Modeling Instruction - Power of Our Future

RENEWABLE ENERGY EDUCATION
PRACTICAL MODELS OF ENERGY

IN PHYSICS
An SRP-sponsored Modeling Instruction* supplement for

helping students learn about energy and sustainability
* The Modeling Workshop Project is an ongoing program for high school science teachers
sponsored by the Physics Department at Arizona State University, Tempe Campus,
and by the School of Educational Innovation and Teacher Preparation at Arizona State University,
Polytechnic Campus
Visit the Powering Our Future website at http://www.poweringourfuture.com.

Foreword
This package of instructional materials, sponsored by Salt River Project, draws on the theoretical perspective
and practical implementation of Modeling Physics Instruction and the Modeling Theory of Cognition over the
past 20+ years. Developed originally by Mesa AZ high school teacher Malcolm Wells under the supervision
of David Hestenes of Arizona State University, the modeling approach to instruction is a powerful and
effective method, based on the premise that students should learn by doing science as scientists do, that is, by
constructing, testing and applying conceptual models.
Following Wells’ death, Hestenes and collaborators secured a series of NSF grants over a period of 20 years
to fund the training of teachers in the Modeling method and the development of an extensive suite of
Modeling curriculum materials. In addition to a comprehensive physics curriculum, chemistry and physical
science curricula have been developed and disseminated, and a biology curriculum is currently in
preparation. At present, well over 2500 teachers across the country and around the world have completed at
least one modeling workshop. Although NSF funding has expired, Modeling workshops continue to run each
summer at Arizona State University, serving approximately 150 teachers. The cost of these workshops for
Arizona teachers is underwritten, in part, by a grant from the Arizona Board of Regents.
The enclosed materials take as their foundation the modeling physics materials on energy (Physics Unit 7),
adding thermodynamics to the treatment so that students construct a more global conceptual model of energy
model. Sustainability and Renewable Energy Sources are overarching themes that guided the revision of
many of the original modeling physics materials included herein.
For those who use the modeling physics instructional materials (almost 80% of Arizona high school physics
teachers), you will find the familiar teachers notes for Units 1 and 7. Added to these in shaded text boxes are
suggestions for extending the usual treatment of lab skills and energy concepts to include thermodynamics. In
cases where we have altered the modeling course materials published on the modeling website
(http://modeling.asu.edu) we have included our modified worksheets, review documents and unit tests.
Worksheets that are mentioned but not included in this packet are the standard modeling curriculum versions,
available for download at the modeling website listed above.
Also included with this package is a useful PowerPoint on sustainability to motivate the instruction.
Modeling curriculum is always evolving. This is a first attempt at enlarging our approach to helping students
understand energy, and we expect that it will be adapted and improved by teachers who use it. You can
check for updates and spin-offs to this curriculum package at http://modelingteachers.org or visit
http://modeling.asu.edu for more information.
Colleen Megowan-Romanowicz
Alex Silva
Cory Waxman
August 2008
Printed on 100% post-consumer recycled paper.

SRP is a multipurpose federal reclamation project, serving electric customers and
water shareholders since 1903. For more than 100 years, SRP has conducted
business responsibly with a focus on preserving and protecting Arizona’s
environment.
At SRP, we value your commitment to education and are pleased to provide you
with this exciting new education program focused on energy use, renewable
energy, and energy conservation. Our mutual investment in our youth will
develop well-educated individuals who understand the issues around them and
can make informed decisions about energy for the future.
With your help, we can be successful in Powering Our Future.

Powering Our Future:
Renewable Energy Education
Contents
UNIT OVERVIEW 8
UNIT ONE
Unit 1: Scientific Thinking in Experimental Settings, Teacher notes .................. 4
Unit 1: Review: Scientific Methods ...................................................................... 12
Unit 1: Test ..............................................................................................................15
UNIT SEVEN
Unit 7: Energy (with less work), Teacher Notes .................................................. 20
Unit 7: Objectives .................................................................................................. 36
Unit 7: Worksheet 1 -Analyzing Energy changes in a system ............................ 37
Unit 7: Worksheet 3a – Qualitative energy graphing .......................................... 40
Unit 7: Worksheet 4 - Energy transfer application problems.............................. 44
Unit 7: Worksheet 5 - Power and efficiency ........................................................ 47
Unit 7: Review ........................................................................................................ 49
Unit 7: Test, version 1 ............................................................................................ 51
Unit 7: Test, version ................................................................................................ 2
Powering Our Future: Renewable Energy Education

4
PRACTICAL MODELS OF ENERGY IN PHYSICS
UNIT THREE
Unit III: Circuits, Teacher notes ............................................................................ 59
Appendix A ............................................................................................................ 74
Appendix B ............................................................................................................ 77
Powering Our Future: Renewable Energy Education

5
1
UNIT ONE
Scientific Thinking in
Experimental Settings
Instructional Goals
1. The Complexity of Real Systems and the Need for Simplified Models
Through an interactive game students will examine the interconnectedness and
dynamics of complex systems. Other relevant concepts will be explored including
thresholds and resilience, and the challenges of understanding and finding sustainable
solutions to complex systems.
Introduce the concept of using models to reduce a complex system in order to conduct
an investigation and draw conclusions about the relationships between the components
of a system.
2. Experimental design
Identify the boundaries and describe the characteristics of the system of interest for
each laboratory activity. A model is a mental construct—a conceptual representation
of a real thing. The first act in modeling is to choose what you will pay attention to—
to abstract the relevant elements from your perceptual set and identify their
structural attributes, i.e. spatial structure, temporal structure, interaction structure.
1
UNIT ONE
We often engage in this process implicitly in the pre-lab discussion when we

encourage students to volunteer their observations of the phenomenon of interest.
Before “zooming in” on the mathematical representation of the model we hope to
discover by analyzing the data, start “zoomed out” to a view that includes an explicit
representation which identifies the system under study and identify the attributes
that you are considering in the experiment as it is designed. In post-lab discussions
be sure to zoom back out to the big picture of the system in drawing conclusions.
Students should learn to begin with a model—even if it is a primitive “bonehead
model” initially. They will make it more coherent by making sense of the data they
collect.
Build a qualitative model.

Identify and classify variables.
Make tentative qualitative predictions about the relationship between
variables.
Scientific Thinking in Experimental Settings

6
1
UNIT ONE
3. Data Collection
Select appropriate measuring devices
Consider accuracy of measuring device and significant figures
Maximize range of data
4. Mathematical Modeling
Learn to use Graphical Analysis (Vernier) software
Develop linear relationships
Recognize when linearization is not possible or appropriate (PV activity)
Relate mathematical and graphical expressions.

Validate pendulum model
Interpret: Make sense of the relationship the graph reveals: what are its implications for the
big picture: the model?
5. Lab Report
Present and defend interpretations.

Write a coherent report (See Appendix for suggested format.)

