ead t ime is zer o
4. H olding cost is C1 Rs/unit pr oduct /unit t ime
5. Set -up cost is C3 Rs/unit pr oduct /unit t ime
6. St age cost ar e not per mit ive (C2 = 100)
7. These is no buffer st ock.
Tot al cost of invent or y = H olding cost + Cost of C
i .e. C = C1  (Ar ea of OAB) + C3
1
 C = C1  qt + C3
2
1 C
Aver age cost /unit t ime, C(t ) = Rt .C1 + 3 ...(i )
2 t
dC  t  d 2C  t 
For cost t o be minimum, = 0 and = +ve
dt dt 2
dC t  1 C
 = RC1 – 23 = 0
dt 2 t
1 C
 RC1 = 23
2 t
2C3
 t = RC1 ...(ii )

d 2C  t 
2C3
For minimisat ion, =0+
= +ve
dt t3
2

H ence equat ion (ii ) gives opt imum value of t he cycle and shielding t ime as
2C3
t* = RC1 = opt imal t ime int er val
7.8 Industrial Engineering
Also, Opt imum Or der Quant it y or Economic or der Quant it y (EOQ)
2C3
EOQ = q* = Rt * = R
RC1

2c3 R
 q* =
C1
Subst it ut ing value of t * in equat ion (i ), we have

1 2C3 C3 R 2  2  C3 .C12 RC1C32

Cmi ni mum = R .C + = +
2 RC1 1 2C3 4 R C1 2C3
RC1

RC1C3 RC1C3
= +
2 2
Cmi nmum = 2RC1C3
wher e, C1 = I  P = H olding cost
P = cost of unit pr oduct .
I = a fr act ion denot ing per cent age of pr oduct cost as car r ying cost .
E xampl es
Quant it y D iscount Concept
1. A machine manaufact ur er r equir es 2500 met er /year st or age cost is 0.20 Rs/unit /year.
I nvent or y cost char ge 20% and pur chase pr ices ar e as follows :
(a) Rs 6.75 for an or der of 200 or less
(b) Rs 6.50 for an or der of 201 t o 500
(c) Rs 6.25 for an or der of 501 t o 800
(d) Rs 6.00 for an or der of 801 and above
Det er mine Economic Bat ch Quant it y (EBQ) for pur chase if cost of each pur chase or der is ` 25
Sol ut i on.
Given : C3 = 425/-
St or age cost , s = 0.20/unit /year
1 C
 Aver age cost per unit t ime, C(t ) = Rt . C1 + 3 + s.R.t
2 t
dC  t  1 C
For C(t ) t o be minimum, = RC1 – 23 + s.R = 0
dt 2 t
C3 1  2C3
 =  C1  s  R  t* =
t2 2  R  C1  2s

2C3R
 q* = Rt * = C1  2s
L et q* lie bet ween 0 t o 200.
 P = 6.75.  C1 = I  P = 0.2  6.75 = 1.35
2  2.5  2500
q* = = 267.26  267
1.35  2  0.2
which does not lie bet ween assumed quant it y r ange.
Second t r ial
Assume quant it y q  lie bet ween 201 t o 500
 P = 6.5  C1 = 0.2 6.5 = 1.3
2  25  2500
 q* = = 271
1.30  2  0.2
which does lie in bet ween assumed r ange; hence EBQ is 271
 Industrial Engineering 7.9
E xt r a Tr anspor t at ion Cost
2. A factor y engaged in Casting of car bur ettor as an annual demand of 50,000 carburettor s from an automobile
engine, the set up cost is Rs 1800/year and over head cost is 500/ day. Daily production capacity is 250, material
cost for each carburettor is 20. There are 15 workers engagged on a wage rate of Rs 50/ day. Assume instantaneous
supply, no storage, the cost of insur ance, taxes depriciation etc are 20% of the unit cost. Determine
(i ) Economic lot size, Number of r uns of sum (pr oduct ion size) and Dur at ion of each r un
(ii ) EBQ if supplier imposes t he condit ion of Rs 5/- as t r anspor t at ion char ge per 100 unit s over and above
5000 units.
Sol ut i on.
Unit cost , P = M at er ial cost + L abour cost + Over head
15  50 500
= 20 + + = 20 + 3 + 2 = Rs 25/unit
250 250
H olding cost , C1 = I  P = 0.2  25 = Rs. 5/unit
Demand r at e, R = 50,000/yr.
Set up cost , C3 = 1800/yr.

2C3R 2  1800  50000

Economic lot size, q* = C1 = = 6000 unit s
5

P 50,000
Number of pr oduct ion r un = = = 8.33
q* 6000
 9(8 or der s of 6000 each and 9t h or der of 2000)
1year 12
Dur at ion of each r un = = = 1.33
Number of run 9
600
Also, = 24 day
250
 24 days = 16 day, set up t ime
2C3 R  2Rqt e
q* =
C1 1  2 f 

B Buffer st ock 0
f = = = =0
q q q
2C3 R  2Rqt e
q* = C1 1  2 f 
B Buffer st ock 0
f = = = =0
q q q
2C3 R  2Rqt e
q* = C1
wher e, t e = lot size wit hout ext r a t r anspor t cost
q= L ot size wit hout ext r a t r nspor t cost
5
 te = = 0.05
100
2  1800  50000  2  50,000  50,000  0.05
q* = = 5568 unit s
5
50000
n =  9 (8 t ur ns of 5568 and 9t h of 5456)
5500
7.10 Industrial Engineering
2. D et er mini st i c M odel I (B)
Economic lot size wit h differ ent r at es of demand

R3 R4
R1 R2
q Rn
D

t3 tn
t1 t2 t4

Tot al demand = D
Quant it y per cycle = q
D
Number of cycles = = Number of pr oduct ion cycles
q
1 D
Tot al cost (aver age) of I nvent or y, C(q) =
qT. C1 +  q  C3
2  
2
dC  q d C  q
For cost t o be minimum, = 0, and = +ve
dq dq 2
dC  q 1  D 
 = T.C1 +  2  .C3 = 0
dq 2  q 
1 D 2C3 D
 TC1 = 2 .C3  q* = .
2 q C1 T

1  C  D  DC3
 Cmi ni mum = C .T 2 3   +
2 1  C1   T  C3
2 .D / T 
C1
2 2 2 C3 D D 2C3 2 .C1 T C1C3 T.D C1C3 T.D
= .C1 T . . . 2C1C3  D.T 
4 C1 T + 2C3 D
=
2
+
2
=

3. D et er mini st i c M odel I (C)

Economic lot size wit h finit e r at e of pr oduct ion or /and Replenishment .

q
R

Co

R
n
io

Q
–

ns
K

ct

um
u
od

pt
Pr

io
n

t1 t2
t

H er e, K = pr oduct ion r at e (finit e)

R = consumpt ion r at e (no supply or pr oduct ion)
K – R = r eplenishment r at e (boulding up of st ock) and alway K > R
1
Tot al aver age cost , C(t ) = Qt  C1 + C3
2
H er e, Q = (K – R) t 1
Q = Rt 2
and t = t1 + t2
 Industrial Engineering 7.11

Q Q
But t1 = and t 2 =
K R R
Q Q QR + QK – QR
 t = + =
K R R K – R  R
Q  K 
 t =  
R K – R
Also q = Rt
q
 t =
R
q Q  K 
 =  
R R  K– R 
1 K – R
 C(q, t ) = q   . t  C1 + C3
2  K 
1 K – R C3
Per unit t ime, C(q, t ) = q    C1 +
2  K  t
1 K – R R  q
C(q) = q   C1 + C3 ...  t  
2  K  q  R
dC  q
For cost t o be minimum, =0
dq
dC  q 1 K – R  R 
 =  K  C1 +  q 2  C3 = 0
dq 2    
R 1 K – R
 .C = C
q2 3 2  K  1

2C3  K .R 
 q* = .
C1  K  R 

KR R
N ow, =
K R R
1
K
1
I f K =  t hen = 0 M odel I (a)
K
2
1 2C3  K .R  K  R  C3 R
 Cmi ni mum =  C1 +
2 C1  K  R 
 K  2C3  K .R 
C1  K  R 

2 C3C12  K   K  R 
2
C3 2R 2  C1 . (K  R)
= . . .R +
4 C1  K  R   K  2C3 K .R

 R
= 2.C1C3R  1  
 K
For inst ant enasus pr oduct ion, K = 
2C3R
 q* =
C1

Cmi ni mum = 2C1C3 R M odel I (a)

7.12 Industrial Engineering
4. D et er minist ic M odel I I (A)
When shor t age ar e per mit t ed, pr oduct ion r at e is infinit e, lead t ime is zer o, sheduling per iod, t is var iable

R
z

q St ock
t2
t1

q -z

C2 =  [I (a )]
Shor t age

z q z
H er e, t1 = and t 2 =
R R
1 1
Tot al cost , C(q) = z.t C + (q – z)t 2 . C2 + C3
2 1 1 2
2
1 z2 1 (q – z)
= .C1 + .C2 + C3
2 R 2 R
2
1  1 z2 1  q  z 
Aver age t ot al cost , C(q, t ) =  .C1  .C2  C3 
t 2 R 2 R 


dC 1  2 (q  z) 
= 0  2 R .C2  0 
dq t  cos t t  

2C3 R  C1  C3 
q* =  
C1  C2 

2C3 R
I f C2 = t hen q* = M odel I (a)
C1
wher e, C2 = wor k or der or shor t age

 C2 
 Cmi ni mum = 2C1C3 R  
 C1  C2 
5. D et er minist ic M odel I I (B)
Single or der level syst em wit h const ant sheduling t ime per iod

1 z
2 2
1  q  z C
C(z) = C + + 3
2 qp 1 2 qp tp
qp
 tp =
R
wher e, t p = sheduling per iod kept on const ant .
d C( z)
For cost t o be minimum, =0
dz

 z* = C2 qp
C1  C2

1 C1C2 RC3
Cmi ni mum = . Rt p +
2 C2  C2 qp
 Industrial Engineering 7.13

M AKE AN D BY DECI SI ON
(Pr i ce  Quali t y)

FC + VC
Var i able Cost (VC)
Cost
M AKE
Fi xed Cost (FC)
8U Y

QB
Buy t he pr oduct ion befor e QB and M ake t he pr oduct ion aft er QB in gr aph
Example. The pr oduct ion, demand and cost dat a for a cer t ain pr oduct manufact ur ed on a machine is given
below :
Fixed cost /lot , C3 = Rs. 36
Var iable cost /unit , P = Rs. 10
Per cent age char ge for t axes and insur ance, I = 50%
Pr oduct ion r at e, K = 100,000 per year
Demand r at e, R = 10,000 per year
Det er mine economic M anufact ur ing Quant it y (EM Q)
Sol ut i on.
C1 = I  P = 0.5  0.1 = 0.05

2C3  K R  2  36  105  104   109 

q* = =   = 1440  4 
= 4000
C1  K  R  0.05  105  104   9  10 
PROBABI LI STI C M ODEL
The ideal inventor y models such as Wilson and pr oduct ion models, do not account for the r ise and uncer t aint y
in t heir for mulat ion. I n r ealit y t hese sit uat ions r ar ely occur. The major var iat ions ar e in t he demand r at e
and lead t ime. Bot h t he demand r at e and lead t ime may var y fr om cycle t o cycle and t heir var iat ions ar e
pr obabilistic in natur e. I n the pr obabilistic models, inventor y decisions ar e based on the pr obability distr ibution
of demand and/or t hat of t he lead t ime.
STATI C I N VEN TORY M ODELS
I n t his case, t he decision-making is based on a single cycle only. Nor mally, in t his model, sit uat ion of t he
uncer t aint y of demand exist s and t he or der ing quant it y is t o be decided upon for a single per iod. This is also
called one per iod model .
This t ype of model is useful for det er mining quant it y for r et ail r at es of per ishable goods, seasonal r at es et c.
St at ic invent or y models ar e based on t he following idealisat ions :
(i ) Only a single pur chase or der is possible dur ing t he per iod under consider at ion.
(ii ) Reor der ing dur ing t he per iod is not per mit t ed.
(iii )I f it ems ar e not used dur ing t he specific per iod it is consider ed as wast e or loss.
(iv) Whenever goods ar e used dur ing t he per iod it will have a gain of effect iveness (example a pr ofit ).
(v) The pr oblem would be in t he for m of ‘Given t he pr obabilit y dist r ibut ion of t he demand dur ing t he per iod
under consider at ion, det er mine t he or der quant it y (i.e. invent or y level of t he beginning of t he per iod).
(vi ) Optimum value of the order quantity or initial level of inventory is based on the marginal analysis (otherwise
called incr ement al analysis), i.e. or der quant it y is per mit t ed t o go on incr easing upt o a level when a
fur t her incr ease would r esult in decr ease of effect iveness.

Per ishable Goods Pr oblem

This is called classical Newspaper boy pr oblem.
L et G be t he gr oss gain or pr ofit for each unit used (or sold)
and L be t he loss for each unit not used (and hence wast ed).
L et P(S) be t he pr obabilit y densit y of t he demand of S unit s.
S
L et P(S) = cummulat ive pr obabilit y =  P(S) .
S
Then pr obabilit y of demand for S or mor e = 1 – P(S).
7.14 Industrial Engineering
This is t he pr obabilit y of selling S unit s or mor e.
I f S is t he amount or der ed dur ing t he per iod, t hen
Pr obabilit y of r at e of all t he it ems = 1– P(S)
Expect ed gr oss gain (or pr ofit ) = G [1 – P(S)]
Pr obabilit y of 5t h unit not sold = 1 – [1 – P(S)] = P(S)
Expect ed loss = L P(S)
Expect ed net gain = G [1 – P(S)] – L P(S)
= G – (G + L ) P(S)
If G – (G + L ) P (S) = 0
G
t hen P (S) =
GL
Consider ing mar ginal analysis, t he sit uat ion has t o occur when
G
P (S – 1) <  P (S).
GL
H ence choose t he or der quant it y S, so t hat above condit ion is sat isfied.
Example. A newspaper boy buys paper s for 5 pai se each and sells t hem for 6 paise each. H e cannot
r et ur n unsold newspaper s. Daily demand R for newpaper s follows t he dist r ibut i on :
R : 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
pR : 0.05 0.15 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.05
I f each day's demand is independent of the pr evious day's, how many paper s should be or der ed each day?
Sol ut i on.
L et I m be t he number of newspaper s or der ed per day and R be t he demand for i t , i.e. t he number t hat ar e
act ual ly sold per day.
Now C1 = ` 0.05
C2 = ` (0.06 – 0.05) = ` 0.01
Pr obabilit ies for demand ar e
R : 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
PR : 0.05 0.15 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.05
Im

R0
P R : 0.05 0.20 0.60 0.80 0.90 0.95 1.00

The desir ed opt imum value of I m i s det er mi ned by double i nequali t y

PR  I m 1 < C2 < PR  I m
C1  C2
C2 0.01 1
N ow, C1  C2 = 0.01  0.05 = 6 = 0.167
This suggest s t hat I m0 must l ie bet ween 10 and 11 because
0.05 < 0.167 < 0.20.
 I m = 11.
0
SAFETY STOCK DETERM I N ATI ON
Safet y st ock r efer s t o a lower level of st ock int ended t o be maint ained all t he t ime, as a safet y against st ock
out . I n t he idealised Wilson and pr oduct ion models, it is assumed t hat t he r at e of deplet ion (or demand) is
const ant . I n r eal life sit uat ions t her e will be var iat ion in t he lead t ime and pr oduct ion schedule. Safet y st ock
act s as cushion against uncer t aint ies and is able t o pr ovide t he desir ed ser vice levels t o t he cust omer. Safet y
st ock is also called Buffer st ock, Safet y cushion . I t is also pr act ice t o call ‘Reser ved st ock' which would t ake
car e of demand fluct uat ion and t he st ock, which is pr ovided t o t ake car e of t he var iat ion in lead t i me, as
safety stock .
 Industrial Engineering 7.15

I mplicat ions of Safet y St ock

(i ) I t act s as cushion against st ockout .
(ii ) I t decr eases t he penalt y (or st ockout ) cost s; t he fir m may have t o face due t o uncer t aint y of st ock when
needed.
(iii )I t incr eases t he car r ying cost . H ence, an economic balance has t o be made bet ween st ockout cost s and t he
incr ease in invent or y car r ying cost .
(iv)The amount of safet y st ock would nor mally be higher for
(a) higher st ockout cost s
(b) bet t er ser vice levels
(c) lower car r ying cost s
(d) lar ger var iat ion in consumpt ion
(e) lar ger var iat ion in lead t ime.
SERVI CE LEVEL
Nor mally, Ser vice level is expr essed in following t wo ways :
Number of unit sdemanded – Number of unit sshor t age
(i ) Ser vice level =
Number of unit sdemanded
This is used in det er minist ic models.
I f Q is number of unit s or der ed per cycle, it is assumed t hat t his is t he t ot al amount demanded dur ing t he
cycle.
QB
Ser vice level =
Q
wher e, B = number of unit s shor t age per cycle.
Number of per iodswit hout st ockout
(ii ) Ser vice level = = Fr act ion of or der per iods wit hout st ockout .
t ot al number of per iods
This is expr essed in t he for m as
per cent age of ser vice t ime = per cent age of t ime, t her e will be no st ockout .
E ST I M AT I ON OF SAF E T Y ST OCK RE QU I RE M E N T S (PROBABI L I ST I C
M ODEL)
Safet y st ock is det er mined by assuming same pr obabilist ic dist r ibut ion of demand (or consumpt ion) dur ing
t he lead t ime. [The dist r ibut ion may be assumed as Nor mal dist r ibut ion or Poission dist r ibut ion or any
ot her pr obabilist ic dist r ibut ion based on pr evious r ecor ds].
Case 1. N ormal Distribution
• The ser vice level is specified by t he management .
• The pr obabilit y dist r ibut ion of demand dur ing lead t ime is consider ed as Nor mal dist r ibut ion .
• The mean () and standard deviation () of the demand during the lead time is known from the previous data.
• The pr oblem is t o find Re-or der point (ROP) and safet y st ock level (S).
If R is r at e of consumpt ion (demand), L is lead t ime, t hen
Consumpt ion dur ing t he lead t ime = RL
I f s is safet y st ock, and Q is r e-or der quant it y, t hen
M aximum st ock level, Q + S
M inimum st ock level, S = s
Re-or der point (ROP) = S + RL
i.e. Reor der point (ROP) = Safet y st ock + consumpt ion dur ing lead t ime
M ean lead t ime consumpt ion = 
Reor der point (ROP) = s + 
Re-or der point (ROP) = Safet y st ock + M ean lead t ime consumpt ion.
Now consider nor mal dist r ibut ion of lead t ime consumpt ion .
The ar ea under t he nor mal cur ve gives pr obabilit y of demand of
Re-or der point or less dur ing t he lead t ime. I f Re-or der point is t he
st ock level available at t he point of or der ing, t hen t his ar ea will
indicat e fr act ion of t he or der per iods wit hout st ockout . Thus, ar ea
under t he nor mal cur ve for x = ROP gives t he ser vice level .
x ROP  
Nor mal var iat e, z = =
 
7.16 Industrial Engineering
Fr om t he t able, for ar ea under nor mal cur ve we can find value of ‘z'-cor r esponding t o t he ar ea equal t o t he
ser vice level expr essed in decimal fr act ion. Then
safet y st ockout = z
and ROP =  + z.
Example. The mean and st andar d deviat ion of t he demand dur ing t he lead t ime for an it em ar e 100 and 5
r espect ively. Find t he r ecor der point and safet y st ock, if policy of t he management is t o have 95% ser vice
level. The values of ar eas for z = 1.64 is 0.9465 and z = 1.65 is 0.9505.
Sol ut i on.
Given : ser vice level = 95%
Given values given : A = 0.9465, z = 1.64
A = 0.9505, z = 1.65

z = 1.64 +
LM 0.9500  0.9465 (1.65  1.64)OP = 1.64875
By int er polation,
N 0.9505  0.9465 Q
 = 100,  = 5
Safet y st ock = z 
= 1.64875  5 = 8.2435 = 8.24 unit s
Reor der point =  + z  = 100 + 8.24 = 108.24 unit s.
Case 2. Poission distr ibut ion
• I t is similar t o case 1, but poission dist r ibut ion is assumed for lead t ime consumpt ion.
• I t is good fit for small, infr equent demand, wher e demand r at e is fair ly const ant .
• Poission dist r ibut ion can be r epr esent ed by a single par amet er, namely mean ().
St andar d deviat ion,  = 
• Fr om t he t able of summat ion of poission dist r ibut ion, Reor der point (ROP) is dir ect ly obt ained.
Example. The aver age daily demand of an it em is 2 unit s. The lead t ime demand is Poission dist r ibut ion.
What should be t he r eor der point and safet y st ock, if ser vice level of 95% is desir ed and t he lead time in 4 days
?
Sol ut i on.
Aver age demand per day = 2 unit s
L ead t ime = 4 days
M ean (aver age) demand dur ing t he lead t ime = 2  4 = 8 unit s.
 =8
x
 10 11 12 13 14

8 0.816 0.921 0.935 0.970 0.983

As t he value of x indicat es t he occur r ence or less
x = Reor der point (ROP)
Fr om above t able, value of x = 13 is fair ly sat isfying for 95% ser vice level.
H ence ROP = 13 unit s
Safet y st ock = Reor der Point – Aver age demand = 13 – 8 = 5 units
LEAD TI M E (L)
I t is t he t ime per iod bet ween placement of an or der and ar r ival of mat er ial.
RE-ORDER LEVEL (ROL)
I t is t hat stock level at which fr esh or der should be placed wit h t he supplier for pr ocur ing addit ional inventor y
equal t o t he economic or der quant it y. R.O.L . is so fixed t hat t he cust omer s can be ‘r easonabl y’ ser ved fr om
t his st ock unt il t he r epleni shment of si ze q ar r ives against t he or der placed. So t he pr obl em of when t o or der
r educes t o fixing R.O.L . wit h t he oper at i ng poli cy t hat as t he st ocks cr oss t his l evel an or der i s placed (on t he
vendor or wit hin t he wor ks, of which t he si ze is pr edet er mined and fixed).
R.O.L . = L ead t i me demand + Safet y st ock.
When demand pat t er n i s almost st at i onar y and depict s no t r end or seasonal var iat i ons,
L ead t i me demand = L ead t i me  aver age demand.
If  = st andar d deviat ion or demand r at e, and
d = demand r at e per unit t ime
Then r e-or der level = M = dL + K  L
 Industrial Engineering 7.17
L ead t ime demand is t he st ock level, which on t he aver age is sufficient t o fill cust omer 's or der as t he st ocks
ar e being r eplenshied. ‘On t he aver age’ implies that dur ing this per iod of r eplenshment, 50% of t he cust omer s'
or der s can be filled while 50% may be eit her r efused or back or der ed t o be filled lat er. I t is because act ual
demand may be differ ent fr om t he pr edict ed value.
When R.O.L . is equal t o lead t ime demand, only 50% of t he or der s ar e expect ed t o be filled dur ing t he
r eplenishment per iod. This may not be accept able t o t he management who may like t o limit t he ‘disser ve’ t o
t he cust omer s down t o 5% or 10% at t he cost of ext r a st ocking. This ext r a st ock in excess of t he lead t ime
demand is called safet y st ock (or buffer st ock or cushion st ock ).
SAFETY STOCK
Safet y st ock = (maxi mum lead t ime – nor mal l ead t ime) × aver age demand
I f demand exceeds t he for ecast , it woul d r esul t in bad ser vi ce t o t he cust omer.
I f demand fall s shor t of t he for ecast over st ock ing will r esult depending upon t he for ecast er r or.
I f st andar d devi at i on of t he for ecast er r or i s comput ed, t he safet y st ock may be det er mine t o keep t he
ser vice down t o 5% or 10%.
safet y st ock = Z × st andar d devi at ion.
M ean Absolut e D eviat ion (M AD).
I t may be calcul at e (far mor e easil y) and used t o det er mine t he safet y st ock.
Safet y st ock = k . MAD
 2
wher e, k = ser vice fact or = Z and M AD = S. D .
2 

 Safet y st ock = Z . M AD
2
CLASSI FI CATI ON OF I N VEN TORY
I nvent or y classificat ion r efer s t o t he classificat ion of it ems int o cat egor ies, based on t he nat ur e of impor t ance,
wit h a view for select ive cont r ol.
1. ABC Analysis
I nvent or y it ems ar e classified on t he basis of monet ar y (i.e. r upee) value of t he annual consumpt ion of
differ ent it ems in t he st or es. This t echnique is pr opular ly called Always Bet t er Cont r ol .
As a manufactur ing concer n incr eases its act ivities, it is r equir ed to
pur chase mor e and mor e items and the r esponsibility of taking car e
100
of each it ems also incr eases. I t also becomes difficult to pay equal 90
attention to all the items t hus pur chased. I n case all the items ar e 70
pur chased at a t ime and that too in bulk quant ities which cannot be % of
put to immediat e use, their cont r olling will involve lot of money and inventory
manual oper ation. cost
I n any industr ial sit uation it may be noted that a handful of top high A B C
value items (say 10 t o 20 per cent ) would account for a substant ial
por tion of the cost of tot al consumption value (say 75 to 80 per cent).
These items ar e classified as A it ems. Similar ly, a lar ge number of 0 10 30 100
it ems, called as t r ivial many (about 70%) may account for small
per centage (about 10 to 15%) of t he tot al annual consumpt ion value
and these ar e called C items. The inter mediar y items ar e called B
items.
S.N o. A items B items C items
1. St r ict cont r ol M oder at e cont r ol L ess cont r ol
2. No safet y st ock L ow safet y st ock H igh safet y st ock
3. Fr equent or der ing L ess number of or der s per year Bulk or der ing
4. Cent r al pur chasing Combination pur chasing Decent r alised pur chasing
5. M aximum follow up Per iodic Follow up Follow up only in
and expediting except ional cases
6. M aximum effor t t o M oder at e effor t M inimum effor t
r educe lead t ime
7. Accur at e for ecast s Gener al est imat e on Rough est imat es based
in mat er ial planning post data on usual pr act ice
7.18 Industrial Engineering
L imit at ions of ABC-analysis
(i ) The analysis depends only on t he annual consumpt ion value and does not depend upon t he unit cost .
Hence the item with high unit cost may be classified under C-items, when the annual consumption is low.
(ii ) I t does not depend on ot her impor t ance of t he it em, such as whet her it is vit al t o t he r unning of act ivit ies
in t he or ganisat ion or it s availabilit y is scar ce et c.
(iii )The r esult of ABC analysis should be r eviewed per iodically and updat ed.
2. H M L Analysis (H M L Classificat ion)
I n t his met hod of classificat ion, t he unit cost of it em ar e given impor t ance. The t ot al it ems ar e divided int o
high, medium and low cost it ems. This t ype of analysis would be useful in det er mining t he safet y st ock
levels. This analysis will also be helpful in cases of it ems wher e t he unit cost of it em is high, but t he annual
consumpt ion is low, ot her wise ABC analysis is used, such it ems may fall under ‘C' cat egor y and one may
not exer cise t he due cont r ol. I t is mainly used t o cont r ol t he invent or ies of pur chased mat er ial.
Basis is unit pr ice of mat er ial.
H  H igh cost it ems M  M edium cost it ems L  L ow cost it ems
3. FSN Analysis (FSN Classification)
This r efer s t o t he cat egor isat ion of invent or y it em in t he for m as Fast , Slow and Non-moving it ems. This is
based on t he consumpt ion r at e of t he invent or y. This analysis will be useful for ar r angement of it ems of
st ocks in t he st or es and t heir dist r ibut ion and handling met hods.
Basis is issues fr om t he st or es
F  Fast moving S  Slow moving N  Not moving
4. XYZ Analysis (XYZ Classificat ion)
This is similar t o ABC analysis, except t hat in t he case, t he closing invent or y values of differ ent it ems ar e
t aken int o consider at ion inst ead of t he value of t he annual wage of it ems used in ABC analysis. x cat egor y
r efer s t o t he it ems whose invent or y values ar e high. The z cat egor y r efer s t o t hose wit h low invest ment in
them. The y categor y it ems ar e t he inter mediar y bet ween the t wo. I t depends upon t he value of the inventor y
possessed by t he fir m, r at her t han what it has consumed or used. I t is used for classifying t he mat er ial in
st or age.
Analysis based on value of t he st ock
X  I t ems wit h Right invent or y value
Y  I t ems wit h M oder at e invent or y value
Z  I t ems wit h L ow invent or y value
5. SDE Analysis
This r efer s t o t he classificat ion of invent or y it ems as scar ce, difficult and easy t o obt ain it ems. I t is based on
t he level of difficult y in t he pr ocur ement of invent or y. I t is used in lead t ime analysis and decisions r elat ed
t o pur chasing st r at egies.
This analysis is based on availabilit y, posit ion of each it ems.
I n this analysis
S SCARCE I TEM S, which ar e in shor t supply and t heir availabilit y is scar ce. This includes impor t ant it ems
D DI FFI CULT I TEM S, which ar e available in mar ket but not easily pr ocur ed (available)
E EASI LY available it em most ly local it ems.
6. VED Analysis
This r efer s t o t he classificat ion of invent or y it ems as vit al. Essent ial and desir able it ems. This is wed in t he
maint enance st or es for cont r ol of invent or y of spares.
Per t ains t o classificat ion, maint enance spar es, denot ing essent ialit y of st ocked spar es as follows :
V  VI TAL it ems, wit hout which pr oduct ion would come t o halt .
E  ESSENTI AL it ems, wit hout which dislocat ion of pr oduct ion wor k occur s.
D  DESI RABL E it ems. Remaining it ems which do not cause any immediat effect /loss in pr oduct ion fall
under t his cat egor y.
Note : Basis of this (VED) analysis is criticality of items whereas basis of ABC analysis, is consumption of values.
7. Break Even Analysis
The effect of quant it y on t he pr ofit cont r ibut ion of t he pr oduct is shown in t he figur e.
 Industrial Engineering 7.19

Profit

e
Break even point om
i nc
es

Cost and income

l Q
,A
Sa os
ts
bl ec
Loss ria
Va

AQ
F+
sts
ta l co
To Fixed cost

Q1 Q2

Plant Activity (Quantity)

Fig. Break even chart

Sales income is r epr esent ed by t he st r aight line BQ, in which Q is t he quant it y sold and B is t he income per
unit .
Cost s t o t he fir m consist of fixed cost s F, which ar e independent of t he quant it y pr oduced and includes
execut ive salar ies, depr eciat ion of plant and equipment et c.
Var iable cost s AQ, wher e A r epr esent s const ant t ot al cost per unit , including mat er ials, labour and ot her
dir ect cost s t hat var y wit h t he plant act ivit y.
Var iable cost s ar e shown in t he given figur e by t he st r aight line AQ.
The der ivat ion int o fixed and var iable cost s r epr esent s only an appr oximat e int er pr et at ion of t he cost s
funct ion and may not be valid for a ver y wide r ange of Q.
Tot al cost s ar e given by t he sum of fixed and var iable cost s (F + AQ) and t he point of int er sect ion of t his line
wit h t hat of sales income is br eak-even point (BEP) cor r esponding t o a sales volume Q1. Act ivit y below Q1
r esult s in a loss act ivit y and Q1 gives pr ofit .
At t he point of int er sect ion, F + AQ1 = BQ1
F
 Q1 =
B–A
I f a plant is oper ating at a point Q2, it is wor king with a mar gin of safet y (denoted by ), defined as
Q  Q1 Q
 = 2 = 2 – 1
Q1 Q1
Z
and it can be shown t hat  =
F
wher e, Z = pr ofit of t he plant
The desir able level of plant act ivit y can be expr essed in t er ms of t he safet y mar gin or t he pr ofit as

Q2 = Q1 [ 1 + ] = Q1 1 
Z LM OP
F N Q
I N VE N TORY CON TROL SYSTE M S
Any invent or y syst em consist s of t hr ee element s :
(i ) Pr ocur ement (ii ) St or age (iii ) I ssue

The it ems held in st or age at any event of t ime is t he invent or y. All t he t hr ee element s ment ioned above for m
an ever going pr ocess. The pur pose of invent or y (st or age element ) is t o delink t he pr ocur ement and t he use.
The pr ocur ement causes the input and need for use (i.e. the demand) causes the outflow. When t he pr ocur ement,
dur ing a per iod of time exceeds t he issue, then an invent or y is for med. When t he issue exceeds the pr ocur ement,
shor t age would r esult . A good invent or y syst em is one which could pr ovide t he r ight mat er ial, t he r i ght
quant it y at t he r ight t ime when it needed at a t ot al minimum cost .
The invent or y contr ol system is intended to maintain the system based on the policies developed. The feedback
indicator for the contr ol syst em is the invent or y level. The r eview of t he st ock level may be continuous or
per iodic.
The decision on ‘When t o or der ’ and ‘H ow much t o or der ' ar e based on t his r eview.
The syst em of or der ing may be t hr ee fold :
(i ) Per pet ual, i.e. place or der when invent or y r eaches t he r eor der point specified.
(ii ) Per iodic, i.e. place or der on a t ime scale, wit h equally spaced t ime int er val.
(iiii ) Preplanned, i.e. planned ordering of the inventory, to fit in to meet the preplanned production requirements.
7.20 Industrial Engineering

TYPE OF I N VEN TORY CON TROL SYSTEM S

1. Two Bin Syst em
 ‘Bin' r efer s t o t he cont ainer (or t he place) wher e a par t icular it em is st or ed. As per t his met hod, ever y
it em is kept in t wo bins. A pr edet er mined amount of st ock (equal t o Reor der Point ) of t he it em is set
aside and kept in a second bin. The nor mal issues ar e made fr om t he fir st bin only when t he fir st bi n
becomes empt y a r eplenishment or der (i.e. r eor der s) would be placed immediat ely. Aft er war ds t he it em
would be issued fr om t he second bin unt il t he ar r ival of st ock, for which t he or der has been placed. Then,
second bin is filled up t o t he pr edet er mined quant it y, and t he r est is put in t o t he fir st bin and fur t her
issues would st ar t fr om t he fir st bin.
 Two bin met hod follows closely t he ideal Wilson M odel wit h safet y st ock.
 Amount of st ock t o be kept in t he second bin is t he level of Reor der point (ROP).
 The or der quant it y would be t he EOQ.
 The amount filled int o t he fir st bin is Q + S – ROP.
 Two bin met hod can be used for low value it ems.

2. F ixed Or der Quantit y Syst em (Q-System)

• The or der quant it y for ever y or der is fixed.
• Or der s ar e t r igger ed whenever st ock level r eaches t he Reor der point (ROP).
• The number of or der s placed depends upon t he var iat ion in demand and lead t ime.
• Safet y st ock depends upon accur acy, r eliabilit y and hor izon of for war d pr ogr amme as well as lead t ime
var iable.
• The level of safet y st ock depends upon t he var iat ions dur ing t he lead t ime and t he ser vice levels fixed by
t he policy. Q syst em is suit able for A-class it ems.

Buffer stock : This is int ended for aver age consumpt ion dur ing t he lead t ime.
Buffer st ock = M ean r at e of consumpt ion dur ing lead t ime (R)  M ean r at e t ime (L )
= Reor der L avel
Reserve stock : This is t he st ock r equir ed t o t ake car e of var iat ion in demand dur ing t he lead t ime. This
depends upon t he ser vice level.
Reser ve st ock  z = S
Safety Stock : This is int ended t o make pr ovision, t o t ake car e of maximum delay consider at ion.
Safet y st ock = Pr obabilit y of occur r ence of maximum delay in lead t ime
 M ean r at e of consumpt ion (R) dur ing t he lead t ime.

Reor der point (ROP) = Buffer st ock + Reser ve st ock + Safet y st ock.
Note : I n the absence of maximum delay consideration, the r eserve stock and safety stock are taken as one and
the same.
 Industrial Engineering 7.21

3. Per i odic Review Syst em (P-Syst em)

• This is also called per iodic r eplenishment syst em
• The r eview per iod is const ant .
• The or der quant it y would var y dur ing each or der.
• M aximum invent or y level (S)
= Review t ime (T) +M ean lead t ime (b)  aver age demand r at e (R) + Safet y st ock.
S = R (T + L ) + Safet y st ock
• This syst em is used in t he cases wher e
(i ) usage of t he it em is fair ly r egular
(ii ) lead t imes ar e nor mally shor t
(iii ) many it ems fr om t he same supplier on r egular basis
• I nvent or y cost s ar e higher t han t he Q-syst em.
• P-syst em is used for B and C it ems

R1 R2 R3 R4

4. S-S Syst em (Opt ional Replenishment Syst em)

• Review per iod is fixed.
• The maximum level ‘S' is fixed, similar t o P-syst em, as
S = R (T + L ) + Safet y st ock
• The or der quant it y or der ed Q dur ing t he t ime of r eview maximum invent or y (S)
[pr esent st ock level (X) + pending or der quant it y not yet r eceived (Q)]
Q = S – (X + Q), X  S = 0, X < S
• This syst em has been found advant ageous in t he cost of bulk chemicals, pig ir on et c wher e physical
assessment of st ock is cost ly and could be inaccur at e.

5
EOQ
s

Safet y st ock

R1 R2 R3 R4
Ti me 

At R1 – st ock level is less t han S, hence an or der is placed.

At R2 – st ock level is equal t o S, t he or der quant it y placed is equal t o EOQ.
At R3 – st ock level is gr eat er t han S hence no or der is placed.
At R4 – st ock level is less t han S and an or der is placed.
7.22 Industrial Engineering

N E TWORK FLOW M ODE LS

A net wor k consist s of a set of nodes, being connect ed by a set of ar cs. I f each ar c has a specified dir ect ion only,
t hen t he net wor k is called dir ect ed net wor k . I n many sit uat ions net wor k act s as an int er mediar y for mat hs
modeling. I t helps t o visualise t he pr obl em mor e clear ly t hr ough var ious st ages or si t uat ions of event s.
Net wor k flow models consider t he net wor k such t hat , a flow can t ake place in t he ar cs (br anches) of t he
net wor k .
N odes
Nodes indicat e a set of t wo or mor e ver t ices which belong t o t he net wor k. A node may r epr esent event, place,
st age or a st or age point . I n a gener alised way, it may be consider ed as a st at e wit h values and pr oper t ies, and
can t ake numer ical values based on t he at t r ibut es specified. A node may be ident ified by it s associat ed node
number. I t act s as end point s of ar c (or br anch). Node ar e also called as ver t ices or point s.
Sour ce N ode
I t is one at which the fir st tr ansaction would take place aft er this node. I t indicates the completion of flow (or a
single r un or path). The value of attr ibutes of this node may indicat e final effect of the actions being per for med
on t he net wor k. I t is mostly a mer ge node. (The dir ection of ar cs/br anches connecting this node is towar ds t his
node.)
Br anch (Ar c)
A line joining t wo differ ent nodes is called a br anch. A br anch is char act er ised by a pair of nodes (i, j ) which it
joins. M or e t han one br anch can connect ed any t wo nodes.
Node Node
2 2
h 2
ch h
nc nc

Br
n a a
Br

a
ra Br

nc
B

h
ch
an
Br
Branch
Node 1 Node 1 1 3

Or ient ed Branch L oop (1, 2) Non-orient ed Br anch

Or ient ed Br anch
An or ient ed br anch is one, in which t he nodes ar e an or der ed pair, i.e. sense of dir ect ion is specified. I t is
e j
defined as i , j or as ‘i– j ’. The node i is t he point of beginning and node j is t he point of t er minat ion of t he
or ient ed br anch. A non-or ient ed br anch is usually defined as (i, j ).
Or i ent ed N et wor k
I f or ient at ions ar e assigned t o all t he br anches in a net wor k, it is called as or ient ed net wor k .
Pat h
A pat h connect s t he sour ce node and t he sink node in a sequence of Br anches st ar t ing fr om t he sour ce t o sink.
Ther e may be mor e t han one at t he same, t hen it is called loop. Ther e may be mor e t han t wo nodes and
br anches. I t is called cycles.
Tr ee
A t r ee i s a con n ect ed n et w or k w h i ch h as n o
loops (cycles). The path joining any two nodes is unique.
I f a t r ee has N nodes, t hen it has (N– 1) br anches.
H ence, it must be not ed t hat t he spanning t r ee must
have all t he pr oper t ies of a ‘t r ee’.