7
1
UNIT ONE
Lab Notes and

Instructional Commentomment
ACTIVITY:
“Intro to the complex nature of systems and the role of system models in physics”
(adapted from FacingtheFuture.com)
SYSTEM ACTIVITY OVERVIEW
Students experience the dynamic, interconnected, and self-organizing nature of systems through an exercise
in which they move around an open space trying to keep an equal distance between themselves and two
other people.
Through this activity, students will develop an appreciation for the overwhelming difficulty of understanding
natural and human systems. Through the post-activity discussion, students will better understand that in order
to solve problems in real, complex systems it is often necessary to reduce the real system into a simpied
“model” system by carefully selecting appropriate components and boundaries. Finally, a connection will be
made that in the Physics Modeling approach, students will utilize extremely reduced systems and uncover
relationships between a few relevant components.
PRE-LAB DISCUSSION
Ask students to define a “system”. What are some of the defining features of a system? (e.g. a system has
many parts that work together; if you change 1 part it affects other parts; if you remove or add something it
can change the whole system; a system is made of interconnected parts; a system can be something in
nature, or it can be mechanical or human). Ask for examples of systems that they encounter, use, or are a
part of.
Explain to the students that they are going to do an exercise to help them understand the dynamic nature of
systems.
Lab Notes and Instructional Comment

8
1
UNIT ONE
LAB PERFORMANCE NOTES
No materials needed, but you will need an open space in the classroom to conduct the activity.
Have 2 students stay outside the room during instructions.
Have the students left in the classroom stand randomly in an open space (it could be outdoors also). Give the
following 2 instructions: Mentally select 2 other people in the group, without indicating whom you have chosen.
When the teacher says “start”, move so as to keep an equal distance between you and each of these 2 people
at all times. The teacher may want to briefly practice before inviting the 2 students observers back into the
classroom. Invite the 2 students back in to the room to observe the activity and try to figure out the rules guiding
the system. As the observers try to understand the rules of the system, they may ask yes or no questions.
The systems may speed up for a while, then may abate, accelerate, and again slow down toward equilibrium,
but it rarely reaches stasis. Let the movement continue for 3 or 4 minutes, then, as activity lessens, have students
pause where they are and begin the reflection questions.
When the process halts, discuss with the observers the rules of the system. Once they are clarified, have the
students in the group pick in their minds two different people and ask the observers to try and organize this
complex system from the outside. The observers can ask the students who their 2 people are and move them
accordingly, but they will quickly find that it is nearly impossible for them to put everyone in the correct place.
This highlights the principle that relations within systems are so complex that they can only self-regulate. You
can also invite the observers to walk quietly through the game while it is in progress. The observers and the
players will notice that this pass-through does not affect or disrupt the game, since the players are moving
solely in relation to each other.
As an extension, let the system find equilibrium and then randomly choose one student and ask them to change
one of their 2 chosen people. Have all the students reposition themselves accordingly. It may take a few turns,
but inevitably the class will find that one small switch can completely collapse the equilibrium (demonstrating
hidden thresholds and interdependencies.)

9
1
UNIT ONE
ANALYSIS AND POST-ACTIVITY DISCUSSION
Have the students describe what happened. Begin by asking, “What did you experience?” Their
reflection may bring out some key features of self-regulating systems, such as the interdependence of all
parts and the continuous process of seeking and maintaining balance. Students may realize that they
thought the point of the game was to achieve stasis, whereas in fact the game demonstrated that self-
regulating systems require constant internal activity. Where was your attention focused when you were
doing this activity? Were you focused on the big picture or the small details? Were you focused on your
own actions or the actions of others? Why is this perception important? What other systems can you think
of that are interconnected, dynamic, and self regulating? (e.g. the human body, an automobile, a natural
habitat, etc.)
How far-reaching are the effects of one small, intentional change within a system? What might the
implications of this be for making positive changes to a system?
Discuss the difficulty encountered when trying to organize the system from the outside system. How
does this relate to humans trying to solve large scale problems in natural systems? (This highlights the
principle that relation within systems are so complex that they can only self-regulate which should humble
any engineer or policy maker proposing a solution in our real and complex world.)
Why and how is it helpful to understand these aspects of a system? How can this understanding of
systems help us to figure out solutions to large and complicated global issues? Compare the relatively
simple system in the classroom activity to the immensely complex systems in nature and in human society
(not to mention when social, economic and environmental systems all interact.)
NOTES ON POST-ACTIVITY DISCOURSE MANAGEMENT:
• Be explicit about the task of model building that they are engaging in by identifying the system
• Make the distinction between the representational tools (the system diagram and notes on
structure and the relationships between its elements) and the model
• Identifying the types of structure that characterize the elements of the model helps the student to
know what they can and cannot make claims about (and predictions about) utilizing the
relationship(s) they have identified

10
1
UNIT ONE
Pendulum Lab
APPARATUS Request a list of factors that might

have an impact on the behavior of the
• 3 masses for bobs (≈ same size and pendula. Accept all suggestions at
shape, different masses — you can first; cull from this list those factors
use metal spheres or film canisters
which are not quantifiable (shape of
filled with “BBs”.)
bob or material) or over which you
• string have little or no control (room
temperature, gravity). Ask which
• pendulum support and clamp (or observations are related in order to
equivalent) isolate dependent and independent
• stop watches variables.
• balance for mass measurement Make a system diagram.
• Graphical Analysis (optional) • The dependent variable is the period

of swing (T). Use period rather than
frequency to simplify the data
analysis, since T l and f 1l . The
PRE-LAB DISCUSSION dependent variable will be graphed
on the vertical axis.
• Set up a support stand from which
at least two pendula are swinging. • The independent variables are:
Ask for observations.
length (l).
This is where students begin to identify the mass (m). You should draw a
elements in their system, the relationships distinction between mass and
between these elements, and the attributes weight.
of these elements. amplitude (A). You can measure
as an angle or a distance from
the rest point.
• Ask the students to make tentative

predictions about how changes in
the independent variables will affect
the period.
Pendulum Lab
11
1
UNIT ONE
• This is a teacher-directed activity. Each student, however, will

produce a separate lab report. Try to involve every student in
the class by assigning various tasks.
• Pass out stopwatches to as many students as possible to

increase involvement and quantity of data. Have all students with
stopwatches time each trial.
Figure 1 • Select a “data recorder” to work at the board.
• Emphasize that there must be separate experimental designs for

each independent variable.
• Use at least three pendulums of different mass, keeping the

shape and size identical if possible.
• Record data involving each variable separately. This is the time

to introduce and discuss uncertainty and significant digits. Use SI
units only.
Figure 2
• PERIOD VS MASS: avoid the term “weight”. Emphasize the
recording of mass in kilograms. (See Figure 1.)
• PERIOD VS AMPLITUDE: record amplitude in meters or degrees.

Carefully select amplitudes to avoid large angles. (See Figure 2.)
• PERIOD VS LENGTH: record length in meters. Select a wide range

of values for length. Be sure to collect enough data at short
lengths where the curve changes the most. Otherwise, students
might conclude that the relationship is linear. It is appropriate to
Figure 3 pose the question, “What would the period be if the length were
zero?” (See Figure 3.)
Pendulum Lab
12
1
UNIT ONE
ANALYSIS OF DATA • Reiterate the concepts of dependent
and independent variables.
This is the appropriate time to review
graphical methods with your students. • Redefine the terms: period,
You could have the students graph the frequency, weight, mass.
data in the three experiments by hand as
a way to determine their weaknesses and • Avoid introducing the formal
provide remediation. This approach pendulum equation (using “g” and
makes students appreciative of the power π). It is not the purpose of this lab
of graphical analysis software. Or, you to derive this relationship.
could introduce Graphical Analysis right
• Discuss and demonstrate proper lab
away. If you do so, then on this first set
report format.
of experiments, do not select regression
line for the T vs m, T vs a and T vs l
graphs. GA will scale the vertical axis in
such a way as to make it appear that the TYPES OF GRAPHS SUITE OF LABS
regression line has a slight slope. (OPTIONAL)
Instead, have the students sketch the
lines (and curve) by hand. On the T vs l Depending on the availability of
data, you will have to point out that on equipment and the abilities of your
GA, you need to select <raise to a power> students, you might choose to perform
and make the exponent 0.5 in order to this set of labs in order to give your
obtain the square root of l. students more opportunity to relate the
five basic types of graphical relationships
to real lab phenomena. In the interest of
time and logistics, have each group
POST-LAB DISCUSSION perform two different experiments (one
linear, one curve) and evaluate the data.
• Focus discussion on the scientific
In the post-lab discussion, students can
method.
compare results and learn about the
• Emphasize need to have adequate phenomena they didn't directly examine.
data quantity and adequate data
ranges to get good graphs and to
make conclusions.
• Discuss graphical versus

mathematical models. Show
samples of curve fitting. Discuss the
five-percent rule for intercepts.
Derive the mathematical model from
the graphical representation.
Pendulum Lab
13
1
UNIT ONE
The Photovoltaic (PV)

Option
In addition to the five basic types of graphical relationships mentioned in this unit,
students could benefit from an opportunity to explore and make sense of a relationship
such as that which can be found when plotting current against angle of tilt of a
photovoltaic cell (see textbox below). This will not produce a graph that can be
linearized but they will have an opportunity to identify a very different sort of system
and obtain data about a real–world phenomenon of great interest. They can use this
opportunity to make sense of the data they collect and make testable predictions about
the system they identify—important tenets of the scientific method.
For more details refer to SRP’s Powering Our Future, pages 56-57
The Photovoltaic (PV) Option

14
1
UNIT ONE
PRE-LAB DISCUSSION: ANALYSIS:
Introduce this activity by hooking a PV Students can graph their results using
cell up to a small buzzer, fan or other paper and pencil or computer
device. Wire an ammeter or graphing software. The choice of scale
multimeter in series with the circuit will be an important consideration in
such that it will measure the current producing a result that they can
flowing through the circuit. After meaningfully interpret.
showing the students how the system
is assembled, place the PV cell on a
horizontal surface in front of a sun- POST-LAB DISCUSSION:
facing window and have them read the
value on the ammeter. Then tilt the cell Students may try to linearize this
toward the window and have them relationship as they have with
read again. Tilt the cell away from the previous exercises but careful
window and have them notice the discussion should lead them to the
reading. conclusion that this is not possible
with the models they have learned to
Challenge students to make a date. However they should still be able
hypothesis about the relationship of to make sense of the relationship their
the angle of tilt of the PV cell and the graph reveals—that the more nearly
current displayed on the ammeter. As orthogonal the plane of the PV cell is
in the previous activities, have them to the path of the light coming from
discuss the appropriate choice of the sun (or other light source), the
dependent and independent variables, more current the PV cell produces. At
and when they have settled on the this point it is not necessary for
relationship that they will explore give students to have a deep understanding
each team a PV cell, an ammeter or of electric current or circuits. They
multimeter, a load device, and must simply understand the
sufficient clip leads to complete a experimental set-up as a way of
closed circuit. Remind them that they collecting the energy in sunlight and
must collect enough data points to be transforming it into the electrical
able to determine the shape of their energy that powers a simple device.
graph (readings at -90, -60, -30, 0, 30,
60, and 90 degrees should produce a
fairly bell shaped curve).
The Photovoltaic (PV) Option

15
1
UNIT ONE
READING: Graphical Methods
Powerpoint: Sustainability
Worksheet 1
Quiz 1
READING: Significant Figures
Worksheet 2
Quiz 2
Review
Test
16
1
UNIT ONE
Unit 1 Review:
Scientific Methods – PV
1. The following data are based on charges for membership in a CD purchasing club.
a. What are the units of slope for this graph?

b. What is the average price of a compact disc?
c. What is the mathematical equation that states the relationship described by the graph?
Unit 1 Review: Scientific Methods – PV

17
1 2. The following data were collected during an experiment:
UNIT ONE
Time (s)
Mass (kg) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4
5 10.2 9.5 10.5 10.3
10 15.3 15.6 15.2 15.4
15 23.4 24.5 23.8 23.1
20 35.0 35.8 35.2 35.4
a. Express the average time for each mass, using the correct number of significant figures.
b. Write a clear, English sentence that describes a general relationship between mass and time.
3. The graph below shows the relationship between scores on the SAT exam and the number
of years students study science.
a. What is the mathematical equation that states the relationship described by the graph?
b. Write a clear, English sentence that describes the meaning of the slope.
c. What would be the SAT score of a student who took seven science classes?

18
4. A student performed an experiment with a metal sphere. The student shot the sphere from
a slingshot and measured its maximum height. Six different trials were performed with the
1
sphere being shot at a different angle from the horizontal for each trial.
UNIT ONE
a. What is the relationship being studied?
b. What is the independent variable in this experiment?
c. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
d. What variable must be held constant throughout this experiment?
5. Describe the relationships that we proved in our pendulum lab. The variables included
were period, mass, amplitude, and length. Use complete, English sentences to describe the
relationships!!
6.
a. What type of relationship does this graph suggest?
b. What variables would you plot to linearize the data?

19
1 7. Below is a graph of the relationship between scholarship awards and the effort students
exerted trying to win scholarships.
UNIT ONE
a. Write the mathematical equation that states the relationship described by the graph.
b. What does the y-intercept illustrate?
c. Using the mathematical model, how many applications would be needed to

earn$8000?

20
8. For each of the following relationships:
• Write what method should be used to linearize the data.
1
UNIT ONE
• Write the mathematical equation that would describe the straight line produced.
• Draw a graph which visually represents the relationship.
a. Hyperbolic (Inverse)
b. Top Opening Parabola
c. Side Opening Parabola

21
1 9. Below is a graph of the output current of a photovoltaic cell that has been tilted through
180 degrees of rotation, from perpendicular to the tabletop facing toward the sun to
UNIT ONE
perpendicular to the tabletop facing away from the sun.
a. What is the meaning of the vertical intercept of this graph?
b. Write a short paragraph that explains the relationship of solar cell output current
to angle.
c. Although this shape of graph cannot be linearized can the information be used to
make predictions about output currents of solar cells? In what circumstances will
this be a useful model? In what circumstances will this model be of no use?

22
Name ____________________________________________
1
Date ____________________________ Pd ____________
UNIT ONE
Unit 1 Test: PV
DO NOT WRITE ON THE TEST!! ANSWER ON THE SHEET PROVIDED.
1. In the pendulum lab, the variable(s) that affected the period of the pendulum was (were):
a. length
b. mass
c. amplitude
d. all of the above
2. In the pendulum lab, the period was

a. the independent variable
b. graphed on the vertical-axis
c. graphed on the horizontal-axis
d. the variable you controlled
For the following questions consider the pendulum apparatus shown below.
Bobs a and b have masses of 20. g; bob c has a mass of 10. g.
3. Suppose you pulled bobs a and b back through an angle of 5°, how would their periods
compare?
a. the period of a is greater
b. the period of b is greater
c. the periods are equal
d. you can't tell because the lengths are different
Unit 1 Review: Test: PV

23
1 4. Suppose that you pulled bobs b and c back through an angle of 5°, how would their
UNIT ONE
periods compare?
a. the period of b is greater
b. the period of c is greater
c. the periods are equal
d. you can't tell because the lengths are different
A science class puts wide wheels onto a small cart and lets it roll down an inclined ramp
and then across the floor. They measure the distance the cart travels. The investigation is
repeated using the same cart but this time fitted with narrow wheels. The angle of the
incline of the ramp remains constant. The mass of the cart is kept constant.
5. What is the relationship being studied?

a. The effect of the cart mass on the distance the cart travels.
b. The effect of the incline of the ramp on the speed the cart travels.
c. The effect of wheel width on the distance the cart travels.
d. The effect of wheel width on the speed the cart travels.
6. What is the dependent variable?

a. mass of cart
b. width of wheels
c. angle of incline
d. distance cart travels
7. What is the independent variable?

a. mass of cart
b. width of wheels
c. angle of incline
8. What variable needs to be kept constant during the study?

a. temperature of room
b. width of wheels
c. angle of incline

24
In questions 9-13, match a letter from each of the following graphs with its corresponding
1
UNIT ONE
graphical analysis statement.
9. test plot y vs. 1

x 10. y = kx
11. y is independent of x 12. test plot y2 vs. x
13 test plot y vs. x2
14. In an effort to create a straight line graph from the data

graphed at right, you should
a. square the volume values
b. invert the volume values
c. square the pressure values
d. square root the volume values
e. do nothing; you can't get a straight line out of this
15. The relationship for the graph above is best represented by

a. Pressure is directly proportional to the volume.
b. Pressure is proportional to the square root of the volume.
c. Pressure is inversely proportional to the volume.
d. Pressure is proportional to the square of the volume.
e. There is no relationship between pressure and volume.