SPAN N I N G TREE
I t is one which connects all the nodes in a network. The proper ty of the spanning tr ee is that, the addition of one
more branch (arc) to the tree would r esult in a cycle. There ar e more than one spanning tree in a networ k.

Spanning Tree
 Industrial Engineering 7.23

L engt h of t he Spanning Tr ees

L engt h of t he spanning t r ee is defined as t he sum of t he dist ances of all br anches (ar cs) in t r ee.
M inimal Spanning Tr ees
The spanning tree, for a given networ k with the least (total) distance is called minimal spanning tree.
Spanning Tr ees Pr oblem
This is in t he for m as; given a Net wor k, det er mine t he M inimal Spanning Tr ee, i.e. minimise t he sum of
dist ances of t he br anches connect ing all t he nodes.
N ote : All the br anches in t he Spanning Tr ee ar e non-dir ectional; and each having an unique path connect ing
all the nodes. Ther e is no such t hing as sour ce or sink nodes. One can st ar t the path fr om any node.
Ther e ar e no loops.
Pr ocedur e t o D et er mine M inimal Spanning Tr ee
Step 1 : Select an ar bit r ar y node init ially.
Step 2 : Identify a node that is closest to the selected node. The closest node must have following characteristics:
(i) I t is dir ect ly connect ed t o t he selet ed node.
(ii) The dist ance of t he br anch connect ing t hese t wo nodes is minimum. I nclude t his br anch and t he
nodes in t he set of t he M inimal Spanning Tr ee.
Step 3 : Out of r emaining unconnected nodes (call it as set G) deter mine the one that is closest to a node, in
set G, alr eady selected in t he spanning tr ee. (whenever ther e is a tie, it is br oken ar bitr ar ily).
Step 4 : Go t o set p 3 and r epeat unt il all t he nodes ar e select ed, in t he set G, of t he spanning t r ee.
Now apply t he above pr ocedur e t o det er mine t he minimal spanning t r ee.
Let G is the set of connected nodes (with branches) in the Minimal Spaning tree. Select node 1 as initial node. The
branches directly connecting the node 1 are (1, 2) = 2 and (1, 3) = 3. The branch with minimum distance is (1, 2). Hence
(1, 2) is taken into the set G. The remaining unselected nodes 3 and 4 are considered to be in the set G.
I n t he next st ep, consider all t he br anches t hat ar e dir ect ly connect ed wit h any one node in set G t o any one
node in set G, (ot her t han t he br anches alr eady select ed)
Set G : (1, 2) and Set G : (3, 4)
Dist ance for (1, 3) = 3
Dist ance for (2, 3) = 4
Dist ance for (2, 4) = 5
The minimum dist ance br anch is (1, 3) and node 3 is t he closest . H ence node 3 is added. To set G.
Set G : (1, 2, 3) and Set G : (4).
Dist ance for (2, 4) = 5
Dist ance for (3, 4) = 6 2

The minimum dist ance br anch is (2, 4), hence added t o set G. Now all 2 5

t he nodes have been added t o set G.

Set G consist s of br anches : (1, 2), (1, 3) and (2, 4) which const it ut e t he 1 4

M inimal spanning t r ee.

3
M inimum lengt h = 2 + 3 + 5 = 10.
3
Cr it ical pat h met hod should be cont inue fr om her e and queing t heor y
aft er t hat because Net wor k model, CPM , PERT ar e same M inimal spanning tree

SI M PLE QU EU I N G M ODELS
A queuing model is a suitable model t o r epr esent a ser vice or ient ed pr oblem wher e cust omer s ar r ive r andomly
t o r eceive some ser vice, t he ser vice t ime also being a r andom var iable.
Basic Queuing Pr ocess
1. I nput (a arrival pat t ern)
Since t he cust omer s ar r ive in a r andom fashion, t her efor e t heir ar r ival pat t er n can be descr ibed in t er ms
of pr obabilit ies. We assume t hat t hey ar r ive accor ding t o a poisson pr ocess, i.e. t he number of unit s ar r iving
unt il any specific t ime has a poisson dist r ibut ion.
2. Queue (a wait ing line)
3. Service mechanism (a service pat t ern)
The pat t er n accor ding t o which t he cust omer s ar e ser ved, we shall deal wit h t he queuing models in which
t he ser vice t ime follows t he exponent ial dist r ibut ion.
7.24 Industrial Engineering
M odel I : N ot at ions
L et n = number of cust omer s in t he syst em bot h wait ing and in ser vice
 = aver age number of cust omer s ar r iving per unit of t ime
 = aver age number of cust omer s being ser ved per unit t ime

 = = t r affic int ensit y (also called ut ilizat ion fact or )


Expect ed number of unit s in t he syst em (wait ing + being ser ved), L s =
– 
 2
Expect ed number of unit s in t he queue, L q = L s – =
  ( –  )
Expect ed t ime per unit in t he syst em (expect ed t ime a unit spends in syst em)
1 Expect ed number of unit s in t he syst em
Ws = =
–  Ar r ival r at e
1 
Expect ed wait ing t ime per unit in t he queue, W q = W s – =
  b–  g

Aver age lengt h of non-empt y queue (lengt h of queue t hat is for med fr om t ime t o t ime) Ln =
– 
1
Aver age wait ing t ime in non-empt y queue (aver age wait ing t ime of an ar r ival who wait s) W n =
– 

Var iance of t he queue lengt h =
b
–  g2
FG IJ b g
 – –  t
Pr obabilit y densit y funct ion of wait ing t ime (excluding ser vice) dist r ibut ion =  1 – e
H  K
b g – b – gt
Pr obabilit y densit y funct ion of wait ing + ser vice t ime dist r ibut ion =  –  e
 

Pr obabilit y of queue lengt h being gr eat er t han or equal t o n , t he number of cust omer s (p  n ) =
FG  IJ n
H K
Example. A self– ser vice st or e employs one cashier at it s count er. 8 Cust omer s ar r ive on an aver age ever y 5
minut es while t he cashier can ser ve 10 cust omer s in t he same t ime. Assuming poisson dist r ibut ion for ser vice
r at e, det er mine
( i ) Aver age number of cust omer s in t he syst ems.
( ii ) Aver age number of cust omer s in queue a aver age queue lengt h.
( iii ) Aver age t ime a cust omer spends in t he syst em.
( iv) Aver age t ime a cust omer wait s befor e being ser ved.
Sol ut i on.
8
Ar r ival r at e,  = = 1.6 cust omer /minut e
5
10
 = = 2 cust omer s/minut e
5
( i ) Aver age number of cust omer s in t he syst em
 1.6
Ls = = =4
–  2 – 1.6
( ii ) Aver age number of cust omer in t he queue
2 (1.6 ) 2
Lq = = = 3.2
 ( –  ) 2 (2 – 1.6)
( iii ) Aver age t ime a cust omer spends in t he syst em
1 1
Ws = = = 2.5 minut es
–  2 – 1.6
( iv) Aver age t ime a cust omer spends in t he queue
 1.6  1 
Wq = =   = 2 minut es
 ( –  ) 2  2  1.6 
 Industrial Engineering 7.25
Example. Cust omer s ar r ive at a sales count er manned by a single per son accor ding t o a Poisson pr ocess wit h
a mean r at e of 20 per hour. The t ime r equir ed t o ser ve a cust omer has an exponent ial dist r ibut ion wit h a mean
of 100 seconds. Find t he aver age wait ing t ime of a cust omer.
Sol ut i on.
3600
Given,  = 20 per hour and  = = 36 per hour
100
 20
 Aver age wait ing t ime of a cust omer in t he queue = E (W q) = = hour s = 125 seconds
b
 ( –  ) 36 36 – 20 g
1 1
Aver age wait ing t ime of a cust omer in t he syst em = E (W s) = = hour s = 225 seconds
–  36 – 20
Example. A bank has only one t ypist . Since t he t yping wor k var ies in lengt h (number of pages t o be t yped), t he
t yping r at e is r andomly dist r ibut ed appr oximat ing a Poisson dist r ibut ion wit h mean ser vice r at e of 8 let t er s
per hour. The let t er s ar r ive at a r at e of 5 per hour dur ing t he ent ir e 8 hour wor k dut y. I f t he t ypewr it er is
valued at Rs. 1.50 per hour, det er mine
( i ) Equipment utilizat ion,
( ii ) The per cent age t ime t hat an ar r iving let t er has t o wait .
( iii ) Aver age syst em t ime.
( iv) Aver age cost due t o wait ing on t he par t of t he t ypewr it er.
Sol ut i on.
H er e,  = 5 per hour and  = 8 per hour
 5
( i ) Equipment utilizat ion,  = = = 0.625
 8
( ii ) Per cent t ime an ar r iving let t er has t o wait = per cent t ime t he t ypewr it er r emains busy = 62.5%
1 1 1
( iii ) Aver age syst em t ime, W s = = = hr = 20 min
–  8– 5 3
(iv) Average cost due to waiting on the part of the typewriter /day = [8 hours  (1 – 0.625)]  ` 1.50 = ` 4.50.

CRI TI CAL PATH M E TH OD

CPM (Cr itical Path M et hod) : Pr oject management t echnique t hat is used when act ivit y times ar e det er minist ic
Activity : Dist inct par t of a pr oject , involving some wor k, whose complet ion r equir es some amount of t ime.
e.g. dr illing a hole, st ar t ing a bus, issuing t he wor k or der, float ing a t ender, et c.
Activity duration : I t is t he physical t ime r equir ed t o complet e an act ivit y.
I n CPM , it is t he best est imat e of t he t ime t o complet e an act ivit y.
I n PERT, it is t he expect ed t ime or aver age t ime t o complet e an act ivit y.
Critical activity : This act ivit y has no r oom for schedule deviat ion. I n case of deviat ion or slips, t he ent ir e
pr oject complet ion will slip. An act ivit y wit h zer o slack is also same.
Critical path : The sequence or chain of cr it ical act ivit ies for t he pr oject const it ut es cr it ical pat h. I t is t he
longest dur at ion pat h t hr ough t he net wor k.
Crashing : The pr ocess of r educing an act ivit y t ime by adding fr esh r esour ces and hence usually incr easing
cost . Cr ashing is needed for finishing t he t ask befor e est imat ed t ime.
Crash cost : Cost associat ed wit h an act ivit y when it is complet ed in t he possible t ime (cr ash t ime), which is
lesser t han t he expect ed or nor mal t ime.
Dummy activity : An act ivit y t hat consumes no t ime but and zer o r esour ce only funct ion of t hese act ivit y is
t o designat e a pr ecedence r elationship shows pr ecedence among act ivities. I t is useful for pr oper r epr esent at ion
in t he net wor k.
Earliest Finish (EF) time : The ear liest t ime t hat an act ivit y can finish, fr om t he beginning of t he pr oject .
Earliest Start (ES) time : The ear liest t ime t hat an act ivit y can st ar t , fr om t he beginning of t he pr oject .
Event : I t is t he beginning, complet ion point ,or milest one accomplishment wit hin t he pr oject . An act ivit y
begins and ends wit h event s. An event t r igger s an act ivit y of t he pr oject .
Expected activity time : The aver age act ivit y t ime t hat is used in t he pr oject sheduling.
Free slack (float) : The lengt h of t ime up t o which an act ivit y can be delayed for channelling r esour ces or
r eadjust ment s, wit hout affect ing t he st ar t s of t he succeeding act ivit ies.
I mmediate predecessor : An act ivit y, which should immediat ely pr ecede t he act ivit y under consider at ion.
7.26 Industrial Engineering
Latest Finish (LF) time : I t is t he lat est t ime t hat an act ivit y can finish, fr om t he beginning of t he pr oject ,
wit hout causing a delay in t he complet ion of t he pr oject .
Latest Start (LS) time : I t is t he lat est t ime t hat an act ivit y can st ar t , fr om t he beginning of t he pr oject ,
wit hout causing a delay in t he complet ion of t he pr oject .
M ost Likely time ( t m) : I t is t he t ime for complet ing an act ivit y t hat is t he best est imat e; under t he given
condit ions (used in PERT).
N ormal cost : Cost associat ed wit h an act ivit y when it is complet ed in nor mal t ime.
Optimistic time ( t o) : I t is t he t ime for complet ing an act ivit y if ever yt hing in t he pr oject goes well (used in
PERT).
Pessimistic time (t p) : I t is t he t ime for complet ing an act ivit y if ever yt hing in t he pr oject goes wr ong (used
in PERT).
Predecessor activity : An act ivit y t hat must occur befor e anot her act ivit y in t he pr oject which is decided on
pr ecedence r elat ionship.
Project : Set of act ivit ies which ar e int er r elat ed wit h each ot her and ar e t o be or ganised for a common goal or
object ive dur ing a specified t ime-fr ame.
Project network : A visual r epr esent at ion of t he int er dependence bet ween differ ent act ivit ies of a pr oject
which ar e nor mally associat ed wit h a t ime-wise sequencing.
Resource allocation methods : Allocat ion of r esour ces t o t he act ivit ies so t hat pr oject complet ion t ime is as
small as possible and r esour ces ar e well ut ilized.
Slack : I t is t he amount of t ime t hat an act ivit y or a gr oup of act ivit ies can delay in get t ing complet ed wit hout
causing a delay in t he complet ion of t he pr oject . An act ivit y having slack cannot be cr it ical act ivit y.
Successor activity : I t is t he act ivit y t hat must occur aft er anot her act ivit y (which is pr edecessor ).
Total slack (Float) : The time up to which an act ivity can be delayed wit hout affecting star t of the succceeding
activities.
U pdating : I t involves some r evision of t he pr oject schedule aft er par t ial complet ion wit h r evised infor mat ion.
Variance : I t is t he measur e of deviat ion of t he t ime dist r ibut ion for an act ivit y.

FLOAT OR SLACK
Earliest Start Time (ES) i : This is t he ear liest occur r eance t ime for t he event fr om which t he act ivit y ar r ow
or iginat es. We call it (ES)i for node i of act ivit y i – j .
Earliest F inish Time (EF) j : This is t he ear liest st ar t t ime for t he event fr om whi ch t he act ivit y ar r ow
or iginates.
(EF)j = (ES)i + t ij
Latest Finishing Time (LF) j : This is t he lat est occur r eance t ime for t he node at which t he act ivit y ar r ow
t er minat es.
Latest Start Time (LS) i : This is t he lat est finish t ime for t he node at which t he act ivit y ar r ow t er minat es.
(LS)i = (L F)j – t ij
I t is defined as t he amount of t ime an act ivit y can be delayed wit hout affect ing t he dur at ion of t he pr oject . On
a cr it ical pat h, t he float is zer o.
M easur es of F loat
There ar e t hr ee measur es of float
( i ) Total float : I t is t he maximum t ime, which is available t o complet e an act ivit y minus t he act ual t ime
which t he act ivit y t akes.
Tot al float = [(L F)j – (ES)i ] – t ij = [(L F)j – t ij ] – (ES)i = (L S)i – (ES)i
( ii ) Free float : This is based on t he possibilit y t hat all event s occur at t heir ear liest t ime. I t is a sit uat ion
when t he pr oject is or ganised on ear liest t ime t o give t he best possible chances of complet ion on t i me.
Fr ee float = (Ear liest Finish t ime – Ear liest st ar t ing t ime – act ivit y dur at ion)
= [(EF)j – (ES)i ] – t ij = (EF)j – [(ES)i + t ij ] = (EF)j – Earliest finish time for i – j
( iii ) I ndependent float : I t is impor t ant when t he net wor k of t he pr oject r uns on ear liest t ime. I f an act ivit y
r eaches t he next st age at t he lat est t ime, independent float will indicat e if t he consider ed act ivit y (which is
just next ) will r each at t he next st age so as t o allow t he following act ivit y t o begin at t he ear liest t ime
I ndependent float = (EF)j – (L S)i – t ij
 Industrial Engineering 7.27

PERT (PROGRAM EVALU ATI ON AN D REVI EW TECH N I QU E)

PERT i ncor por at es pr obabi l i st i c t i me-est i mat es for each act i vi t y. I t empl oys Bet a-di st r i but i on for t he
t ime-est imat es. The pr ocedur e for making t he net wor k and det er mining t he cr it ical pat h is same as CPM .
I t is t he pr oject management t echnique used when act ivit y t imes ar e pr obabilist ic.
Time Estimate in PERT
PERT allows uncer t aint y in t he est imat es for t ime of each act ivit y.
Ther e ar e t hr ee t ime est imat es in PERT .
(1) Opt imist ic t ime. ( t o).
I t for an act ivit y is t hat est imat e for t he complet ion of t he act ivit y which happens when ever y best t hing
happens t o facilit at e t he execut ion. Thus, when ever yt hing goes well, t he est imat e is opt imist ic t ime.
(2) Pessimist ic t ime ( t p).
When ever y t hing goes wor st , t he dur at ion of t ime-est imat e is t he pessismistic time.
(3) M ost likely time. ( t m).
I t is in bet ween t he opt imist ic and pessimist ic t imes. Under nor mal cir cumst ances, t his is t he pr obable
t ime in which an act ivit y is complet ed.
I n PERT, it is assumed t hat t he t hr ee t ime est imat es ar e r andom var iables, dist r ibut ed as Bet a dist r ibut ion.
The pr obabilit y of most likely t ime is four t imes t hat of eit her of t he r emaining t wo.
t o  4tm  t p
M at hemat ically, te =
6

F t p – to I
Var iance for t he act ivit y, V t e = G
2

H 6 JK
St andar d deviat ion for t he Net wor k, () = sum of var iance along cr itical pat h =  2
t p – to
St andar d deviat ion for t he act ivit y, te =

Ts – TB
Nor mal deviat ion, z =


DI FFEREN CE BETWEEN CPM AN D PERT

PERT and CPM or iginated near ly dur ing same per iod but in differ ent context. CPM or iginated fr om constr uction
pr oject while PERT evolved t hr ough R and D pr oject s. Bot h CPM and PERT shar e same basic appr oach for
const r uct ing t he pr oject net wor k and for det er mining t he cr it ical pat h of t he net wor k.
Ther e ar e some differ ences in PERT and CPM .PERT is associat ed wit h uncer t aint y in t he t ime est imat es for
act i vi t y, wh i l e i n CPM , t h ese est i m at es ar e t r eat ed as fai r l y det er mi ni st i c. PERT i s consi der ed a
event -or ient ed while CPM is mainly act ivit y-or ient ed.
PE RT CPM
1. Time est imat es ar e pr obabilist ic 1. Time est imat e det er minist ic
2. Event or ient ed 2. Act ivit y or ient ed
3. Focussed on t ime 3. Focussed on t ime-cost t r ade-off
4. M or e suit able for new pr oject s 4. M or e suit ed for r epet it ive pr oject s.
7.28 Industrial Engineering

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S (a) sequencing (b) scheduling

1. Pr oduct ion planni ng consist s of (c) r out ing (d) dispatching

(a) pr eplanning and r outing 9. The pr ime i nput for aggr egat e pl anning is

(b) scheduling and dispat ching (a) act ive for ecast i ng
(c) expediting (b) passive for ecast ing
(d) al l of t hese (c) demand for ecast ing
2. For ecast ing pr ovides guide lines on (d) none of t hese
(a) how many of t he pr oduct s pr oduced ar e li kely 10. Which of t he fol lowing st at ement i s cor r ect ?
t o be demanded by t he cust omer s (a) Qualit at ive models for for ecast ing ar e based on
(b) amount of business, t he fir m can expect dur ing subject ive opini ons and judgement s
t he planni ng per iod (b) Gant t char t s ar e r efi ned ver si on of t r avel
(c) mat er i als r equir ement s char t s.
(d) al l of t hese (c) For ecast i ng is t he pr ime i nput for aggr egat e
planning.
3. For ecast ing which assumes a st at ic envor onment
in t he fut ur e is (d) Al l of t hese
(a) passive for ecast ing 11. Sequencing is a subset of
(b) act ive for ecast i ng (a) r out ing (b) scheduling
(c) long t er m for ecast i ng (c) expediting (d) none of t hese
(d) shor t t er m for ecast i ng 12. L ong r ange of for ecast ing is
4. The funct ion which aut hor ises pr oduct ion as well (a) one year or less
as cont r ol is (b) mor e t han 1 year s
(a) r out ing (b) scheduling (c) one t o t hr ee year s
(c) dispatching (d) expediting (d) none of t hese
5. T h e qu al i t y m odel of f or ecast i n g based on 13. Advant age of Del phi met hod i s t hat it
t he consensus opi ni on of a panel of exper t s i s
(a) pr ovides int ui t i ve base for for ecast i ng
cal l ed
(b) is useful for long r ange planning
(a) Composit e Sales Team M et hod
(c) is helpful for development of new pr oduct s
(b) Exponent ial Smoot hening M et hod
(d) al l of t hese
(c) Regr ession M et hod
14. Degr ee of r el at i on sh i p bet ween t wo or m or e
(d) Delphi M et hod
var i abl es i s expr essed by
6. Char t which is useful for scheduling and contr ol is
(a) r egr essi on (b) cor r el at ion
(a) Kanban
(c) seasonal i ndex (d) none of t hese
(b) Gant t Char t
15. Kanban
(c) Fl ow Pr ocess char t
(a) i s an infor mat ion car r yi ng t he expr ession of
(d) X and R Char t needs
7. The monit or ing and foll ow up funct i on int ended
(b) is a simple way of cont r olli ng pr oduct i on
for compl et ion of job wit hin t he due dat e is call ed
(c) is a r equest (car d) for pr oduct ion or wit hdr awal
(a) scheduling (b) expediting
(movement ) of par t s
(c) r out ing (d) none of t hese
(d) al l of t hese
8. The pr oduct i on pl anni ng funct i on r efer s t o t he
16. The pr epl anning of pr oduct ions, wor k for ce and
det er mi nat i on of t he sequence of oper at i ons t o be
invent or y at t he br oadest level is
per for med for t he job and all ocat i on of facili t i es
wher e t hese oper at i ons ar e t o be per for med i s (a) r egr essi on (b) aggr egat e planning
called (c) for ecast ing (d) none of t hese
 Industrial Engineering 7.29
17. Cost comput at i ons for t he st r at egi es depends (b) is independent of t he r at e of consumpt ion
upon (c) depends only on the lead t ime
(a) str ategy applied (d) depends upon the rate of consumption and lead
(b) data available time
(c) common logi c used in comput at i on 25. The monthly demand is Rs. 2000 of sales. Annual
(d) al l of t hese car r ying cost is Rs. 2400. The or der ing cost per
or der is Rs. 600. The EOQ is
18. I n l inear pr ogr amming appr oach, t he demand for
a par t i cular per iod can be full fi lled by (a) One mont h of sales
(a) r egular t ime pr oduct i on (b) Two mont hs of sales
(b) over t ime pr oduct i on (c) Thr ee mont hs of sales
(c) sub cont r act (d) Four mont hs of sales
(d) al l of t hese 26. The mat hemat ical t echnique for finding t he best
use of limit ed r esour ces in an opt imum manner
19. Regr essi on met hod of for ecast i ng i s appl i cabl e
is called
mainly for
(a) oper at ion r esear ch
(a) Casual models
(b) linear pr ogr amming
(b) Qualitat ive for ecast ing
(c) net wor k analysis
(c) Ti me-Ser i es models
(d) queuing t heor y
(d) Delphi met hod 27. I n or der t hat l i near pr ogr ammi ng t echni ques
20. A ggr egat e Pl an n i n g r ef er s t o p l an n i n g of pr ovide valid r esult s, t he
pr oduct ion (a) relation between factors must be linear (positive)
(a) at t he br oadest long t er m per i od levels (b) r el at i on bet ween fact or s m ust be l i near
(b) at t he shor t t er m per i od levels (negative)
(c) wor k for ce and invent or y at t he br oadest levels (c) bot h (a) or (b)
(d) wor k for ce and i nvent or y at t he shor t t er m (d) onl y one fact or shoul d change at a t i me,
per i od levels ot her s r emaining const ant
21. Inventary can be in the form of 28. Th e l i near pr ogr ammi ng t ech ni qu es can be
applied successfully t o indust r ies like
(a) r aw mat er ials
(a) ir on and st eel (b) food pr ocessing
(b) supplies
(c) oil and chemical (d) banking
(c) br ought out par t , semi finished goods and
sub-assemblies (e) all of t hese
29. The simplex met hod is t he basic met hod for
(d) all of t hese
(a) value analysis
22. Annual car r ying cost, for a given annual demand
(b) oper at ion r esear ch
(a) will incr ease with the incr ease in the number
of or der s placed per annum (c) linear pr ogr amming
(d) model analysis
(b) will decr ease with the incr ease in the number
of or der s placed per annum 30. Gr aphical method, simplex method ar e concer ned
with
(c) is independent of number of orders placed per
annum (a) value analysis
(d) will increase with the decrease in lead time (b) linear pr ogr amming
(c) br eak-even analysis
23. Annual or der ing cost , for a given annual demand
(d) queuing t heor y
(a) wi l l i ncr ease wi t h t he decr ease i n or der
quantity 31. I n si m pl ex m et h od of l i n ear pr ogr am m i n g,
t he object ive r ow of t he mat r ix consist s of
(b) wi l l decr ease wi t h t he decr ease i n or der
quantity (a) names of t he var iables of t he pr oblems
(b) coefficient of t he object ive funct ion, which is
(c) is independent of or der quant it y
t he pr ofit cont r ibut ion per unit of each of t he
(d) will decrease with the decrease in lead time pr oducts
24. For a gi ven l evel of safet y st ock and E OQ (c) slack var iables
or der ing, Reor der point
(d) none of t hese
(a) depends only on t he r at e of consumpt ion
7.30 Industrial Engineering
32. I n linear pr ogr amming, shadow pr ices ar e
(a) cost of br ought out it ems
(b) maximum cost per it em
(c) value assigned t o one unit of capacit y
(d) lowest sale pr ices
33. I n simplex met hod, if all t he basic var iable ar e
gr eat er t han zer o (>0), t he solut ion is called
(a) non-degener at e (b) degener at e
(c) basic solut ion (d) none of t hese
34. I n linear pr ogr amming
(a) it is applicable t o linear models only
(b) uncer t aint ies in t he fut ur e cannot
convenient ly be incor por at ed in model
(c) no solut ion is available t o t ime spans shor t er
t han per iods in model
(d) all of t hese
35. A l i near pr ogr ammi ng pr obl em i s cal l ed so,
because in t hat pr oblem
(a) all t he funct ions expr essing t he const r aint s
ar e linear
(b) object ive funct ion also should be linear
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) none of t hese
LEVEL-1
1. The mast er schedule
(a) is t he out come of t he aggr egat e planni ng
(b) dr ives t he ent ir e pr oduct i on syst em
(c) is a high l evel schedul e t hat speci fi es what end
pr oducts or pr oduct modules ar e t o be pr oduced
and t he t ime per iod dur ing whi ch t hey ar e t o
be made
(d) al l of t hese
2. M ast er schedule
(a) det er mines t he over al l pr oduct ion plan for t he
near fut ur e
(b) pr ovides r ough t ime schedule for pr oduct ion of
final pr oduct s
(c) r efer t o t he 'end it ems' or final pr oduct s
(d) al l of t hese
3. M ast er schedul ing consi der s
(a) demand for ecast s and pending or der s
(b) r esour ce availabi lit i es and capacit ies
(c) st ock st at us and i nvent or y i nfor mat ions
(d) feed back i nfor mat i on on act ual shop l oads,
backlog and leadt imes
(e) al l of t hese
4. Det er mi nat i on of t he sequence of oper at oins t o be
per for med and t he al locat ion of facil it ies wher e
t hese oper at oi ns ar e t o be per for med is
(a) mast er scheduli ng
(b) aggr egat e planning
(c) r out ing
(d) for ecast ing
5. Rout ing pr ocedur e depends upon
(a) t ype of manufact ur i ng-Job. Bat ch, M ass/Fl ow
pr oduct ion
(b) nat ur e of pr ocesses i nvolved
(c) avail abili t y of pl ant , machiner ies and facili t i es
(d) char act er ist ics of t he plant , machiner ies and
facilities
(e) al l of t hese
6. A r ou t e sh eet m ay be desi gn ed t o com bi n e
act i vit ies such as aut hor it y t o
(a) pr oduct ion
(b) mat er ial r equi r ement s
(c) t ool or der s and move or der s
(d) al l of t hese
7. A decision mak ing pr ocess t o det er mi ne when a
job is t o be st ar t ed in a machine and when it i s t o
be complet ed, is
(a) scheduling (b) r out i ng
(c) mast er scheduli ng (d) aggr egat e planning
8. The or der i n whi ch di ffer ent jobs ar e being t ak en
up i n a machi ne or pr ocess is call ed
(a) scheduling (b) sequencing
(c) r out ing (d) aggr egat e planning
9. I n sequenci ng
(a) t he t asks bel ong t o t he var ious jobs
(b) t he t asks ar e per for med on t he same faci li t y
(c) act s as an aid t o det er mine t he scheduli ng
(d) emphasi s is on t he economi c or der
(e) al l of t hese
10. I n r out i ng
(a) t he var ious t ask s bel ong t o t he same job
(b) t ask s ar e per for med i n var ious faci li t i es
(c) acts as a constraint for scheduling
(d) emphasis is on t he t echnological or der
(e) al l of t hese
11. The mai n differ ence bet ween flow shop and job
shop models in scheduling is t hat
(a) in flow shop t her e is a cont inuous flow wit hout
idle t ime for any machi ne wher eas i n t he job
shop t he fl ow i s i nt er mi t t ent wi t h i dl eness
enfor ced on t he machine.
(b) in flow shop t he r out ing for al l jobs t hr ough
t he machi nes i s uni di r ect i onal wher eas in t he
Job shop t he r out i ng may fol low any pat h.
 Industrial Engineering 7.31
(c) i n fl ow shop al l t he jobs ar e pr ocessed i n a (c) is mak e-span
si ngle machi ne, wher eas in job shop, jobs ar e (d) al l of t hese
t o be pr ocessed in mor e t hen one machine.
21. A pur ch asi n g assi st an t has cal cu l at ed t h e
(d) in flow shop t he r out ing for al l jobs shoul d be car r yi ng cost Rs. per un i t annu m, and t he
such t hat t o minimise t he make span, wher eas EOQ = 500 units for an item. He must have taken
in t he job shop t he r out ing for all jobs should t hat t he annual or der ing cost for t his it em
be such t hat t o mi nimise t he mean flow t ime. (a) Rs. 500 (b) Rs. 100
12. Objective of scheduling pr oblem is (c) Rs. 31.62 (d) Rs. 22.36
(a) efficient utilisation of the r esour ces (or facilities) 22. I n t he Pr oduct ion M odel for det er mi ni ng t he
(b) r apid r espond t o demands Economi c Bat ch Si ze, t he pr oduct i on r at e i s
consider ed as
(c) confor mance t o t he pr escr i bed dead-l ines
(a) equal t o demand r at e
(d) completion of job at the minimum protracted (total) (b) less t han demand r at e
time
(c) gr eater t han demand r ate
(e) al l of t hese
(d) independent of demand r ate
13. Fl ow of wor k t hat is unidir ect ional i n t he sense 23. If R = demand r at e,
t hat al l jobs r equi r e oper at i ons and pr ocessing in
K = pr oduct ion r at e,
t he same or der, is call ed
Cc = car r ying cost per unit t ime,
(a) sequencing (b) r out ing
Co = or der ing cost , and
(c) scheduling (d) fl ow shop
Cc = cost of penalt y per unit t ime,
14. The amount of t i me measur ed fr om t he zer ot h t hen economi c or der quant i t y (EOQ) can be
t i me, at which t he job is due t o be complet ed is expr essed as
(a) compl et ion (b) fl ow t i me FG IJ FG K IJ
2RC o Cs
(a)
(c) due dat e (d) pr ocessing t i me Cc HCc  C s K H K  RK
15. The t ime at which t he pr ocessing of t he job in t he
2RC F C  C I F K I
machine i s complet ed, is (b) G
C H C
c
o s
JK GH K  R JK
c
s

(a) complet ion t i me (b) fl ow t i me

2RC F C  C I F K I
(c) due t at e (d) pr ocessing t i me (c) G
C H C
o s
JK GH K  R JK s

16. Ti me t ak en for t he j ob fr om i t s ar r i val t o t he c s

syst em unt i l i t s depar t ur e, is 2RC F C IJ FG K  R IJ

(a) complet ion t i me (b) fl ow t i me
(d)
c
G
C HC C K H K K
o

s
s

(c) due dat e (d) pr ocessing t i me 24. I f EOQ is within the range of the lowest discounted
17. The algebr aic differ ence bet ween the flow time and rate offer ed, then
due dat e is (a) accept t he discount offer and or der for t he
(a) mean lat eness (b) job minimum in t he r ange
(c) r ange of lat eness (d) job t r adi ness (b) r eject t he discount offer
(c) consi der t he t ot al cost s of t he r anges of
18. The lat eness of t he job, fai li ng t o meet t he due
discount befor e t aking t he decision
dat e is call ed
(d) accept t he discount offer and or der at EOQ
(a) job lat eness (b) mean lat eness
level
(c) job t ar di ness (d) r ange of lat eness 25. I n ABC analysis, t he C it ems ar e t hose which
19. The mean number of jobs in the processing system r epr esent s
at a time, is called (a) sm al l per cent age of t h e t ot al annu al
(a) inpr ocess invent or y consumption value
(b) mean t ar di ness (b) h i gh per cen t age of t h e t ot al an n u al
(c) mean lat eness consumption value
(d) weight ed mean fl ow t i me (c) small per cent age of closing invent or y value
(d) high per cent age of closing invent or y value
20. M axi mum flow t i me
26. The method of classification of items to be adopted
(a) is t he maxi mum t ime at whi ch any job st ays
for spar e par t s invent or y is
int he syst em
(a) ABC analysis (b) XYZ analysis
(b) is t he t ot al pr ot ect ed t i me
(c) VED analysis (d) SDE analysis
7.32 Industrial Engineering
27. I n P-syst em of invent or y cont r ol (c) mi ni mise t he maximum t r adi ness
(a) order quantity remains constant (d) mi ni mi se t he mean t r adi ness
(b) t ime bet ween or der ing r emains const ant 5. EDD (Earliest Due Date) sequencing of jobs in a single
(c) Recor der point r emains const ant facility, would
(d) pr oduct ion r at e r emains const ant (a) mi ni mi se t he maximum lat eness
28. MRP indicates (b) be i ndependent of pr ocessi ng t i mes of t he job
(a) M at er ials Reor der ing Point (c) mi ni mise t he maximum t r adi ness
(b) M ater ials Reor der ing Planing (d) al l of t hese
(c) M at er ials Requir ement s Planing 6. MWKR (Most wor k Remaining) pr ior ity r ule in t he
(d) M at er ials Requir ement s Point job shop dynamic syst em would most oft en gi ve
29. I t em B r equir es four number s of it em C. Pr oduct sat i sfact or y per for mance for mini mi si ng
P r equi r es t wo number s of i t ems B and fi ve (a) mean t r adi ness (b) mean lat eness
number of it em C. I f five number of pr oduct P is (c) make span (d) fl ow t i me
t o be manufact ur ed, t hen number of i t em C
7. Whenever some jobs ar e found wai t i ng for t he
r equir ed will be
oper at i on equal t o or gr eat er t han maxi mum
(a) 65 (b) 55 allowable waiting time, over -r iding pr ior ity is given
(c) 45 (d) 35 and ar e dispatched as per
30. For a given annual consumption, the minimum total (a) FCFS (Fir st Come Fir st Ser ved)
inventory cost is proportional to square root of the
(b) SPT
product of
(c) LWK R (L east Wor k Remaining)
(a) or der ing cost per or der
(d) None of t hese
(b) car r ying cost per unit per year
8. S/OPN (Sl ack Per Oper at i ons) r ul e for pr i or i t y
(c) bot h (a) and (b)
di spat chi ng i s useful for r educi ng
(d) none of t hese
(a) number of remaining oper ations
LEVEL-2 (b) number of t ar dy jobs
1.Sh or t est Pr ocessi n g T i m e (SPT ) sequ en ci n g (c) make span
mi ni mises t he
(d) mean lat eness
(a) mean fl ow t i me
9. Flow control is adopted for control of
(b) inpr ocess invent or y
(a) pr oduct ion of lar ge vol umes of single or a few
(c) mean lat eness t ypes of pr oduct s
(d) mean wait ing t i me (b) int er mit t ent pr oduct i on of small quant it ies of
(e) al l of t hese many i t ems
2. Shor t Pr ocessi ng Time (SPT) sequencing of jobs (c) or der i ng r aw mat er ials
in a single faci li t y woul d minimi se t he
(d) consumpt i on of new mat er ials
(a) mean lat eness
10. Or der cont r ol r efer s t o t he i ndi vi dual cont r ol
(b) maximum t r adiness exer cised over the
(c) maximum t r adiness (a) mat er ials
(d) mean t r adi ness
(b) quantit y and qualit y
3. The sequencing of jobs in t he ascendi ng or der of
(c) pr ocessing det ails
t hei r pr ocessi ng t ime, is call ed
(d) pr ogr ess of wor k on each job or l ot
(a) shor t est pr ocessing t i me
(e) al l of t hese
(b) ear li et due dat e (EDD)
(c) dispatching 11. T h e sy st em advan t ageou s i n case of bu l k
chemicals, pig ir on etc, wher e physical asesment
(d) none of t hese
of st ock is cost ly is
4. EDD (Ear l iest Due Dat e) sequencing of jobs in a
(a) P syst em (b) Q syst em
si ngl e faci lit y, would
(c) S – S syst em (d) S – A syst em
(a) mi ni mise t he mean l at eness
(b) mi ni mise t he maximum t r adi ness
 Industrial Engineering 7.33
12. I n t he S– S opt i onal r epl acement syst em, t he 19. Sum of buffer stock, r eserve stock and safety stock
decision not t o place t he or der is t aken when t he is equal t o
st ock level dur ing t he r eview t ime is
(a) r ecor der point (b) or der quant it y
(a) above t he level of S
(c) EOQ
(b) below t he level of S
(d) maximum inventory level
(c) at t he level of S
20. I f Q is or der quant it y, S is maximum invent or y,
(d) none of t he above
X is pr esent st ock level and Q is pending or der
13. The coor dinat ing of det ailed pr oduct ion plans in quant it y, t hen
mult i st age pr oduct i on syst em, wit h i nvent or y
cont r ol of pl anned or der r el ease, so t hat t he (a) Q = S – (X + Q) (b) Q = S + (X + Q)
dependent -demand it ems ar e made available in (c) Q = S + (X + Q) (d) Q = S – (X + Q)
t he appr opr iat e t ime schedule is called 21. I n a pr oduct ion model, N is the optimum number
(a) M RP (M at er ials Requir ement s Planning) of unit pr oduced per or der, v is pr oduct ion r at e
(b) BOM (Bill Of M at er ials) in unit s pr oduced per day and is demand r at e
(c) Time phasing u n i t s per day. T h e l ev el of t h e m ax i m u m
(d) None of t hese invent or y, will be
14. A fir m pr oduces and used 2400 it ems annually.
(a) N 1
FG d IJ (b) N 1
FG d IJ
The cost of set t ing up for pr oduct ion is Rs. 850 H vK H vK
and t he weekly pr oduct ion r at e is 100 unit s. The
pr oduct ion cost is Rs. 5 per it em. The annual
(c)
F vI
N G 1 J (d)
F vI
N G 1 J
stor age and car r ying is 10% of aver age inventor y.
The t ime, each opt imum pr oduct ion r un would
H dK H dK
t ake, will be 22. I nvent or y management consist s of
(a) 12 months (b) 9 mont hs (a) effect ive r unning of st or es
(c) 6 mont hs (d) 1 mont h (b) st ock cont r ol syst em
15. The key feat ur es of M RP syst em ar e (c) st at e of mer chandise met hod of st or ing and
(a) Planned or der r eleases maint enance et c
(b) Time-phasing of r equir ement s (d) all of t hese
(c) Pr ovisions for r esheduling 23. I n t he Si mplex met hod, t he exi st ence of mor e
(d) Gener at ion of lower level r equir ement s t han one opt imum solut ion is indicat ed, when
(e) All of t hese (a) values of t he index r ow, cj – zj under one or
16. I t em s h avi ng l i mi t ed n um ber of suppl i er s, mor e of t he non - base decision var iables is/
difficult t o get qualit y supplier s and one has t o ar e zer o
go in for -off places for supply ar e called (b) some of t he values in t he const ant column
(a) difficult it ems (bi ) ar e zer o
(b) scar ce it ems b
(c) all t he r eplacement r at ios, i (s is t he key
(c) vit al it ems a is
column) ar e negat ive
(d) dead it ems (d) the values of index row, cj – zj, indicate opmality,
17. Scar ce it ems ar e with artificial var iable in the base
(a) most ly available in indigenous mar ket 24. A basic feasible solution in simplex method is one,
(b) cannot be pr ocur ed easily when all t he
(c) of shor t supply or impor t ed it ems (a) decision var iables ar e in t he base
(d) all of t hese (b) decision variables and sur plus var iables ar e
18. M ean r at e of consumpt ion dur ing lead t ime (R) assigned zer o values
mult iplied by mean lead t ime (L ) is equal t o (c) base var iables ar e non - negat ive
(a) buffer st ock (b) r eser ve st ock (d) base var iables satisfy the constr aint equations
(c) safet y st ock (d) none of t hese
7.34 Industrial Engineering

25. Ar t ificial var iable is int r oduced, in t he simplex 26. L imit at ions of linear pr ogr amming models ar e
met hod t o based on cr it er ia of
(a) det er mine t he init ial basic feasible solut ion, (a) pr opor tionalit y (linear it y)
when sur plus var iable is pr esent (b) additivity
(b) conver t t he inequat ion wit h t he sign gr eat er (c) divisibility
t han or equal t o, in t he for m of an equat ion (d) det er ministic
(e) all of t hese
(c) apply Big - M met hod for solut ion t o linear
pr ogr amming pr oblems
(d) indicate the sensitivity of the sur plus var iable

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (d) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (d) 19. (a) 20. (c)

21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (c) 28. (e) 29. (c) 30. (b)
31. (b) 32. (c) 33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (c)

LEVEL-1
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (e) 4. (c) 5. (e) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (e) 10. (e)
11. (b) 12. (e) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (d)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (b) 28. (c) 29. (b) 30. (c)

LEVEL-2
1. (e) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (e)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (e) 16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (d)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (c) 25. (a) 26. (e)
 8
C H A P TE R Thermal Engineering
BASI C CON CEPTS AN D LAWS OF TH ERM ODYN AM I CS
System, Surrounding and Boundary
A syst em is defined as qnant it y of mat t er or a r egion in space chosen for st udy. Ever yt hing ext er nal t o t he
syst em is sur r ounding. Ther modynamic syst em and sur r ounding is always separ at ed by t he boundar y.
Surrounding

System

Boundary
Univer se = Syst em + Sur r ounding
Closed System. The syst em in which only ener gy t r ansfer can t ake place and no mass can cr oss t he boundar y.