25
1 16. The mathematical model for the graph at right is best represented by
UNIT ONE
a. d = t
b. d = kt
c. d = kt2
1
d. d = k t
e. d2 = kt
17. The graphical representation between distance and time could best be stated as
a. Distance is directly proportional to time.
b. Distance is proportional to the square of time.
c. Distance is inversely proportional to time.
d. Distance is proportional to the square root of time.
e. There is no relationship between distance and time.
18. The table below shows the relationship of output current to angle of tilt of a solar cell.
Tilt angle Current

-90 8
-60 12
-30 21
0 36
30 48
60 35
90 22
a. These data show a relationship between output current and tilt angle that can be
linearized and can be used in making predictions
b. These data show a relationship between output current and tilt angle that cannot be
linearized but can still be used in making predictions
c. These data show no discernable relationship between current and tilt angle and are of
no use in making predictions

26
7
UNIT SEVEN
Energy (With less work)
Instructional Goals
1. On the time scale of human activity, some natural energy reserves are
considered renewable and some nonrenewable.
With the exception of photovoltaic panels, most types of renewable and non
renewable resources generate electricity through the same heating process.
2. Global Climate Change is an increasing internal energy of the atmosphere

that can be understood by the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics.
Carbon released through human use of fossil fuels contributes to climate change.
Utilizing certain renewable energy sources can reduce the amount of carbon released
through human activity.
3. View energy interactions in terms of transfer and storage
Emphasis on system identification and distinguishing between open and closed systems
UNIT SEVEN
apply conservation of energy to mechanical systems
Apply conservation of energy principles to open and closed systems involving
7
storage and transfer of solar radiation with earth, photovoltaic and solar-thermal
technologies
4. Variable force of spring model (see lab notes: spring-stretching lab)
Interpret graphical models

area under curve on F vs x graph is defined as elastic energy stored in spring
Depending on the way students elect to specify the system, identify energy transfers
across the system boundary or flow from one mode of storage to another within the
system
Develop mathematical models

1
F = kx Eei= 2 kx2
Unit 7: Energy (With less work)

27
7 5. Develop concept of working as energy transfer mechanism
UNIT SEVEN
Develop the concept of heating and radiating as energy transfer mechanisms
Introduce conservation of energy
focus on W = ΔE in this unit

Develop the model for the 1st Law of Thermodynamics, ΔE= W + Q + R.
Working is the transfer of energy into or out of a system by means of an external force. The
energy transferred, W, is computed by
W = F||= Δx
the area under an F-x graph, where F is the force transferring energy.
Energy bar graphs and system schema represent the relationship between energy transfer and
storage
5. Contrast conservative vs non-conservative forces
Energy transfers by conservative forces are reversible
7. Conservation of energy lab investigation — (see lab notes: 3 optional approaches)
8. Power (no specific labs)
Define power-rate at which energy is transferred:
P= ΔE
W
P= t t
SI unit: watt
Discuss the efficiency of processes in terms of power as a ratio: power output/power input. You
can explore efficiency using the PV cell powered lifting activity included with these materials.
Consider the amount of energy that is dissipated. (An optional PV efficiency lab is available.)
Extend this discussion to include the Second Law of Thermodynamics: no device can be 100%
efficient in converting energy to work.
Unit 7: Energy (With less work)

28
7
UNIT SEVEN
Concepts and Definitions
Energy Storage Modes
Kinetic Energy (Ek): energy stored in the motion of a mass
Potential Energy (Eg, Eel, E chem, Eelec): energy stored because of the relative
positions and/or orientations of particles or objects and associated with the
fundamental forces. (Examples: gravitational potential energy, elastic potential
energy, chemical potential energy, and electric potential energy.)
Internal Energy (Eint): energy stored in the kinetic and potential energies of
molecules, often related to the temerature of a collection of molecules
Energy Transfer Processes

Work (W): a transfer of energy from one object to another, due to the application of
a force by the first object and the resulting displacement of the second object.
Electrical Transmission (Welec): The transfer of energy due to Electric field
exerting force on charges electrical current.
Radiating (R): a transfer of energy into or out of a system by means of absorption or
emission of photons.
Heating (Q): a transfer of energy due to collisions of molecules. Thus it can be
considered to be related to work on the microscopic level.
Resources Types (for more details see SRP Powering our Future Teacher’s Manual
p. 6)
Nonrenewable Natural Resource: a natural resource that is not replenished
through natural cycles or are replenished extremely slowly, on a geological time
frame, and are thus strictly limited in quantity. Nonrenewable energy resources
include fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, as well as nuclear fuels.
Renewable natural resource: a natural resource that is replenished through
natural cycles, on a human tie frame, but are still finite. Renewable energy
resources include geothermal energy, water energy (hydroelectric), wind, and
biofuels.
Perpetual Natural Resource: available continually in essentially unlimited
amounts. (Solar is sometimes refered to as a perpetual and sometimes as
renewable.)
Unit 7: Concepts and Definitions