Mass No
Closed
system
Energy Yes

Open System. The syst em in which bot h ener gy and mass can cr oss t he boundar y.
Energy out

Mass in Control Mass out

Volume

Energy in
N ote : M ost of t he engineer ing devices ar e gener ally open syst em.
I solated System. The syst em in which neit her ener gy nor mass cr oss t he boundar y.
T her modynami c Pr oper t i es
I nt ensive pr oper t ies ar e t hose pr oper t ies t hat ar e independent of mass of a syst em.
Ext ensive pr oper t ies ar e t hose whose value depends upon t he mass of a syst em.

m m m
2 2
v Extensive
V V
2 2 property
T Divide into
Two equal parts E E
— —
p 2 2
T T Intensive
E p p property

N ote : Ext ensive Pr oper t y per unit mass is always I nt ensive pr oper t y
 8.2 Thermal Engineering

State Process, and Cycle

Consider a syst em not under going any change and at t his point all t he pr oper t ies can be measur ed and gives us
a set of pr oper t ies, descr ibes state.

m = 2 kg
m = 2 kg
T2 = 300K
T1 = 300K
V2 = 3m3
V1 = 2m3

State 1 State 2
Any change t hat a syst em under goes fr om one equilibr ium st at e t o t he anot her equilibr ium st at e is called
process. And ser ies of st at e t hr ough which a syst em passes is known as path of a system .
2 2

P T

1 1
V S
I f t he init ial and end st at e ar e ident ical in a ser ies of pr ocesses, it becomes t her modynamic cycle.
1
Q1
2
p

4
Q2 3
v
(b)
Zer ot h L aw of T her modynamics
I f t wo bodies ar e in t her mal equilibr ium (TE) wit h t hir d body separ at ely t hen t hey will also be in t her mal
equilibr ium. This law of t her modynamics defines t emper at ur e.

A TE

TE C
TE
B

H eat
H eat is defined as t he t er m of ener gy t hat is t r ansfer r ed by vir t ue of a t emper at ur e differ enace bet ween t wo
syst em or syst ems & sur r ounding. Unit of heat is J. I t is a pat h funct ion and a t r ansient phenomenon.
We r epr esent heat by Q (I nexact differ ent ial) or Q.
Q = m sT or Q
2
 Q = 1Q2 or Q1 – 2
1

Qin(+) Qout(–)
System
Sign convent ion for H eat t r ansfer

Work. Wor k is t he ener gy t r ansfer associat ed wit h a for ce and displacement . A r ising & lower ing of pist on, a
r ot at ing shaft ar e associat ed wit h wor k t r ansfer s.
 Thermal Engineering 8.3
Unit of wor k is J. This is also a pat h funct ion.
We r epr esent wor k by W or W
2 2

 W = 1W 2 or W 1 – 2 =  pdv
1 1

Win(–) Wout(+)
System

Wor k done by t he syst em is posit ive and wor k is done on t he syst em is negat ive
First law of thermodynamics
St at e t hat ener gy can neit her be cr eat ed nor be dest r oyed dur ing a pr ocess, it can change t he for ms
M at hemat ical expr ession :
Q – W = dU for a pr ocess

 Q =  W for a cycle
Wher e dU = change in int er nal ener gy, unit is J
For an ideal gas t he int er nal ener gy is t he funct ion of t emper at ur e only, U = f (T)
Enthalpy. Ent halpy is t he t ot al ener gy of a syst em, t his pr oper t y is int r oduced t o simplify t he pr oblem solving.
Enthalpy H = U + PV kJ
Specific enthalpy, h = u + pv kJ/kg
Thermodynamic Processes
1. Constant volume process (or isochoric process)
P
(a) PVT Relat ion V = const ant , = const ant .
T

2
1 – 2 Heating
P
(b) PV diagr am 1 2 – 1 Cooling

V
2 2
(c) Wor k done  W =  pdv = 0
1 1

1W 2 =0
T2
(d) H eat t r ansfer Q = m s  d T
T1

1Q2 = m cv (T 2 – T 1)
wher e cv = Specific heat at const ant volume.
(e) I nt er nal ener gy dU = Q – W
U 2 – U 1 = mcv (T 2 – T 1)  W = 0
(f) Enthalpy H = U + PV
O
dH = dU + pdv + vdp
= mcvdT + m RdT
PV = m RT
Pdv + Vdl = m RdT
H 2 – H 1 = mcp(T 2 – T 1)
 cp = cv + R
8.4 Thermal Engineering

, , dh

cv cv cp

cp cv cp

cp

Processes

cv cp

Adibatic

Adibat ic

cp
cv

cv cp
 Thermal Engineering 8.5

First law of thermodynamics applied to open system

Steady flow energy system
St eady flow pr ocess means at any point in t he cont r ol volume, pr oper t y of flow does not change wit h t ime.
Q 2 P2
m2 v2
Mass — m1 m2 u2
Mass flow rate – m1 2
z2
1 W
Pressure P1 c2
2
Sp. Vol. v1 Q = Heat transfer rate
Internal Energy u1 W = Power developed.
Potential head z1

Velocity, C1 1
Fr om I st law of t her modynamics.
Ener gy in = Ener gy out
Fr om mass balance equat ion
m1 = m2 = m
C12   C2 
m 1(p1v 1 + u 1 + gz1 + ) + Q = m 2 (p2v 2 + u 2 + gz2 + 2 ) + W
2 2
We know p 1v 1 + u 1 = h 1 & m1 = m 2 = m 
p2v 2 + u 2 = h 2, specific ent halpy
I n kW units
     c22  c12  
SFEE Q – W = m  h2  h1      g( z2 – z1 ) 
  2  
 
Wher e Q = H eat t r ansfer r at e and W = Wor k t r ansfer r at e or Power developed
I n kJ units
  c22  c12  
SFEE Q – W = m  h2  h1      g( z2 – z1 ) 
  2  
Wher e Q = Wor k done and W = H eat t r ansfer
c22  c12
I n kJ/kg unit, SFEE q – w = (h 2 – h 1 ) + + g(z2 – z1)
2
Wher e w = Wor k done per unit mass and q = H eat t r ansfer per unit mass.
We nor mally apply SFEE t o t he following st eady flow devices.
1. Nozzles and diffuser s
2. Tur bines (gas or st eam)
3. Compr essor s
4. Thr ot t ling valves
5. M ixing chamber s
6. H eat exchanger s
7. Pipe or duct flow
8.6 Thermal Engineering

Application of Steady Flow Processes

(i ) N ozzle and Diffusor
A nozzle is a device which incr eases t he velocit y or kinet ic ener gy of a fluid at t he expense of it s pr essur e
dr op, wher eas a diffusor incr eases t he pr essur e of a fluid at t he expense of it s kinet ic ener gy
1 2

m C.S. m

Insulation
1 2
Fig. shows a nozzle which is insulat ed. The st eady flow ener gy equat ion of t he cont r ol sur face gives
V12 V22
h1 + + Z1g + q = h 2 + + Z2g + w
2 2
H er e q = 0, w = 0, and t he change in pot ent ial ener gy is zer o.
V12 V2
h1 + = h2 + 2 ... (i )
2 2
The cont inuit y equat ion gives
A 1 V1 A V
m
 = = 2 2 ... (ii )
v1 v2
When t he inlet velocit y or t he ‘velocit y of appr oach’ V 1 is ver y small compar ed t o t he exit velocit y V 2, t hen
V 1 is neglect ed and equat ion (i) becomes
V22
h1 = h2 +
2
or b g
V 2 = 2  1000 h1  h2 m / s
wher e (h 1 – h 2) is in kJ/kg.
( ii ) T hrot t ling D evice
When a fluid flows t hr ough a const r ict ed passage, like a par t ially opened valve, an or ifice, or a por ous plug,
t her e is an appr eciable dr op in pr essur e, and t he flow is said t o be t hr ot t led. Figur e shows t he pr ocess of
t hr ot t ling by a par t ially opened valve on a fluid flowing in an insulat ed pipe.

F ig. F low through a valve

I n t he st eady-flow ener gy equat ion,

q = 0, w=0
and t he changes in P.E. ar e ver y small and ignor ed. Thus t he st eady flow ener gy equat ion r educes t o
V22 V22
h1 + = h2 +
2 2
Oft en t he pipe velocit ies in t hr ot t ling ar e so low t hat t he kinet ic ener gy t er ms ar e also negligible.
... h 1 = h2
or ent halpy of t he fluid befor e t hr ot t ling is equal t o t he ent halpy of t he fluid aft er t hr ot t ling.
 Thermal Engineering 8.7
(iii ) Turbine and Compressor
Tur bines and engines give positive power out put, wher eas compr essor s and pumps r equir e power input.
m C.S.
1
WT

Tur bine
I nsulat ion

F ig . F low th r ou g h a tu r bin e
For a t ur bine (Fig.) which is well insulat ed, t he flow velocit ies ar e oft en small, and t he kinet ic ener gy t er ms
can be neglect ed. The st eady flow ener gy equat ion t hen becomes
h1 = h2 + w
or w = (h 1 – h 2)
I t is seen t hat in t ur bines wor k is done by t he fluid at t he expense of it s ent halpy.
Similar ly, for an adiabat ic pump or compr essor, wor k is done upon t he fluid and W is negat ive. Thus t he
st eady flow ener gy equat ion becomes
W
h1 = h2 –
m
W
or = h2 – h1
m
I n compr essor t he ent haply of t he fluid incr eases by t he amount of wor k input .
( iv) H eat exchanger
A heat exchanger is a device in which heat is t r ansfer r ed fr om one fluid t o anot her.
The st eady flow ener gy equat ion for t he cr oss-sect ion gives
ms
Cont r ol Surface
2 2
Exhaust st eam

Cool ing 1 3
wat er i n Cool ing
wat er out
mc mc
1 3

4 4
Condensat e

F i g . S te a m c o n d en se r
m ch 1 + m sh 2 = m ch 3 + m sh 4
or m s (h 2 – h 4) = m c (h 3 – h 1)
H er e t he kinet ic ener gy and pot ent ial ener gy t er ms ar e consider ed small, t her e is no ext er nal wor k done,
and ener gy exchange in t he for m of heat is confined only bet ween t he t wo fluids, i.e., t her e is no ext er nal
heat int er act ion or heat loss.
( v ) St eam desuper heat er
H igh t emper at ur e st eam
w2
1 2 2
w1
Wat er C.S.
1 3
w3
L ow t emper at ur e
st eam
3
 8.8 Thermal Engineering
Figur e shows a steam desuperheater wher e the temper atur e of the super heated steam is r educed by spr aying
wat er. I f w 1, w 2 and w 3 ar e t he mass flow of t he inject ed wat er, of t he st eam ent er ing, and of t he st eam
leaving, r espect ively, and h 1, h 2 and h 3 ar e t he cor r esponding ent halpies, and if K .E. and P.E. t er ms ar e
neglect ed as befor e, t he st eady flow ener gy equat ion becomes
w 1h 1 + w 2h 2 = w 3h 3
and t he mass balance gives
w 1 + w 2 = w3

SECON D LAW OF TH ERM ODYN AM I CS

The fir st law of t her modynamic st at es t hat a cer t ain ener gy balance will hold when a syst em under goes a
change of st at e or a t her modynamic pr ocess. But it does not pr ovide any infor mat ion on whet her t hat change of
st at e or t he pr ocess is at all feasible or not . The second law of t her modynamic pr ovides t he cr it er ion t o t he
pr obabilit y of var ious pr ocesses.
Joul e’s exper i ment s shows t hat when ener gy suppl i ed t o a syst em i n t he for m of wor k , t hen i t can be
conver t ed in heat as follows :
Wor k t r ansfer  I nt er nal ener gy incr ease  H eat t r ansfer
The complet e conver sion of heat t aken fr om a single t her mal r eser voir, int o wor k in a cycle is not possible. A
syst em is t aken fr om st at e-1 t o st at e-2 by wor k t r ansfer W 1-2 and t hen t aken fr om st at e-2 t o st at e-1 by heat
t r ansfer Q2-1 t o complet e t he cycle.
t hen W 1-2 = Q2-1

But when t he syst em is t aken fr om st at e-1 t o st at e-2 by heat t r ansfer Q1-2 and t hen st at e-2 t o st at e-1 by wor k
t r ansfer W 2-1 t o complet e t he cycle t hen it is always found t hat
Q1-2 > W2-1
H ence heat can not be conver t ed complet ely and cont inuously int o wor k. Wor k is said t o be high gr ade ener gy
and heat a low gr ade ener gy. The complet e conver sion of low gr ade ener gy t o high gr ade ener gy in a cycle is not
possible.
H eat Engine Cycle
Cyclic heat engine wor ks under a t her modynamic cycle in which t her e is a net heat t r ansfer t o t he syst em and
net wor k t r ansfer fr om t he syst em. The syst em which execut es under t his t her modynamic cycle is called a heat
engi ne.
L et Q is heat t r ansfer r ed t o t he syst em, W E is wor k done by t he syst em, t he wor k W C is done upon t he syst em
t hen heat Q2 is r eject ed fr om t he syst em as shown in Fig. (a).
The net heat t r ansfer in a cycle t o eit her of t he heat engines
Qnet = Q1 – Q2 ...(i)
Q1

WE
System

WC

Q2
(a) H eat engine cycle per formed by a closed system undergoing four successive energy
int er act ions wit h t he sur r oundings

H2O Vapour

Q1 Turbiner WT
Furnace Boiler

Q2
Condenser Sea or river

Pump
H2O
Wp
(b) H eat engine cycle performed by a steady flow system interacting
with the surroundings as shown
 Thermal Engineering 8.9
and t he net wor k t r ansfer in a cycle H2O(l)
Q1
H2O(g)
Fr om Fig (a) W net = W T – W P ... (ii)
B
Fr om Fig (b) W net = W E – W C P T
WP WT
By t he fir st law of t her modynamics, we have C

Q = W H2O
Q2
H2O
cycle cycle
F ig . C yclic h ea t en g in e w ith
 Qnet = W net en e r g y i n te r a c t i o n s r ep r ese n t ed
or Q1 – Q2 = W T – W P ... (iii) in a block d ia gra m

Figur e r epr esent s a cyclic heat engine in t he for m of a block diagr am indicat ing t he var ious ener gy int er act ions
dur ing a cycle. Boiler (B), t ur bine (T), condenser (C), and pump (P), all four t oget her const it ut e a heat engine.
The funct ion of heat engine cycle is t o pr oduce wor k cont inuously at t he expense of heat input t o t he syst em,
t he efficiency of heat engine is
Net work out put of t he cycle W
 = = net ... (iv)
Tot al heat out put t o t he cycle Q1
Fr om equat ions (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv), we have
Wnet W  WP Q  Q2 Q2
 = = T = 1 =1–
Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1
This is also known as t he t her mal efficiency of a heat engine cycle.
H eat r eser voir s
A heat r eser voir is defined as a body of infinit e heat capacit y, which is capable of absor bing or r eject ing an
unlimit ed quant it y of heat wit hout suffer ing any change in it s t emper at ur e.
L et Q1 is t he heat t r ansfer r ed t o t he syst em fr om sour ce Q2 is heat r eject ed fr om syst em

Figur e show cyclic heat engine exchanging heat wit h sour ce and a sink and pr oducing
W net = W T – W P
Kelvin-planck St at ement of Second L aw
The K elvin-Planck st at ement of t he second law st at es :
I t is impossible for a heat engine t o pr oduce net wor k in a complet e cycle if it exchanges heat only wit h bodies at
a single fixed t emper at ur e.
Wnet Q2
Efficiency of a heat engine = =1–
Q1 Q1
I f Q2 = 0 (i.e., W net = Q1, or  = 1.00), t he heat engine will pr oduce net wor k in a complet e cycle by exchanging
heat with only one r eser voir, t hus violat ing t he Kelvin-Planck st at ement. Such a heat engine is called a per petual
mot ion machine of t he second kind, abbr eviat ed t o PM M 2. A PM M 2 is impossible.
Clausius’ Stat ement of t he Second L aw
H eat always flows fr om a body at a higher t emper at ur e t o a body at a lower t emper at ur e. The r ever se pr ocess
never occur s spont aneously.
Clausius’ st at ement of t he second law st at es :
I t is impossible t o const r uct a device which, oper at ing in a cycle, will pr oduce no effect ot her t han t he t r ansfer of
heat fr om a cooler t o a hot t er body.
8.10 Thermal Engineering

Refrigerator

A refrigerator is a device which, operating in a cycle, maintains a body at a temper atur e lower than the temper atur e
of t he sur r oundings. L et t he body A (Fig.) be maint ained at t 2, which is lower t han t he ambient t emper at ur e t 1.
Even t hough A is insulat ed, t her e will always be heat leakage Q2 int o t he body fr om t he sur r oundings by vir t ue
of t he t emper at ur e differ ence. I n body A, Q2 and W ar e of pr imar y int er est . t her e is a per for mance par amet er in
a r efr iger at or cycle, called t he coefficient of per for mance abbr eviat ed t o COP, is defined as
Desir ed effect
COP =
Wor k input
Q2
=
W
since Q1 = Q2 + W
Q2
 [COP] ref = ... (i )
Q1  Q 2
H eat Pump

A heat pump is a device which oper at ing in a cycle, maint ains a body say B at a t emper at ur e higher t han t he
t emper at ur e of t he sur r oundings. Due t o t emper at ur e differ ence, t her e will be heat leakage Q1 fr om t he body t o
t he sur r oundings.
Q1
COP =
W
Q1
 [COP]H.P = ... (ii)
Q1  Q 2
Fr om equat ions (i) and (ii), we get
[COP]H.P. = [COP] ref. + 1
The COP of a heat pump is gr eat er t han COP of a r efr iger at or by unit y. At st eady st at e, t he elect r ical ener gy
W supplied t o an elect r ic heat er is dissipat ed as heat t o t he space, but when supplied t o a heat pump dissipat es
Q1 (>W) giving a t her mal advant age.
For heat t o flow fr om a cooler t o a hot t er body, W cannot be zer o, and hence, t he COP (bot h for r efriger at or and
heat pump) cannot be infinit y. Ther efor e
W > 0,
and COP < .
 Thermal Engineering 8.11

Carnot Cycle
Car not cycle is an ideal cycle in which all t he pr ocesses const it ut ing a r ever sible cycle.
1 2
T1

T2
4 3
s
(a)
(i ) Reversible isothermal process (1-2) in which heat Q1 ent er s t he syst em at t emper at ur e T 1 r ever sibly fr om
a const ant t emper at ur e at T 1. The int er nal ener gy of t he syst em incr eases.
(ii ) Reversible adiabatic process (2-3) in which wor k W E is done by t he syst em adiabat ically and r ever sibly at
t h e ex pen se of i t s i n t er n al en er gy an d t h e t em per at u r e of t h e sy st em decr eases f r om
T 1 t o T 2, t he int er nal ener gy decr eases dur ing t his pr ocess.
( iii ) Rever si bl e i sot her mal pr ocess (3-4)-i n wh i ch h eat Q 2 i s r ej ect ed at con st an t t em per at u r e.
I n t his pr ocess t he int er nal ener gy of t he syst em fur t her decr eases.
( iv) Rever sible adiabat ics pr ocess (4-1) i n whi ch wor k W P i s done upon t he syst em r ever si bl y and
adiabat ically and t he int er nal ener gy of t he syst em incr eases, and t he t emper at ur e r ises fr om T 2 t o T 1.
Carnot H eat E ngine
Source at Temp T1
Q1
Heat 2
Exchanger T1
1
Turbine WT

Wp Pump Heat
Exchanger T2
4 3
Q2
Sink at Temp T2

A cyclic heat engine oper at ing on t he car not cycle is called a carnot heat engine. The car not cycle is shown in
t he figur e. The heat Q1 is t r ansfer r ed t o t he syst em r ever sibly and isot her mally at T 1 in t he heat exchanger. The
wor k is done by t he syst em r ever sibly and adiabat ically in t he t ur bine, t hen heat Q2 is t r ansfer r ed fr om t he
syst em r ever sibly and isot her mally at t emper at ur e T 2 in t he heat exchanger, and W P is done upon t he syst em
r ever sibly and adiabat ically by t he pump.
Reser ved H eat E ngine
Since all t he pr ocesses ar e r ever sible in t he car not heat engine, it is possible t o imagine t hat t he pr ocesses ar e
individually r ever sed and car r ied out in t he r ever sed or der

Source at t1 Source at t1

W W

Sink at t2 Sink at t2

(a) Carnot heat Engine (b) Reversed heat engine

The heat pump and r efr iger at or ar e applied t o t he r ever sed heat engine.
8.12 Thermal Engineering

Actual Brayton Cycle with I ntercooling Reheat and I ntercooling

1-2'-3'-4'-6-7'-8-9'10' shows t he such a act ual cycle as shown in t he figur e.
(h6  h7 ')  (h8  h9 ' )  (h2 'h1 )  (h4 ' h3 )
Act ual t her mal efficiency, t ha =
(h6  h5 ' )  (h8  h7 ')
(T6  T7 ' )  (T8  T2 ')  (T9 'T1 )  (T4 'T3 )
=
(T6  T5 ')  (T8  T7 ' )
I mprovent in efficiency and output of simple cycle
Addition to simple cycle E ffect on efficiency Effect on output
1. Regener at ion + 50% N il
2. I nt er cooling – 6.5% + 10.2%
3. Reheat – 10.4% + 24.5%
4. Reheat + Regener at ion 66.7% + 24.0%
5. I nt er cooling + Regener at ion 68% + 10.2%
6. Reheat + I nt er cooling – 18.2% + 34.7%
7. Reheat + I nt er cooling Regener at ion + 80% 34.7%

I C EN GI N E
1. Air Standard Cycle
1. Wor king subst ance is air
2. Cycles ar e mat hemat ical models
3. Used in I .C. Engine and Gast ur bine
Assumption
1. I t follows t he law pV = m RT
2. The physical const ant s of t he wor king medium ar e t he same as of air at st andar d ambient i.e.,
molecular weight = 29, Cp = 1.005, Cv = 0.718 and r = 1.4
3. Const ant specific heat s Cp and Cv does not t hr ough out t he cycle.
4. The wor king medium does not under go any chemical change t hr ough out t he cycle.
5. Compr esion and expansion pr ocesses ar e r ever sible adiabat ic i.e., t her e is no gain and loss of ent r opy.
6. The oper at ion of engine is fr ict ionless.
7. The K .E and P.E of t he wor king fluid air negligible.
Air Standard Cycle Parameters
1. Air st andar d Efficiency (or Ther mal Efficiency)
W Net W.D
t h = =
H .S H eat supplied t o t he syst em
2. Specific Wor k done (or wor k t r ansfer )
I t is t he W.D per unit mass of wor king subst ance i .e., size of plant needed t o per for m t he t ask (or job)
W W.D
w = = wher e W.D is wor k done
m mass
3. Specific Air consumpt ion
m mass
I t is t he r ever se of specific W.D = =
W W.D
4. Wor k r at io (r w )
Net W.D in t he cycle
rw =
 veW.D in a cycle
N ote: I deal cycle have high t h , wigh w and high r w .
 Thermal Engineering 8.13
Cycles
1. Ot t o cycle (const ant volume cycle) (used for Pet r ol engine or Gas Engine)
2. Diesel cycle (const ant pr essur e cycle) (used for slow speed Diesel Engine)
3. Dual cycle (mixed or limit ed pr essur e cycles) (used for high speed disel engine) Dual combust ion cycle
4. Br ayt on cycle (Jouble cycle) (used for gas t asbine plant s)
2. Otto Cycle
A ver y common t ype of int er nal combust ion engine is t he spar k ignit ion used in aut omobile. The ot t o cycle is
t he air st andar d cycle of such an engine.
3
3
WE WE
Pv r =C C
Q
1 V=
Q
1
T

T
2
4 Wc 4
2 V =C
Q
2
Wc 1 1 Q
2
v S
L et m be t he fixed mass of air under going t he cycle of oper at ions
H eat supplied, Q1 = Q2 – 3 = m cv (T 3 – T 2)
H eat r eject ed, Q2 = Q4 – 1 = m cv (T 4 – T 1)

Efficiency, = 1 –
FG V IJ
2
 1
or ot t o = 1 –
1
HV K
1 rk   1
wher e r k = compr ession r at io and given by
Volume at t he beginning of compression V
rk = = 1
Volume at t he end of compression V2
Efficiency of the air standard Otto cycle is thus a function of compr ession r atio only. The higher the compr ession
r at io, t he higher t he efficiency.
3. Diesel Cycle
I t consist of t wo r ever sible adibat ics one r ever sible isobar i.e. const ant pr essur e and one r ever sible isochor e,
i.e. const ant -volume pr ocess. Air is compr essed in pr ocess 1-2. H eat is t hen added t o it fr om an ext er nal
sour ce at const ant pr essur e pr ocess (2-3). Air expends in pr ocess (3-4). Then heat is r eject ed at const ant
volume in pr ocess (4-1) and cycle r epeat s it self.
Q
1
2 3 3

WE
Wc WE Q
1 p=C
r
PV =C
P

2
r
PV =C 4 Wc
4
Q V =C
2
1 1 Q
2
v s
(a) (b)
Consider m kg of air in t he cylinder.
H eat supplied, Q1 = Q2 – 3 = m cp (T 3 – T 2)
H eat r eject ed, Q2 = Q4 – 1 = m cv (T 4 – T 1)

Efficiency,  = 1 –
Q2
=1–
m cv T4  T1
=1–
b T4  T1 g
Q1 m c p T3  T2 b T3  T2 g b g
8.14 Thermal Engineering
Efficiency may be expr essed in t er ms of any t wo of t he following t hr ee r at ios.
V1
Compr ession r at io, rk =
V2
V4
Expansion r at io, r e =
V3
V3
Cut -off r at io, r c =
V2
We know, r k = re · rc
1 1 rc   1
Diesel = 1 – · ·
 rk   1 rc  1

1 F r  1I

Since r c > 1, t her efor e
 GH r  1 JK
c

c
>1

Ther efor e, efficiency of t he Diesel cycle is less t han t hat of t he Ot t o cycle for t he same compr essi on r at io.
4. Limited Pr essur e Cycle, M ixed Cycle or Dual Cycle
H eat is added r ever sibly par tly at const ant volume and par t ly at constant pr essur e. Remaining cycle is same
as diesel cycle.
H eat supplied, Q1 = m cp (T 3 – T 2) + m cp (T 4 – T 3)
H eat r eject ed, Q2 = m cv (T 5 – T 1)

Efficiency,  =1–
Q2
=1–
m cv T5  T1 b g
Q1 b
m cv T3  T2  m c p T4  T3 g b g
T5  T1
=1–
b g b
T3  T2   T4  T3 g

Efficiency of t he cycle can be expr essed in t er ms of t he following r at ios

V1
Compr ession r at io, r k =
V2
V5
Expansion r at io, r e =
V4
V4
Cut -off r at io, rc =
V3
p3
Const ant volume pr essur e r at io, r p =
p2
 rk = rc · re
1 rp  re  1
 Dual = 1 –
b
rk   1 rp  1  rp rc  1 g
 Thermal Engineering 8.15
Q For t he same compr ession r at io and for t he same amount of heat supplied, discuss t he  of Ot t o cycle, diesel
cycle and Dual cycle.
W.D H .S – H .R H .R 3 3
 = = = 1– 3
H .S H .S H .S
1 = T.ds
3
H .S = Ar ea under 2 – 3
T 4
= Ar ea under 2 – 3 2 4
4
= Ar ea under 2 – 3
1– 2– 3– 4– 1  Ot t o cycle v=c
1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1  Diesel cycle 1
1 – 2 – 3 – 3 – 4 – 1  Dual cycle
S
H .S is same in all 3 cycles
And below I f H .R is less, t hen  will be mor e fr om t he cur ve
F rom t he curve
Ot t o cycle – Ar ea under 1 – 4 is heat r eject ion which is less t han ot her cycles. So  of Ot t o cycle will be mor e.
I I nd dual cycle  H .R less t han Diesel cycle but mor e t hen Ot t o cycle
ot t o > Dual > Diesel
I .C. Engine
Engine Compoent s and Basic Engine Nomenclat ur es (Single Cylinder )

Ver t ical E ngine

CYL I NDER
H EAD
SU CTI ON
or EXH AU ST
CL EARAN CE I N L ET VALVE or OU TL ET VALVE
VOL U ME
PI STON
VC
GUDGEON PI N
A OP DEAD CEN TER (TDC)
WRI ST PI N CYL I N DER WAL L
STROVE V B

WATER CONNECTI ON ROD

A
JACK ETS
BDC (Bot tom Dead Cent r e)

Cr ank pine
Cr ank web

M ain bear ings

BAL AN CE
w.f. or count er wt .

Smal l end   Pi st on  Gudgeon pi n or Pi st on

CONN ECTI NG ROD
Bi g End  Cr ank pi n
H or izont al E ngine
ODC
I DC (Out er Dead Cent re)

IV
Cyli nder
head
EOV

I nner Dead Cent r e

(I DC)
8.16 Thermal Engineering

I C Engine Classification
The I C engines can be classified on t he basis of cycle oper at ion in cylinder, t ype of fluid, t ype of ignit ion et c.
1. Basic engine design : Recipr ocat ing engines, Rot ar y engines
2. Wor king cycle : Engine wor king on Ot t o cycle (SI engines), wor king Diesel cycle (C I Engine)
3. No. of st r oke : Two st r oke and four st r oke Engine
4. Fuel : Pet r ol engine; CNG Engine, L PG (L iquefed Pet r oleum Gas) Engine, L DO (light Diesel oil), H SD (H igh
speed Diesel) Engine
5. M et hod of I gnit ion : SI Engine (bat t er y ignit ion), CI Engine (Compr ession I gnit ion)
6. M et hod of Cooling : Wat er cooled and Air cooled Engine
7. Cylinder ar r angement : Ver t ical Engine, H or izont al Engine

FOU R STROKE PETROL EN GI N E

SUCT I ON
Spar k Plug
or
I NL ET VAL U E Out l et val ue
or Exhaust val ve

VC
TDC

VS

BDC
Before st ar t ing cam
Shaft posi t ion and
TOP DEAD CE N TER (TDC)
1. SUCTI ON STROKE
I NL ET valve open (or suct ion value pens)
TDC  BDC, Char ge (Pet r ol and air ) is admit ed and t he car ge is supplied by Car bur et t or.
BDC, Suct ion valve get s closed.
1
REV or 180 r ot at ion of shaft
2
2. COMPRESSI ON STROKE BDC
Bot h t he valve r eamin closed
BDC  TDC. Char ge is being compr esed (compr ession t akes place). Pr essur e and Temp. incr eased char ge
par t ionspr epar s t hemselves for ignit ion.
1
TDC Rev. or 180 r ot at ion.
2
At t he end of t he compr ession st r oke, spar k is at t ained at t he spar k plug and igniat ion occuss.
Ther e is sor t of explosion in t he cylinder.
So it is t he spak ignit ion engine (SI Engine)
3. EXPANSI ON STROK E TDC
Bot h t he valve r emain closed
TDC  BDC,
Gas expands. Wor k is obt ained wor king st r oke or power st r oke
1
BDC Rev. or 180
2
4. EXH AUST STROK E BDC
Exhaust valve opens
BDC  TDC Gases ar e exhaust ed out .
1
TDC Rev. or 180
2
Exhaust value closed.
 Thermal Engineering 8.17

N
I t number of r evolut ions ar e N t hen t he number of cycles will be
2
Range of compr ession r at io r = 6 – 9
r =9 (is pr efer able)
V1 V  Vs V
r = = c  1 s
V2 Vc Vc
F our St r oke Diesel E ngine
FU EL I N JECTOR

I nlet valve Exhaust valve

TDC

Befor e st ar t ing BDC

TDC

1. SUCTI ON STROK E TDC

Suct ion value opens
TDC  BDC, Char ge (pur e air ) sucked in
1
BDC Rev. or 180
2
Suct ion valve closes
2. Compr ession st r oke BDC
Bot h t he value r emain closed
BDC  TDC Pr ocess of campr ession t akes place, pr essur e and t emp. incr eases
1
TDC Rev. or 180 r ot at ion of shaft
2
Range of compr ession r at io, r = 14 t o 22 (M used in ver yt st r ong for ext r a ondir ar y and engine mfg)
I n buses and t r ucks r = 18
At t he end of t he compr ession, Diesel is inject ed int o t he cylinder at a pr essur e higher t han t he pr essur e
insdie t he cylinder. As soon as diesel get s inject ed it ignit es.
I t is t he compr ession ignit ion engine (CI Engine) fuel inject or and fuel inject ion pump is used.

3. Expansion st r oke TDC

Bot h t he valves r emains closed
TDC  BDC Gas expands
Wor k is obt ained wor king st r oke or power st r oke
1
BDC Rev. or 180
2
4. EXH AUST STROK E BDC
Exhaust valve opens
BDC  TDC Gases ar e exhaust ed out
1
TCD Rev. or 180
2
8.18 Thermal Engineering
Exhaust valve closes.
Fuel Consumption
FU EL T EN K Glass t ube

100CC

Amount of fued compr esed in kg/sec

100C.C   gm/c.c
mf = kg/sec
1000  t
wher e  for Pet r ol = 0.72 t o 0.78  0.75
 for Diesel = 0.82 t o 087  0.85
t  t ime in seconds t aken for combiust ion of 100 c.c. fuel
Br ak e D ynamomet er
Fl y wheel
Br ak e dr um

Engi ne

Net balancing for e

Spr ing Br ake dr um side view

balance

weight (tends t o
apply br ake)
W = (w – s) Newt ons effect ive r edius of br eak dr um = r met er s
Br aking Tor que = W  r
Nm
B.P = T  w = T  2N
s
2 N T
Br ake Power, B.P = kW
1000
1. F or Solving t he Pr oblems
2 N T
Br ake Power, B.P = kW
1000
wher e N  r .p.s T  Tor que in kN-m
2. I ndi cat ed Power
Fr om t he I ndicat ed diagr am
I .P = Gr oss Power – Pumping power
L et ar ea of t he diagr am = a cm 2
L engt h of t he diagr am = l cm
Spr ing No. or Pr essur e scale or spr ing st iffinessd in bar /cm = s
 Thermal Engineering 8.19
 I ndicat ed mean effect ive pr essur e (i.m.e.p)
a
or Pmi = s
l
a
wher e = Aver age ht . of t he diagr am
l
Wor k done/sec = for ce  Displacement = (Pmi  A)  L
N
Wor k done/sec = Pmi  A  L  (Four s st r oke)
2
Pmi L AN
I ndicat ed power I p = n
2
Aver age velocit y = L N
n  No. of cylinder s
I p = Pmi L A N n Two st r oke
wher e Pmi  i.m.e.p in k Pa
L  st r oke or lengt h of t he st r oke in m
 2 2
A  Cr oss-sect ional ar ea of t he cylinder = d m
4
d  bor e or dia of t he cylinder
n  No. of cylinder s
3. Brake M ean Effective Pressure (b.m.e.p) = bbi
Pbi  L A N
B.P = (four st r oke)
2
2 BP
B.m.e.p =
L AN
4. Friction Power (F.P)
F.P = I .P – B. P
5. M echanical Efficiency mach
B.P
mech =
I .P
6. I ndicated Thermal Efficiency ( th)
Ener gy equivalent t o B.P
mech =
Energy supplied by fuel
Ener gy supplied by fuel = m f  C.V
m f  M ass of fuel per second
C.V = Calor ipic value or heat ing value in kJ/kg
Ip
i t h =
m f  C.V
7. Brake Thermal Efficiency bth
B.P
b t h =
m f  C.V
8. M echanical Efficiency ( mech)
bt h
mech =
i t h
9. Volumetric Efficiency ( v)
Volumeof air at ambient condit ion
v =
Swept Volume
8.20 Thermal Engineering

Mass of char ge sucked in

=
Mass of charge represent ed by cylinder volume
Va
v =
Vs
10. b.s.f.c (Brake Specific Fuel Consumption)
fuel used in kg/hr m f kg
b.s.f .c = = ·
b. p kw b. p kwn
isfc
mech =
bsfc
m
11. i .s.f .c = f kg/kwh
Ip
12.Fuel – Air (F/A) or Air – Fuel (A/F)Ratio
F mf A ma
= , 
A ma F mf
13. Relative Fuel – Air Ratio ( fr )
Acut al fuel– air r at io
fr =
St oichiomet r ic fuel – air rat ion
14. Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio ( rel )
i th
rel =
air starded
bt h
Br ake r elat ive  =
air star ded
15. Air Supply to Engine by Orifice is Given by
Q = A V m 3/sec
V = Cd 2 gH
wher e A  ar ea of or ifice
Cd  Coeff. of dischar ge of or ifice
H  H ead
Q = A.Cd 2 gH
Weight of t he air supplied = Q.W a
Wa  Weight of one m 3 of air in kg
Two Stroke Petrol Engine
Crown of spark plug
the piston

Transfer EXHAUST PORT

Port INLET PORT

Balance
wt.
crank case

TDC
Suct ion on t he lower side of t he pist on spar k occur s, ignit ion t akes place on t he upper side of t he pist on
 Thermal Engineering 8.21
Expansion
I nlet par t closed pr elimaner y compr ession of t he char ge in t he cr ank case (cr ank case campr ession) Exhaust
por t st ar t s get t ing opended. Tr ansfer par t also st ar t s get ting opened and t he char ge fr om t he cr ank case is being
t r ansfer r ed in t he cylinder on t he upper side of t he pist on.
BDC : Pist on posit ion
Tr ansfer por t – get s closed
Scavanging – wast age of char ge Exhaust por t get s closed
Act ual compr ession in t he cylinder on t he upper side of t he pist on
I nlet por t st ar t s get t ing opened fr om t he lower side of t he pist on
Pist on r eaches TDC
Q. A gas engine is wor king on cor slt Ot t o cycle volume cycle gave t he following r esult s dur ing 1 H our t est r un.
Cylinder diameter = 24 cm
St r oke = 48 cm
Effcet ive dia of t he br ake wheel = 1.25 m
Net load on t he br eak = 1236 N
Aver age speed = 226 r pm
Aver age explosions/ min = 77
m.e.p = 73.57 N/cm 2
Super Gas used = 13 m 3 at 15C and 771 min of H g
C.V of t he gas = 16727 kj/m3
Cooling wat er based, mw = 625 kg
I nlet t emp of t he wat er Twi = 25C
Out let = Two
D et er mine
mech ,i t h = ? and H eat balance
26 1.25
2   1236 
B.P = 2N T = 60 2 kw = 18.25W
1000
236
Explosion = 77 but t heor t ically = = 113
2
 113 – 77 = 36 explsions ar e missed
36  2 = 72 cycles ar e missed
N
I p = Pm L A
2
N = Number of cycles ar e excut ed/second

REFRI GERATI ON AN D PSYCH ROM ETRY

Refr i ger at ion Cycl es
Refr iger at ion by N on-cycl ic Pr ocesses
Refr iger at ion is t he cooling of a syst em below t he t emper at ur e of it s sur r oundings.

Anot her medium of r efr iger at ion is solid car bon dioxide or dr y ice. At at mospher ic pr essur e CO2 cannot exist
in a liquid st at e, and consequent ly, when solid CO2 is exposed t o at mospher e, it sublimat es, i.e. it goes dir ect ly
fr om solid t o vapour, by absor bing t he lat ent heat of sublimat ion (620 kJ/kg at 1 at m., – 78.5C) fr om t he
sur r oundings. Thus dr y ice is suit able for low t emper at ur e r efr iger at ion.
8.22 Thermal Engineering

REVERSED H EAT EN GI N E CYCLE

A r ever sed heat engine cycle, is visualised as an engine oper at ing in t he r ever se way, i.e. r eceiving heat fr om a
low t emper at ur e r egion, dischar ging heat t o a high t emper at ur e r egion, and r eceiving a net inflow of wor k.
Under such condit ions t he cycle is called heat pump cycle or r efr iger at ion cycle.
Q1 Q1
For a heat pump, (COP)H.P. = =–
W Q1  Q 2
Q2 Q2
For a r efr iger at or, (COP)ref. = =
W Q1  Q 2
H er e, Q1 = T 1 (s2 – s3)
Q2 = T 2 (s1 – s4)
 W net = W C – W E = Q1 – Q2 = (T 1 – T 2) (s1 – s4)
wher e T 1 = t emper at ur e of heat r eject ion,
T 2 = t emper at ur e of heat absor pt ion.
Q2 T2
(COPref.)rev. = =
Wnet T1  T2
Q1 T1
and (COPH.P.)rev. = =
Wnet T1  T2
VAPOU R COM PRE SSI ON REFRI GERATI ON CYCLE
I n an act ual vapour r efr iger at ion cycle, an expansion engine, as shown in t he figur e is not used, si nce power
r ecover y is small and does not just ify t he cost of engine. A t hr ot t ling valve or a capillar y t ube is used for
expansion in r educing t he pr essur e fr om p1 t o p2.
Q1
2

3 Condenser p1

p2 WC
Expansion Compressor
valve 1
4
Evaporater Q2
Oper at ions Repr esent ed for an I dealized Plant
The basic oper at ions involved in a vapour compr ession r efr iger at ion plant ar e shown in t he flow diagr am, and
t he pr oper t y diagr ams.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

F ig. Vapour compression refr iger at ion cycle proper ty diagr ams
(i ) Compression : A r ever sible adiabat ic pr ocess 1-2 or 1 - 2 eit her st ar t ing wit h sat ur at ed vapour (st at e 1),
called dr y compr ession , or st ar t ing wit h wet vapour (st at e 1), called wet compr ession. Dr y compr ession
(1-2) is always pr efer r ed t o wet compr ession (1- 2), because wit h wet compr ession t her e is a danger of t he
liquid r efr iger ant being t r apped in t he head of t he cylinder by t he r ising pist on which may damage t he
valves or t he cylinder head, and t he dr oplet s of liquid r efr iger ant may wash away t he lubr icat ing oil fr om
t he walls of t he cylinder, t hus acceler at ing wear.
 Thermal Engineering 8.23
(ii ) Cooling and Condensing : A r ever sible const ant pr essur e pr ocess, 2-3, fir st desuper heat ed and t hen
condensed, ending wit h sat ur at ed liquid. H eat Q1 is t r ansfer r ed out .
( iii ) Expansion : An adiabat ic t hr ot t ling pr ocess 3-4, for which ent halpy r emains unchanged. St at es 3 and 4
ar e equilibr ium point s. Pr ocess 3-4 is adiabat ic (t hen only h 3 = h 4), but not isent r opic.

z vdp
p2
T ds = dh – vdp or s4 – s3 = –
p1 T
H ence it is ir r ever sible and cannot be shown in pr oper t y diagr ams. St at es 3 and 4 have simply been joined
by a dot t ed line.
( iv) Evaporation : A const ant pr essur e r ever sible pr ocess, 4-1, which complet es t he cycle. The r efr iger ant is
t hr ot t led by t he expansion valve t o a pr essur e, t he sat ur at ion t emper at ur e at t his pr essur e being below
t he t emper at ur e of t he sur r oundings. H eat t hen flows, by vir t ue of t emper at ur e differ ence, fr om t he
sur r oundings, which get s cooled or r efr iger at ed, t o t he r efr iger ant , which t hen evapor at es, absor bing heat
of evapor at ion. The evapor at or t hus pr oduces cooling or r efr iger at ing effect , absor bing heat Q2 fr om t he
sur r oundings by evapor at ion.
I n r efr iger at ion pr act ice, ent halpy is t he most sought -aft er pr oper t y. The diagr am in p-h coor dinat es is
found t o be t he most convenient .
When st eady st at e has been r eached, for 1 kg flow of r efr iger ant t hr ough t he cycle, t he st eady flow ener gy
equat ions (neglect ing kinet ic and pot ent ial ener gy and P.E. changes) may be wr it t en for each of t he component s
in t he cycle as given below.
For compr essor, h 1 + Wc = h2
 Wc = (h 2 – h 1) kJ/kg
For condenser, h 2 = Q1 + h 3
 Q1 = (h 2 – h 3) kJ/kg
For expansion valve, h3 = h4
or (h f)p1 = (h f )p2 + x 4 (h fg)p2

d h i  dh i
f p1 f p2
x4 =

dh i fg p 2

This is quality of the r efr iger ant at t he inlet to t he evapor at or (mass fr action of vapour in liquid-vapour mixtur e).
For evapor at or, h 4 + Q2 = h 1
 W 2 = (h 1 – h 4) kJ/kg
This is called refrigerating effect. I t is t he amount of heat r emoved fr om t he sur r oundings per unit mass flow
of r efr iger ant .
I f p-h char t for a par t icular r efr iger ant is available wit h t he given par amet er s, it is possible t o obt ain fr om t he
char t t he values of ent halpy at all t he car dinal point s of t he cycle. Then for t he cycle
Q2
COP =
Wc
h1  h4
=
h2  h1
If m
 is mass flow of r efr iger ant in kg/sec, t hen
 (h 1 – h 4) kJ/sec = m (h 1 – h 4)  3600 kJ/hr
r at e of heat r emoval fr om t he sur r oundings = m
One Tonne of Refrigeration
I t is defined as t he r at e of heat r emoval fr om t he sur r oundings equivalent t o t he heat r equir ed for melt ing 1
t onne of ice in one day.
I f lat ent heat of fusion of ice is t aken as 336 kJ/kg, t hen 1 t onne is equivalent t o heat r emoval at t he r at e of
1000  336
or 14,000 kJ/hr..
24
8.24 Thermal Engineering

 Capacit y of t he r efr iger at ing plant =

m b g
 h1  h4  3600
t onnes
14,000
Rat e of heat r emoval in t he condenser, Q1 = m (h 2 – h 3) kJ/s
I f condenser is wat er -cooled, m c t he flow-r at e of cooling wat er in kg/s, and (t c2 – t c1) t he r ise in t emper at ur e of
wat er, t hen
Q1 = m (h 2 – h 3) = m c (t c2 – t c1) kJ/s
pr ovided heat t r ansfer is confined only bet ween r efr iger ant and wat er, and t her e is no heat int er act ion wit h t he
sur r oundings.
Rat e of wor k input t o t he compr essor,
Wc = m (h 2 – h 1) kJ/s = m (h 2 – h 1) kW
wher e h 1 and h 2 ar e in kJ/kg.

Actual Vapour Compression Cycle

I n or der to ascer tain that ther e is no droplet of liquid r efr iger ant
being car r ied over int o t he compr essor, some super heat ing of
vapour is r ecommended aft er t he evapor at or.
A small degr ee of subcooling of t he liquid r efr iger ant aft er t he
condenser is also used t o r educe t he mass of vapour for med
dur ing expansion, so t hat t oo many vapour bubbles do not
impede t he flow of liquid r efr iger ant t hr ough t he expansion
valve.
B ot h su per h eat i n g of vapou r at t h e evapor at or ou t l et an d su bcool i n g of l i qu i d at t h e con den ser
out l et cont r i but e t o an i ncr ease i n t he r efr i ger at i ng effect , as shown i n t he fi gur e. The compr essor
di schar ge t emper at ur e, however, i ncr eases due t o super heat , fr om t ' 2 t o t 2, and l oad on t he condenser
also incr eases.
Somet imes, a liquid-line heat exchanger is used in t he plant , as shown in t he figur e. The liquid is subcooled in
t he heat exchanger, r educing t he load on t he condenser and impr oving t he COP.
For 1 kg flow, Q2 = h 6 – h 5, Q1 = h 2 – h 3
Wc = h 2 – h 1 and h 1 – h 6 = h 3 – h 4

O
4 3 2
P

5 G1
h

(a) (b)
F ig. Vapour compression cycle wit h a suction-line heat exchanger.

Volumet ric E fficiency of Compressor

I n r efr iger ant compr essor s which may be single cylinder or mult i cylinder, due t o clear ance, leakage past t he
pist on and valves t he t hr ot t ling effect s at t he suct ion and dischar ge valve, t he act ual volume of gas dr awn int o
t he cylinder is less t han t he volume displaced by t he pist on, t he r at io of t hese t wo is called volumet ir c efficiency .
Act ual volume of gas drawn at evaporat or pressur e and t emper at ur e
vol =
Pist on displacement volume
mv1
=
 2 N
D L n
4 60
 Thermal Engineering 8.25
wher e m = r efr iger ant mass flow r at e
D and L = diamet er and st r oke of compr essor
n = number of cylinder s
N = r.p.m.

AI R CON DI TI ON I N G
Air condit ioning means t he aut omat ic cont r ol of an at omospher ic envir onment eit her for comfor t of human
beings or animals or for t he pr oper per for mance of some indust r ial or scient ific pr ocess. The pur pose of air
conditioning is to supply sufficient volume of clean air cont aining a specific amount amount of water vapour and
at a t emper at ur e capable of maint aini ng pr edet er mi ned at mospher ic condit ions. The space may be small
compar t ment such as r esear ch t est cabinet or a cinema hall.
Classificat ion of Air Condit ioning
The air condit ioning syst ems ar e br oadly classified int o t wo gr oup :
(1) Comfor t air condit ioning
The comfor t air condit ioning syst ems ar e fur t her subdivided int o t hr ee gr oups.
( i ) Summer air conditioning : I t is used t o r educe t he sensible heat and wat er vapour cont ent of t he air
by cooling and dehumidifying.
(ii) Winter air conditioning : I t is used t o incr ease t he sensible heat and wat er vapour cont ent of t he air
by heat ing and humdification.
( iii )Year-round air conditioning : This syst em assur es t he cont r ol of t emper at ur e and humidit y of air in
an enclosed space t hr ought t he year when t he at omospher ic condit ions ar e changing as per t he season.
(2) I ndust r ial air condit ioning
Pr oper t iesof M oist Air
Dr y Air
Dr y air is the mechanical mixtur e of gases like, oxygen, nitr ogen, car bondioxide, hydr ogen, ar gon, neon, kr ypton,
helium, ozone and xenon. H owever O2 and H 2 make up t he major par t of t he combinat ion. Dr y air consist of 21%
O2 and 79% N 2 by volume and 23% O2 and 77% N 2 by mass.
M oist Air
I t is a mixt ur e of dr y air and wat er vapour. The quant it y of wat er vapour pr esent i n t he ai r depends upon
t emper at ur e of t he air and it s quant it y may change fr om zer o t o maximum.
Wat er Vapour
The wat er vapour pr esent in air is called moist ur e and it s quant it y in air is an impor t ant fact or in all air -
condit ioning syst ems.
The mixt ur e of air and wat er vapour at a given t emper at ur e is said t o be sat ur at ed when it cont ains maximum
amount of wat er vapour t hat it can hold. I f t emper at ur e of mixt ur e of air and wat er vapour is above t he
sat ur at ion t emper at ur e of t he wat er vapour, t he vapour is called super heat ed vapour .
D r y-bul b Temper at ur e
The t emper at ur e of air measur ed by or dinar y t her momet er called dr y-bulb-t emper at ur e.
Wet -bul b Temper at ur e
The t emper at ur e measur ed by t he t her momet er when it s bulb is cover ed wit h wet clot h and is exposed t o a
cur r ent of moving air is called wet bulb temperat ur e. The differ ence between dr y-bulb and wet-bulb temper atur e
is called wet -bulb-depr ession . Wet bulb depr ession becomes zer o when t he air is fully sat ur at ed.
D ew-bul b Temper at ur e
The temper atur e of the air is r educed by continuous cooling than the water vapour in the air will star t condensing
at a par t icular t emper at ur e. The t emper at ur e at which t he condensing st ar t s is called dew-point t emper at ur e.
Dew point t emper at ur e is equal t o t he st eam t able sat ur at ion t emper at ur e cor r esponding t o t he act ual par t ial
pr essur e of the water vapour in the air. The differ ence between dr y bulb-t emper atur e and dew-point temper at ur e
is called dew-point depr ession .
Specific H umidit y (H umidit y Rat io)
I t is t he mass of wat er vapour pr esent per kg of dr y air. I t is given in gr ams per kg of dr y air.
Absol ut e H umi dit y
The weight of wat er vapour pr esent in unit volume of air is called absolut e humidit y .
8.26 Thermal Engineering
Degree of Saturation
I t is defined as t he r at io of mass of wat er vapour associat ed which unit mass of dr y air t o mass of wat er vapour
associat ed wit h unit mass of dr y air sat ur at ed at t he same t er mper at ur e.
Relative H umidity
I t is defined as t he r at io of act ual mass of wat er vapour in a given volume t o t he mass of wat er vapour if t he air
is sat ur at ed at t he same t emper at ur e.
Sensible H eat of Air
The quant it y of heat which can be measur ed by measur ing t he dr y bulb temper at ur e of t he air is called sensible
heat .
Total H eat
The t ot al heat of t he himid air is t he sum of t he sensible heat of the dr y air and sensible and lat ent heat of wat er
vapour associat ed wit h dr y air.
H umid Specific Volume
The volume of the mixture per kg of dry air in the mixture, expressed in cubic metres, is called humid specific volume.
D alton’s Law of Partial Pressure
I t st at es t hat , t ot al pr essur e of a mixt ur e of gases is equal t o sum of t he par t ial pr essur es exer t ed by each gas
when it occupies t he mixt ur e volume at t he mixt ur e t emper at ur e.
As per t he Dalt on’s law of par t ial pr essur e
pt = pa + pb + pc
I f t his is applied t o t he moist air which cont ains dr y air and wat er vapour, t hen
pt = pa + pv
wher e, pt = t ot al pr essur e of moist air
pa = par t ial pr essur e of dr y air
pv = par t ial pr essur e of wat er vapour
Specific H umidit y (w)
mass of wat er vapour in mixt ure mv
w = =
massof dr y air in mixt ur e ma
M ass of t he mixt ur e is (m a + m v).
pa V
H er e, ma =
R aT
wher e, pa = par t ial pr essur e of dr y air
V = volume of mixt ur e
Ra = gas const ant for dr y air
pv V
and mv =
RvT
wher e, pv = par t ial pr essur e of wat er vapour
Rv = gas const ant for wat er vapour.
pv V R a T R a pv
 w =   
R v T pa V R v pa

R R
But Ra = and Rv =
Ma Mv

wher e R = univer sal gas const ant

M a and M v = molecular weight s of air and wat er vapour r espect ively
M v pv 18 pv p pv
 w =     0.622 v  0.622 ....(i)
M a pa 29 pa pa pt  pv
M asses of air and wat er vapour in t er ms of specific volumes ar e given by
V V
ma = and mv 
va vv
 Thermal Engineering 8.27
wher e v a and v v ar e specific volumes of dr y air and wat er vapour at t he given mixt ur e t emper at ur e and at
r espect ive par t ial pr essur e.
va
 w =
vv
D egr ee of Sat ur at ion ( )
mass of wat er vapour associat ed wit h unit massof dr y air w
= 
massof wat er vapour associat ed wit h sat urat ed unit massof dr y air ws
wher e, w s = specific humidit y of air when air is fully sat ur at ed.
0.622
FGpv IJ LM
p
1  vs
OP
 =
H
pt  pv K
 v
FG
p pt  pvs IJp
 v MM
pt
PP

0.622
FG pvs IJp vs pHt  p v K
p p
MN
vs 1  v
PQ
H
pt  pvs K pt
wher e, pvs = par t ial pr essur e of wat er vapour when air is fully sat ur at ed at t he same t emper at ur e of air.
Relat ive H umidit y (  )
Relative humidity can be defined as the r atio of partial pr essur e of water vapour in a given volume of mixtur e to the
partial pressure of water vapour when same volume of mixture is saturated at the same temperatur e.
pv V
massof wat er vapour in a given volume m R T p
= =  v  v
massof wat er vapour in samevolumeif sat ur at ed at t hesamet emperat ure mvs pvsV pvs
RvT

 =
p
1  (1   ) vs
pt
When pvs << pt 
Relat ive humidit y plays mor e impor t ant par t in comfor t air condit ioning and indust r ial air -condit ioning t han
specific humidit y. Relat ive humidit y signifies t he absor pt ion capacit y of t he air. M or e moist ur e will be absor bed
by t he air if t he init ial r elat ive humidit y of t he air is less.
pa w 1 p
=   1.6 w  a
0.622 pvs pvs
Enthalpy of M oist Air
I t is sum of t he ent halpy of dr y air and ent halpy of t he wat er vapour assciat ed wit h dr y air.
 Ent halpy of moist air = ent halpy of one kg of dr y air
+ ent halpy of wat er vapour associat ed wit h one kg of dr y air
or h = 1.005 T db + w [2500 + 1.88 T db] kJ/kg of dr y air
or h = (1 + 1.88 w ) T db + w [(h fg)dp + 2.3 T dp]
= (1 + 1.88 w ) T db + w [(h fg)dp+ 2.3 T dp] =Cpma × T db + w [(h fg)dp + 2.3 T dp]
wher e Cpma is called mean humid specific heat of air .
As 1.88 w << 1, t her efor e value of Cpma is always t aken as 1.0216 kJ/kg of dr y air -K for all pr act ical pur poses in
air -condit ioning calculations
 h = 2.0216 t db + w [(h fg)dp] + 2.3 T dp]

AI R COM PRE SSORS

Air compr essor s ar e used for supplying high-pr essur e air. Ther e ar e many uses of high-pr essur e air i n t he
indust r y. The main uses of high-pr essur e (compr essed) air ar e :
 t o dr ive compr essed air engines (air mot or s) used in coal mines,
 t o inject or spr ay fuel int o t he cylinder of a Diesel engine (air inject ion Diesel engine),
 t o oper at e dr ills, hammer s, air br akes for locomot ives and r ailway car nages, wat er pumps and paint spr ays,
 t o st ar t lar ge (heavy) Diesel engines,
 t o clean wor kshop machines, gener at or s, aut omobile vehicles, et c.,
 t o oper at e blast fur naces, gas t ur bine plant s, Bessemer conver t or s used in st eel plant s, et c.,
 t o cool lar ge buildings and air cr aft s, and
 t o super char ge I .C. engines.
 8.28 Thermal Engineering
Ther e ar e mainly t wo t ypes of air compr essor s viz. r ecipr ocat ing air compr essor s and r ot ar y air compr essor s.
Recipr ocat ing air compr essor s ar e similar t o r ecipr ocat ing engines wher e a piston r ecipr ocat es inside a cylinder.
I n r ot ar y air compr essor s, air is compr essed due t o r ot ation of impeller or blades inside a casing. Air compr essor s
ar e dr iven by engines or elect r ic mot or s.
Reci pr ocat ing Ai r Compr essor
The r ecipr ocat ing air compr essor may be single-act ing (air is admit t ed t o one side of t he pist on only) or double-
act ing (air is admit t ed t o each side of t he pist on alt er nat ively), and may be single-st age or mult i-st age. Single-
st age compr essor s ar e used for deliver y pr essur es upt o 10 bar, t hr ee-st age compr essor s for pr essur e upt o 200
bar and t wo-stage compr essor s for pr essur es in bet ween 10 to 200 bar. The aver age piston speed of a r ecipr ocating
air compr essor is limit ed t o about 300 t o 400 met r es per minut e t o r educe fr ict ion wear.
Compressed air
di schar ge t o r ecei ver 3 2
P2

Pi st on dri ven

Pr essur e
fr om ext ernal
source P v n = const ant

Pi st on
1
P1
V2
0
a b
Ai r inl et V1
Volume
Single-stage air compressor without clearance.
Single-St age Air Compr essor
I ndicator Diagram: The event s descr i bed above can be convenient l y r epr esent ed by P-V di agr am shown
above figur e. The diagr am is dr awn for a compr essor wit hout clear ance.
line 4-1- suct ion st r oke
line 1-2- compr ession st r oke
line 2-3- deliver y of t he compr essed air
The net wor k r equir ed for compr ession and deliver y of t he air per cycle is r epr esent ed by t he ar ea 1-2 -3 -4.
Deliver y
3 2
P2 3 2 2 2
P2
n
Act ual cur ve PV . C

Compr ession I sot her mal curve

cur ve
I sot r opi c cur ve
Pressur e

Pr essur e

Suct i on P1 1
P1 4
4

0 0 volume
Volume
The amount of wor k done on t he air will depend upon t he nat ur e of t he compr ession cur ve. I f t he compr ession
occur s ver y r apidly in a non-conduct ing cylinder so t hat t her e is no heat t r ansfer, t he compr ession will be
pr act ically isent r opic. I f it is car r ied out slowly so t hat t he heat of t he compr ession is ext r act ed fr om t he air by
t he jacket cooling wat er, t he compr ession will appr oach isot her mal. H owever, in act ual pr act ice neit her of t hese
condit ions can be fulfilled and t he act ual compr ession will be bet ween isent r opic and isot her mal as shown in
figur e.
Let pressure P1 is in N/m 2 and volume v 1 is in m 3 r epr esent init ial condit ion of t he air befor e compr ession. I f t he
compr ession is polyt r opic
I ndicat ed Wor k r equi r ed t o be done on t he ai r W, per cycle assuming compr ession cur ve t o be polyt r opic
PV n = C, is given by ar ea 1-2-3-4 of indicat or diagr am.
P v  P1v1
W = p2 V2  2 2  P1v1
n 1
 Thermal Engineering 8.29
n
W=  P v  P1v1  by ideal gas r elat ion we get
n 1 2 2
n
W= m R  T2  T1 
n 1
n  P2v2 
W = n  1 P1v1  P v  1 
 1 1 
1

v2  P2  n
But for polyt r opic compr ession P1v 1n = P2v 2n . H ence  
v1  P1 
Wor k r equir ed per cycle (or per r evolut ion, if compr essor is single-act ing),
1
  
n  P   P  n
W= P v       1
 2 2
n  1 1 1   P1   P1  

 
n 1
 
n  P2  n
W P1v1     1  Joule per cycle

n 1   P1  
 
Th i s equ at i on gi ves t he wor k r equi r ed i n Joul es per cycl e (or per r evol u t i on, i f t h e com pr essor i s
single-act ing) in compr essing and deliver ing t he air.

W N
I ndicat ed power of t he compr essor = J /s or Wat t
60
wher e W = wor k r equir ed in Joules per cycle, and
N – No. of cycles per for med per minut e ( r.p.m.) for single-act ing compr essor,
if p1v 1 in above equat ion is subst it ut ed by mRT 1, t hen wor k r equir ed per cycle,
n 1
 
n  P2  n
m RT1    1 

W = n 1  P  Joule per cycle
 1  
 
Wor k r equir ed per kg of air,
n 1
 
n  P  n
W= RT    1  Joule per cycle
 2
n  1 1   P1  

 
I ndicat ed power of t he compr essor = W × mass of air deliver ed per second J/sec. or Wat t B. I f t he compr ession is
isent r opic.
1
 
  P2  
W= P1v1    1  Joule per cycle

 1  P
 1 


 
Wor k r equir ed per kg of air,
1
 
  P2  
W= RT1    1  Joule per cycle

 1  P
 1 


 
I f t he compr ession is isot her mal (pv = C), t hen wor k r equir ed
W = ar ea under 1-2-3-4
v 
W = P1v1 log e  1   P2v2  P1v1
 v2 
v 
W = P1v1 log e  1 
 v2 
8.30 Thermal Engineering

P 
W = P1v1 log e  2  Joule per cycle
 P1 
Wor k r equir ed per kg of air
P 
W = RT1 l og e  2  Joule per cycle
 P1 
Work I nput to the Compressor with Clearance Volume
3 2
P2
Expansion Compression
n
n pV = const ant
pV = constant

P1
4 1 I nt ake pr essur e
(V 1 – V 4)
Fr ee ai r del iver y

Vc Swept volume
Vr = V1 – V3
Fr om indicat or diagr am shown in figur e.
W I nput = W compr ession (W c) – W expansion (W e)
n 1
 
n  P  n
Wc = P v    1
 2
n  1 1 1   P1  

 
n
We =  P v  P41v4 
n 1 3 3
n  P3v3 
W e = n  1 P4 v4  P v  1 
 4 4 
As P3v 3n = P4v 4n
1/ n 1/ n 1 / n
v3 p  p  p 
=  4  1  2
v4  p3   p2   p1 
n 1
 
n  P2  n
P1v4    1 

We = n  1  P 
 1  
 
W I nput = W c – W e
n 1
 
n  P  n
W I nput = P v  v     1
 2
n  1 1 1 4   P1  

 
n 1
 
n  P2  n
W I nput = P1vactual    1 

n 1  P
 1 


 
N ote : Clear ance volume does not affect t he wor k input .
M ulti-stage Air Compressor
H igh Pr essur e r equir ed by Single – St age:
1. Requir es heavy wor king par t s.
2. H as t o accommodat e high pr essur e r at ios.
3. I ncr eased balancing pr oblems.
4. H igh Tor que fluct uat ions.
5. Requir es heavy Flywheel inst allat ions.
 Thermal Engineering 8.31
This demands for M ult i-st aging.
L.P. = L ow Pr essur e
I nter cooler I .P. = I nt er mediate
Air Del iver y Pr essure
H .P. = H igh Pr essur e
L.P. I .P. H .P.
I n t er c o o l er :
Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder
Compr essed ai r is c o o l ed
bet ween cyl inder s.

I nt er cooler
Air I nt ak e
A mult i-st age air compr essor wit h int er cooler is shown in fig.. Ser ies ar r angement of cylinder s, in which t he
compressed air from earlier cylinder (i.e. discharge) becomes the intake air for the next cylinder (i.e. inlet ).
When cooling is per fect , i.e., when air is cooled t o int ake t emper at ur e in t he int er cooler (T1 = T2), t he point
2 will lie on t he isot her mal line 1 - 3" as shown in fig.. I t may be not ed t hat each st age will incr ease t he
pr essur e of air while t he int ake t emper at ur e T1 (cor r esponding t o point 1) is maint ained same at t he end.
The isot her mal line dur ing t he pr ocess has been appr oximat ed as shown by t he diagr am, and t he shaded ar ea
2-3-3’-2’ shows t he saving of wor k as a r esult of t his appr oximat ed isot her mal.
P
33 3
P3
Saving i n wor k
due t o i nt er cooli ng
Pr essur e

n
PV = C

P2 2
2
I sot hermal

P1 1

0 V
Volume
Combined ideal indicator diagram of two-stage compression with perfect-intercooling.
Per fect -i nt er cool i ng
I f int er cooling is per fect or complet e, t he point 2 will lie on t he isot her mal line, i.e., point 2 will coincide wit h
point 2", t hen P1V 1 = P2V 2.
n 1 n 1
 
n   P2  n  P3  n 
Tot al wor k r equir ed per cycle, W= P v 2
 Joule per cycle
     
n  1 1 1  P1  P
 2
 

W N
I ndicat ed power of t he compr essor = J/s or Wat t
60
I f P1v 1 in above eqn. is subst it ut ed by mRT 1, t hen wor k r equir ed per kg of air may be wr it t en as
n 1 n 1
 
n  P2  n  P3  n
W = RT1       2 Joule per cycle

n 1  P
 P2 

 1  
I ndicat ed power of t he compr essor = W  mass of air deliver ed per second J/sec. or Wat t
H eat r eject ed t o int er cooler per min.
Q = mk p(T 2 – T 2) kJ
wher e, m = mass of air compr essed per minut e,
k p = specific heat of air at const ant pr essur e,
T 2 = t emper at ur e of air befor e ent er ing t he int er cooler, and
T 2 = t emper at ur e of air aft er leaving t he int er cooler
8.32 Thermal Engineering

CON DU CTI ON
M ODES OF H EAT TRAN SFER
H eat t r ansfer may be defined as t he t r ansmission of ener gy fr om one r egion t o anot her as a r esult of t emper a-
t ur e gr adient and it t akes place by t hr ee modes :
( i ) Conduct ion : Conduct ion is the t r ansfer of heat fr om one par t of a subst ance t o anot her par t of t he same
subst ance, or fr om one subst ance to anot her in physical cont act wit h it , wit hout appr eciable displacement
of molecules for ming t he subst ance.
( ii ) Convect ion : Convect ion is t he t r ansfer of heat wit hin a fluid by mixing of one por t ion of t he fluid wit h
anot her.
( a ) Free or natural convection : I t occur s when t he fluid cir culat ed by vir t ue of t he nat ur al differ ence
in densit ies of hot and cold fluids, t he denser por t ions of t he fluid move downwar d because of t he
gr eat er for ce or gr avit y, as compar ed wit h t he for ce on t he less dense.
( b) Forced convection : When work is done to blow of pump the fluid, it is said to be forced convection.
( iii ) Radiat ion : Radi at i on i s t h e t r ansfer of h eat t hr ou gh space or m at t er by m eans ot her t han
conduct ion or convect ion. Radiat ion of heat is t hought of as elect r omagnet ic waves or quant a (as conve-
nient ) an emanat ion of t he same nat ur e as light and r adio waves. All bodies r adiat e heat , so a t r ansfer of
heat by r adiat ion occur s because hot body emit s mor e heat t han it r eceives and a cold body r ecives mor e
heat t han it emit s. Radiant ener gy (being elect r omagnet ic r adiat ion) r equir es no medium for pr opaga-
t ion, and will pass t hr ough a vacuum.

H EAT TRAN SM I SSI ON BY CON DU CTI ON

F our ier ’s L aw of Conduct ion
This is an empir ical law based on obser vat ion and st at es.
That t he r at e of flow of heat t hr ough a single homogeneous solid is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o t he ar ea of t he
sect ion at r ight angles t o t he dir ect ion of heat flow, and t he change of t emper at ur e wit h r espect t o t he lengt h
of t he pat h of t he heat flow.
I t is be r epr esent ed by t he equat ion, Q  A.
dt
Thus, Q = – k.A
dx
wher e k = const ant of pr opor t ionlit y and is known as t her mal conduct ivit y of t he body
The – ve sign of k is t o t ake car e of t he decr easing t emper at ur e along wit h t he dir ect ion of incr easing t hickness
dt
of t he dir ect ion of heat flow. The t emper at ur e gr adient is always negat ive along posit ive x dir ect ion and
dx
t her efor e t he value of Q becomes + ve.
Q dx
N ow, k= .
A dt
1 m W
Unit of k : W 2  =
m K mK
Fr om t he above equat ion, met er ials wit h high t her mal conduct ivit ies ar e good conduct or s of heat , wher eas
mat er ials wit h low t her mal conduct ivit ies ar e good t hemal insulat or s. Conduct ion of heat occur s most r eadily
in pur e met als, less so in alloys, and mush less r eadily in non-met als. The ver y low t her mal conduct ivit ies of
cer t ain t her mal insulat or s, e.g. cor k is due t o t heir por osit y, t he air t r apped wit hin t he mat er ial act ing as an
insulat or.