29
7
UNIT SEVEN
Overview
We begin the unit with a demonstration of electrical generation. (Ideally, there
would be a classroom set of hand generators and light bulbs or doorbells for the
students to experience.) Without going into the details of electromagnetic
induction, we explain that most electricity is produced by rotating coils through
magnetic fields (the main exception being photovoltaic cells, although fuel cells
are another promising technology for some applications.) Using the SRP
transparencies from “Energy In Our Lives” and “Powering the Future” (Modules
Grades 6-8) the teacher can lead a short discussion on the types of resources used
to produce electricity and the concept of Renewable Energy using the following
slides :
• How a Turbine generator Works
• Natural Resources Used to Generate Electricity in Arizona
• Common BioFuels
• Energy Times: Renewable Versus Non-Renewable.
The traditional approach to teaching work and energy in a standard physics course
often ends up being a rather imprecise, confusing mass of equations and definitions,
such as “energy is the ability to do work” and W=FΔ cosθ. For example, the work-
energy theorem is a point-particle model that is often inappropriately applied to
situations that require the consideration of internal structure, and the 1st Law of
Thermodynamics is rarely used to analyze mechanical systems, despite its universal
applicability.
This unit focuses on energy, defined as a conserved, substance-like quantity with the
capability to produce change. Work is de-emphasized, and is more accurately called
“working”, indicating the nature of “work” as a process of transferring energy into or
out of a system via external forces. The 1st Law of Thermodynamics is used as the
primary means of analysis of mechanical systems because of its fundamental,
universal nature.
We round out the discussion of energy transfer processes by including
investigations of heating and radiating, the other two primary processes by which
energy is transferred from one storage mode to another. A comprehensive
expression of the First Law of Thermodynamics (ΔE =W + Q + R) must include all
three processes.
Unit 7: Overview
30
All energy interactions can be characterized as energy transfer mechanisms or energy storage
7
UNIT SEVEN
modes, depending on how the system is defined. Energy storage modes are kinetic, potential and
internal energies, designated as ΔE with corresponding subscripts (ΔΕk + ΔEel + ΔEg + ΔEint
+ΔEchem +ΔEelec = ΔE). (Note that ΔEel, ΔEg, ΔEchem and ΔEelec are different names for
potential energy. See Concepts and Definitions in the previous section of these teacher notes.)
Energy transfer mechanisms are working (W), heating (Q), and radiating (R). As awkward as it
may be at first for the physics teacher to refer to W as “working”, the gerund is deliberately
chosen to emphasize the process of energy transfer. A thorough discussion of the concepts of
energy storage and transfer, including a contrast between the traditional and Modeling
perspectives can be found in the Teacher Notes in Unit 0: Energy-Preface. An excerpt1 from this
discussion dealing with representations of energy storage and transfer is provided in the
Resources folder in this unit.
The relationship between energy storage and transfer is shown by the 1st Law of
Thermodynamics, ΔE=
W (+ Q + R). This is
shown by the system
schema below:
It shows that energy transferring into and out of the system affects the nature of the energy
storage in the system. The 1st Law of Thermodynamics and the Law of Conservation of Energy
state that the algebraic sum of these energy changes and transfers must add up to zero,
accounting for all changes relative to the system. This crucial concept is incorporated into the pie
chart and bar graph representational tools used in this unit.
The power of using the 1st Law of Thermodynamics for analysis is that it makes it possible to take
into account the internal structure of the system, since energy dissipated by frictional forces (Eint )
can be accounted for as energy stored internally in the kinetic and interaction energies of the
particles that make up the objects in the system.
In its expanded form, the 1st Law of Thermodynamics is W + Q + R = ∅E,

where ΔE = ΔEk + ΔEg + ΔEel + ΔEchem+ΔEelec+ ΔEint
1 See RepresentEnergy.doc in the Resources folder.
Unit 7: Overview
31
7 So for mechanics (in this unit), neglecting Q and R)
UNIT SEVEN
W = ΔEk + ΔEg + ΔEel + ΔEchem+ΔEelec+ ΔEint
Notice that when the internal structure of the system can be ignored, the work-energy theorem
appears naturally, from the 1st Law: ΔEk = W assuming no other storage modes are involved.
(ΔEint = 0, if internal structure is ignored.) The work-energy theorem should no longer be used as
a generic catch-all equation. It has limited usage because in many situations (frictional systems,
and system deformation) its use is conceptually inaccurate since it ignores internal structure. The
use of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics is much more comprehensive.2
The concept of "working" is not introduced first. Instead, the idea of energy storage is developed
first, by revisiting the Modeling paradigm labs and using energy pie charts to account for all the
energy storage modes involved in a given situation. (See the accompanying document
RepresentEnergy.doc found in the Resources folder for details about the use of various
representational tools).
Worksheet 1
This worksheet gives students practice in system definition and energy storage analysis, using pie
charts as a qualitative means of analysis.
When discussing ws1, the analogy of money is helpful to clarify the ideas of energy transfer and
storage, as opposed to different forms of energy. Money can be “stored” in many ways — a
wallet, a checking account, an IRA, etc, but it is still all money. The only thing that changes is the
way it is stored.3
2
For more details on these conceptual inaccuracies, see Background.doc (Part 3: Justification and
Goals…Misconceptions)
Unit 7: Overview
32
7
UNIT SEVEN
Hooke’s Law Lab
APPARATUS
• Two springs (one of these could be the spring used in the energy
transfer lab later in the unit)
• Lab masses and meter stick, or
• Force sensors
PRE-LAB DISCUSSION
The Hooke's Law lab is used to introduce the quantification of elastic potential energy.
Students know that as the force acting on an elastic system increases, so does the energy
stored in the system. The purpose of this lab is to determine the relationship between the
force and the amount of stretch of a spring.

Students should be cautioned against over stretching the springs.
If they are hanging weights on the springs, they need to be reassured that for a stiff spring
it is OK for the spring to not begin stretching until a threshold force is reached. When
they graph their data, they should be advised to plot F vs x, despite the fact that force
was the independent variable (there was a precedent for doing this in unit 3). This
problem is trivial if they use force sensors and use stretch as their independent variable.
However, students need to be cautioned against entering 0,0 as a data point.
POST-LAB DISCUSSION
Students should find that force is proportional to the stretch. The general equation for
the graphs should be F=kx + F0where the slope, k, indicates the force per unit length of
stretch, and the intercept, F0, indicates how much force must be applied before the spring
begins to stretch in a linear manner. After discussing the meaning of the slope and
intercept, you can use the terms spring constant for k and loading force for F0.
Now that they have discovered Hooke's Law, the students are ready for a discussion of
the energy situation of the spring. A pie chart analysis of the situation as the spring is
stretched shows the pies getting larger with each stretch, indicating more and more energy
Unit 7: Hooke’s Law Lab

33
7 being stored with each increase in applied force. Correlating these growing pies with
UNIT SEVEN
the F-x graph, it is not difficult to make the connection between the area under the F-x
graph and the size of the pies, and thus define the triangular area under the F-x graph
as the elastic potential energy stored in the spring. Notice — there is no mention of work
as the area under the graph!!! That will come later!
DERIVATION OF ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY EQUATION

1
1. We defined the area under the curve to be the energy stored in the spring, Eei= 2 kx2
From the graph at left, one can see that to determine the work
done when x1 ≠ 0, one can subtract the area of the smaller
triangle from that of the larger.
1 1
Eei = 2 F2 x2 –
2 F1x1
From the lab, you found that F = kx.
When this substitution is made into the equation above, one

obtains
1 1
E ei = 2 (kx 2 ) x 2 –
2 (kx 1 )x 1 ,
1
which simplifies to E ei = 2 k(x22– x12) .
1. What about the case of the stiff spring? While the area under the curve still
represents the energy stored in the spring, only the triangular region represents
energy that can be readily transferred to another storage mode. The graph can be
modified by shifting the stretch axis upwards until it intersects the curve. You may
decide to avoid this issue by choosing springs that exhibit a linear response to force
from the outset.
WORKSHEET 2
At this point, ws2 can be used to solidify the understanding of elastic potential energy
and Hooke's Law.
Unit 7: Hooke’s Law Lab

34
7
UNIT SEVEN
Quiz 1
QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION OF WORKING AS MEANS OF ENERGY TRANSFER
Having established Eel = 1/2kx2 as the quantitative measure of how much energy is stored in
the spring, the next natural question is, "Where does this energy come from?” The Eel pies get
larger as the spring stretches – what is the source of the increase in energy?
A coherent answer to the question depends on how the system is defined. Suppose we define
the spring as the system. The added energy is a result of the interaction between an external
agent (outside the system) and the spring. The area under an F vs x graph represents the
energy transferred during an interaction that results in a displacement of the point of
application of the force. When this interaction occurs across a system boundary, we call the
process of energy transfer working, W. When the interaction occurs between objects within the
system, then we say that the energy is moved from one mode (or account) to another (e.g.,
from Eg to Ek as an object falls toward the Earth). Such energy transfers affect the energy
storage in the system. It is helpful to revisit the money analogy here: energy transfer via
working is analogous to depositing a check into the bank (a monetary transfer that results in a
corresponding increase in one's savings account (storage).
It is important to emphasize that the amount of energy transferred equals the change in energy
stored. This will lead into the 1st Law of Thermodynamics and the Conservation of Energy.
So, the energy added by the external force on the spring is equal to the energy stored by the
spring as a result of the process of working:
W = ΔEe
Use the bar graph schema at this point to incorporate the transfer representation
Unit 7: Quiz
35
7
Worksheet 3a
UNIT SEVEN
This worksheet introduces qualitative bar graph schema analysis involving working and
various energy storage modes. It is crucial that the students define the system before doing
the analysis of each situation.
QUANTIFYING GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
Let's apply these definitions of working to an analysis of gravitational potential energy,

Eg. When an object is lifted near the surface of the earth, a force is applied. If the
object is lifted at constant velocity, the lifting force, FT, is equal to the weight, mg, for
the entire time.
When an F-x graph of this process is made, it can be seen that the force applied (FT) is
constant. As the object is lifted higher, the area under the graph increases, as does the
Eg of the object, due to its position relative to the reference point where h = 0.
The area under the graph is rectangular, so W = FT . h. The lifting force is equal to the
weight of the object, mg, since it's moving at constant velocity. So W = FT . Δh = mg Δh.
Since the energy transferred, W, equals the resulting energy stored, Eg , W = ΔEg ,
so ΔEg = mg Δh; now we have a way to calculate the energy stored this way.
Unit 7: Worksheet 3a
36
Bar graph analysis is also important here: working is done, since the agent exerting the
7
UNIT SEVEN
lifting force is external to the system. As a result of the process of working, energy is added
to the system, and is stored as Eg. The work done (energy transferred) is equal to the
energy stored (Eg), W = ΔEg.
CALCULATING ENERGY TRANSFER DUE TO WORKING
At this point, having firmly established the concepts of energy storage and transfer
and the use of representational tools, we can use the standard textbook treatment of
“work” to describe quantitatively how energy is transferred by working. Working is defined
to be the transfer of energy by an external agent applying a force parallel to the direction of
motion, W = F|| . Δx.
ACCOUNTING FOR ENERGY DISSIPATED BY FRICTION
Where the standard textbook treatment of work runs into trouble is in accounting for the
energy dissipated by friction. We suggest avoiding statements such as “the work done by
friction” since the way we define our system (including the surface), friction is not an
external force.
Working is done by an external force. If the force of friction is equal to the pushing force, all
the energy transferred by working is stored as the internal energy of the constituent
particles; there is no change in the other energy storage modes. Thus the kinetic energy
remains constant, (ΔEk = 0) since the box is moving at constant velocity.
W = ΔE FT . Δx = ΔEint+ΔEk ;
since ΔEk = 0, FT . Δx = ΔEint
If, however, the frictional force is less than the external applied force, then ΔEint is less
than W, and some energy also goes to increasing Ek; the box accelerates:
FTΔx = ΔEint + ΔEk
37
7 Now is an appropriate time to discuss Eint in greater detail. Where does the energy “not
UNIT SEVEN
recoverable” go? The key is to recognize that where Eint is involved, the internal
structure of the system must be considered. This is especially important in the case of
sliding friction in which an interaction between the object and the surface changes the
temperature and internal structure of both object and surface – thus, it is most useful to
place both in the system.
The internal energy is distributed among the kinetic and potential energies of the
constituent particles that make up the objects in our system. The most obvious effect is
that the temperature of the object(s) in the system increases. However, the potential
energy of the individual particles (as determined by their arrangements) can also
change. Since these energy storage modes alter the makeup of the system (as opposed
to changing the state of the system at large) we assert that internal energy does not
leave the system via macroscopic mechanical means. Instead, one must call on heating
or radiating as processes that transfer energy from/to the system. A useful example is
that of car that slows to a stop. Students recognize that there is something different
about the brake pads and rotors immediately after braking. After a while the
temperature of these materials returns to normal, as energy is transferred to the
surroundings by Q and R.
In any event, since we have defined the area under an F-x graph to be energy stored, the
area under the Fk-x graph represents the energy stored internally due to friction,
so ΔEint = Fk Δx.
So long as we restrict our discussion of energy transfer into or out of the system via
working, then an operational rule could be stated: “Internal energy remains in the
system.”
CONSERVATIVE VS. NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
It is crucial to stress the effect that friction has on energy interactions in the analysis of
working; it is important to distinguish between conservative forces and non-
conservative forces. The standard treatment of work and energy tends to gloss over this
potentially confusing issue. Friction is a non-conservative force because energy
transfers are non reversible, whereas gravity is a conservative force because the total
change in energy depends only on the difference between the initial and final positions.
Let us first consider the case of lifting an object at constant velocity. [Assume the
system is the object and the earth, so the agent providing the lifting force is external,
and the gravitational force is an internal interaction]. A lifting force FT is working on an
object. As a result of the lifting work, the energy stored as gravitational potential energy
increases: W = ΔEg. No other energies are involved. The amount of energy gained is
only a function of the net change in position (displacement). No matter how many times
one moves the object up or down, the net increase (or decrease) in Eg depends only on
the initial and final positions of the object, not the path followed.
38
One can better understand this statement by considering the signs of the lifting force
7
UNIT SEVEN
and the displacement. The applied force is always upwards (+). If the object is moving
upwards also (+Δx), the work will be positive (+W), indicating that energy has been
added to the system, now stored as Eg. If, however, the object is lowered, FT is still
positive, but the displacement is negative, so W = +FT(-Δx). The negative sign on W
indicates that energy has been transferred from the system, resulting in a reduction in
Eg.
Unlike situations in which frictional forces are involved, these transfers of energy into
or out of the system with change in direction are reversible. When the object is
lowered, energy is removed from the system. But that "loss" can be completely
recovered by moving the object back to the original position. There is no energy "lost"
to internal storage modes. The final amount of work done will be the sum of all these
positive and negative energy changes resulting from the up and down motions.
Ultimately the final change in Eg depends only on the object's initial and final positions.
This means that if the object is returned to its original position, there has been no net
change in the system's energy, and thus no net working has occurred. Because the
displacement is 0, the net energy transferred to the system as a result of working is
also zero. Hence, we call gravity a conservative force.
By contrast, one cannot only consider the final

displacement when the situation involves the non-
conservative force of friction. Some energy is always
going to be stored as internal energy due to the physical
interaction at the surface boundaries. The process of
working by an external force results in some energy
transfer that is NOT recoverable (via working).
For example, consider the case where a box is pulled at constant speed through a
displacement Δx, then is pushed back to the starting position. Since friction is
involved, some energy is transferred to the system via working in both directions. Even
though the displacement is 0, the system has more energy than when it started. In the
case of a non-conservative force, the energy of the system always increases, regardless
of the direction of motion.
39
7
UNIT SEVEN
Energy Transfer Lab

The quantitative relationships for Eg, Eel, Eint, and W have been established. In order to
solidify the relationship between energy storage and transfer and to quantify Ek, the Energy
Transfer Lab can be conducted by one of three options. The first is shown here; the other
two are in the Resources folder. The labs give physical, quantifiable experience relating
energy transfer and the changes in energy storage.
OPTION 1. ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY TO KINETIC ENERGY
APPARATUS
• springs (low k, with a known value - PASCO dynamics springs work well)
or a rubber band
• dynamics track and low friction cart
• additional lab masses
• motion detector
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
Unit 7: Energy Tranfer Lab