Sequence of M at er ials of Decr easing T her mal Conduct ivit y

(i ) Pur e met al
(ii ) M et al alloys
(iii ) Non-met allic cr yst alline and amor phous subst ance
(iv) Liquid
 Thermal Engineering 8.33
(v) Gases

Thermal Conduction in Liquids

H eat conduct ion in liquids and gases ar e based on t he movemoment of at oms in a molecule. I n case of liquids,
the r andom tr anslator y motion is small and it appear s that tr anslation of energy occur s by longitudinal vibration,
similar t o t he pr opagat ion of sound.
Br idgman assumpt ions for t he conduct ivit y of liquids.
( i ) Adjacent molecules ar e ar r anged in a simple cubical fashion.
( ii ) When t he ener gy fr om one molecule t o anot her is t r ansfer r ed at t he velocit y of sound, t hen t her mal
conduct ivit y in liquid is given by t he expr ession,
R vs v
k=3 . 2 = 3.  2s
A0  
R
wher e = is known as Bolt zmann const ant per molecule
A0
R = univer sal gas const ant
A 0 = avogadr o’s number
v s = sonic velocit y

T her mal Conduct ion in Gases

H eat conduct ion in a gas is explained in t er m of t he net of t r anspor t of ener gy acr oss imaginar y sur face by
molecule psssing in bot h dir ect ion t hr ough t he sur face. When t emper at ur e gr adient exist s in a gas as shown in
t he figur e bet ween t wo par allel sur face, molecules in t he r egions of higher t emper at ur es must have higher
r andom velocit y t han in t he lower t emper at ur e r egions.
1
Ther mal conduct ivit y, k= . n. vs . f . . 
6
wher e n = number of molecules per unit volumes
vs = ar it hmat ic mean molecular velocit y
f = number of degr ee of fr eedom
 = bolt zmann’s const ant
 = molecular mean dept h pat h
Gases wi t h t he hi gher mol ecul ar wei ght s have smal l er t her mal conduct i vi t y t han t hose wi t h l ower
molecular weight s. This is due t o fact t hat molecular pat h of t he gas molecules decr ease wit h incr ease in
densit y and k is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o mean fr ee pat h of t he molecule. This can be explained by t he compar i-
son of t wo gases as follows :

k for N 2  0.021 W / mk
At STP,
k for H 2  0.15 W / mk

Conduct ivit y of t he liquid can also be explained in t er ms of dynamic viscosit y  as

k = 1
LM 4.5OP
 cv
N 2n Q
wher e, n = number of at oms in a molecule

ON E DI M EN SI ON AL H EAT CON DU CTI ON

Conduct ion of H eat T hr ough Slabs
Consider t he t r ansmission of heat t hr ough ar ea A of a wall (t hickness x ) consist ing of a number of slabs. L et
conductivities of differ ent slabs (wall mater ials) be k 1, k 2 and k 3, t hickness of slabs (also called as ‘path’ length)be
x 1, x 2 and x 3 and t emper at ur es at t he wall sur faces be T 1, T 2, T 3 and T 4 (T 1 > T 4) r espect ively.
Since quant it y of heat t r ansmit t ed per unit t ime t hr ough each slab is t he same, t her efor e
8.34 Thermal Engineering

b
Q k1 T1 – T2
= =
k2 T2 – T3
=
g
k3 T3 – T4 b g b g
A x1 x2 x3

 T1 – T4 = 
LM
Q x1 x2 x3

OP
N
A k1 k2 k3 Q
A(T1 – T4 )
or Q=
LM x
1

x2 x3

OP
Nk1 k2 k3 Q
Conduction of H eat Through Pipe Walls
Ar ea t hr ough which heat is t r ansmit t ed, A = 2r l
Pat h lengt h = dr

Q = – kA
FG d T IJ = – k. 2r l
dT
per unit t ime

H dr K dr
dr
or Q = – k. 2l .dT
r
I ntegr ating Q
r2 dr
r1 r z = – k. 2l z T2
T1
dT

T1 – T2
 =
1 1 r2 
 log e 
2l  k r1 

Condition of H eat Through a H ollow Sphere

Refer r ing figur e, consider a hollow spher e of int er nal r adius r 1 and ext er nal r adius r 2.
L et t he inside and out side t emper at ur es be T 1 and T 2 and let t he t her mal conduct ivit y
be k. Consider a small element of t hickness of dr at any r adius r .
Ar ea t hr ough which heat is t r ansmit t ed, A = 4r 2
Pat h lengt h = dr (over which t he t emper at ur e fall in t emper at ur e is dT)
dT
 Q = – k. 4r 2
dr

I ntegr ating, Q z r1
r2 dr
r 2
= – 4k z T2
T1
dT

or Q =
b
4 kr1 r2 T1 – T2 g T1 – T2
b r2 – r1 g FG r – r IJ
2 1
H 4kr r K
1 2

r2 – r1
The t er m is known as t her mal r esist ance of t he spher e.
4 kr1 r2

H eat Transfer at The I nt erface of Two Solids

Fig. (a) shows t he t emper at ur e dist r ibut ion t hr ough a composit e wall which is linear t hr ough each of it s
component . This means t hat at t he int er face of t wo solids, t her e is a discont inuit y in t he t emper at ur e gr adient
alt hough t he t emper at ur e it self is cont inuous.

FG d T IJ FG IJ
dT
At t he int er face, k1
H dx K 1
H K
= k 2 dx
2
 Thermal Engineering 8.35

I N SU L AT I ON
The insulation is a mater ial which r etar ds the heat flow with r easonable effectiveness. I t is not necessar y to have
low ther mal conductivity for insulating mater ial. The pur pose of insulation is to pr event the flow of heat fr om the
system to the sur r ounding as in case of steam and hot water pipes which ar e used for air conditioning in winter
and to pr event t he flow of heat fr om the sur r ounding to the syst em as in the case of br ine pipes which ar e used for
air conditioning in summer and domestic r efr iger ator s and water cooler s.
U ses of insulations for industrial purposes.
( i ) Air condit ioning syst em
( ii ) Refr iger at or s and food pr eser ving st or es
( iii ) Pr eser vat ion of liquid gases
( iv) Boiler and st eam pipes

Cr it ical T hickness of I nsulat ion

When a solid cylinder r adius R1 is insulat ed wit h an insulat ion t hickness R2 – R1 as shown in t he figur e, t hen
heat flow fr om t he sur face of t he solid cylinder t o t he sur r ounding is given by
b g
2L T1 – Ta
Q =
1 FR I 1
log eG 2 J 
k2 H R1 K R2 h0
wher e L = lengt h of t he cylinder
k 2 = conduct ivit y of insulat ion
h 0 = combined heat tr ansfer coefficient (convection and r adiation)
on t he out er sur face of t he insulat ion.

I n t he above expr ession as R2 incr eases, t he fact or

1 R
log e 2
FG IJ
k2 R1 H K
1
incr eases but t he fact or R h decr eases.
2 0

Ther for e Q becomes maximum when

FG IJ + 1
1
log
R2
becomes minimum.
H K Rh
k2 R1 2 0
The r equir ed condit ion is
d LM 1 log F R I  1 OP = 0
MN k GH R JK R h PQ
2
e
dR2 2 1 2 0

1 1 1 F 1 I k2
h GH R JK
  – = 0 or R2 2 =
k R 2 2 0 2 h0
wher e R2 is known as critical radius of insulation as Q becomes maximum
at t he value of R2c.
The cr it ical t hickness of insulat ion = R2 – R1
The var iat ion of Q wit h r espect t o R2 is shown in t he figur e below When
R2 = R1 it indicat es bar e cylinder wit hout insulat ion.
The cr it ical value of R2 is r epr esent ed by point 2 and t he r adius at t his
point is r epr esent ed by R2c, Whenever t he value of R2 > R2c t he value
of Q decr eases.

Cr it ical T hickness of I nsulat ion for Spher e

H eat flow t hr ough spher e wit h insulat ion,

Q=
T1  T2
=
b
4  T1  T2 g
R 2 – R1

1 LM 1 – 1

1 OP
4 R 2 R1 k 4 R 22 h0
MN R k
1 R 2 k R 22 h0 PQ
d LM 1 – 1
 2
1 OP = 0 or R2 =
2k

dR2 MN R k
1 R 2 k R 2 h0 PQ h0
8.36 Thermal Engineering

FI NS
Fins ar e commonly used for incr easing t he heat t r ansfer r at es fr om sur face whenever it is not possible t o
incr ease t he r at e of heat t r ansfer eit her by incr easing t he heat t r ansfer co-efficient on t he sur face or by
incr easing t he t emper at ur e differ ence bet ween t he sur face and sur r ounding fluids. The fins ar e commonly
used in engines used for scoot er s and mot or cycles as well as small capacit y compr essor s.
The cir cumfer ent ial fins of r ect angular or t r iangular pr ofile ar e commonly used on t he engine cylinder of
scoot er s and mot or cycles. The pin t ype fins ar e used on t he condenser of a domest ic r efr iger at or.

H eat Tr ansfer thr ough F in

Figur e shows a r ect angular fin of lengt h L , which is per pendicular t o sur face fr om which heat is t o be r emoved,
2  is t he t hickness of t he fin, W is widt h of fin which is par allel t o t he sur face fr om which heat is t o be r emoved.
  cosh m (L – x)  ( h / mk) sin h m (L – x) 
Then   
0  cos h m L  ( h / mk) sin h m L 
wher e  = T – Ta
0 = T0 – Ta
T
T = fin sur face temper atur e at a distance x measur ed
fr om base of the fin. x
x
2

Ta = at mospher e t emper at ur e
T 0 = base t emper at ur e
Ph T0 W Ac
m =
kA c L

P = per imet er of t he fin = 2W + 4 Af

Ac = cr oss sect ional ar ea of t he fin
k = conduct ivit y of fin mat er ial
h = convect ion heat t r ansfer coefficient
LM1  mk t an h mL OP
H eat lost by t he fin, Q = k A c m 0
LM h cosh mL  km sinh mL OP = k A m 0 MM mk h P
N km cos h mL  h sinh mL Q c

MN h  t an h m L P
PQ
h. P hb2 W  4 g h
For r ect angular fin, m =  =
kA c k W.2 k

hP h d 4h
For cir cular fin, m =  =
kA c  2 kd
k. d
4
wher e, d = diamet er of t he fin

I f end of t he fin is insulat ed, t hen  = 0

LM cos h mbL – xg OP
MN cos h m L PQ
and Q = k A c m 0
I f t he fin is sufficient ly long, t hen

– mx = cos h mx – sin h mx
0 = e
Q = k A c m 0
H eat lost wit h fin
Effect iveness of t he Fin (). =
H eat lost wit hout fin
k A c m.  0 h cos h m L  mk sin h m L LM1  mk t an h mL OP
km
Effect iveness  should be mor e t han 1 =
mk cos h m L  h sin h m L
= MM mk h P
hA c.0 h  t an h m L P
MN h PQ
 Thermal Engineering 8.37

Ph 2W. h h
wher e, m= = =
kA c k. W.2 k 
When 2 << W, a non-dimensional number (Biot number ) is

h k I nt ernal r esist ance of t he fin mat er ial
Bi = =
k 1 Ext er nal r esist ance of t he fluid on fin mat er ial
h

1
LM Bi  t an he Bi . L j OP
B i M 1 + B i  t an he B i . L j P
 =
MN PQ
L
wher e, L = = non-dimensional lengt h

Now t her e ar e t hr ee impor t ant cases :
( i ) I f B i = 1, t hen  = 1. This is possible when poor conduct ing mat er ial is used for fin.
( ii ) I f B i > 1, t hen  < 1. Ther e is an adver se effect on heat flow and fin wor ks as insulat or. This is possible if
t he value of h is quit e high t his is t he main cause for not using t he fins on t he st eam condenser t ubes.
( iii ) I f B i < 1, t hen  > 1 which is t he most desir able case. This is possible in t he case of high conduct ivit y
mat er ials like Cu, Al. Ther efor e fins ar e desir able in all t ypes of heat exchangess.

Variation of H eat L oss From Fins with Length of Fin

I t can be seen fr om t he gr aph t hat t he r at e of incr ease of Q wit h incr ease of L

k
is quit e less as compar ed wit h t he r at e of incr ease of Q wit h incr ease of .
h
E fficiency of F in
Heat lost fr om t he fin
f =
Heat lost fr om t he fin, if t he whole sur face of t he fin is maint ained at base t emperat ure

1 k h
=
. t an h m L .....  m 
L h K
Temper at ure er r or of t her momet er
Temper at ur e dist r ibut ion along t he fin is given by
 T  Ta cosh m(L  x)
= x =
0 T0  Ta cosh m L
I n t his case, Ta = T g, T o = T w , T x = T L ,
At x = L
 T  Ta TL  T g 1
= x = =
o To  Ta Tw  T g cos h m L

CON V E CT I ON
H EAT TRAN SFER BY CON VECTI ON
A pr ocess of heat t r ansfer by the combined act ion of heat conduct ion and mixing mot ion is known as convect ion .
H eat i s t r ansfer r ed by convect i on due t o mass movement and mi xi ng of macr oscopi c el ement or gas.
The act ual pr ocess of ener gy t r ansfer fr om one fluid par t icle t o anot her is by conduct ion, but t he ener gy may
be tr anspor t ed fr om one point t o anot her by t he displacement of fluid. As the mot ion of the fluid is involved, t he
heat t r ansfer by convect ion is par t ly gover ned by t he law of fluid mechanics.
8.38 Thermal Engineering
Fr om t he Newt on's law of cooling,
q = h A T = h A(T w – T  )
Q = h A(T w – T f )
wher e T w = t emper at ur e of wall
T f = t emper at ur e of fluid
h = heat t r ansfer co-efficient
Unit of heat t r ansfer co-efficient : W/m 2K

Types of Convection H eat Transfer

(i ) N atural convection :The flow of fluid t ake place when t he hot or cold body comes in cont act wit h t he fluid.
The heat flow fr om t he hot body t o fluid due t o t emper at ur e differ ence bet ween t he body and t he fluid and
fluid densit y in t he vicinit y of t he hot body decr eases. The differ ence in densit y of t he hot and cold fluid
cause t he fluid t o flow in t he upwar d dir ect ion. The for ce causing t his flow is known as buoyancy for ce.
Whenever the mot ion of t he fluid is caused only due t o t he differ ence in densit y r esult ing fr om temper at ur e
gr adient wit hout t he use of pump or fan, t hen t he mechanism of heat t r ansfer is known as nat ur al or fr ee
convect ion.
( ii ) F orce convect ion :I t may be caused by some ext er nal agency such as pump or a blower. The mot ion of
flui d in for ce convect i on wil l be fast er t han in t he fr ee or nat ur al convect ion, t her efor e, r at e of heat
t r ansfer incr eases. As t he convect ion pr ocess depends upon t he mot ion of t he fluid par t icles also, so t he
heat t r ansfer by convect ion depends upon t he law of heat conduct ion, geomet r y of t he syst em and law of
fluid dynamics.

SOM E U SEFU L RATI OS

(i ) Reynold number, (Re). I t is t he r at io of iner t ia for ce t o t he viscous for ce.
vL
Re =  – fluid densit y, v – mean velocit y

L – char act er ist ic lengt h,  – dynamic viscosit y
( ii ) Prandtl number, (P r ). I t is t he r at io of kinet ic viscosit y t o t her mal diffusit y.
 cp
Pr = cp – sp heat , k – t her mal conduct ivit y
k
( iii ) N usselt number, (N u). I t is a dimensionless heat transfer coefficient which gives a measure of the ratio of
the heat tr ansfer r ate q to the rate at which heat would be conducted within the fluid under a temper ature

gr adient .
L
hL q L q
Nu = = . =
k  k 
.k
L
( iv) Stant on number,(St ) . I t is t he r at io of wall heat t r ansfer r at e (h ) t o t he mass heat flow r at e (vcp). I t

gives a measur e of t he r at io of t he heat t r ansfer coefficient h or

FG q IJ
H  K t o t he flow of heat per unit

t emper at ur e r ise due t o t he velocit y and heat capacit y of t he fluid.

hL
Nu k h
St = = =
RePr vL  c p vc p

 k
(v) Peclet number (pe). I t is t he r at io of mass heat flow r at e t o t he heat flow r at e by t he conduct ion under
a unit t emper at ur e gr adient and t hr ough a t hickness L q 
FG k IJ
H L K
.

M ass flow r at e = Vcp

 Thermal Engineering 8.39
LV
VC p
VC p LV
 Pe = = = k =
q k c p 
L
V c pL VL c p
Again, Pe = = .
K  K
 P e = Re . Pr
(vi ) Graetz number (Gr). I t is t he r at io of heat capacit y of t he fluid flowing t hr ough t he pipe per unit lengt h of
t he pipe t o t he conduct ivit y of t he pipe. So t his number is r elat ed only for t he heat flow t o t he fluid passing
t hr ough cir cular pipes.
 2 cp
D  V . 2
 Gr =
mc p L
= 4 L =  D V c p =  . VD . c p . D =  Re . Pr . D
k k 4 kL 4  k L 4 L
D
 = Pe
4L
( vii ) Grashaff number (G r ). I t is only used in t he nat ur al convect ion heat t r ansfer. I t is defined as t he r at io of
pr oduct of I ner t ia for ce and buoyancy for ce t o t he squar e of viscous for ce.

I ner t ia for ce  Buoyance for ce

2
 g.L
3
gL3 FG
...   
 IJ
Gr =
(Viscous for ce) 2 =

2
=
 2 H  K
F or mulae for Solving t he Pr oblems of N at ur al and F or ced Convect ions
(1) N at ur al Convect ion
1
h aL
( i ) Nu = = 0.13 (Gr Pr ) 3 for ver t ical sur faces when 108 < Gr Pr < 1012
k
1
h aL
= = 0.56 (Gr Pr ) 4 for ver t ical sur faces when 105 < Gr Pr < 108
k
1
ha d
( ii ) Nu = = 0.13 (Gr Pr ) 3 for hor izont al cylinder s when 109 < Gr Pr <1012
k
1
ha d
= = 0.53 (Gr Pr ) 4 for hor izont al cylinder when 104 < Gr Pr < 109
k
1
ha d
( iii ) Nu = = 0.17 (Gr Pr ) 3 for hor izont al hot cir cular plat e facing upwar d when Gr Pr > 109
k
1
ha d
= = 0.71 (Gr Pr ) 4 for 103 < Gr Pr < 109
k
1 1 1

( iv) Nu = 0.667 Pr 2 (Pr  0.952) 4 (Gr ) 4 for ver t ical plat e
(2) F or ced Convect ion
1 1
h aL
( i ) Nu = = 0.664 Re2 Pr 3 for t he flow over flat plat e
k
ha d
( ii ) Nu = = 0.023 Re0.8Pr 0.4 for t he flow t hr ough t ube
k
(3) M odel Test ing
v  p m L p
(i ) m = . .
vp m  p L m
vm L p m
= .
vp Lm p
8.40 Thermal Engineering

vm Lm
(ii ) = (t est ing for r esist ance in t he same fluid)
vp Lp

F v F I FL I
2 2

(iii ) m
Fp

= m . m
p vp GH JK GH L JK
m
p
(t est ing for t hr ust for pr opeller

F pv p
(iv) H .P. =
75
Q = h A(T w – T f )
wher e T w = t emper at ur e of wall
T f = t emper at ur e of fluid
h = heat t r ansfer co-efficient
Unit of heat t r ansfer co-efficient : W/m 2K
Under st eady heat flow conduct ion.
H eat conduct ed = H eat convect ed fr om solid boundar y t o adjacent fluid

– k
FG dT IJ
FG dT IJ H dx K xL
 Q = – kA
H dx K
x L
= h A(T w – T a) or h =
Tw – Ta
Fr om t he above equat ion, for a syst em in which t he wall t emper at ur e T w , t he
ambient t emper at ur e T a and t her mal conduct ivit y of solids, k ar e const ant , t hen
FG dT IJ
any change in h mean change in
H dx K x L
i.e. heat t r ansfer co-efficient can be consider ed fundament ally as a slope of t he
t emper at ur e dest r ibut ion in t he fluid.

RE SI STAN CE CON CE PT
Over all H eat Tr ansfer Co-Efficient
I f U is over all co-efficient of t he heat t r ansfer, t hen

Q = UA(T a – T b) =
b
A Ta – Tb g
1 x 1
 
ha k hb
1
 U =
1 x 1
 
ha k hb
H er e, h a = heat t r ansfer co-efficient fr om hot fluid t o met al sur face
h b = heat t r ansfer co-efficient fr om met al sur face t o cold fluid
k = t her mal conduct ivit y of met al wall.

H eat Tr ansfer T hr ough Composit e Cylinder

When a hot fluid at a t emper at ur e T a flowing t hr ough a pipe is separ at ed by t wo
layer s fr om cold fluid at t emper at ur e T b(say at mospher e). (not at ions car r y t he
usual meaning), t hen
Ta – Tb
Q=
1 L 1 1 O

1 r 1 r
M 
2l N r1 ha k1
log e 2 
r1 k2
log e 3  P
r2 r4 hb Q
her e, r1 < r2 < r3
I f U a and U b ar e the over all co-efficients of heat tr ansfer r efer red to inside and the outside ar ea of tube r espectively,
t hen
Q = U aA a(T a – T b) = U bA b (T a – T b)
 Thermal Engineering 8.41

H eat Transfer Through Composite Spherical Shell

Pr oceeding in t he same way as in t he pr evious case, t he heat t r ansfer in t his case will be given by t he expr ession
Ta – Tb
Q =
1 r2 – r1 r – r 1
  3 2 
ha A a 4 k1 k2 r1 r2 4 k2 r2 r3 hb Ab

Prandtl N umber
I f t he fr ee st r eam velocit y is low and t emper at ur e differ ence bet ween fr ee st r eam and t he plat e is small, t hen
t he fr ict ional heat gener at ion can be neglect ed and ener gy equat ion becomes
T T 2 T
u.  v. = . 2 ... (i )
x y y
k Thermal conduct ivit y
where, = =
c p Ther mal capacit y
and t his r at io is known as t her mal diffusivit y
H ydr odynamic equat ion or moment um equat ion for boundar y layer is
u u 2 u
u.  v. = . ... (ii )
x y y 2
I n t his case t he t emper at ur e and velocit y dist r ibut ion would be ident ical
 T  Tw u df v
 = = = wher e  = y = st r et ching fact or
m T  Tw U d  x
The r esult is of consider able pr act ical impor t ance because all t he gases have  .

Also if  1 , gr eat er will be t he differ ence bet ween t emper at ur e and velocit y pr ofile.

 C p  Viscous nat ur e of fluid
= = =
 k k H eat conduct ing capacit y
cp H eat st orage capacit y
For t hr ee differ ent condit ions of Pr, t he t her mal and hydr aulic boundar y layer s ar e shown in t he figur e.

F or mulae U sed F or Solving Pr oblems

For laminar flow
 4.64 5
(i ) = (Von-K ar man equat ion) = (Blasius equat ion)
x Rex Rex
1

(ii ) = (Pr ) 3
t

5
(iii ) (M ass flow t hr ough boundar y layer at a sect ion x = m x), m x = U 
8
8.42 Thermal Engineering

5
(iv) M ass flow bet ween t wo sect ions), m = U( 2  1 ) wher e 2 > 1
8
1

(v) Cf x = 0.664 (Rex ) 2

1

(vi ) Cf a = 1.328 (Rel ) 2

U 2
(vii )  a = Cf a
2
1
U 
(viii )  x = 0.332 Rex = 0.332 U 2 (Rex ) 2
L
1
U 
(ix)  x = 0.664 Rel = 0.664 U 2 (Rel ) 2
L
1

(x) F =  a.A = 0.664 UW (Rel ) = 0.664 A U 2 (Rel ) 2

(xi ) F x = x.A
1 1
(xii ) Nu x = 0.332 (Rex ) 2 (Pr ) 3
1 1
(xiii ) Nu a = 0.664 (Rel ) 2 (Pr ) 3

2 F h I (Pr )
= G
2
C fx
H U c JK
(xiv) St x (Pr ) 3 x 3 =
p 2

2 F h I (Pr )
= G
2
C fa x.U LU
H U c JK
a 3
(xv) St a (Pr ) 3 = ; wher e, Rex = and Rel =
p 2  

hx . x ha . L
Nu x = and Nu a =
k k
For turbulent flow:
1
 0.39 
(i ) = (ii ) Cf x = 0.0576 (Rex ) 5
x (Rex )1 / 5
1
 2
(iii ) Cf a = 0.072 (Rel ) 5 (iv)  a = Cf a . U
2
1
(v) F = a . A (vi ) Nu x = 0.0288 (Rex)0.8 (Pr ) 3
1 2 1

(vii ) Nu a = 0.036 (Rel )0.8 (Pr ) 3 (viii ) St x . (Pr ) 3 = 0.0288 (Rex ) 5

2 1

(ix) St a . = 0.036 (Rel )
(Pr ) 3 5

For laminar and turbulent flows:

1 1
(i ) Nu a = 0.664 (Rec ) 2 (Pr ) 3
5  105 . 
wher e, Rec = 5 × 105 and L c =
U
ha (L  L c ) 1
(ii ) Tur bulent r egion : = 0.036 [(Re ) 0.8  (Re ) 0.8 ] (Pr ) 3
k l c
1
k
(iii ) Over all heat t r ansfer co-efficient for bot h r egions h a = [0.036 (Rel )0.8 – 836] . (Pr ) 3
L
 Thermal Engineering 8.43

RAD I AT I ON
H EAT TRAN SFER BY RADI ATI ON
The heat t r ansfer by r adiat ion does not r equir e any medium and it is mor e effect ive in vaccum r at her t han in a
medium. Ther e ar e t wo t heor ies which explain t he t r ansfer of heat by r adiat ion.
( i ) Wave Theory
Accor ding t o t his t heor y, it is assumed t hat all t he space in a univer se is filled up by a hypot het ical medium
called ether. I t was stated that the r adiation heat transfer take place because of pr opagation of electr omagnetic
wave t hr ough t he et her. A hot body emit s elect r omagnet ic wave due t o t he vibr at ion of molecules and gives
out it s st or ed ener gy. These waves t r avel t hr ough space unt il t hey st r ike anot her body wher e par t of t heir
ener gy is absor bed and r econver t ed back int o ext er nal ener gy. The r adiat on in t he for m of elect r omagnet ic
wave cause a decr ease in int er nal ener gy of t he emit t ing body unless t he heat is gener at ed wit hin t hat body
equivalent t o t he decr ease in int er nal ener gy.
( ii ) Quant um T heor y
Some of t he atoms and molecules of a solid body ar e r aised t o excited st at es when t hey ar e heat ed and t her e
is t endency for t hese at om and molecules t o r et ur n t o lower ener gy levels spont aneously. Dur ing t his
pr ocess, ener gy in t he for m of elect r omagnet ic r adiat ion is emit t ed. This emit t ed ener gy is not cont inuous
but in t he for m of successive and separ at e quant it ies called "quant a".
M ax planck has given t he equat ion
E = hf
wher e h = Planck's const ant
f = fr equency of vibr at ion

Reflect ion, Absor pt ion and Tr ansmission of Radiat ion

Radiat ion is t he pr oper t y of all subst ances and each emit s ener gy and amount of ener gy emit t ed depends upon
t he t emper at ur e level.
I n gener al, r adiat ion ener gy falling on a body par t ly r eflect ed, par t ly t r ansmit t ed and par t ly absor bed.
For a par t icular wave lengt h, t he amount of r eflect ed ener gy depends upon
(i ) t ype of t he mat er ial
(ii ) sur face finish
(iii ) angle of incidence
For a given finish, t he por t ion r eflect ed depends on wave lengt h.
I f t he t ot al incident ener gy Qi is falling on an object as shown in t he figur e and Qa is absor bed, Qr is r eflect ed and
Qt is t r ansmit t ed, t hen
Qa + Qr + Qt = Qi
Qa Qr Qt
   =1
Qi Qi Qi
 + r + = 1
wher e  is known as absor bivit y
r is known as r eflect ivit y
 is known as t r ansmissivit y
The values of , r ,  in above equat ion ar e dimensionless and var y fr om 0 t o 1.
For most of t he solids and liquids,  = 0 except few as glass et c.
 +r = 1
M ost solid bodiesas well as liquids ar e st r ong absor ber s of the ther mal r adiation. The absor pt ion occur s in a ver y
t hin r egion near t he sur face of solids. For good conduct or s of elect r icit y t his is of t he or der of one micr on and in
elect r ical insulat or s t his t hickness may be as much as t housands of micr ons.
Opaque Body
The bodies which do not t r ansmit any r adiat ion ener gy ar e known as opaque bodies. All engineer ing mat er ials
ar e consider ed opaque.
Bl ack Body
If r = 0 and  = 0, t hen =1
This means t hat incident ener gy is ent ir ely absor bed by t he body. Such body is defined as a "Black body".
8.44 Thermal Engineering

W hit e Body
If  = 0 and  = 0, t hen r =1
This means t hat ent ir e incident r adiant ener gy is r eflect ed by t he body and such body is called "Whit e body".
Tr anspar ent Body
If  = 0 and r = 0, t hen =1
This means t hat ent ir e incident r adiant ener gy passes t hr ough t he body and such bodies ar e called t r anspar ent
bodies.
N ote : Since for most of t he gases r = 0, t her efor e  +  = 1
Ther e ar e no absolut ely black, whit e and t r anspar ent bodies in nat ur e.

Refl ect i on of Radi at ion

Specul ar Refl ect i on
The r eflect ion of t he r adiat ion ener gy is known as “ specular reflect ion” when t he angle of r eflect ion ( 2) is equal
t o t he angle of incidence  1 as shown in t he figur e.
D i ffused Refl ect i on
The r eflect ion of t he r adiat ion ener gy is known as “ diffused r eflect ion” when it is r eflect ed in all dir ect ion as
shown in t he figur e.
SOURCE SOURCE

REFLECTED
1 2 RAYS

(a) (b)
Secular Reflection Diffused Reflection
Specular r eflect ion occur s on a highly polished sur face while t he diffused r eflect ion occur s on a r ough sur face.

Absor pt ion and Tr ansmission

The non-r eflect ed par t of incident r adiat ion is par t ly absor bed and par t ly t r ansmit t ed t hr ough t he body. The
absor pt ion and t r ansmission depend on t he mat er ial and geomet r y of t he body r eceiving t he ener gy as well as
on t he wavelengt h of t he incident r adiat ion.
Nor mal glass is t r anspar ent t o light r ays but non-t r anspar ent t o ult r aviolet r ays and it only t r ansmit s a small
par t of t her mal r adiat ion. The wor d t r anspar ent is used wit hin some limit s because a t hin layer of wat er is
t r anspar ent t o light r adiat ion but it does not r each t he bot t om of t he sea.

BLACK AN D GREY SU RFACE

A black body which absor bs all t he incident r adiat ion and none is r eflect ed or t r ansmit t ed. I n ot her wor ds, a
black body is one whose absor pt ivit y is 100%.

Plank's L aw of Radiat ion

The t ot al emissive power of a gr ey body var ies wit h t he wavelengt h at a given t emper at ur e and also var ies wit h
a t emper at ur e. Source
 E b = f (, T)
For t he monochr omat ic emissive power of black body,
C1 5
E b = C2

e T – 1

Circular caruity
 Thermal Engineering 8.45

3.21  10 8
wher e C1 = = 37.45 × 10– 17 J-m 2/sec
10 16
and C2 = 1.438 cm-K = 14380 – K.
Tot al emissive power of t he black body is given by Bolt zmann as

z z C1 5
 
E b(0 – ) = E b d  = d
0 0 eC2 / T – 1
Solving t he above equat ion and subst it ut ing t he values of C1 and C2, we have
E b =  T 4 (St efan Bolt zmann's law)
wher e,  = 5.67 × 10 J/m 2-sec-K 4
– 8

Stefan– Boltzmann Law

The maximum r at e of r adiat ion t hat can be emit t ed fr om a sur face at an absolut e t emper at ur e T s (in K ) is given
by t he Stefan– Boltzmann law as

Q = A sTs4 (W)
emit , max

wher e  = 5.67  10-8 W/m 2 · K – 4 wher e ‘K ’ is t he St efan– Bolt zmann const ant .
A s is t he sur face ar ea t hr ough which r adiat ion t akes place
The idealized sur face t hat emit s r adiat ion at t his maximum r at e is called a blackbody, and t he r adiat ion
emit t ed by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation. The r adiat ion emit t ed by all r eal sur faces is less t han
t he r adiat ion emit t ed by a blackbody at t he same t emper at ur e, and is expr essed as

Q = A sTs4 (W)
emit

wher e  is t he emissivity of t he sur face. The pr oper t y emissivit y, whose value is in t he r ange 0  1 is a
measur e of how closely a sur face appr oximat es a blackbody for which  = 1.
When a sur face of emissivit y and sur face ar ea As at an absolut e t emper at ur e Ts is complet ely enclosed by
a much lar ger (or black) sur face at absolut e t emper at ur e Tsur r separ at ed by a gas (such as air ) t hat does
not int er vene wit h r adiat ion, t he net r at e of r adiat ion heat t r ansfer bet ween t hese t wo sur faces is given by
shown in figur e.
Qr ad = A s (Ts4  Tsurr
4
)
Sur r oundi ng
sur faces at
T sur r

Ai r
.
Qem i t t ed
.
Qi nci dent
, A s , T s

. 4 4
Qr ad = A s (T s – T sur r )

F ig : Radiat ion heat transfer between a sur face and the sur faces surrounding it
Gr ey Body
The body which absor bs a definit e per cent age of incident r adiat ion waves ir r espect ive of t heir wavelengt hs, t he
body is known as grey body. When t he absor pt ivit y of a body var ies wit h wavelengt h of r adiat ion waves, t he
body is known as coloured body.

E missive Power of Gr ey Body

The emissive power of t he body is always less t han t he black body. The r at io of emissive power of gr ey body t o
t hat of black body at given t emper at ur e is const ant for all wave lengt hs.
8.46 Thermal Engineering

Emissive power of grey body at a t emperat ure Eg

Emissivit y of a gr ey body,  = =
Emissive power of black body at same t emperat ure Eb
For monochr omat ic r adiat ion,
E g
Emissivity,  =
E b

z z
 
Eg = E g . d  and E b = E b . d 
0 0

z z
 
E g . d  E b .  . d 
0 0
  = =

z z
 
E b . d  E b . d 
0 0
H ence emissivit y of sur face is pr oper t y of t he sur face and only depends on t he char act er ist ic of t he sur face and
independent on t he wavelengt h of the incident r adiat ion waves, while absor pt ivit y of the sur face is not pr oper t y
of t he sur face because it depends on t he wavelengt h of t he incident r adiat ion waves.

K ir choff 's L aw
K ir choff's law st at es t hat t he r at io of t ot al emissive power t o absor pt ivit y is const ant for all t he subst ances
which ar e in t he t her mal equilibr ium wit h t he sur r oundings.
A ppl yi n g t h i s l aw on t h r ee bodi es wh ose em i ssi ve power s ar e E 1 , E 2, an d E 3 an d absor pt i vi t i es
ar e 1, 2, and 3 r espect ively.
E1 E E E
= 2 = 3 = const ant = b
1 2 3 b
Since absor pt ivit y for black body, b = 1
E1 E2 E3
 = 1, = 2 and = 3
Eb Eb Eb
But accor ding t o t he definit ion of emissivit y of a body
E1 E2 E3
= 1, = 2 and = 3
Eb Eb Eb
Compar ing bot h above equat ions, we get
 1 = 1, 2 =  and 3 = 3
I n gener al for m we can wr it e,  = 
H ence t his law st at e t hat t he emissivit y of a body is equal t o it s absor pt ivit y when t he body r emains in t her mal
equilibr ium wit h it s sur r oundings.

Wien's Displacement L aw
mT = 2.9 mm-K
wher e m is t hat wavelengt h at which monochr omat ic emissive power of t he black body becomes maximum at
a t emper at ur e T.
As t he body is heat ed, t he maximum int ensit y is shift ed t o t he shor t er wave lengt hs and fir st visibl e sign of
incr ease in t emper at ur e of t he body is a dar k r ed colour. Wit h fur t her incr ease in t emper at ur e, t he colour
appear s as br ight r ed, t hen br ight yellow and finally whit e.

Sol id Angle
I t is defined as t he angle cover ed by unit ar ea on a sur face of a spher e of unit r adius when joined wit h t he cent r e
of spher e and it is measur ed in t he st er adians.
A
Solid angle,  = 2
R
wher e A is ar ea on a sur face of a spher e of r adius R which is cut out fr om t he issuing cent r e of a spher e.

I nt ensit y of Radiat ion

I t is defined as t he r at e of emission of r adiat ion in a given dir ect ion fr om a sur face per unit solid angle and per
unit pr oject ed ar ea of a r adiat ing sur face on a plane per pendicular t o t he dir ect ion of r adiat ion.
E b = I b
 Thermal Engineering 8.47

Radi osi t y
I t refers to all the radiant ener gy leaving surface. The radiation leaving the surface includes the r eflected portion as
well as emission as shown in the figur e. Therefore, r adiosity is differ ent fr om the emissive power.
Types of Radi osit y
(i ) Spectral radiosity. I t is t he r at e at which r adiat ion leaves per unit ar ea of
the sur face at a wavelengt h  per unit wavelength. I t is r elated to the
int ensity of r adiation associated wit h emission also shown in figur e.
( ii ) Total radiosity. I t is associat ed wit h t he ent ir e spect r um of wave lengt h.
The int ensit y of r adiat ion is based on pr oject ed ar ea while t he r adiosit y is
based on t he act ual sur face ar ea.

RADI ATI ON BETWEEN TWO I N FI N I TELY LON G CYLI N DERS

Two con cen t r i c cyl i n der of r adi u s R 1 an d R 2 ar e sh own i n f i gu r e.
T 1 and T 2 ar e t emper at ur er s of inner and out er sur face of inner and out er
cylinder r espect ively and t heir r elat ive emissivit ies ar e 1 and 2.
T h en n et h eat t r an sf er bet w een t h e i n n er an d ou t er con cen t r i c
cylinder s is given by
A 1 (T14  T24 )  A 1 (T14  T24 )
Qnet = =
1 A
 1
FG 1  1IJ 1 R
 1
FG 1  1IJ
1 A 2 H K
2 1 R 2 H K
2

 A 1 (T14  T24 )
For concent r ic spher e, net heat flow, Qnet =
1 R1 FG IJ FG 1  1IJ
2

1

R2 H K H K 2

N ETWORK AN ALYSI S rG
G
Con si der t w o bodi es A an d B r adi at i n g h eat as sh ow n i n f i gu r e.
I t emissivit y of body A is a, t hen amount of ener gy r adiated by A is a . ‘E ba and
if G is t he amount of ener gy falling on A fr om B, t hen out of G, t he amount of
ener gy r eflect ed by A is r aG, wher e r a is t he r eflect ivit y of t he sur face A.
A a Eba
Tot al ener gy going away fr om t he body A is,
 = aE ba + r aG .... (i )
Since t r ansmissivit y is assumed t o be zer o for solid bodies, t her efor e
a + r a = 1
 r a = 1 – a
Fr om K ir chhoff 's law, a = a
 J = a E ba + (1 – a)G
Net ener gy lost by t he body A, q = J – G
q = aE ba – aG ... (ii )
Fr om equat ion (i ) and (ii ), we get

q = E ba  J Joule per unit ar ea

1 a
a
E ba  J
Tot al heat lost fr om A is given by, Q =
 1  a  1
 
 a  A a
1  a
wher e is t he sur face r esist ance of t he body as it is r elat ed t o t he sur face pr oper t ies of t he body..
a A a
8.48 Thermal Engineering
When t wo sur face r esist ance of t he t wo bodies and space r esist ance bet ween t hem is consider ed, t hen net heat
flow can be given by an elect r ic cir cuit as shown in figur e.

Eb1 1 – 1 1 – 2 Eb2
1
A11 A1F1–2 A2 2

E b1  E b2 A 1 (T14  T24 )
Q = =

1  1 1 1 2 1  1 1 1  2 FG IJ A1
 
A 1 1 A 1 F12 A 2 2 1

F1 2

2 H K A2
(i ) I f t wo bodies ar e infinit e par allel plat e, t hen A 1 = A 2 and F1 – 2 = 1

A 1 (T14  T24 )
 Q =
1 1
 1
1 2
( ii ) I f t wo bodies ar e concent r ic cylinder or spher e, t hen F 1– 2 = 1

A 1 (T14  T24 )
Q =

1 FG
1  2 IJ A 1
1

H
2 KA 2

A1 D 1 L D R
( iii ) For concent r ic cylinder s, = = 1 = 1
A2 D2L D2 R2

A 1 (T14  T24 )
Q=

1 1  2 FG IJ R 1
1

2 H KR 2

(iv) For concent r ic spher e,

A1
=
FG R IJ1
2

A2 HR K 2

A 1 (T14  T24 )
 Q=
1 1  2FG IJ FG R IJ
1
2

1

2 H K HR K
2
I n all the above case when the grey surface ar e r eplaced by the black body, the surface resistance becomes zer o.
 Thermal Engineering 8.49

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
8. I nt er nal ener gy of a per fect gas depends upon
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
(a) t emper at ur e only
1. A closed syst em is one, which
(b) t emper at ur e and pr essur e
(a) per mi t s t he passage of ener gy and mat t er
acr oss t he boundar ies (c) t emper at ur e, pr essur e and specific heat s
(b) does not per mit t he passage of ener gy and (d) none of t he above
mat t er acr oss t he bandar ies 9. With r ise of temper atur e, the specific heat of water
(c) permits the passage of energy across the boundary (a) incr eases
but does not permit the passage of matter (b) decr eases
(d) per mi t s t he passage of mat t er acr oss t he (c) fir st decr eases t o minimum t hen incr eases
boundary but does not per mit the passage of (d) r emains const ant
ener gy 10. For a closed syst em, differ ence betweeen the heat
2. An isolat ed syst em is one, which added t o t he syst em and wor k done by t he gas, is
(a) per mi t s t he passage of ener gy and mat t er equal t o t he change in
acr oss t he boundar ies (a) enthalpy (b) entr opy
(b) per mit s t he passage of ener gy only (c) int er nal ener gy (d) t emper at ur e
(c) does not per mit t he passage of ener gy and 11. Wh i ch of t h e f ol l owi n g i s n ot an ext en si ve
mat t er acr oss it pr oper t y of a t her mo-dynamic syst em ?
(d) per mit s t he passage of mat t er only (a) Tot al mass (b) Tot al int er nal ener gy
3. A system comprising of a single phase, is known as (c) Tot al volume (d) Temper at ur e
(a) open syst em 12. Ther mal equilibr ium between two or mor e bodies
(b) closed syst em exist s, when t hey ar e br ought t oget her, t her e is
(c) homogeneous system no change in
(d) heter ogeneous system (a) density (b) pr essur e
4. The char act er ist ic of a cont r ol volume is/ar e (c) t emper at ur e (d) all of t hese
(a) t he volume, shape and posit ion wit h r espect 13. The sequence of process that eventually returns the
t o an obser ver ar e fixed working substance to its original state, is known as
(b) mat er ial flow acr oss t he boundar y (a) event
(c) bot h (a) and (b) (b) t her modynamic cycle
(d) none of t heses (c) t her modynamic pr oper t y
5. Cont r ol volume r efer s t o a (d) none of t hese
(a) specified mass 14. A system consisting of more than one phase is called
(b) fixed r egion in t he space (a) isolat ed syst em
(c) closed syst em (b) open syst em
(d) none of t he above (c) non-unifor m syst em
6. Specific heat is t he amount of heat r equir ed t o (d) het er ogeneous syst em
r aise t he t emper at ur e 15. K elvin-Plank’s law deals wit h
(a) by unit degr ee of a subst ance (a) conver sion of wor k int o heat
(b) by unit degr ee of a unit mass (b) conver sion of heat int o wor k
(c) of a unit mass by 10° (c) conser vat ion of wor k
(d) none of t he above (d) conser vat ion of heat
7. The r at io of specific heat s of a gas at const ant 16. A ccor di n g t o K el v i n -Pl an k ’s st at em en t , a
pr essur e and at const ant volume per pet ual mot ion machine of
(a) var ies wit h t emper at ur e (a) fir st kind is possible
(b) var ies wit h pr essur e (b) fir st kind is impossible
(c) is always const ant (c) second kind is impossible
(d) none of t he above (d) second kind is possible
8.50 Thermal Engineering
17. A per pet ual mot ion machine of t he fir st kind i.e. 25. The net work done in a polytropic process is given
a m ach i n e w h i ch pr odu ces pow er w i t h ou t by
consuming any ener gy is
p1 V1  p2 V2 p2 V2  p1 V1
(a) possi bl e accor di ng t o fi r st l aw of t her mo-
dynamics
(a)
bn  1g (b)
bn  1g
(b) impossible accor ding t o fir st law of ther mo-
dynamics p1 V1  p2 V2 p2 V2  p1 V1
(c) (d)
(c) impossible according to second law of thermo- n n
dynamics 26. The polyt r opic index (n) is given by
(d) possible accor ding t o second law of t her mo-
dynamics. FG p IJ2 FG V IJ
Hp K
1
18. According to kinetic theory of gases, at absolute zero
log
1
log
HV K 2
(a) specific heat of molecules r educes t o zer o
(a)
FV I
log G J 1
(b)
Fp I
log G J
HV K
1
(b) kinet ic ener gy of molecules r educes t o zer o 2 Hp K
2
(c) volume of gas r educe t o zer o
(d) pr essur e of gas r educe t o zer o.
19. I n an isot her mal pr ocess, int er nal ener gy
FG p IJ1

(a) incr eases (b) r emains const ant (c)

log
Hp K 2
(d) None of t he above
(c) decr eases (d) none of t he above
FV I
log G J 1

20. For t he same expansion r at io, wor k done by t he

HV K 2

gas in case of adiabat ic pr ocess as compar ed t o

27. I n a t hr ot t ling pr ocess
wor k done in case of isot her mal pr ocess is
(a) W = 0 (b) E = 0
(a) same (b) mor e
(c) H = 0 (d) all of t he above
(c) less (d) none of t he above
28. I n a r ever sible polyt r opic pr ocess
21. I n i sot her mal expansi on, wor k done by gas
(a) ent halpy r emains const ant
depends upon
(b) ent r opy r emains const ant
(a) at omicit y of gas only
(c) some heat t r ansfer occur s
(b) expansion r at io only
(d) int er nal ener gy r emains const ant
(c) adiabatic index
29. I n t he polyt r opic equat ion,
(d) bot h (a) and (b)
pV n = const ant ,
22. A pr ocess, in which no heat is supplied or r eject ed
fr om t he syst em and ent r opy is not const ant , is if value of n is infinit e, t hen pr ocess is called
called (a) const ant pr essur e pr ocess
(a) isot her mal (b) isent r opic (b) const ant volume pr ocess
(c) polyt r opic (d) hyper bolic (c) const ant t emper at ur e pr ocess
23. A process, in which the wor king substance neither (d) none of
r eceives nor gives out heat t o it s sur r oundings 30. I n t h e pol y t r opi c pr ocess equ at i on ,
dur ing it s expansion or cont r act ion, is called pV n = const ant , if n = 0, t he pr ocess is called
(a) isot her mal pr ocess (b) isent r opic pr ocess (a) const ant pr essur e pr ocess
(c) polyt r opic pr ocess (d) adiabatic pr ocess (b) const ant volume pr ocess
24. I f v 1 is volume at t he begining and v 2 is volume (c) const ant t emper at ur e pr ocess
at t he end of expansion, t hen expansion r at io (r ) (d) none of t hese
is given by
31. I n t h e pol y t r opi c pr ocess equ at i on ,
v1 v2 pV n = const ant , if n = 1, t he pr ocess is called
(a) v (b) v1 (a) const ant pr essur e pr ocess
2
(b) const ant volume pr ocess
v1  v2 v1  v2 (c) const ant t emper at ur e pr ocess
(c) (d)
v1 v2 – v1 (d) none of t hese
 Thermal Engineering 8.51
32. I n t h e pol y t r opi c pr ocess equ at i on , (a) 50 cc of water at 25C ar e mixed with 150 cc of
pV n = const ant , t he pr ocess will be adiabat ic, if n wat er at 25C
in t he euqt ion is (b) 500 cc of milk at 15C ar e mixed with 100 cc of
(a) zer o (b) one wat er at 15C
(c)  (d) infinite (c) 5 kg of wet st eam at 100C i s mixed wi t h
33. I n a r ever si bl e adi ablat i c pr ocess, t he r at i o of 50 kg of dr y and sat ur at ed st eam at 100C
T 1/T 2 is equal t o (d) 10 cc of wat er at 20C ar e mixed wit h 10 cc of
sulphur ic acid at 20C.
Fp I FG p IJ
 1  1
40. Fi gur e shows a vessel divided int o t wo par t s by a
(a) G J
 
1
(b) 2
Hp K 2 Hp K
1
diaphr agm. The space A cont ains a gas and space
B is evacuat ed. These t wo spaces ar e separ at ed
by a d i aph r agm . N ow i f t h e d i ap h r agm i s
FV I FG V IJ
 1  1
punctur ed, the gas will expand into the evacuated
(c) G J
 
1
(d) 2
space B . Whi ch of t h e fol l owi ng st at ement i s
HV K 2 HV K
1 invalid ?
34. A r ever sible pr ocess Gas Under Diaphragm
(a) must pass t hr ough a cont i nuous ser i es of Pressure
equlibr ioum st at es.
(b) leaves no histor y of the events in surr oundings.
(c) must pass t hr ough t he same st at es on t he
r ever sed pat h as on t he for war d pat h.
A B
(d) all of t hese.
35. I sent r opic flow is
(a) r ever sible adiabat ic flow Vacuum
(b) ir r ever sible adiabat ic flow (a) A fr ee expansion is a non-quasist at ic pr ocess
(c) fr ict ionless fluid flow (b) The pr essure and volume of gas ar e not r elated
(d) none of t he above. t hr ough t he equat ion of st at es
36. Non quasi-st at ic pr ocess is (c) The pr ocess is ir r ever sible
(a) fr ee expansion of gas (d) The ener gy is t r ansfer r ed t o t he syst em.
(b) expansion of a gas in a cylinder under constant
pr essur e
LEVEL-1
(c) r apid compr ession of a gas in a cylindder.
1. I n a t her modynamic syst em, a pr ocess i n whi ch
(d) gr adual compr ession of a gas in a cylinder. volume r emains const ant i s cal led_____pr ocess.
37. For an ideal gas, the change in enthalpy (H) for an (a) isobar ic (b) i somet r i c
elemental change in temperature T is given by
(c) adiabatic (d) isent r opic
(a) Cp . T (b) Cv . T
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
Cp Cv 2. Coefficient of per for mance of a commer cially used
(c) T (d) C T r efr iger at or would be close t o
Cv p
(a) 40% (b) 85%
38. One hundr edth of a kilogr am of air is compr essed
in a pist on-cylinder device. At an inst ant of t ime (c) 1.5 (d) 3.5
when T = 400 K , t he r at e at which wor k is being [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
done on t he air is 8.165 kW, and heat is being 3. I n a ther modynamic system, ther mal equilibr ium
r em ov ed at a r at e of 1.0 k W, t h e r at e of is achi eved when t wo bodies r each
t emper at ur e r ise will be (a) same t her mal ener gy
(a) 10 K /s (b) 100 K /s (b) same ent r opy
(c) 1000 K /s (d) 10000 K /s. (c) same t emper at ur e
39. For which of t he following sit uat ions, zer ot h law (d) same molecul ar ener gy
of t her modynamics will not be valid ? [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
8.52 Thermal Engineering
4. A hot body follows Newton's law of cooling. Typical 9. Boyle's law states that:
t emper at ur e-t i me gr aph of t he cool i ng body (a) The pressure of a gas varies directly with
would be temperature at constant volume i.e. PT.
(b) The product of pressure and volume of a given
mass of a gas is constant at constant
Temp

Temp
temperature i.e. PV = constant.
(c) The volume of a gas varies directly with
(a) (b)
temperature at constant pressure i.e. VT.
Time Time (d) The pressure of a gas varies directly with
volume at constant temperature i.e. PV.
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
10. The entropy of universe tends to be :
Temp

Temp

(a) Minimum (b) Zero

(c) (d) (c) Average (d) Maximum
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
Time Time
11. At what temperature, both Celsius and
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
Fahrenheit scales will show the identical
5. Consider t he fol lowing gr aph : readings ?
(a) 100° (b) 0°
(c) –40° (d) 40°
C D [RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
Temp °C

12. A closed thermodynamic system is one in which

A
B (a) There is no energy or mass transfer across
the boundary
0 (Calorie) Heat
(b) There is no mass transfer, but energy transfer
exists
Whi ch por t i on r epr esent s t he 'L at ent heat of
fusion'? (c) There is no energy transfer, but mass transfer
exists
(a) OA (b) AB
(d) Both energy and mass transfer take place
(c) BC (d) CD
across the boundary, but mass transfer is
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] controlled by valves
6. Which of t he fol lowing does not sublimat e? [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(a) I ce 13. Pressure reaches a value of absolute zero
(b) Ammoni um chlor i de (a) at a temperature of –273 K
(c) Naphthalene (b) under vacuum condition
(d) Camphor (c) at the earth's centre
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (d) when molecular momentum of system
7. The pressure exerted on the walls of a container becomes zero
by a gas is due to the fact that Gas molecules : [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]

(a) Stick to the walls of the container 14. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that
(b) Lose their kinetic energy (a) Two thermodynamic systems are always in
thermal equilibrium with each other
(c) Get accelerated towards the wall
(b) If two systems are in thermal equilibrium,
(d) Change their momentum due to collision with
then the third system will also be in thermal
the wall.
equilibrium
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(c) Two systems not in thermal equilibrium with
8. Zeroth Law of thermodynamics forms the basis a third system will also not be in thermal
of measurement. equilibrium with each other
(a) Pressure (b) Temperature (d) When two systems are in thermal equilibrium
(c) Work (d) Momentum with a third system they are in thermal
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] equilibrium with each other
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
 Thermal Engineering 8.53
15. In fluid flow, the line of constant piezometric head 23. Zeroth law of thermodynamics forms the basis
passes through two points which have the same of measurement of
(a) Elevation (b) Pressure (a) Pressure (b) Temperature
(c) Velocity (d) Velocity potential (c) Heat exchange (d) Work
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
16. A man is standing on a boat in still water. If he 24. Internal energy is defined by
walks in the boat towards the shore, the boat (a) Zeroth law of thermodynamics
will
(b) First law of thermodynamics
(a) move away from the shore
(c) Second law of thermodynamics
(b) remain stationary
(d) Law of entropy
(c) move towards the shore
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
(d) Sink
25. The given P-V diagram indicates following cycle
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
17. Relative Humidity is the percentage of the P1 1

(a) absolute humidity value to the amount of I se

n. e
xp .

Pressure
humidity actually present P4 4
(b) increase of humidity/absolute humidity P2 2
I se n
(c) amount of humidity actually present to the . co
mp
P3 .
absolute humidity 3
(d) None of these
V1 = V4 V2 = V3
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
Volume
18. Which of the following is an extensive property?
(a) Pressure (b) Heat capacity (a) Carnot cycle (b) Otto cycle
(c) Temperature (d) Specific volume (c) Diesel cycle (d) Dual cycle
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
26. Control volume refers to
19. Kelvin Planck’s law deals with
(a) A fixed region in space
(a) Conservation of heat
(b) A specified mass
(b) Conservation of heat
(c) An isolated system
(c) Conservation of heat into work
(d) A reversible process only
(d) Conservation of work into heat
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
27. All of the following are intensive properties
20. Turbine used for low head is
EXCEPT
(a) Kaplan turbine
(a) Mass (b) Density
(b) Francis turbine
(c) Pressure (d) Temperature
(c) Pelton Wheel turbine
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
(d) Propeller turbine
28. Kinematic viscosity of gases on increase of
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ] temperature
21. A system and its environment put together (a) Decreases
constitute
(b) Increases
(a) An adiabatic system
(c) Remains the same
(b) An isolated system
(d) First decreases then increases
(c) A segregated system [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
(d) A homogeneous system 29. First law of thermodynamics deals with
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
(a) Conservation of heat
22. Slope of constant volume line on temperature (b) Conservation of momentum
entropy diagram is given by
(c) Conservation of mass
(a) Cp/T (b) T/Cp
(d) Conservation of energy
(c) Cv/T (d) T/Cv
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
8.54 Thermal Engineering
30. An isothermal process is governed by (c) Third law of thermodynamics
(a) Boyle’s law (b) Charle’s law (d) Zeroth law of thermodynamics
(c) Gay-lussac’s law (d) Avogadro’s law [RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2015 27 th
AU G 2 nd
SH I FT ] 40. Isolated system indicates
31. Heat is closely related with (a) Mass of substance cross the boundary
(a) Energy (b) Temperature (b) Energy of substance cross the boundary
(c) Entropy (d) Enthalpy (c) Both mass and energy of substance cross
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ] the boundary
32. An engine operates between temperature limits (d) Both mass and energy substance does not
of 900 K and T2: and another between T2 and cross the boundary
400 K. For both the engines to be equally [RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
efficient. T2 should be equal to 41. The thermal diffusivity of a substance is given
(a) 600 K (b) 650 K by :
(c) 625 K (d) 700 K
K K
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ] (a) (b)
C C
33. Work done in a free expansion process is
(a) Zero (b) Positive KC C
(c) Negative (d) Maximum (c) (d)
 K
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
[Where K = Thermal conductivity; p = Mass
34. The internal energy of an ideal gas is density; C = Specific heat]
(a) A function of temperature only [RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(b) A function of pressure 42. Fins are provided on heat transferring surface
(c) A function of volume in order to increase :
(d) Both pressure and volume (a) Heat transfer area
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ] (b) Heat transfer coefficient
35. The process in which no heat enters or leaves (c) Temperature gradient
the system is called (d) Mechanical strength of the equipment
(a) Isobaric (b) Isothermal [RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]

(c) Isentropic (d) Isochoric 43. Heat is mainly transferred by conduction,

[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ] convection and radiation in
36. Economiser used in power plants is used to heat (a) Insulated pipes carrying hot water
(a) flue gases (b) intake air (b) Refrigerator freezer coil
(c) steam (d) feed water (c) Boiler furnaces
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ] (d) Condensation of steam in a condenser
37. Which of the following is a high head turbine [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]

(a) Propeller turbine 44. Heat transfer in liquids and gases is essentially
due to
(b) Francis turbine
(a) Conduction
(c) Kaplan turbine
(b) Convection
(d) Pelton wheel turbine
(c) Radiation
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
(d) Conduction and Radiation put together
38. Which one of following expression is true for
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
Tds equation
45. In which of the following mechanisms, is heat
(a) du – PdV (b) du + PdV
conducted in liquid and gas
(c) du – VdP (d) du + VdP
(a) Lattice vibration
[RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
(b) Transportation of free electrons
39. PMM1 is closely related with
(c) Collisions and diffusion
(a) First law of thermodynamics
(d) No heat conducted
(b) Second law of thermodynamics
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
 Thermal Engineering 8.55
46. An essential requirement for the transfer of heat 54. Metals are good conductor of heat because
from one body to another body is that (a) Their atoms collide frequently
(a) Both bodies must be solids (b) Their atoms are relatively far apart
(b) Both bodies must be in contact (c) They contain free electron
(c) Temperatures of the two bodies must be (d) They have high density
different [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
(d) Temperatures of the two bodies must be 55. Heat conduction in gases is due to
same
(a) Electromagnetic waves
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
(b) Motion of electrons
47. Stefen Boltzman law is applicable to
(c) Mixing motion of the different layers of the
(a) Gray body (b) White body
gas
(c) Black body (d) Blue body
(d) Elastic impact of molecules
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
48. Heat is transferred by conduction, convection 56. The heat flow through solids only by
and radiation in
(a) Conduction (b) Convection
(a) Insulated pipe carrying hot water
(c) Radiation (d) Does not flow
(b) Refrigerator freezer coils
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
(c) Melting of ice
57. A perfect black body is
(d) Boiler furnaces
(a) One which absorbs total radiant energy
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
(b) Black in colour
49. The concept of overall heat transfer is used in
the heat transfer in the case of (c) One which does not reflect the radiant
energy
(a) Conduction
(d) One which absorbs all radiant energy at all
(b) Convection
wavelengths
(c) Radiation [RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
(d) Combined mode of heat transfer of 58. Heat transfer by molecular collision in
conduction and convection
(a) Conduction (b) Convection
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
(c) Radiation (d) Scattering
50. The unit of thermal conductivity in S.I. unit is
[RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
(a) W/mK (b) W2/mK
59. Which one of the following have a highest
(c) W/m2K (d) W/m thermal conductivity
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ]
(a) Boiling water (b) Steam
51. All radiations in a black body are (c) Solid ice (d) Rain water
(a) Reflected (b) Refracted [RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
(c) Transmitted (d) Absorbed 60. The ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical
[RRB JE 2015 26 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ] conductivity is equal to
52. Fourier’s law of heat conduction gives the heat (a) Prandtl number
flow for (b) Schmidt number
(a) Irregular surfaces (c) Lorentz number
(b) Non-uniform temperature surfaces (d) Lewis number
(c) One dimensional cases only [RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
(d) Two dimensional cases only 61. The effectiveness of a fin will be maximum in
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ] an environment with
53. Absorptivity of a body is equal to its emissivity (a) Free convection
(a) For a polished body (b) Forced convection
(b) Under thermal equilibrium (c) Radiation
(c) At one particular temperature (d) Convection and radiation
(d) At shorter wavelengths [RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2015 27 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ]
8.56 Thermal Engineering
62. Which one of the following modes of heat 4. Which law of t her modynamics defines Ent r opy?
transfer would takes place predominantly from (a) Zer oth (b) Fir st
boiler furnace to water wall (c) Second (d) Thir d
(a) Convection [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(b) Conduction 5. I f a system in equilibr ium is subjected to a change
(c) Radiation of concent r at i on; t emper at ur e or pr essur e, t he
equilibrium shifts in a dir ection that tends to undo
(d) Conduction and Convection t he effect of t he change i mposed. This i s k nown
[RRB JE 2015 28 th AU G 3 rd SH I FT ] as:
63. Heat pipe is widely used now a days, use (a) L e Chat el ier 's Pr inciple
(a) It acts as an insulator (b) L aw of M ass Act i on
(b) It acts as conductor and insulator (c) Van der Waal s Pr inciple
(c) It acts as a superconductor (d) None of t hese
(d) It acts as afin [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]

[RRB JE 2015 29 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ] dQ
6. The val ue of  for an i r r ever sible pr ocess i s:
64. Ice is very close to a T
(a) L ess t han zer o (b) Gr eat er t han zer o
(a) Gray body
(c) Equal t o zer o (d) Any one of t hese
(b) Black body [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(c) White body 7. Which of t he fol lowi ng cycles is used i n t her mal
(d) Specular body power plant s ?
[RRB JE 2015 29 th AU G 1 st SH I FT ] (a) Rankine (b) Car not
65. In which one of the following materials is the (c) Ott o (d) Joule
heat propagation minimum due to conduction [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
heat transfer? 8. The char act er i st ic equat ion of Gases PV = nRT
(a) Lead (b) Copper holds good for :
(c) Water (d) Air (a) M onoat omi c Gases
(b) Di at omi c Gases
[RRB JE 2015 29 th AU G 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) I deal Gases
LEVEL-2 (d) Real Gases
1. Assume t hat a 1 t on air condit i oner is r equir ed [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
t o cool a r oom of size 14' × 14' × 14'. H ow many 1 9. For an I deal Gas, t he change in Ent halpy (H )
t on ACs woul d be r equir ed for a hall of size of 24' for an el ement al change i n t emper at ur e (T) i s
× 24' of t he same r oof hei ght as t hat of t he gi ven by:
pr evious r oom? (wher e Cp = H eat capacit y at Const ant Pr essur e;
CV = H eat capacit y at Const ant Vol ume)
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5 CP
(a) CV.T (b) .T
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] CV
2. Effi ciency of Car not cycle i s: CV
(c) .T (d) CP .T
CP
Q1 T
(a) 1  (b) 1  1 [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
Q1  Q 2 T2
10. A per fect gas at 27 °C i s heat ed at const ant
T1 Q1 pr essur e t i l l i t s vol ume i s doubl ed. The fi nal
(c) 1  (d) 1 
T1  T2 Q2 t emper at ur e is :
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (a) 54°C (b) 108°C
3. I n a buil di ng, wat er is t o be pumped t o a height (c) 327°C (d) 600°C
of 10m at t h e r at e of 1 l i t r e/second. Power [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
r equir ement woul d be appr ox: 11. Zer ot h law of t her modynami cs i s t he basi s of
(Tak e ‘g’ 10 m/scc2) (a) Pr essur e measur ement
(b) Temper at ur e measur ement
(a) 10 Wat t s (b) 100 Wat t s
(c) Densit y measur ement
(c) 500 Wat t s (d) 1 kW
(d) Vi scosi t y measur ement
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
 Thermal Engineering 8.57
12. A pr ocess i n whi ch no heat cr osses t he boundar y (c) Ther momet er
of t he syst em is call ed (d) H eat pump
(a) I deal pr ocess [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
(b) Adiabat ic pr ocess 22. "H eat al ways fl ows fr om a body at a hi gher
(c) I sot her mal pr ocess t emper at ur e t o a body at a lower t emper at ur e"
(d) I sobar i c pr ocess is t he st at ement of
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ] (a) Fi r st l aw of t her modynami cs
13. The ent halpy of a subst ance is defi ned as (b) Second law of t her modynami cs
(a) h = pv+RT (b) h = u+pT (c) Thir d l aw of t her modynami cs
(c) h = u+pv (d) h = u-pv (d) Zer ot h law of t her modynami cs
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]

14. Cycl ic int egr al of any pr oper t y is 23. The net wor k out put for any heat engi ne i s given
(a) Zer o (b) One by
(c) I nfinit e (d) Two (a) QL – QH (b) QL + QH
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) QH – QL (d) 2QL
15. The machi ne whi ch vi ol at es t he fi r st l aw of Wher e, QH = magnit ude of heat t r ansfer bet ween
t her modynami cs is k nown as heat engi ne and sour ce
(a) PMM-I (b) PMM-II QL = magnit ude of heat t r ansfer bet ween heat
engi ne and si nk
(c) PMM-I II (d) H eat engi ne
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
24. A cyclic device which pr oduces wor k continuously
16. The device in which t he wor k is done by t he fluid
at t he expense of heat i nput is k nown as
at t he expense of i t s ent hal py is k nown as
(a) Refr i ger at or (b) H eat pump
(a) Compr essor (b) Thr ot t ling devi ce
(c) H eat engi ne (d) Thr ot t li ng
(c) Tur bi ne (d) H eat exchanger
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
25. A li qui d for ms an i nt er face wit h anot her li quid
17. A device which incr eases t he vel ocit y of a fluid at
or gas; t he sur face ener gy per unit ar ea of t he
t he expense of i t s pr essur e dr op is known as
int er face is k nown as
(a) Diffuser (b) Nozzle
(a) Sur face t ensi on (b) Specific ener gy
(c) Thr ot t li ng devi ce (d) H eat t r ansfer
(c) Specific heat (d) Suct ion ener gy
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
18. The Pr andtl number for liquid, which has velocity
26. Accor di ng t o Dar cy's law, for l aminar fl ow in a
boundar y l ayer much t h i ck er t h an t her m al
sat ur at ed soil , t he r at e of fl ow is pr opor t ional t o
boundar y layer, is
t he
(a) Pr >> l (b) Pr <<1
(a) Cr oss sect i onal ar ea
(c) Pr  1 (d) Pr = 0
(b) H ydr aulic gr adient
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) Coefficient of per meabi li t y
19. A fluid flow i n which t he densi t y of t he fluid does
(d) Por osi t y of t he soil
not change dur ing flowing is called as
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
(a) I ncompr essible (b) Unifor m
27. The effi ci ency of per pet ual mot i on machine-l l
(c) Compr essible (d) Non-linear
(PMM -I I ) is
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(a) 0% (b) 50%
20. The for mat i on of bubbles of vapour i n a flowi ng
(c) 75% (d) 100%
fl ui d i s called as
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
(a) Cavit ation (b) Cor r osi on
28. A ther mal ener gy r eser voir t hat supplies the heat
(c) Gasification (d) Boiling
is k nown as
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(a) Refr iger at or (b) Sour ce
21. A lar ge body of infinit e heat capacit y is known as
(c) Sink (d) H eat engi ne
(a) Ther mal Ener gy Reser voir (TER)
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
(b) M echani cal ener gy r eser voi r (M ER)
8.58 Thermal Engineering
29. Ther mal efficiency of heat engine may be defined 34. The bendi ng of bimet alli c st r ips dur ing r ise in
as t emper at ur e is due t o di ffer ence i n t heir :
(a) l – (Q2/Q1) (b) 1 – Q1/Q2) (a) Coefficient of li near expansi on
(c) (Q1/Q2) 1 (d) (Q2/Q1) – 1 (b) Thick ness
Wher e, O1 = magnit ude of heat t r ansfer bet ween (c) Ther mal conduct ivit i es
heat engi ne and sour ce (d) Elast i c pr oper t ies
Q2 = magnit ude of heat t r ansfer bet ween heat [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
engi ne and sink.
35. St eady St at e H eat flow impli es
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
(a) negl igi bl e flow of heat
30. “ Th eor et i cal l i m i t s” f or t h e per for m an ce of
(b) no di ffer ence of t emper at ur e bet ween t he
com m on l y u sed en gi n eer i n g sy st em s i s
bodies
det er mi ned by
(a) Zer ot h law of t her modynami cs (c) const ant heat fl ow r at e i .e. heat fl ow r at e
independent of t i me
(b) Fi r st law of t her modynami cs
(d) unifor m r at e i n t emper at ur e r ise of a body
(c) Second law of t her modynami cs
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(d) Thir d law of t her modynami cs
36. Which of t he fol lowi ng fl uid flow condi t ions has
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
hi gh heat t r ansfer coeffici ent ?
31. Radi at i on of a bl ack body, i n t er m s of i t s
(a) Fr ee convect i on in air
t emper at ur e foll ows:
(a) Newt on's law of cooli ng (b) For ced convect i on in air
(b) Pl ank's l aw (c) Fr ee convect i on in wat er
(c) St efan's l aw (d) Condensat ion of st eam
(d) Ei nst ei n Bose equat i on [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]

[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] 37. The value solar const ant is
32. Consi der t hat t wo sol i d bodi es A and B ar e (a) 1353 k W/m 2 (b) 1353 W/m 2
t ou ch i n g each ot h er an d t r ansmi t t i ng h eat (c) 1353 J/m 2 (d) 135 k J/m 2
t hr ough conduct i on. I n t he gr aph bel ow, OX [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
r epr esent s t he fir st body and XY r epr esent s t he 38. "At t her mal equi libr i um, t he r at i o of t he t ot al
second body. em i ssi ve power t o t h e t ot al absor pt i vi t y i s
const ant for all bodies" is known as
T4
(a) K ir chhoff's law
T3 (b) Wi en's displacement l aw
T2 (c) M axwell 's t heor y
(d) St efan Bolt zmann law
T1 [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
O X Y 39. T h e su bst an ce f or w h i ch Pr an dt l n u m ber
St at e Tr ue (T) or Fal se(F). (Pr ) < < 1 is char act er ized by
1) Temper at ur e gr adient is mor e in A t han in B (a) H i gh r at e of heat diffusi on
2) The heat fl ow is det er mined by Four ier 's l aw (b) L ow r at e of heat di ffusi on
3) A r ea u n der t h e cu r v e r epr esen t s h eat (c) H i gh r at e of mass diffusi on
dissipat i on r at e. (d) L ow r at e of mass di ffusi on
(a) T, T, T (b) T, T, F [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
(c) T, F, T (d) F, F, T 40. The cr itical radius of insulation of cylinder is given
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] by
33. St efan Bol t zmann L aw i s appl i cabl e for heat (a) k /h (b) 2k/h
Tr ansfer by : (c) k/2h (d) k/4h
(a) Conduction (b) Convect i on [RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]

(c) Radiation (d) Al l of t hese

[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
 Thermal Engineering 8.59
41. M ax i m u m spect r al em i ssi v e pow er at 44. The peak fr equency at whi ch ener gy is r adi at ed
t emper at ur e (T) is pr opor t ional t o fr om a bl ackbody r adi at or is dependent on
(a) T 4 (b) T 5 (a) col or (b) distance
(c) T 5/2
(d) T 3 (c) int ensit y (d) t emper at ur e
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
42. The r adiation ener gy emit ted by the Sun between 45. H eat t r ansfer t ak es place accor ding t o
t he wavel engt h of 0.4 n t o 0.76 m is known as (a) Zer ot h L aw of Ther modynami cs
(a) ult r aviolet r adiat ion (b) Fi r st L aw of Ther modynami cs
(b) infr ar ed r adiat ion (c) Second L aw of Ther modynami cs
(c) t her mal r adiat ion (d) Thir d L aw of Ther modynamics.
(d) visible r adiat ion [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd
SEP 1 SH I FT ]
st

43. To r educe t he heat loss wit h i nsulat ion i n spher e

t he fol lowing condi t ion shoul d be sat isfi ed
(a) r i nsul at i on t hi ck ne >> r cr it ical
(b) r i nsul at i on t hick ness << r cr i t i cal
(c) r i nsulat ion t hi ck ness = r cr i t i cal
(d) r insulat ion t hick ness = 0
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (b) 25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (d) 28. (c) 29. (b) 30. (a)
31. (c) 32. (c) 33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (a) 37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (d) 40. (d)

LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (b) 29. (d) 30. (a)
31. (b) 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (c) 36. (d) 37. (d) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (d)
41. (b) 42. (a) 43. (c) 44. (b) 45. (c) 46. (c) 47. (c) 48. (d) 49. (d) 50. (a)
51. (d) 52. (c) 53. (b) 54. (a) 55. (d) 56. (a) 57. (d) 58. (b) 59. (c) 60. (c)
61. (a) 62. (c) 63. (c) 64. (b) 65. (d)

LEVEL-2
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (c) 25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (b) 29. (a) 30. (c)
31. (c) 32. (c) 33. (c) 34. (a) 35. (c) 36. (d) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (a) 40. (a)
41. (b) 42. (d) 43. (a) 44. (d) 45. (c)
8.60 Thermal Engineering
EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. An isochoric process, also called a constant-
volume process, an isovolumetric process, or an
isometric process, is a thermodynamic process
during which the volume of the closed system
undergoing such a process remains constant.
2. Coefficient of performance of a commercially used
refrigerator would be close to 1.5
3. Thermal equilibrium means that there is no heat
transfer going on between the bodies, which
simply means that the bodies are at the same
temperature. Heat content is a whole different
concept - it is the amount of heat contained in a
body, which is crucially dependent on mass.
4. Newton's law of cooling applies to convective heat
transfer; it does not apply to thermal
radiation.Newton's law of cooling states that the
rate of heat exchange between an object and its
surroundings is proportional to the difference in
temperature between the object and the
surroundings.
Temperature
100
80
60
40
20
Time
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
5. Latent heat process is a process in which
temperature remains constant and phase change
takes place.
6. Ice will not sublimate at atmospheric conditions.
7. Due to change in momentum.
8. The Zeroth law of thermodynamics is the basis
for measurement of temperature and setting its
scale. In simple word, Zeroth law of
thermodynamics says that "When two bodies are
separately in thermal equilibrium with the third
body, then the two are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other."
9. Boyle's law (sometimes referred to as the Boyle-
Mariottelaw, or Mariotte's law) is an
experimental gas law that describes how the
pressure of a gas tends to increase as the volume
of the container decreases.
10. Entropy seems to tend to some maximum value.
11. The formulas for converting between degree
Celsius and degree Fahrenheit are:
°F = (°C – 9/5) + 32
°C = (°F – 32) – 5/9
To find the temperature when both are equal, we
use an old algebra trick and just set ºF = ºC and
solve one of the equations.
°C = (°C × 9/5) + 32
°C – (°C × 9/5) = 32
–4/5 × °C = 32
°C = –32 × 5/4
°C = –40
°F = (°F × 9/5) + 32
°F - (°F × 9/5) = 32
-4/5 – °F = 32
°F = – 32 – 5/4
°F = –40
So the temperature when both the Celsius and
Fahrenheit scales are the same is -40 degrees.
12. There are mainly three types of system:
Open System: Both mass transfer and energy
transfer can take place.
Closed System: Only energy transfer can take
place.
Isolated System: Both mass transfer and energy
transfer can not take place.
13. Absolute pressure becomes zero when molecular
momentum of the system becomes zero.
14. The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if
two thermodynamic systems each are in thermal
equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other. Accordingly, thermal
equilibrium between systems is a transitive
relation.
15. In fluid flow, the line of constant piezometric head
passes through two points which have the same
Velocity.
16. The boat will start moving away from the shore.
17. Relative humidity is the ratio of the partial
pressure of water vapor to the equilibrium vapor
pressure of water at a given temperature. Relative
humidity depends on temperature and the
pressure of the system of interest. The same
amount of water vapor results in higher relative
humidity in cool air than warm air.
 Thermal Engineering 8.61
18. Pressure, temperature and specific volume are to its volume (V), provided that the temperature
intensive property. Heat capacity is an extensive of the gas remains constant.
property. Extensive property is a property of 31. Heat is closely related with temperature.
matter that changes as the amount of matter T1  T2 T1  T2
changes. 32. 
T1 T1 [Both engines equally efficient]
19. Kelvin Planck's law deals with conservation of
heat into work. 900  T2 T2  400
 
20. Kaplan turbine is used for low head. Low head
900 T2
turbines are those turbines with a head of 20  T2 = 600 Kelvin
metres (66 ft) or less to produce energy. 33. Work done in free expansion process is always
21. An isolated system does not exchange energy or zero.
matter with its surroundings. A system and its 34. Internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on
environment put together constitute an isolated temperature, not on pressure and volume.
system. 35. An isentropic process is an idealized
dT T thermodynamic process that is both adiabatic and
22. ds  C reversible. The work transfers of the system are
v
frictionless and there is no transfer of heat or
23. Zeroth law of thermodynamics forms the basis of matter.
measurement of temperature. It states that when 36. Economiser: Economizers are generally heat
two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third exchangers which are designed to exchange heat
body, then they are also in thermal equilibrium with the fluid, generally water.
with each other. 37. Pelton wheel turbine, turgo turbines are high
24. The first law of thermodynamics makes the use head turbine.
of the key concepts of internal energy, heat and
38. du =  Q –  W
system work.
 du  Tds – pdv
U  Q  W
U  Change in internal energy  Tds  du  pdv q1
Q  Heat added to the system 39. PMM1 is closely related with first law of
W  Work done by system thermodynamics. It violates the first law of
thermodynamics.
25. Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle
which consists of two isentropic (reversible Heat Heat
adiabatic) processes and two isochoric (constant
volume) processes.
26. Control volume: Control volume is a volume fixed
in space or moving with constant velocity through Work Work
which the fluid (gas or liquid) flows.
(a) PMM-1 (b) reversed PMM-1
27. Mass and volume are extensive properties.
Intensive properties are those properties that 40. Isolated system is a system that can not exchange
does not depend on the system size or the amount either energy or matter outside the boundaries
of material in the system, such as density, of the system.
pressure etc. LEVEL-1
28. If temperature increases, the kinematic viscosity
1. In heat transfer analysis, thermal diffusivity is
of gases increases.
the thermal conductivity divided by density and
29. First law of thermodynamics deals with specific heat capacity at constant pressure. It
conservation of energy. The law of conservation measures the rate of transfer of heat of a material
of energy states that the total energy of an isolated from the hot side to the cold side. It has the SI
system is constant; energy can be transformed derived unit of m²/s.
from one form to another, but can be neither
created nor destroyed. heat conducted k
 