40
7
UNIT SEVEN
PRE-LAB DISCUSSION
• Define the system as the cart and the spring.
• Remind students that as the spring is stretched, it stores elastic potential energy.
• Note that the amount of energy stored in the spring decreases as the cart moves
toward the end-stop and the final potential energy of the spring (rubber band) is zero.
This means that as the spring pulls the cart, the spring loses potential energy. Ask the
question, “Where has this energy gone?” Students will doubtless answer that the
kinetic energy of the cart will increase. Some may even note that some energy will be
stored internally due to friction.
• Ask what factors are likely to be involved in the kinetic energy of the cart; mass and
velocity should be suggested by students.
• Lead them to the recognize that while they will measure the amount of stretch of the
spring, the variable to be graphed is the energy that was transferred from the spring to
the cart, within the system.
• If students have already determined k for the spring earlier in the unit, they can move
right into determining the relationship between energy and velocity. A spreadsheet will
simplify the calculations of the elastic energy and average velocity of the system. A
sample can be found in the Resources folder.
• Be sure to warn the students not to overstretch the springs.
• The experiment can be expedited if different groups use different masses and then
compare their results at the end of the lab.
• Students should perform multiple trials and use the software (LoggerPro, Data Studio)
help them determine the maximum velocity of the system for each trial.

41
7 POST-LAB DISCUSSION
UNIT SEVEN
Students should obtain graphs similar to the ones below.
They might not immediately recognize that the units of slope reduce to kg. Once they
realize this, remind them that the slope is usually related in some way to a variable held
constant during the performance of the lab. Then, have them post their slopes and
system masses. If they have conducted their experiments carefully, they should
recognize that the slope is roughly half of the system mass. This suggests that the
1
expression for the kinetic energy of the system is Ek = 2 mv2. Ask students why the
slope is only approximately half of the mass; induce them to see that some energy is
stored internally during the transfer. Next, ask if this is a random or directed error; they
should be able to account for why their slopes are generally too small.
After the lab, the use of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics should be emphasized as W = ΔE,
then addressing that ΔE = ΔEk + ΔEg + ΔEel + ΔEchem + ΔEelec+ ΔEint so that
W = ΔEk + ΔEg + ΔEel + ΔEchem + ΔEelec + ΔEint
To analyze a particular situation, one determines the changes in various storage modes
as a result of an energy transfer by working, if any, and accounting for any increases in
energy of the system as positive (ie, stretching a spring = +ΔEel) and decreases as
negative (ie, an object slowing down = -ΔEk). The Law of Conservation of Energy says
the algebraic sum of the changes in internal energy (ΔE) must be equal to the energy
transfers into or out of the system.
The first step in quantifying energy analysis and solving traditional work-energy
problems can be done with the bar graphs in order to facilitate identifying the energy
interactions before applying formulas and numbers. Worksheet 3b combines the bar
graphs with quantified problem-solving to help make this transition from qualitative to
quantitative analysis. Worksheet 4 then leaves the use of the bar graphs or pie charts to
the students, giving them just the written aspect of the problems. Again, students should
use the structure of the 1st Law to set up their problems.

42
Worksheet 3b
7
UNIT SEVEN
Quiz 2
EFFICIENCY
Now that students have an overall grasp of energy transfer and storage, as well as
conservative and non-conservative forces, they are equipped to consider the efficiency of
processes involving energy transfers. In real life there is rarely a situation in which there is
no dissipated energy whatsoever. Unless mechanical processes take place in a vacuum
there is air friction at the very least.
Efficiency can be thought of as a ratio of output energy to input energy and is usually
expressed as a percentage. For example, if you use 100 Joules of chemical potential
energy to do 75 Joules of work your efficiency is 75%. In the following worksheet,
encourage students to consider the quantity of energy that is dissipated in the processes
they are studying. If this energy dissipation is due to friction, the energy transfer
responsible is heating (ΔQ). Energy due to heating, as noted above, remains in the system
and is stored in the form of internal energy. Most of the time, if internal energy leaves the
system, it does so via infrared radiation (ΔR). For example, humans at normal body
temperature radiate at a infrared wavelength of 10 microns. So if we specify a person as a
part of a mechanical system, assuming they are not working in a really hot environment,
they will be constantly radiating away some portion of their internal energy.
Unit 7: Worksheet 3b, Quiz 2

43
7
UNIT SEVEN
Worksheet 4
Work-Energy
Notice there is no specific mention of the work-energy theorem. First of all, it is not necessary
to utilize that approach, since an analysis of changes in kinetic energy can be done with the
use of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics. Secondly, it is not always conceptually accurate in terms
of the energy interactions. The work-energy theorem is only appropriate for situations that do
not involve the consideration of the internal structure of the system (no friction involved). As an
example, here is how a traditional problem could be set up and solved using the 1st Law:
A 70 kg baseball player running at 4 m/s slides into home plate. How far did he slide before
stopping, if the coefficient of friction between his clothes and the earth is 0.7? (assuming he
didn't run into the catcher or anything else)
Energy analysis: system = runner and earth
Initial E: Ek Final E: Eint W = 0 (no external forces)
1st Law: ΔE = W ΔE = - ΔEK +ΔEint = W = 0 so ΔEk = ΔEint

1 2 1
2 mΔv = f Δx - - 2 (70kg)(4m/s)2 = - (0.7)(700N)(Δx) so Δx= 1.14 m
While it may seem like a matter of semantics whether one speaks of “work done by friction” or
“energy stored internally due to friction,” we think the distinction is important. Arnold Arons
argues:
“In some instances, a quantity that looks like an amount of work done (e.g, f Δx) but
is not real work done by (or against) that force is shown by the COE (Conservation
of Energy/1st Law of Thermodynamics) equation to be numerically equal to an
amount of real work that was done by some other force (e.g, F) and was
dissipated.”4
Since we have defined working to be a transfer of energy by an external force, and since
friction is not an external force, friction does not do "real" work as we have defined it.
4
A Arons, “Developing the Energy Concepts in Introductory Physics”, The Physics Teacher, Oct 1989, p 513.
Unit 7: Worksheet 4
44
7
UNIT SEVEN
Worksheet 5
Power and Efficiency
If energy is a “substance-like quantity” that can be transferred into or out of a system, it is useful
to consider the rate at which it is transferred — power. Power and is measured in watts (joules
per second).
In determining the efficiency of an energy transfer process, it is customary to find the ratio of
power out to power in and express this ratio as a percentage. In the following activity, students
will find the efficiency of a process powered by a PV cell. The input power will be the measured
solar flux on the day of the experiment (available on the internet). The output power will be
measured indirectly be determining the work per unit time done by a motor powered by the
solar cell. This activity requires a solar cell, 2 clip leads, a small motor with shaft mounted on a
stand, string, a paperclip mass hanger and some washers for use as masses.
PRE-LAB DISCUSSION
Connect the apparatus as shown above and ask students to observe as it lifts bobs of various
masses. Ask them what they observe. Have a balance, ruler and stopwatch available so that
when they get around to making quantitative observations, the mention measuring mass, time
and distance. Probe them about the energy implications of the system and the rate at which
energy is being transferred. Ask them if all the energy falling on the solar cell is being
transferred to kinetic energy to lift the weight. Tell them that the amount of solar energy in
Phoenix is being measured continuously and readings for this quantity can be found on the
internet. Given this known quantity, and the measurements they can make of mass lifted by the
motor, the distance it is lifted and the time it takes to lift it, ask them to find the efficiency of the
motor.
Unit 7: Worksheet 5
45
7
UNIT SEVEN
Make sure that students can have their apparatus in a sunny location and that they face their
solar cell toward the sun. They can visit http://ag.arizona.edu/AZMET/azdata.htm to find out
the solar flux in their area (see appendix A for more information).
Remind them that in determining the input power they must use the dimensions of their solar
cell—make sure they measure just the cell’s surface and not the frame around the outside of the
cell.
Have them repeat the process using different masses.
In preparing their whiteboards they should make a system diagram, energy flow diagram and
energy bar chart.
POST-LAB DISCUSSION
Have students share their results in a board meeting. What are the elements in their system?
What are the energy transfers and energy storage modes? Is there a relationship between
weight lifted and time it takes to lift the weight? Did they get the same efficiencies with each of
their weights they lifted? Did the different groups get similar efficiencies for their motors?
Discuss possible reasons for variations in their data.
Discussion on Greenhouse Effect