30. Boyle's law: According to Boyle's law, the pressure heat stored  cp
(P) of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional
2. Fins are used to increase heat transfer rate.
8.62 Thermal Engineering
3. Heat is mainly transferred by conduction, L = Lorentz number
convection and radiation in Boiler furnaces.  = electrical conductivity
4. Heat can be transferred from one place to another K = Thermal conductivity
by three methods: conduction in solids, convection 21. Effectiveness of fin: Effectiveness of fin is defined
of fluids (liquids or gases), and radiation through as the ratio of actual heat transfer that takes
anything that will allow radiation to pass. The place from the fin to the heat that would be
method used to transfer heat is usually the one dissipated from the same surfaces area without
that is the most efficient. fin. It will be maximum with free convection.
5. Collisions and diffusion. 22. Radiation is the heat transfer due to emission of
6. Heat transfer between two bodies only takes place electromagnetic waves. From boiler furnace to
when temperature of one body is different from water wall, radiation modes of heat transfer takes
temperature of other body. place.
7. Stephan Boltzman law is applicable to black body, 23. Heat pipe acts as a superconductor. Heat pipes
theoretical surfaces that absorb all incident heat are transport mechanisms that can carry heat
radiation. fluxes ranging from 10 w/cm2 to 20 kw/cm2 at
8. Heat transfer takes place in boiler furnaces nearly the speed of sound (340 m/sec.)
through three modes, namely conduction, 24. Ice is very close to black body because ice is a
convection and radiation. very good absorber of radiation outside the visible
9. Overall heat transfer concept is used in the region.
cobined mode of heat transfer of conduction and 25. Because air has lowest value of thermal
convection. conductivity amongst given options.
10. Unit of thermal conductivity in S.I. unit i W/mk.
11. An object that absorbs all radiation falling on it,
LEVEL-2
at all wavelength is called a black body. 1. 1 t onne AC's r equir ed
for size of r oom = 14 × 14 × 14 = 2744 unit
12. Fourier's law of heat conduction is applicable only
for one dimensional cases. Now, for size of r oom = 24 × 24 × 14 = 8064 unit
So, number of t onne of AC's r equir ed
13. When the body is under thermal equilibrium, then
its absorptivity is equal to its emissivity. 8064
for t his   2.938 = 3 uni t (Appr ox)
14. Metallic bonds are made from a lattice of irons in 2744
a 'cloud' of free electrons. These free electrons 2. T 2 i s sour ce t emper at ur e
are responsible for the ability of metals to conduct T 1 is sink t emper at ur e
heat. Car n ot cy cl e ef f i ci en cy i s a f u n ct i on of
15. Heat conduction in gases is due to elastic impact t emper at ur e l imit s onl y.
of molecules.
T
16. In solids, flow of heat is through conduction heat car not  1  1
T2
transfer method.
17. Black body is that type of body which absorbs all 3. Given:
radiant energy at all wavelengths. H eight = 10 m
18. Convection is the heat transfer due to bulk Di schar ge(Q) Rat e = 1 l it r e/second
movement of molecules within fluids such as gases 1
and liquids. = m 3/sec 1
1000
19. Solid ice has highest thermal conductivity than
boiling water, steam and rain water. Thermal Wor k mgh
H er e, Power    Qgh
conductivity is evaluated primarily in terms of Time t
the Fourier's law for heat conduction.
PVgh
20. Lorentz number is defined as the ratio of thermal   PQgh
conductivity to electrical conductivity at a given t
temperature.
1
 10000   10  10
L
K 1000
T = 100 wat t
Where,

4. The second law of t her modynami cs st at es t hat
t he st at e of ent r opy of t he ent ir e uni ver se, as an
isol at ed syst em, wi ll al ways incr ease over t ime.
The second law also st at es t hat t he changes in
t h e en t r opy i n t h e u n i v er se can n ev er be
negat i ve.
5. L e-chat el ier 's pr inci ple: A pr i nci pl e st at i ng t hat
i f a const r aint (such as a change i n pr essur e,
t emper at ur e or concent r at ion of a r eact ant ) is
appl i ed t o a sy st em i n equ i l i br i u m t h e
equi libr i um wi ll shift so as t o t end t o count er act
t he effect of t he const r aint .
dQ
6. Value of  for an i r r ever i sble pr ocess i s less
T boundar y l ayer much t h i ck er t h an t her m al
t han zer o.
7. Rank ine cycle is used i n t her mal power plant s.
8. I deal Gas equat i on is given by PV  nRT
9. The change in ent halpy(  H ) is given by, Cp.  T..
10. T 1 = 27 + 273 = 300K
V1 = V
V 2 = 2V
T2 = ?
By using,
P1 V1 P2 V2
 t her modynamic co-or di nat es.
T1 T2
Gi ven, P1 = P2
V1 V1
So,  and heat does not fl ow in t he opposit e dir ect i on
T1 T2
V 2V
 
300 T2
 T 2 = 300 × 2 = 600K = (600 – 273) °C = 327°C
11. The zer oth law is incr edibly impor tant as it allows
us t o define t he concept of t emper at ur e scale. I f
two systems ar e each in ther mal equilibr ium with
t hir d, t hey ar e al so in t her mal equil ibr ium wi t h
each ot her.
12. I n t her modynamics, an adi abat i c pr ocess is one
t hat occur s wi t hout t r ansfer of heat or mass of
substances between a thermodynamic system and
it s sur r oundings. I n an adiabat ic pr ocess, ener gy
is t r ansfer r ed t o t he sur r oundi ng only as wor k.
13. Ent hal py of a syst em is equal t o t he syst em’s
int er nal ener gy pl us t he pr oduct of i t s pr essur e
and vol ume.
h = u + pv
Thermal Engineering 8.63
14. Cycl ic int egr al of any pr oper t y i s zer o.
15. PM M -I  PM M -I st ands for per pet ual mot i on
machine-I . I t is a hypot het ical machine whi ch
can pr oduce useful ener gy (wor k) wi t hout any
sour ce or which can pr oduce mor e ener gy t han
con su m ed. I t v i ol at es t h e f i r st l aw of
t her modynami cs.
16. Tur bine i s a device designed t o do wor k at t he
expense of a decr ease i n eit her t he ent halpy of a
fl ui d or t he k inet i c ener gy of t he fluid or bot h.
17. Nozzle incr eases t he velocit y of t he fluid at t he
expense of it s pr essur e dr op.
18. Pr andt l number for li qui d, whi ch has vel ocit y
boundar y layer, i s gi ven by “ Pr >> 1” .
19. I ncompr essible fluid is a fluid whose density does
n ot ch an ge wh en t h e pr essur e chan ges. I n
i ncompr essi bl e fl ow, t he mat er i al densi t y i s
const ant wit hi n a flui d par cel.
20. For mat ion of bubbl es of vapour in a fl owing fluid
is cal led as cavit at ion.
21. Ther mal Ener gy Reser voi r : A t her mal ener gy
r eser voi r (TER) i s defi ned as a l ar ge body of
i n f i n i t e h eat capaci t y, wh i ch i s capabl e of
absor bi ng or r eject ing an unlimit ed quant it y of
heat without suffer ing appr eciable changes in it s
22. Second law of t her modynami cs st at es t hat heat
f l ows n at u r al l y f r om an obj ect at a hi gh er
t emper atur e t o an object at a lower t emper at ur e,
of i t s own.
23. QH – QL
wher e,
QH = M agnit ude of heat t r ansfer bet ween heat
engi ne and sour ce.
QL = magnit ude of heat t r ansfer bet ween heat
engi ne and sink.
24. H eat Engi ne: A heat engi ne i s a devi ce t hat
conver t s chemi cal ener gy t o heat or t her mal
ener gy and t hen t o mechani cal ener gy or t o
el ect r i cal ener gy. I t i s a cycl i c devi ce whi ch
pr oduces wor k cont i nuousl y at t he expense of
heat input .
25. Sur face Tension: Sur face t ension is measur ed as
t he ener gy r equi r ed t o incr ease t he sur face ar ea
of a li quid by a unit of ar ea. The sur face t ensi on
of a l i qu i d r esu l t s f r om an i m bal an ce of
i nt er mol ecul ar at t r act i ve for ces, t he cohesi ve
for ces bet ween t he molecules.
8.64 Thermal Engineering
26. H ydr aul ic Gr adient : The hydr aul ic gr adient is a 29. Thermal efficiency of Heat engine,
vect or gr adi ent bet ween t wo or mor e hydr aul ic
head measur ement s over t he lengt h of t he fl ow Wnet Qnet Q
th   1 2
pat h. Accor di ng t o dar cy’s l aw, for l aminar fl ow Q1 Q1 Q1
in a sat ur ated soil, the r at e of flow is pr opor t ional
where, Q2  Heat rejected
t o hydr auli c gr adient .
Q1  Heat supplied
27. P M M – II Machines are those machines which
violate the second law of thermodynamics
Source T1
because such machines will absorb continuously
heat energy from a single thermal reservoir and
will convert the aborbed heat energy completely Q
into work energy.
P M M II efficiency is approximately 100% Heat
engine W

Heat Source
Q2

Q Sink T2

 T2
PMM-2 W=Q Also,  th (rev.cycle) = 1
T1
28. Source is a thermal energy reservoir that supplies 30. Second law of thermodynamics is used in
the heat and Sink is a thermal energy reservoir determining the thererical limits for the the
that receives the heat. performance of commonly used engineering
systems, such as heat engines and refrigerators
etc.
 PRACTI CE PAPER
CBT-I
M ATH EM ATI CS 9. If (cos2A – sinA)(sinA + cos2A) = –1, then find the
value of 2 + cos2A.
1. Ratio of the time taken by A alone to complete a (a) 0 (b) sec2A
certain piece of work while that by B and C to (c) 1 (d) 2
complete the same work together is 4 : 3. If the time
10. If four interior angles of a pentagon are 140°, 90°, 70°
taken by C to complete the work alone is 8 days
and 80°, then find the value of the fifth interior angle.
and the ratio of the efficiencies of B and C is 1 : 3,
then find the time in which A and B can complete (a) 20° (b) 160°
the work while working together. (c) 140° (d) 40°

(a) 4.5 days (b) 6 days cosA

11. Find the value of secA(secA + tanA + )–
(c) 7.5 days (d) 8 days 1+sinA
2. The length of each side of a rhombus is 29 cm while 2tan2A.
that of one of the diagonals is 40 cm. What will be (a) 0 (b) 1
the area of the rhombus? (c) 2 (d) 3
(a) 840 cm2 (b) 880 cm2
(2 × 8n+1 + 4 × 23n – 1 )
(c) 820 cm2 (d) 800 cm2 12. Find the value of for n = 2.
(4 × 22n +1 – 2 × 42n +1 )
3. Three successive discounts of 15%, 12.5%, and 20%
are equivalent to a single discount of 3 3
(a) (b) –
(a) 38.5% (b) 41.5% 4 4
(c) 39.8% (d) 40.5%
3 3
4. A and B together have Rs.2,448. If 25% of A's amount (c) (d) 
5 5
is equal to 35% of B's amount, then find the amount
with A. 13. If the average age of sixteen students is 18.5 years
and the average age of these students along with
(a) Rs. 1,020 (b) Rs. 1,428
their teacher is 22 years, then find the age of the
(c) Rs. 1,462 (d) Rs. 1,468 teacher?
5. If the cost price of 50 articles is equal to the selling (a) 58 years (b) 78 years
price of 40 articles, then find the profit or loss percent. (c) 68 years (d) 76 years
(a) 20% (b) 16.67%
(c) 25% (d) 33.33% 1 1
14. If b + = –1 , then find the value of b9  15 .
b b
6. A’s income is 25% more than B’s income while C’s
income is 20% more than B's income. By what (a) 2 (b) –1
percent is A’s income more or less than C's income? (c) 1 (d) 0
(a) 5.26% (b) 4.16% 15. Medians BE and CF of ABC intersects at point O.
(c) 4.28% (d) 4.46% P and Q are the midpoints of BO and CO
7. In what time will a 143 m long train running at the respectively.If PQ = 3.5 cm, then find the length of
rate of 45 km/hr cross a man coming towards it at BC.
the rate of 4.5 km/hr? (a) 3.5 cm (b) 7 cm
(a) 11.4 sec (b) 10.4 sec (c) 10.5 cm (d) 4.5 cm
(c) 11.64 sec (d) 10.64 sec 16. In triangle PQR, S and T are the points on PQ and
PR respectively, such that ST is parallel to QR and
8. If B : A + (A 2 +B 2 ) = 2 : 3 then find the value of PS : SQ = 3 : 2. If RT = 5 cm, then find the ratio of
B : A. the areas of triangle PST and quadrilateral STRQ.
(a) 8 : 15 (b) 24 : 7 (a) 9 : 4 (b) 9 : 25
(c) 12 : 5 (d) 6 : 8 (c) 16 : 25 (d) 9 : 16
2 PRACTICE CBT-I

17. If Rs. 14,600 amounts to Rs. 16,404.56 invested in 25. The difference of a number consisting of three different
compound interest (compounded annually) for two digits from the number formed by reversing the digits
years, then the rate of interest is is always divisible by
(a) 5% (b) 6% (a) 9 (b) 10
(c) 7% (d) 8% (c) 11 (d) Both (a) and (c)
18. From the top of a tower 40 3 meters high the angle 26. Pipe A can empty a tank in 12 minutes, pipe B can
of depression of the top and bottom of a pole are empty the tank in 18 minutes while the pipe C can
observed to be 45° and 60° respectively. If the pole empty the tank in 36 minutes. In how much time the
and tower stand on the same plane, then find the tank will be empty if all three pipes are opened together?
distance between the top of the tower and that of the (a) 22 minutes (b) 10 minutes
pole. (c) 6 minutes (d) 5 minutes
(a) 20 3 m (b) 20 2 m 27. A circle is inscribed in an equilateral triangle of side
6 cm. A square is inscribed in this circle, then the
(c) 40 2 m (d) 8.6 m area of the square (in cm2) is
19. A person borrows `33,000 at 20% compound interest. (a) 12 (b) 6
How much he has to pay equally at the end of each (c) 18 (d) 24
year, to settle his loan in two years? 28. A conical vessel of base radius 9 cm and height 8
(a) `22,450 (b) `21,600 cm is filled with milk. If the milk leaks through a hole
(c) `17,000 (d) `19,600 at the bottom of the conical vessel into a cylindrical
20. A faulty clock shows correct time at 6 a.m. It lags jar of radius 3 cm, then find the level of the milk in
1sec at the end of every 10 sec. What will be the the jar after the milk has leaked completly.
time shown by the clock at 9 p.m.? (a) 12 cm (b) 15 cm
(a) 7:00 p.m. (b) 7:30 p.m. (c) 24 cm (d) 27 cm
(c) 8:00 p.m. (d) 8:30 p.m. 1
29. A shopkeeper sells an article at 12 % loss. If he
21. Given that x2 – y2 = 60. If x = 6 + y, then the average 2
sells it for `51.80 more, then he gains 6%. What is
of x and y is the cost price of the article?
(a) 10 (b) 6 (a) `210 (b) `240
(c) 5 (d) 3 (c) `280 (d) `300
1 30. Ramesh travelled from city A to city B, in which he
22. What is the value of x, if x  ?
3 1
3 travelled 42 km by motorcycle and th of the total
4
5 4
7 distance by car. If the rest 40% of the distance is
5
2 travelled in a bus, then what is the total distance?
31 31 (a) 100 km (b) 120 km
(a) (b)
110 101 (c) 140 km (d) 160 km
41 3 GEN ERAL I N TELLI GEN CE
(c) (d)
101 11 & REASON I N G
a 1 b 2 12a2  8c 2 31. A series is given, with one term missing. Choose the
23. If  and  , then is equal to
b 4 c 3 33a2  c 2 correct alternative from the given ones that will
(a) –4 (b) –1 complete the series.
2 DNP, ELS, FJV, ___?___
(c) 0 (d)
17 (a) GHZ (b) HHY
24. O is the incentre of the ΔABC. From point O a (c) GIW (d) GHY
perpendicular is drop on side BC such that 32. A series is given, with one term missing. Choose the
perpendicular meets BC at point P. If BOP  39, correct alternative from the given ones that will
complete the series.
then ABC is
8, 15, 29, 50, 78, ___?___
(a) 39° (b) 78°
(a) 110 (b) 113
(c) 51° (d) 102°
(c) 118 (d) 115
 PRACTICE CBT-I 3

33. Pointing to a picture, Seetha said, “ The only son of (a) B (b) Y
this lady’s mother is my father”. How is the lady (c) O (d) W
related to Seetha’s mother?
41. Which of the following figures correctly represents
(a) Daughter-in-law (b) Sister-in-law
the relation between: e-payment modes, paytm and
(c) Mother (d) Sister cash.
34. A, B, C, D and E are standing at distinct positions
in a straight line with three of them facing North and
the rest facing South. B is equidistant from C and E,
who are at a distance of 60 m from each other facing
South. E is equidistant from B and D. A is at a (a) (b)
distance of 10 m from C’s right. A is not at any extreme
end. What is the distance between A and E?
(a) 40 m (b) 30 m
(c) 60 m (d) 50 m
35. If UP = 37 and BUS = 42, then CUT = ?
(a) 44 (b) 24
(c) 43 (d) 34 (c) (d)

36. If + means ÷ , ÷ means –, – means × and × means

+ , what will be the value of the following expression:
5 × 3 – 12 + 4 ÷ 2 = ?
Directions: In question nos. 42 and 43, select the related
(a) 5 (b) 9
letter/word from the given alternatives.
(c) 12 (d) 20
42. F-L : I-O :: P-V : ?
37. In this question, some equations are solved on the
(a) R-Y (b) S-X
basis of a certain system. On the same basis find
out amongst the four alternatives for the unsolved (c) S-Y (d) R-W
equation. 43. Baboon : Infant :: Beaver : ?
5 × 8 × 3 = 358, 9 × 4 × 0 = 094, 2 × 3 × 4 = ? (a) Kitten (b) Kid
(a) 243 (b) 423 (c) Joey (d) Fawn
(c) 324 (d) 432 44. Which one set of letters when sequentially placed at
38. Select the missing number from the given responses. the gaps in the given letter series will complete it?
a_bab_aab_bcaa_abc
23 27 31
54 55 56 (a) bbab (b) bcab
70 85 100 (c) abac (d) acab
1 15 ? Directions: In question nos. 45 to 48, find the odd word/
(a) 37 (b) 30 number from the given alternatives.
(c) 29 (d) 130 45. (a) French Beans (b) Gourd
39. Sundar started from his house at sunrise and cycled (c) Pumpkin (d) Jackfruit
100 m in the direction of the rising sun, then he turned 46. (a) 325 (b) 118
left and rode for 400 m. He then turned westward (c) 272 (d) 253
and cycled for another 500 m and finally turning left
47. (a) Solar energy (b) Biomass
rode 100 m. How far is Sundar from his house?
(c) Fossil fuel (d) Radiant energy
(a) 400 m (b) 500 m
48. (a) Man (b) Whale
(c) 300 m (d) 600 m
(c) Hen (d) Seal
40. Four positions of a cube are shown in the diagram.
49. Karan is taller than Mukesh and is shorter than Anil.
Which letter is opposite to ‘G’ in the given cube?
Rakesh is shorter than Sunil, who in turn is shorter
than Anil. Who is the tallest?
R G B Y (a) Anil (b) Sunil
G B Y B Y O G W (c) Mukesh (d) Karan
 4 PRACTICE CBT-I

50. In the following question, the number of letters 55. Choose from the following diagrams (A), (B), (C) and
skipped in between adjacent letters in the series is (D) the one that illustrates the relationships among
consecutive odd numbers. Which of the following three given classes:
series observes this rule? Europe, London, United Kingdom
(a) B D G J P (b) C E I O V
Answer figures:
(c) D F J P X (d) E G K P X
51. A man and his wife have four sons and three daughters.
All four sons are married and have five children each. (a) (b)
Find the total number of members in the family.
(a) 33 (b) 25
(c) 28 (d) 29 (c) (d)
Directions: In question nos. 52 and 53, one/two
statements are given followed by two/three conclusions I, GEN ERAL AWAREN ESS
II and III. You have to consider the statements to be true
56. The first Indian foreign policy was formulated by:
even if they seem to be at variance with commonly known
facts. You are to decide which of the given conclusions (a) Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar
can definitely be drawn from the given statements. (b) Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru
52. Statements: (c) Indira Gandhi
I. All gloves are things. (d) Babu Jagjivan Ram
II. Some gloves are warm. 57. How many women members were there in the Indian
Conclusions: Constituent Assembly?
I. All gloves are warm. (a) 6 (b) 9
II. All warm are things. (c) 11 (d) 15
III. Some warm are things. 58. Which among the following was the port city during
Indus Valley Civilization?
(a) Only conclusion III follows
(a) Kalibanga (b) Lothal
(b) Only conclusion I follows
(c) Banawali (d) Ropar
(c) Only conclusion II follows
59. Gautama Buddha preached his last sermon at:
(d) None follows
(a) Rajgriha (b) Pataliputra
53. Statement:
(c) Kundalgrama (d) Vaishali
People succeed when they work hard.
60. Cairo, Dublin and Lima are examples of:
Conclusions:
(a) Enclaves (b) Edge Cities
I. Only hard work leads to success.
(c) Primate Cities (d) World Class Cities
II. Honesty does not lead to success.
61. Mughal Emperor Jahangir tomb is located at which
(a) Only conclusion I follows
of the following place?
(b) Only conclusion II follows
(a) Agra (b) Karachi
(c) Both conclusions I and II follow
(c) Kabul (d) Lahore
(d) Neither conclusion I nor II follows
62. Who among the following plays Mohan Veena (slide
54. Which figure represents the relationship among guitar)?
Universe, Planets, Galaxies?
(a) A.R.Rehman
(b) Sushmit Sen
(a) (b) (c) Vishwa Mohan Bhatt
(d) Ehsaan Noorani
63. ECOMARC is related with:
(a) Goods Exported
(c) (d)
(b) Goods Imported
(c) Goods Safe for Environment
(d) Only processed food
 PRACTICE CBT-I 5

64. Maanch is a lyrical folk drama that is very popular in: 73. Cracking in brass is caused by
(a) Odisha (b) Madhya Pradesh (a) Ammonia
(c) Chhattisgarh (d) Jharkhand (b) Nitric acid
65. Which soil types of Indialack fertility due to intensive (c) Hydrogen peroxide
leaching?
(d) Sulphuric acid
(a) Red Soil (b) Laterite Soil
74. Which logic gate is a ‘universal gate’?
(c) Black Soil (d) AlluvialSoil
(a) NAND gate (b) AND gate
66. The world's first Hindi speaking realistic humanoid
robot has been developed by: (c) XOR gate (d) OR gate
(a) Ajay Srivastava (b) Pradeep Kumar 75. Strip cropping helps to stop
(c) Ranjit Srivastava (d) Pankuj Sharma (a) Air pollution (b) Soil erosion
67. Name the women cricket player, who is the world's (c) Water pollution (d) Marine pollution
highest wicket-taker in ODIs format. 76. Which part of the human eye acts as an aperture?
(a) Cathryn Lorraine Fitzpatrick (a) Retina (b) Pupil
(b) Jhulan Goswami
(c) Sclera (d) Cornea
(c) Betty Wilson
77. The manufacture of chlorofluorocarbon compounds
(d) Diana Edulji has been phased out under the
68. International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone
(a) Kyoto protocol
Layer is observed every year on 16th September.
The theme for International Day for the Preservation (b) Montreal protocol
of the Ozone Layer 2018 was: (c) Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
(a) Keep Cool and Carry On: The Montreal Protocol Pollutants
(b) Protect Ozone layer for future generations (d) Protocol to the Convention on Long-range
(c) Unite for the protection of Ozone layer Transboundary Air Pollution on the Control of
(d) No to pollutants and save to Ozone layer Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds
69. What is the India rank in the Press Freedom Index 78. Which coating of mucins gives them considerable
2018 released by Reporters Without Borders (RSF)? water-holding capacity and makes them resistant
to proteolysis?
(a) 140 (b) 138
(c) 150 (d) 128 (a) Fat coating (b) Sugar coating
70. Who has become the first non-classical or jazz artist (c) Protein coating (d) Glycoprotein coating
to win Pulitzer Prize for music recently? 79. The scientific method of dating based on the analysis
(a) Kendrick Lamar (b) Caroline Shaw of patterns of tree rings is known as
(c) Kevin Puts (d) Henry Threadgill (a) Dendrology (b) Dendrochronology
GEN ERAL SCI EN CE (c) Chronology (d) Acanthochronology
71. The disadvantages of liquid propellants are 80. Which fossil species/genus is transitional between
(a) Difficult to store and handle feathered dinosaurs and modern birds?
(b) Extreme toxicity (a) Vampyronassa (b) Cladoselache
(c) Moderately cryogenic (c) Archaeopteryx (d) Rhyniognatha
(d) All of these 81. Which of the following is useful in ice-cream making?
72. ‘ABO’ blood group is known to be a ‘Universal (a) Agar-Agar (b) Algal extract
Recipient’ because (c) Algal bloom (d) Algal excreta
(a) antibody A and B both are present in AB blood 82. Which of the following ecological pyramid is not
group inverted?
(b) no antigen is present in AB blood group (a) Energy pyramid
(c) antigen A and B both are present in AB blood (b) Pyramid of numbers
group
(c) Ecological pyramid of biomass
(d) no antibody is present in AB blood group
(d) All of these
6 PRACTICE CBT-I

83. Which hormone regulates blood pressure and water 92. Which among the following converts mechanical
(fluid) balance in human beings? energy into electrical energy?
(a) Rennin (b) Renin-angiotensin (a) Tube Light (b) Solar Cell
(c) Thyroid (d) Parathyroid (c) Candle (d) Dynamo
84. Dengue is caused by the 93. Which of the following are also called as the
amphibians of the plant kingdom?
(a) Virus (b) Bacteria
(a) Lichens (b) Algae
(c) Nematode (d) Protozoan
(c) Mosses (d) Ferns
85. Parasitic plants have a modified root known as
94. Which of the following is not an example of Igneous
(a) Haustorium (b) Vellum
rocks?
(c) Prop roots (d) Pneumatophore (a) Granite (b) Basalt
86. The study of teeth is referred to as (c) Obsidian (d) Limestone
(a) Osteology (b) Archaeology 95. Which of the following chemicals is used in food
(c) Opthalmology (d) Otolaryngology preservation?
87. Photography Exposure is measured in (a) Sodium benzoate (b) Diclofenac
(a) Lux seconds (b) Candela (c) Azadirachtin (d) Sodium thiopental
96. Which of the following are examples of total internal
(c) Roentgen (d) Decibels
reflection?
88. The rise in temperature in the stratosphere is caused
(a) extreme shining in diamond
by the absorption of
(b) Looming
(a) Ultra violet radiations
(c) Mirage
(b) Infra red radiations (d) All of the above
(c) Visible spectrum 97. When a comet travels close to the sun, the ice which
(d) Ions present in the stratosphere melts in the direction of its propagation is called:
89. Nasonov pheromone is emitted by the (a) Coma (b) Croma
(a) Ants (b) Queen bees (c) Nebula (d) Parabola

(c) Worker bees (d) Drones 98. Date of manufacture of food items fried in oil should
checked before buying because oil becomes rancid
90. Which of the following gas is used as a popular due to:
recreational drug?
(a) Oxidation (b) Reduction
(a) Neon (b) Helium
(c) Hydrogenation (d) Decrease in viscosity
(c) Nitrous oxide (d) MIC
99. Which of the following is not caused by any virus?
91. Which of the following gas is used for artificial ripening
(a) Measles (b) Mumps
of fruits?
(c) Botulism (d) Poliomyelitis
(a) Ethylene (b) Methane
100. Which is the oldest technique of food preservation?
(c) Propane (d) Butane
(a) Refrigeration (b) Sugaring
(c) Pickling (d) Drying
 PRACTICE CBT-I 7

AN SWERS
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (b)

11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (d) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (b)

21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (d) 26. (c) 27. (b) 28. (c) 29. (c) 30. (b)

31. (d) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (c) 37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (c)

41. (d) 42. (c) 43. (a) 44. (d) 45. (d) 46. (c) 47. (c) 48. (c) 49. (a) 50. (c)

51. (a) 52. (a) 53. (d) 54. (d) 55. (c) 56. (b) 57. (d) 58. (b) 59. (d) 60. (c)

61. (d) 62. (c) 63. (c) 64. (b) 65. (b) 66. (c) 67. (b) 68. (a) 69. (b) 70. (a)

71. (d) 72. (d) 73. (a) 74. (a) 75. (b) 76. (b) 77. (b) 78. (b) 79. (b) 80. (c)

81. (a) 82. (a) 83. (b) 84. (a) 85. (a) 86. (a) 87. (a) 88. (a) 89. (c) 90. (c)

91. (a) 92. (d) 93. (c) 94. (d) 95. (a) 96. (d) 97. (a) 98. (a) 99. (c) 100. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
1. (b) Let the total work be 8 × 3 = 24 units. 4. (b) 25% of A = 35% of B
 Work done by C in 1 day = 3 units and that A:B=7:5
by B = 1 unit.
7
Thus, time taken by B and C together = 6 days Hence, required amount = × 2448
12
while that by A alone = 8 days.
= Rs. 1,428.
 Work done by A in 1 day = 3 units
s
5. (c) Let the selling price of 1 article be Re.1
24  Cost price of 50 articles = Rs. 40 and their
Hence, required time = = 6 days.
4 selling price = Rs. 50
Hence, there would be profit equivalent to
2. (a) D C
50 – 40
cm × 100 = 25%.
20 40
6. (b) Let the income of B = Rs. 100
cm O
20  A's income = Rs. 125 and C's income
= Rs. 120
A 29 cm B Hence, required percentage
AB2 = AO2 + OB2
125 – 120
 292 = 202 + OB2 = × 100 = 4.16%.
120
 OB = 21 cm
7. (b) Relative speed = 45 + 4.5 = 49.5 km/hr
Hence, required area
5
1 = 49.5 × = 13.75 m/s
= 4 × 2 × 21 × 20 = 840 cm2. 18

17 7 4 119 143
3. (d) x × × × = = 59.5% of x Hence, required time = = 10.4 seconds.
20 8 5 200 13.75

Hence, required discount = 40.5%. 8. (c) Going through the options we get the required
answer as 12 : 5.
8 PRACTICE CBT-I

9. (d) (cos2A - sinA)(sinA + cos2A) = –1 Using mid-point theorem:

 cos4A - sin2A = –1 BC = 7 cm.
 cos4A + cos2A = 0 16. (d) P
 cos2A (cos2A + 1) = 0
3h
Since cos2A can never be negative in the given
5
range thus A = 90° and (cos2A + 2) = 2.
S 3x T
10. (b) Let the fifth angle be x°.
2h
Sum of all the exterior angles of any polygon is 5
always 360°. Q 5x R
 (180 – 140)° + (180 – 90)° + (180 – 70)° +
(180 – 80)° + (180 – x)° = 360° Required ratio

Hence, x = 160°. 2

Area of  PST

 3x  
9
.
cosA Area of  STRQ  5x  2   3x 2 16
11. (c) Putting A = 45° in secA(secA + tanA + )
1 + sinA
2
– 2tan2A, we get the required value as 2.  r 
17. (b) 14600 ×  1+ = 16,404.56
 100 
n+1 3n–1
(2 × 8 +4×2 )
12. (d) 2n +1 2n+1  r = 6%.
(4 × 2 –2×4 )
18. (c) E
45°
(23n + 4 + 23n + 1 ) 60°
= 2n + 3 4n + 3
(2 –2 )

D C
(210 + 27 )
3
= 7 11
=– .
(2 – 2 ) 5
40 3 m
13. (b) Age of the teacher = 17 × 22 – 16 × 18.5
= 78 years.

1 A B
14. (a) b + = –1
b
In ABE ,
 b2 + b + 1 = 0
 (b – 1) (b2 + b + 1) = 0 AB
tan30   AB  40 m
 b3 = 1 40 3

1 In EDC ,
 b9  15
 2.
b 40
sin 45   EC  40 2 m
15. (b) A EC
19. (b) Let the amount be `x. Then,

  20   20 
E  33000  1  100   x  1  100   x
F
O
x5 6
P Q   x  33000 
3.5 cm 6 5
B C
 PRACTICE CBT-I 9

11 b 2
 x  39600 and =
6 c 3
 x = `21,600.  a : b : c= 1 : 4 : 6
20. (b) Difference between the two time limits
12a2  8c 2 12  12  8  62
= 15 hrs. = 15 × 60 × 60 = 54000 sec  =
33a2  c 2 33  12  62
 Lag at the end of 54000 sec
12 1  24
= 5400 sec = 1 hr 30 min =  4.
3 11  12
Hence, the time shown = 7:30 p.m.
21. (c) Given x – y =6 24. (d) A
2 2
and x – y = 60,
therefore, x + y= 10
O
x  y 10
Hence, the average of x and y =  = 5.
2 2 B P C

1 ABO = OBP
22. (a) x =
3
3 ABC
4 =
5 2
7
5
2 and OBP = 90  BOP
= 90  39  51
1
 x= Hence, ABC = 2  51  102.
3
3 25. (d) Let the 3 digit number be 100x + 10y + z. Then,
4
5
17 (100z + 10y + x) – (100x + 10y + z)
2 = 99(z – x) = 9 × 11 × a number.
26. (c) Let the capacity of the tank be (LCM of 12, 18
1 and 36) 36 units. Then,
 x=
3 36
3
8 Pipe A empties = 3 units, pipe B empties
5 12
17
36 36
= 2 units while pipe C empties = 1 unit
1 18 36
 x= from the tank in 1 minute.
3
3
93
36
17 Hence, required time = = 6 minutes.
3  21
27. (b) Let ‘r’ be the radius of the circle and ‘a’ be the
1
 x= length of the side of the square. Then, ‘r’ is the
51
3 inradius of the equilateral triangle.
93
6
 r=  3 cm
93 31 2 3
 x=  .
330 110
 Diameter= 2r = 2 3 cm
a 1  Diameter of the circle = Diagonal of the square
23. (a) =
b 4
 Diagonal of the square = 2 3 cm
10 PRACTICE CBT-I

36. (c) 12
2 3
 Side of the square =  6 cm 37. (b) 423
2
38. (c) The middle column is the average of the other
2 two columns in each row.
Hence, area of the square   6 2
 6 cm .

28. (c) Let the level of the milk in the jar be ‘h’. Then, 39. (b) 500 m
volume of the conical vessel
100 m
= volume of the cylinder jar
50 400 m
0m
1 2 2
   9   8 =   3  h 300 m
3
100 m
 h = 24 cm. 400 m house
29. (c) Let the cost price be `x. Then,

12.5  6 x Using Pythogoras theorem, distance from house

= 51.80
100
= 3002  4002 = 500 m.
 x = 280.
42. (c) +3
30. (b) Let the distance between city A and city B be x +3
km. Then,
F L I O
x 2x +6 +6
42   =x
4 5
Similarly,

42 
 5  8 x +3
 =x +3
20
 x = 120. P V S Y
+6 +6
1 1 1
31. (d) D  E  F  G 43. (a) The young one of a baboon is called an infant
while the young one of a beaver is called a kitten.
2 2 2
N 
 L 
 J 
H Hence, option (A) is the correct answer.
3 3 3 44. (d) The series is a,ab,abc,a,ab,abc,…
P 
 S 
 V 
Y
45. (d) Gourd, Pumpkin and French Beans grow on vines
32. (b) 8 + 7 = 15 while Jackfruit grows on trees. Hence, option (d)
15 + 14 = 29 is the answer.
29 + 21 = 50 46. (c) Sum of the digits of 272 is 11. While in rest of
50 + 28 = 78 the three options, sum of the digits of the numbers
78 + 35 = 113 is 10.

33. (b) The lady in the picture in Seetha’s father’s sister. 47. (c) Fossil fuel is the answer since it is a non
So she is Seetha’s mother’s sister-in-law. renewable source of energy, while energy
resources in options (a), (b) and (d) are renewable
34. (d) 30 m energy sources.
D E B A C
48. (c) Animals in options (a), (b) and (d) are mammals
30m 30m 10m while hen is a bird. Hence, option (c) is the correct
(A who is not at the extreme end of the row) answer.
Distance between A and E = 50 m. 49. (a) The order of the heights of five given persons will
be:
35. (a) UP = 37, B U S = 2 + 21 + 19 = 42
Anil > Karan >Mukesh and Anil > Sunil > Rakesh
 C U T = 3 + 21 + 20 = 44
Hence, Anil is the tallest among the five.

50. (c) In the series D F J P X the number of letters
skipped between adjacent letters is consecutive
odd numbers starting from 1.
2 4 6 8
D 
 F 
 J 
 P 
X
51. (a) Total members = 2 + 3 + 4 × 2 + 4 × 5 = 33.
52. (a)
Things
Warm
Gloves
As is clear from the Venn diagram, only
conclusion (III) follows. Hence, option (a) is the
correct answer.
53. (d) The given statement shows a cause and effect
relationship. It says that when people work hard,
they succeed. Neither does the statement say
anything about hard work being the only way to
succeed nor does it say anything about any other
way that will or will not lead to success. Therefore,
we can say that none of the conclusions follow.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
54. (d) Universe contains millions of galaxies and each
galaxy contains millions of stars and planets.
55. (c) London is a part of United Kingdom and United
Kingdom is a part of Europe.
56. (b) India's first foreign policy was conducted under
the guidance of Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first
Prime Minister of independent India.
57. (d) Among the 299 members of the assembly, 15
were women who had either been voted or chosen
to represent their provinces, who left their mark
on the making of the republic.
59. (d) Lord Buddha delivered his last sermon in Vaishali,
informing his disciples about his impending
Mahaparinirvana and his desire to go to
Kushinagar.
60. (c) A primate city is a major city that works as the
financial, political, and population center of a
country and is not rivaled in any of these aspects
by any other city in that country. Normally, a
primate city must be at least twice as populous
as the second largest city in the country.
61. (d) The tombof Jahangir is located in Shahdara, a
suburb of Lahore to the northwest of the city.
62. (c) Vishwa Mohan Bhatt plays Mohan Veena (slide
guitar).
64. (b) Maanch is a lyrical folk drama and a form of
operatic ballet that is very popular in Malwa region
of Madhya Pradesh.
PRACTICE CBT-I 11
66. (c) The world's first Hindi speaking realistic humanoid
robot has been developed by Ranjit Srivastava.
The robot has been named as Rashmi. The
developer hailing from Ranchi claimed that
Rashmi can speak Hindi, Bhojpuri, and Marathi
along with English. The Humanoid Robot uses
linguistic interpretation (LI), artificial intelligence
(AI), visual data and facial recognition systems,
the developer said.
67. (b) Veteran Indian women's team pacer Jhulan
Goswami announced her retirement from T20
Internationals. The 35-year-old will only play ODIs
(as India don't play Test cricket), in which format
she is the world's highest wicket-taker with 200
scalps from 169 games.
68. (a) International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone
Layer is observed every year on 16th September
throughout the world. The theme for International
Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer 2018
was 'Keep Cool and Carry On: The Montreal
Protocol'.
69. (b) India's ranking in the Press Freedom Index has
fallen two places to 138, in an annual report of
Reporters Without Borders (RSF), blaming
"physical violence" against journalists like Gauri
Lankesh as the key reason behind the country's
low ranking. Norway topped the list of having the
world's freest press for the second year in a row,
the Reporters Without Borders (RSF) said while
North Korea remained the most repressive
country followed by Eritrea, Turkmenistan, Syria
and then China.
70. (a) Kendrick Lamar becomes the first rapper to win
Pulitzer Prize for music.
71. (d) The main difficulties with liquid propellants are
with the oxidizers. These are generally at least
moderately difficult to store and handle due to
their low reactivity with common materials, may
have extreme toxicity (nitric acids), moderately
cryogenic (liquid oxygen), or both.
73. (a) Brass is an alloy made of copper and zinc; the
proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to
create a range of brasses with varying properties.
Cracking in brass caused by ammonia attack.
74. (a) The NAND gate is a logic gate used to build
digital logic circuits. Given two inputs, A and B, A
NAND B will be true if at most one of A and B is
true. In other words, A NAND B is false if both A
and B are true, and true otherwise. The NAND
gate is a “universal gate.”
75. (b) Strip cropping is a method of farming used when
a slope is too steep or too long, or otherwise,
12 PRACTICE CBT-I
when one does not have an alternative method of
preventing soil erosion.
76. (b) The eye includes a lens not dissimilar to lenses
found in optical instruments such as cameras
and the same principles can be applied.
The pupil of the human eye is its aperture; the
iris is the diaphragm that serves as the aperture
stop.
77. (b) A chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is an organic
compound that contains only carbon, chlorine,
and fluorine, produced as a volatile derivative
of methane, ethane, and propane. They are also
commonly known by the DuPont brand
name Freon. The manufacture of such
compounds has been phased out under
the Montreal Protocol.
78. (b) The dense “sugar coating” of mucins gives them
considerable water-holding capacity and makes
them resistant to proteolysis.
79. (b) Dendrochronology or tree-ring dating, is the
scientific method of dating based on the analysis
of patterns of tree rings, also known as growth
rings. Dendrochronology can date the time at
which tree rings were formed, in many types of
wood, to the exact calendar year.
80. (c) Archaeopteryx was an early bird that is transitional
between feathered dinosaurs and modern birds.
81. (a) Agar is derived from the polysaccharide agarose,
which forms the supporting structure in the cell
walls of certain species of algae, and which is
released on boiling.
82. (a) The pyramid of energy is drawn after taking into
consideration the total quantity of energy utilized
by the trophic levels in an ecosystem over a period.
As the quantity of energy available for utilization in
successive trophic levels is always less because
there is loss of energy in each transfer, the energy
pyramid will always be upright.
83. (b) The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) or the renin-
angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is a
hormone system that regulates blood pressure
and water (fluid) balance. If the renin-angiotensin-
aldosterone system is abnormally active, blood
pressure will be too high.
84. (a) Dengue fever also known as break bone fever, is
an infectious tropical disease caused by the
dengue virus. Dengue is transmitted by several
species of mosquito within the genus Aedes,
principally A. aegypti.
85. (a) Parasitic plants have a modified root, the
haustorium, that penetrates the host plant and
connects to the xylem, phloem, or both. Haustoria
do not penetrate the host’s cell membranes.
86. (a) The study of bones and teeth is referred to as
osteology.
87. (a) In photography, exposure is the quantity of light
reaching a photographic film, as determined by
shutter speed and lens aperture. Exposure is
measured in Lux seconds, and can be computed
from exposure value (EV) and scene luminance in
a specified region.
88. (a) The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of
Earth’s atmosphere. The stratosphere contains
the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth’s
atmosphere that contains relatively high
concentrations of ozone. Abrupt rise in
temperature is caused by the absorption of
ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun
by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and
mixing.
89. (c) Nasonov pheromone is emitted by the worker
bees and used for orientation.
 PRACTI CE PAPER
CBT-I I
GEN ERAL AWAREN ESS 8. The slogan of Asian Games I ncheon 2014 was
1. "Khalsa" was founded by- (a) Gr een, Cl ean and Fr iendship
(a) Gur u Gobind Singh (b) We Cheer, We Shar e, We Win
(b) Gur u Ramdas (c) Di ver si t y Shines her e
(c) Gur u Nanak (d) The Games of Your L i fe
(d) Gur u Ar jun Dev 9. What ar e t he t hr ee val ues cher i shed by t he
2. "M ahabhar at a" t he epic was wr it t en by- Commonweal t h Games?
(a) Vyasa (b) Kalidasa (a) Get Set , Go, and Pl ay .
(c) Tulsidasa (d) Valmiki (b) Fast er, H igher, St r onger.
(c) Di ver sit y Shi nes her e.
3. An int er pr et at ion of t he I ndian Const it ut ion is
based on t he spir it of t he- (d) H umanit y, Equali t y, Dest iny.
(a) Fundament al r ight s 10. What is t he li kely change t hat For ei gn Di r ect
I n v est m en t w i l l br i n g abou t i n I n d i an
(b) Fundament al dut ies
H or t icul t ur e?
(c) Pr eamble
(a) I ncr eased use of fer t ili zer and hybr id seeds.
(d) Dir ective pr inciples
(b) Sl owing down of or ganic far mi ng .
4. To be eligible for member ship of t he L ok Sabha, (c) M or e invest ment in fl or i cult ur e in hil l r eas.
a per son should be at least :
(d) Expansion of ar ea under plant at i on
(a) 18 year s of age
11. Wh at i n for mat i on does t h e Gr oss Dom est i c
(b) 30 year s of age Pr oduct not show?
(c) 35 year s of age (a) Cont r ibut ion of industr y t owar ds t he national
(d) 25 year s of age I ncome
5. Sever al nat ions ar e following a pr ot ocol which (b) Expendi t ur e on goods and ser vi ces by t he
bi nds t hem t o r educe emi ssi on t ar get s. Thi s gover nment
pr ot ocol was adopt ed in: (c) I ncome di st r ibut ion acr oss di ffer ent sect ions
(a) K yoto, Japan (b) Geneva, Swit zer land of t he populat ion.
(c) New Yor k, USA (d) Par is, Fr ance (d) Pur chasing power of t he people in a count r y.
12. H ow do e- commer ce vent ur es bui ld up t r ust of
6. Which of these r ocks would have alumina as their
t he buyer s i n t heir goods?
main component ?
(a) Cash on deli ver yfacility
(a) Siliceous (b) Ar gillaceous
(b) Ensur e a flexi ble r et ur n poli cy
(c) Calcar eous (d) I gneous
(c) Bet t er adver t ising
7. M at ch Col . X (Spor t sper son) and Col. Y (Spor t s): (d) Pr ompt deli ver y
Col. X Col. Y 13. Which of t he following celebr it ies was r ecent ly
P. Jitu Rai 1. Badmint on appoint ed as "Br and Ambassador " of Telengana?
Q. H eena Sidhu 2. Wr est li ng (a) Deepika Pallikal
R. Jwala Gut t a 3. Shoot ing (b) WS L axman
S. Yogeshwar Dut t (c) Saina Nehwal
(a) P-3; Q-3, R-1, S-2 (d) Sania Mir za
(b) P-2. Q-3, R-1, S-2 14. BK S I yengar, who di ed r ecent l y, was a wor l d
(c) P-2. Q-2. R-1. S-3 r enowned
(d) P-3, Q-1. R-1. S-2 (a) Yoga Gur u (b) Ar tist
(c) Folk Singer (d) Film Dir ect or
2 PRACTICE PAPER CBT-II

15. Which Count r y has r ecent ly launched "Gandhi 23. Which one of t he foll owing i s cor r ect ?
I nspir ed Tour ist At t r act ion Pr oject " ? The speci fic vol ume of wat er when heat ed fr om
(a) England (b) Sout h Afr ica 0°C
(c) USA (d) Japan (a) fi r st incr eases and t hen decr eases

PH YSI CS & CH EM I STRY (b) fi r st decr eases and t hen incr eases
(c) incr eases st eadily
16. Which of t he fol lowi ng is used as a moder at or in
nucl ear r eact or s ? (d) decr eases st eadily
(a) H ar d wat er (b) M i ner al wat er 24. Whi ch of t he fol l owi ng i s t he most aci di c i n
(c) Deioni zed wat er (d) H eavy wat er nat ur e?
17. A particle moves along a circular path with constant (a) Phenol
speed. What is t he nat ur e of it s accel er at i on ?
(b) 2-Nit r ophenol
(a) I t i s zer o
(c) 3- Nit r ophenol
(b) I t i s U ni for m
(c) I t s dir ect ion changes (d) 2,4- Dinit r ophenol
(d) I t s magnit ude changes 25. What is t he coor dinat ion number of zinc in t he
18. A body i s at r est on t he sur face of t he ear t h. complex ion [ Zn (OH )4(H 2O)2] 2– ?
Which of t he fol lowing St at ement s i s cor r ect ? (a) 6 (b) 4
(a) No for ce is act i ng on t he body (c) 2 (d) 0
(b) Only weight of t he body act s on it
26. Addi t i on of 5 gr ams of sol ut e A (mol ecul ar
(c) Net downward force is equal to net upward force
mass=100) t o 100 gr ams of solvent B causes t he
(d) None of t hese i s cor r ect same elevat ion of boiling point as t he addit ion of
19. The Speci fic H eat of t he gas in an i sot her mal 10 gr ams of solut e C t o 200 gr ams of t he same
pr ocess is sol vent B. What i s t he mol ecul ar mass of t he
(a) Zer o (b) I nfinite solut e C?
(c) Negat ive (d) Remai ns const ant (a) 200 (b) 50
20. I n a Simple H ar monic Oscil lat or, at t he mean
(c) 150 (d) 100
position
(a) Kinetic Ener gy is minimum, Potential Ener gy 27. Which of t he following pair of molecules of t he
is maximum compounds wi l l r eact t oget her i n pr esence of
(b) Bot h K i net i c and Pot ent i al Ener gi es ar e sodi u m h y dr ox i de sol u t i on u n der su i t abl e
maximum con di t i on s t o pr odu ce a m i x t u r e of f ou r
(c) K i n et i c E n er gy i s m ax i m u m . Pot en t i al compounds?
Ener gy is minimum (a) CH 3CH 2CHO + CH 3CH 2CHO
(d) Bot h K i net i c and Pot ent i al Ener gi es ar e (b) CH 3CH O + CH 3CHO
minimum (c) CH 3CHO + CH 3CH 2CHO
21. M i r age is a phenomenon due t o
(d) CH 3CH O + C6H 5CHO
(a) Refl ect ion of l ight
28. The cor r ect st at ement concer ning t he molecule
(b) Refr act ion of l ight
of ammonia is
(c) Tot al I nt er nal r eflect i on of l ight
(d Diffr act ion of li ght (a) I t is a V- shaped molecule.
22. Which of t he fol lowi ng cannot be speed-t ime (v-t (b) The H -N-H bond angle ar e less t han 109°-28´.
gr aph of a body in mot i on ? (c) The r epulsion bet ween pair and bond pair s of
v v electrons is less than that bond pair- bond pair.
(d) I t s shape is t et r ahedr al wit h lone pair s in t wo
(a) (b positions.
o t o t 29. I n an indust r ial ar ea, a sample of 10 lit r es of air
v was found t o cont ain ml of sulphur dioxide gas.
The concent r at ion of sulphur dioxide gas in air
(c) (d) in ppm is
o t o (a) 300 (b) 400
t
(c) 500 (d) 600
 PRACTICE PAPER CBT-II 3

30. For t he r eact ion 2NO, (g)  N 2O4(g) + 60kJ, an 39. Consi der i ng X and Y as bi nar y var i abl es, t he
incr ease in t emper at ur e will equi val ent Boolean expr ession for (X.Y)' is
(a) X '+Y (b) X + Y '
(a) favour t he decomposit ion of N 2O4
(c) X ' + Y ' (d) X '.Y '
(b) favour t he for mat ion of N 2O4
40. ‘C’ i s a_________________
(c) r esult in t he for mat ion of a differ ent r eact ion
(a) L ow-level pr ogr ammi ng l anguage
pr oduct
(b) H igh-level pr ogr ammi ng l anguage
(d) st op t he r eact ion.
(c) Assembly language
BASI C OF COM PU TERS
(d) M achine language
& APPLI CATI ON S BASI CS OF EN VI RON M EN T &
31. Which of the following st atement s about Machine
POL L U T I ON S
language is cor r ect ?
(a) M achine l anguage is machine dependent 41. The green house gases as per their decreasing
order of effectiveness are
(b) M achi ne language i s machine i ndependent
(c) M achine l anguage is easier t han high-l evel (a) CFC, N2O, CO2, CH4
language t o wr it e pr ogr ams (b) CO2, CH4, N2O and CFC
(d) M ach i n e l an gu age pr ogr am s r equ i r e (c) CH4, CO2, N2O and CFC
assembler (d) CFC, CH4, CO2, and N2O
32. H TTP st ands for 42. In villages, to disinfect the well water, the most
(a) H yper Text Tr ansmi ssi on Pr ot ocol common disinfectant used is
(b) H yper Text Tr ansfer Pr ogr am (a) silver and bromine
(c) H yper Text Tr ansfer Pr ot ocol (b) potassium permanganate
(d) H yper Text Tr ansmission Pr ogr am (c) iodine solution
33. A Vi r us can not ____________________ (d) chlorine and bromine
(a) St eal har d disk space 43. The carbon monoxide causes
(b) St eal CPU t i me (a) coughing and choking problem in respiratory
(c) L og keyst r ok es system
(d) I ncr ease/decr ease t he wor d lengt h of CPU (b) broncho-constriction
34. Which of t he fol lowing is not a val id cat egor y of (c) headache, vomiting, slurring of speech
Read Only M emor y (ROM )? convulsions, coma and death
(a) PROM (b) EPROM (d) chronic bronchitis followed by asthma
(c) EE PROM (d) EEEPROM 44. An octave band is a frequency band with upper
35. The 16's compl iment of t he hexadecimal number and lower cut-off frequencies having a ratio of
(A10)16 is (a) 3 (b) 4
(a) (5FO)16 (b) (5EO)16 (c) 2 (d) 5
(c) (5EF)16 (d) (6FO)16 45. The CO2 concentration in the atmosphere was
36. Which of t he fol lowi ng wor ks on t he pr i nci pl e of 355 ppm in 1990 that is increasing at a rate of
‘l ocal it y of r efer ence'? (a) 1.00 ppm
(a) RAM (b) ROM (b) 1.5 ppm
(c) Cache memor y (d) Associat i ve memor y (c) 0.50 ppm
37. Which of t he fol lowing i s a r eal t ime oper at i ng (d) 0.20 ppm
syst em?
46. The amount of oxygen required to decompose
(a) MS-Windows (b) Linux the organics under strong acidic conditions is
(c) Unix (d) QNX called
38. Consider i ng l's compl ement r epr esent at ion for (a) chemical oxygen demand
negat ive number s, -126 wil l be st or ed int o an 8
(b) biochemical oxygen demand
bi t memor y space as
(c) biological oxygen demand
(a) 10000001 (b) 11111111
(d) theoretical oxygen demand
(c) 10111110 (d) 11100001
4 PRACTICE PAPER CBT-II

47. The photochemical smog is 4. T h e h or se pow er t r an sm i t t ed by a bel t i s

(a) criteria pollutant dependent upon
(b) primary pollutant (a) t ensi on on t i ght and sl ack si de of t he bel t
(c) secondary pollutant (T 1, T 2)
(d) carcinogenic pollutant (b) r adius of t he pulley (R)
48. The A - weight scale covers sounds of frequencies (c) speed of t he pulley (N)
from (d) all of t hese
(a) 800 to 3000 HZ 5. Which of t he following has no unit
(b) 500 to 2000 HZ
(a) kinemat ic viscosit y
(c) 1000 to 3000 HZ
(b) sur face t ension
(d) 1200 to 4000 HZ
(c) bulk modulus
49. The rain water turned acidic when its pH falls
below (d) str ain
(a) 7.0 (b) 6.5 6. M I S st ands for
(c) 5.6 (d) 5.2 (a) milit ar y inspect ion scheme
50. In case of air pollution, the most affected part of (b) management infor mat ion syst em
vegetation is (c) management int elligence syst em
(a) stems of vegetation (d) management infor mat ion syst em
(b) roots of vegetation 7. Two spr i n gs h avi n g spr i n g con st an t k an d
(c) leaves of vegetation ar r angement as shown i n fi gur e. Equi val ent
(d) fruits of vegetation spr ing const ant keq is
M ECH AN I CAL
k k
1. I n a t ensi l e t est on mi l d st eel speci men, t he m

br eaking st r ess as compar ed t o ult imat e t ensile

st r ess is
(a) mor e (a) k/2 (b) k
(b) less (c) 2k (d) 4k
(c) same 8. ABC analysis deals wit h
(d) may have any value (a) analysis of pr ocess char t
2. Cavit at ion occur s in cent r ifugal pumps when t he (b) flow of mat er ial
suct ion pr essur e is
(c) schedule of job
(a) equal t o t he vapour pr essur e of t he liquid at
t he t emper at ur e (d) cont r olling invent or y cost s money

(b) less t han t he vopour pr essur e of t he liquid at 9. The r elat ion bet ween moduleus of Elast icit y (E),
t he t emper at ur e modulus of r igidit y (G) and Bulk modulus (K ) is
given by
(c) mor e t han t he vapour pr essur e of t he liquid
at t he t emper at ur e 6K G 9K G
(a) E = (b) E =
(d) none of t he above G  9K G  3K
3. For applicat ion involving high dischar ge and low
pr essur e G  9K G  3K
(c) E = (d) E =
3K G 9K G
(a) a cent r i fugal pump wit h bl ades of for war d
cur vat ur e 10. The r at io of elongat ion in a pr ismat ic bar due t o
(b) a cent r ifugal pump wit h blades of backwar d its own weight (W) as compar ed to another similar
cur vat ur e bar car r ying an addit ional weight (W) will be
(c) an axial flow pump (a) 1 : 2 (b) 1 : 3
(d) a r ecipr ocat ing pump (c) 1 : 4 (d) 1 : 2.5
 PRACTICE PAPER CBT-II 5

11. Pr oduction schedule does not pr ovide infor mation (c) a fixed beam car rying a unifor mly var ying load
about (d) none of t hese
(a) pr oduct ion schedule 19. A st andar d ice point t emper at ur e cor r esponds t o
(b) mater ial handling t he t emper at ur e of
(c) both (a) and (b) (a) wat er at 0°C
(d) none of t hese (b) ice at – 4°C
12. The buckling load for a given mat er ial depends (c) solid and dr y ice
on (d) mixt ur e of ice and wat er under equilibr ium
(a) salender ness r at io and ar ea of cr oss-sect ion condit ions
(b) poisson’s r at io and modulus of elast icit y 20. Reheat fact or is always
(c) slender ness r at io and modulus of elast icit y (a) gr eat er t han 1 (b) less t han 1
(d) slender ness r at io, ar ea of cr oss-secit on and (c) equal t o 1 (d) none of t hese
modulus of elast icit y 21. The cr ippling load accor ding t o Euler 's t heor y of
13. Whi ch t ype of t hr ead can t r anhsmit power i n long column, when bot h ends of t he column ar e
eit her dir ect ion hinged is equal t o
(a) acme (b) squar e
 2 EI 4  2 EI
(c) but tr ess (d) BSW (a) (b)
4l 2 l2
14. St r ess r elaxat ion is t he phenomenon
(a) st r ess r educes on incr easing load  2 EI 2 2 EI
(c) (d)
(b) in which par t s ar e not loaded l2 l2
(c) in which str ess r emains constant on increasing 22. Cur t is Tur bine is a
load
(a) pr essur e compounded impulse t ur bine
(d) in which defor mat ion tends t o loosen the joint
(b) velocit y compounded t ur bine
and pr educes a st r ess r educt ion
(c) pr essur e-velocit y compounded tur bine
15. The cor iolis component of acceler ation exist s only
whenever a point (d) velocit y compounded impulse t ur bine
(a) moves in a st r aight line 23. The Gr ubl er 's cr i t er i on for det er mi ni ng t he
degr ee of fr eedom (n) of a mechanism having
(b) m ov es al on g a st r ai gh t l i n e w h i ch h as
plane mot ion is
r ot at ional mot ion
(a) n = (l – 1) – j (b) n = 2(l – 1) – 2j
(c) moves along a cir cular pat h
(c) n = 3(l – 1) – 2j (d) n = 4(l – 1) – 2j
(d) none of t hese
24. Vapour compr ession r efr iger at ion is some what
16. Tot al ener gy line is .......... t he hydr aulic gr adient
li ke
line
(a) Car not cycle
(a) above (b) below
(b) Rankine cycle
(c) same (d) none of t he above
(c) r ever sed car not cycle
17. I f a shaft subject ed to bot h t ension T and bending
moment M , t hen maximum shear st r ess is (d) none of t he above
25. For mult iple clut ch, t he no of discs ont he dr iving
16 2 2 16 2 2 shaft is n1 and no. of discs on t he dr iven shaft is
(a) M T (b) M T
d 3 d 3 n2 t hen no. of pair s of cont act sur faces (n) is
(a) n = n 1 + n 2 (b) n = n 1 – n 2
32 32
(c) M 2  T2 (d) M 2  T2 (c) n = n 1 + n 2 – 1 (d) n = n 1 + n 2 + 1
d 3 d 3
26. St r ain is defined as t he r at io of
18. The point of cont r aflexur e does not occur s in
(a) a fixed beam car r ying a unifor mly distr ibuted (a) change in volume t o or iginal volume
load (b) change in lengt h t o or iginal lengt h
(b) a simply suppor ted beam car r ying a unifor mly (c) change in cross-sectional ar ea to or iginal cross-
distr ibuted load sect ional ar ea
(d) any one of t he above
6 PRACTICE PAPER CBT-II

27. I n r egen er at i v e ai r pr eh eat er , t h e h eat i s 34. I n Tayl or 's Rel at i on for t ool l i fe i s gi ven by
tr ansfer r ed VT n = C, wher e n has t he highest value for
(a) fr om a met al wall t hr ough one medi um t o (a) high speed st eel t ools
anot her (b) car bide t ools
(b) fr om heat ing on int er mediat e mat er ial and (c) cer amic t ools
t hen heat ing t he air fr om t his mat er ial
(d) none of t hese
(c) by dir ect mixing
35. Unifor m sand har dness is obt ained t hr oughout
(d) heat is t r ansfer r ed by bleeding some gas fr om t he mould by following moulding pr ocess
fur nace
(a) jolt
28. Ther mal r adiat ion ext ends over t he r ange of
(b) sand slinger
(a) 0.01 t o 0.1  (b) 100 t o 250 
(c) diaphr agm moulding
(c) 0.1 t o 100  (d) 250 t o 1000 
(d) squeezing
29. Deflect ion on a simply suppor t ed beam having
36. The vapour compr ession r efr iger at or employs t he
point load at t he cent r e is
following cycle
Wl 3 Wl 3 (a) r ankine (b) car not
(a) (b)
8EI 48EI (c) r ever sed r ankine (d) r ever sed car not
37. I n M ohr 's cir cle, point on t he cir le gives
Wl 3 5Wl 3 (a) hydr ost at ic compr ession
(c) (d)
3EI 384
(b) hydr ost at ic t ension
30. H ooke’s law holds good upt o (c) shear st r ess
(a) yield point (d) all of t hese
(b) limit of pr opor t ionalit y 38. M inimum number of t eet h t o avoid int er fer ence
(c) br eaking point is .......... for a pr essur e angle of 20
(d) elast ic limit (a) 16 (b) 17
31. For low clear ance volume in st eam engine, t he (c) 18 (d) 32
pr ocess most suit able is 39. M aximum fluct uat ion of speed is given by
(a) pV 1.2 = const ant (b) pV = const ant (a) r at io of maximum and minimum speed
(c) pV r = const ant (d) pV 1.5 = const ant (b) di f f er en ce bet w een t h e m ax i m u m an d
32. For a r efr iger at ion syst em if T 1 and T 2 ar e t he minimum speed
l i mi t i ng t emper at ur e (T 1 > T 2 ) and W i s t he (c) r at io of maximum fluct uat ion of speed t o t he
wor kdone on t he syst em, t hen heat input t o t he mean speed
syst em is
(d) di f f er en ce bet w een t h e m ax i m u m an d
T1 W T1  T2 minimum ener gy
(a) T  T (b) W
1 2 T1 40. The condensing pr essur e due t o t he pr esence of
non condemnabl e gases, as compar ed t o t hat
T1  T2 T2 W act ually r equir ed for condensing t emper at ur es
(c) W (d) T  T wit hout non condemnable gases.
T2 1 2
(a) will be higher
33. Unifor m flow is given by t he r elat ion
(b) will be lower
v v (c) will r emain unaffect ed
(a) 0 (b) 0
t s (d) unpr edictable
41. The lowest speed is used in
v v
(c)  const ant (d)  const ant (a) knur ling (b) t aper t ur ning
s t
(c) bor ing (d) thr eading
 PRACTICE PAPER CBT-II 7

42. I n wir e dr awing t he pr ess used is 51. A st eam pipe is t o be insulat ed by t wo mat er ials
(a) knukle pr ess having ther mal conductivities K 1 and K 2 such that
(K 1 < K 2 ) so, for bet t er insulat ion
(b) t oggle pr ess
(a) K 1 should be put over pipe and K 2 over it
(c) double act ion pr ess
(b) K 2 should be put over pipe and K 1 over it
(d) none of t hese
(c) K 1 and K 2 may be put in any or der
43. When t he vent ur imet er is i ncl ined t hen what (d) none of t hese
happens t o t he r eading
52. Viscous for ce is pr opor t ional t o
(a) incr eases (a) shear st r ess due t o viscosit y
(b) decr eases (b) coefficient of viscosit y
(c) r emains t he same (c) ar ea of t he pipe
(d) it is not applicable t o vent ur imet er (d) none of t hese
44. Dr aft t ube is used 53. A r efr iger at or cycle oper at es bet ween condenser
(a) to tr anspor t water downstream without eddies t emper at ur e of + 27 C and evapor at or t em-
(b) t o conver t t he kinet ic ener gy t o flow ener gy per at ur e of – 23C. The C.O.P. of t he cycle is
by a gr adual expansi on of t he fl ow cr oss (a) 0.2 (b) 1.2
sect ion (c) 5 (d) 6
(c) for safet y of t he t ur bine 54. I n cet ane number t he new r efer ence t aken is
(d) t o incr ease flow r at e
(a) hept amethylnonane
45. Ammonia-absor ption r efr iger ation cycle r equir es
(b) -methyl napt halene
(a) ver y lit t le wor k input
(c) n - hept ane
(b) maximum wor k input
(d) iso-oct ane
(c) zer o wor k input
55. D om est i c r ef r i ger at or w or k i n g on v apou r
(d) none of t he above
compr essi on cycl e uses t he fol l owi ng t ype of
46. A t her mal power plant designed to oper ate in cold expansion device
climat e is oper at ed is hot climat e it will develop
(a) elect r ically oper at ed t hr ot t ling valve
(a) less power
(b) manually oper at ed valve
(b) mor e power
(c) t her most at ic valve
(c) same power
(d) capillar y t ube
(d) mor e or less depending on t he size
47. A r el at i on bet ween t her modynami c boundar y 56. Fins ar e used t o
layer and hydr odynamic boundar y layer exists in (a) incr ease t he ar ea
(a) Reynold's number (b) Pr andt e’s number (b) heat accumulat ion
(c) Nusselt ’s number (d) Euler ’s number (c) t o incr ease t he sur face ar ea of heat t r ansfer
48. The r elat ive coefficient of per for mance is (d) none of t hese
(a) act ual COP/t heor et ical COP 57. Tds = dH - Vdp is applicat ion t o
(b) t heor ect ical COP/act ual COP (a) closed syst em
(c) act ual COP x t heor ect ical COP
(b) open syst em
(d) 1-act ual COP x t heor et ical COP
(c) r ever sible and ir r ever sible syst ems
49. M et hod of gover ning used in diesel engine is
(a) quant it y gover ning (d) all of t hese
(b) quality gover ning 58. Ber noulli's equat ion is applicable for
(c) combined gover ning (a) the flow is unifor m, steady and incompr essible
(d) hit and miss gover ning (b) t he flow is non-viscous, unifor m and st eady
50. I n S.J. unit , one t on of r efr iger at ion is equal t o (c) the flow is steady, non-viscous, incompr essible
(a) 210 kJ/min (b) 21 kJ/min and ir r ot ational
(c) 420 kJ/min (d) 840 kJ/min (d) none of t hese
8 PRACTICE PAPER CBT-II

59. L ift in a body in fluid medium is pr opor t ional t o 68. I n t her mit welding, ir on oxide and aluminium ar e
(a) pr essur e for ce mixed in following pr opor t ions

(b) r esist ance for ce (a) 1 : 1 (b) 3 : 1

(c) 1 : 3 (d) 1 : 2
(c) pr essur e for ce – r esist ance for ce
69. I n vapour compr essi on r efr i ger at i on syst em,
(d) pr essur e for ce + r esist ance for ce
r efr iger ant occur s as liquid bet ween
60. I n N ewt on's l aw of vi scosi t y, shear st r ess i s
(a) condenser and expansion valve
pr opor t ional t o
(b) compr essor and evapor at or
(a) velocit y (b) velocit y gr adient
(c) expansion valve and evapor at or
(c) shear st r ain (d) viscosit y
(d) compr essor and condenser
61. For a liquid if t he velocit y is incr eased t wice and
70. Which of t he following or ganisation is best suited
diamet r e of t he pipe is decr eased one four t h t hen
for milit ar y
r at io of Reynold's number will be
(a) functional or ganisat ion
(a) 2 (b) 1
(b) line or ganisat ion
(c) 1/2 (d) 1/4
(c) staff or ganisat ion
62. Which st at ement is wr ong r elat ed t o cor e
(d) line and st aff or ganisat ion
(a) cor e is dr awn aft er pour ing met al
71. The t er m ‘value’ in value engineer ing r efer s t o
(b) cor e is dr awn befor e pour ing met al
(a) t ot al cost of t he pr oduct
(c) cor e has no r elat ion wit h solidficat ion
(b) ut ilit y of t he pr oduct
(d) bot h (a) and (c)
(c) selling pr ice of t he pr oduct
63. I n a centrifugal pump dischar ge Q is proportional
to (d) manufact ur ed cost of t he pr oduct
(a) N 2 (b) N 72. M icr omot ion st udy is
(c) N 3 (d) N 1/2 (a) subdivision of an oper at ion int o t her bligs and
t heir analysis
64. Toot h past e t ube is made by following pr ocess
(b) enlar ged view of mot ion st udy
(a) for ging (b) pier cing
(c) analysis of one st age of mot ion st udy
(c) impact ext r usion (d) dr awomg
(d) minut e and det ailed mot ion st udy
65. Pick up t he cor r ect st at ement about giving up of
heat fr om one medi um t o ot her i n ammoni a 73. CPM and PERT t echnique is used for
absor pt ion syst em (a) shor t t er m (b) long t er m
(a) st r ong solut ion t o weak solut ion (c) moder at e t er m (d) none of t hese
(b) weak solut ion t o st r ong solut ion 74. A body having velocit y of 199 m/s. Find it s M ach
(c) st r ong solut ion t o ammonia vapour number
(d) ammonia vapour t o weak solut ion (a) 1.2 (b) 0.8
66. Fr eon gr oup of r efr iger ant s ar e (c) 0.6 (d) 1.4
(a) inflammable 75. Tools fails suddenly due t o
(b) t oxic (a) flank wear
(c) non-inflammable and t oxic (b) cr at er wear
(d) non-toxic and non-inflammable (c) both (a) and (b)
67. I n gr ey cast ir on, car bon is pr esent in t he for m of (d) eit her (a) or (b)
(a) cement i t e 76. Oper at ion r esear ch is used in
(b) fr ee car bon (a) linear pr ogr amming
(c) spher oids (b) queuing t heor y
(d) flakes (c) t r anspor t ation pr oblems
(d) all of t hese
 PRACTICE PAPER CBT-II 9

77. L aser applicat ion has made applicat ion in (c) 710 C and 0.69% C
(a) elect r onic indust r y (d) 910° C and 4.30% C
(b) casting 85. Which gas is not har mful used in r efr iger at ion
(c) machining (a) CO2 (b) NH 3
(d) none of t hese (c) Fr eon (d) none of t hese
78. The advant age of dr y compr ession is t hat 86. Th e COP of a vapou r compr essi on pl ant i n
compar ison t o vapour absor pt ion plant is
(a) it per mit s higher speeds t o be used
(a) mor e (b) less
(b) i t per mi t s compl et e evapor at i on i n t he
(c) same (d) unpr edictable
evaporator
87. C language is a
(c) it results in high volumetric and mechanical
efficiency (a) high level (b) low level
(d) All of the above (c) middle level (d) none of t hese

79. Selender ness Rat io of a column is t he r at io of 88. At omic packing fact or for body cent er ed cubic is

(a) it s lengt h t o least r adius of gyr at ion (a) 0.69 (b) 0.63

(b) it s lengt h t o least lat er al dir ect ion (c) 0.58 (d) 0.71

(c) it s lat er al dimension t o r adius of gyr at ion 89. H ar dness of wat er is due t o

(d) none of t he above (a) impur ities (b) Ca and M g

80. 3 - 2 - 1 pi n met hod check s .......... degr ees of (c) Ca and Na (d) none of t hese
fr eedom 90. Semless pipes ar e made by
(a) 9 (b) 6 (a) ext r usion (b) drawing
(c) 3 (d) 12 (c) pier cing (d) for ging
81. Wh en cool i n g of A u st en i t e t ak es pl ace i n 91. Power gener at ed by which sour ce is now most
t emper at ur e r ange of 205  C – 315  C t hen effect ive
for mat ion of (a) wind (b) t idal wave
(a) spher odite (b) t r ossit e (c) solar (d) none of t hese
(c) mar t ensit e (d) sor bit e 92. Conver t 1026 decimal t o oct al
82. The cr it ical pat h of a net wor k r epr esent s (a) 536 (b) 534
(a) t he minimum t ime r equir ed for complet ion of
(c) 524 (d) 520
pr oject
93. Guided Rocket missile is a
(b) t he maximum t ime r equir ed for complet ion
of pr oject (a) mass var iant
(c) maxi mum cost r equi r ed for compl et i on of (b) t ime var iant
pr oject (c) mass and t ime var iant
(d) mi ni mum cost r equi r ed for compl et i on of (d) none of t hese
pr oject 94. For a shaft having nor mal st r ess and bendi ng
83. The evolut ion of heat of solut ion t akes place in st r ess  t hen equi val ent shear st r ess  i s
ammonia absor pt ion plant when
1 1
(a) ammonia vapour goes int o solut ion (a) 2  2 (b)  2  4 2
2 2
(b) ammonia vapour is dr iven out of solut ion
(c) lit hium br omide mixes wit h ammonia 1 1
(c)  2  4 2 (d) 2  2
(d) weak solut ion mixes wit h st r ong solut ion 2 2
84. The t emper at ur e and car bon cont ent at which 95. Octane number of petrol found is I ndian r efiner ies
eut ect oi d r eact i on occur i n Fe - C equat i on is
diagr am ar e
(a) 40 - 45 (b) 50 - 55
(a) 723 C and 0.02% C
(c) 80 - 85 (d) 20 - 30
(b) 723 C and 0.80% C
10 PRACTICE PAPER CBT-II

96. I n a r ever sible heat engine the temper atur e limits 99. For minimum axial t hr ust , t he t ype of gear used
ar e 100 k and 400 K . I f heat out put is 200 kJ and should be
heat input is (a) wor m hear
(a) 400 kJ (b) 200 kJ (b) helical gear
(c) 100 kJ (d) 800 kJ (c) her r ingbone hear
97. Velocit y pot ent ial funct ion is applicable for (d) hypr id gear
(a) r ot at ional flow (b) ir r ot at ional flow 100.Shor t hor izont al lines on pr essur e-ent halpy char t
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of t hese show
98. Two plat es ar e joined by r ivet s. The pull r equir ed (a) const ant pr essur e lines
t o t ear off t he plat e acr oss a r ow of r ivet s per (b) const ant t emper at ur e lines
pit ch lengt h is equal t o
(c) const ant t ot al heat lines
(a) ( p – d)t × f t (b) p × t × f t (d) const ant ent r opy lines
(c) d × t × f t (d) ( p + d) × t × f t
wher e d = diamet er of r ivet
p = pit ch of r ivet
t = t hickness of r ivet
f t = per missible t ensile st r ess

AN SWERS
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (d) 25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (b) 29. (c) 30. (a)
31. (a) 32. (c) 33. (d) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (c) 37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (b)
41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (c) 45. (b) 46. (a) 47. (c) 48. (a) 49. (c) 50. (c)
M ECH AN I CAL
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (a)
21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (c) 29. (b) 30. (b)
31. (b) 32. (d) 33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (c) 36. (d) 37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (a)
41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (b) 45. (a) 46. (a) 47. (b) 48. (a) 49. (b) 50. (a)
51. (a) 52. (a) 53. (c) 54. (a) 55. (d) 56. (c) 57. (d) 58. (c) 59. (d) 60. (b)
61. (a) 62. (a) 63. (b) 64. (c) 65. (b) 66. (d) 67. (d) 68. (b) 69. (c) 70. (b)
71. (b) 72. (a) 73. (a) 74. (c) 75. (b) 76. (d) 77. (a) 78. (d) 79. (a) 80. (a)
81. (c) 82. (b) 83. (a) 84. (b) 85. (a) 86. (a) 87. (c) 88. (c) 89. (d) 90. (c)
91. (b) 92. (b) 93. (d) 94. ( d) 95. (c) 96. (d) 97. (b) 98. (a) 99. (c) 100. (a)