Using transparency “The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming” from the Powering the
Future (Modules Grades 6-8) and knowledge gained through the unit, discuss the
temperature inside a black car with black upholstery in July. Ask Students to make a
qualitative bar graph and schema depicting the Energy of the Car’s Interior at 6 AM
versus 3 PM. Show the transparency and discuss the talking points on the slide.
Unit 7: Worksheet 5
46
7
UNIT SEVEN
Review
Unit VII: Energy
Terms Written description Symbol Units
E quation W hen to use it
Unit 7: Review
47
Unit VII: Objectives - PV
By the time we finish the labs and related materials in this unit, you should be able to:
1. Make the distinction between energy storage and transfer.
2. Be able to recognize and identify energy storage mechanisms: gravitational, kinetic, elastic, electrical,
dissipated.
3. Recognize the universal, fundamental nature of energy as opposed to different form of energy.
4. Use Hooke's Law to analyze elastic energy systems.
5. Recognize and identify modes of energy transfer: working, heating, radiating.
6. Use representational tools (pie charts, bar graph/schema diagrams) to analyze a system in terms of energy
storage and transfer.
7. Analyze a system of energy interactions appropriately according to the system designation.
8. View friction as a mechanism for dissipating energy.
9. Determine the quantity of energy transferred between the various accounts (kinetic, elastic potential,
gravitational potential, and internal energy) during an interaction.
10. Explain working as:

energy transfer to/from system via external force
F x (parallel to motion)
11. Define power as rate of energy usage; calculate power in watts.
Powerin
12. Recognize efficiency as a ratio of power in to power out: .
Powerout
13. Consider the use of renewable and non-renewable sources in generating power.
14. View global climate change in the context of choices made about resource use.
48
Name
Date Pd
Unit VII: Worksheet 1-PV

Use pie charts to analyze the energy changes in each situation given.
Designate your choice of system with a dotted line,
Carefully label the pies to correspond with the positions of the objects given. (A, B, C, etc.)
The pies should be accurately divided and labeled with the energy storage mechanisms involved.
1. A ball is held above the ground, and then is dropped so it falls straight down.
(Restrict your analysis to the ball moving in the air, BEFORE it hits the ground.)
2. A wind-up toy is wound up, then "walks" across a table and comes to a stop.
3. A baseball is thrown up in the air and then falls back down. Place velocity vectors beside each image of the
baseball in the drawing, and do a pie chart for each position.
4. A ball rolls to a stop on the floor.
49
5. A superball is dropped and bounces up and down. Do a pie chart for each position of the ball shown.
Why does the ball not bounce as high each time? Where did the energy "go"?
6. An object rests on a coiled spring, and is then launched upwards.
7. A piece of clay is dropped to the floor.
8. A truck is driven at constant speed down the street.
50
9. A closed container of liquid with a thermometer is sitting outside.
Morning 9AM Noon Evening 9pm
51
Name
N am e
Date
Date Pd
Unit VII: Worksheet

Wo
orksheet 3a
For
F or e
each
ach ssituation
ituation sshown
h ow n b
below:
e lo w :
1. Show your choice
hoice of system in the energy flow
ch fl ow diagram,
diaggram, unless it is specified for you.
**Always
**Alwaays include
include the
the earth
earth inin your
your system.
system.
2. Decide if your
your system is frictionless
frictionless or
or not,
not, and
and state
statee this.
this.
3. Sketch an energy
eneergy bar graph for the initial situation.
4. Then
Then complete
complette the
the analysis
analysis by showing
showing energy
en ergy transfers
transsfers and the final energy bar graph.
graph.
1.
Final
F in a l Initial
Initi al Energy
En e rgy F Flow
low Final
F in a l
EK Eg Eeell Diagram
D ia g ra m EK Eg Eeell Ein
intt
Initial
Initi al
0 0
2.
Initial
Initi al Energy
En e rgy F Flow
low Final
F in a l
EK Eg Eeell Diagram
intt
Final
F in a l
Initial
Initi al
0 0
3.
y y>0
v=0 Initial
Initi al Final
F in a l
Energy
En e rgy F Flow
low
v o>
>00 Eg Eeell Diagram
D ia g ra m EK Eg Ein
EK Eeell intt
yo=0
0 0
52
4. A person pushes
puushes a car, with
with the parking brake on, up
u a hill.
hill.
v=
y 0 IInitial
Initi al Energy
En e rgy Flow
Flow F in a l
Final
y> EK Eg Eeell Diagram
intt
vo=0 0
yo=0
0
0 0
5. A load of bricks
brricks rests on a tightly coiled
coiled spring, then
hen is launched into the air.
th air.
y
v>0
v> 0 F Initial
Initi
ia l Energy
En e rgy Flow
Flow F in a l
Final
Final
in a l
EK Eg Eeell Diagram
intt
vo=0
yo=0 0
0 0
Initial
Initi al
6. A crate is propelled
prropelled up a hill by a tightly coiled spring.
spring.
y Initial
Init
tial Energy
En e rgy Flow
Flow Final
F in a l
v>0
v> 0
EK Eg Eeell Diagram
intt
vo=0 Final
F in a l
yo=0
0 0 0
Initial
Initial
53
7. A bungee
bungee jumper
jumper falls
faalls off the
the platform
platform and
and reaches
reaches the limit of stretch of the cord.
cord.
IInitial
nitial Energy
En e rgy Flow
Flow F in a l
Final
EK Eg Eeell Diagram
intt
v=0
0 0 0
Initial
Initi al Final
F in a l
8. An
An elevator,
elevatorr, initially moving
moving downward,
downward, is brought
broughht to rest on the ground floor.
floor.
syste m
system
y boundary
boundar y
IInitial
Initi al Energy
En e rgy Flow
Flow F in a l
Final
yo>0 EK Eg Eeell Diagram
intt
vo>0
y=0
v=0 0 0
0
54
9. A container of liquid with a thermometer is sitting outside. (fill in for yourself any types of energy storage
that you need)
9am Noon 9pm
Energy Flow Energy Flow

Diagram Diagram
55
Name
Date Pd
Unit VII: Worksheet 4

Start each solution with a force diagram.
1. A baseball (m = 140 g) traveling at 30. m/s moves a fielder's glove backward 35 cm when the ball is
caught.
a. Construct an energy bar graph of the situation, with the ball as the system.
b. What was the average force exerted by the ball on the glove?
2. A 60. kg student jumps from the 10. meter platform at ASU's swimming complex into the pool below.
a. Determine her Eg at the top of the platform.
b. How much Ek does she possess at impact? What is her velocity at impact?
c. Repeat steps a and b for a 75 kg diver.
d. If she jumped from a platform that was twice as high, how many times greater would be
her velocity at impact?
e. How much higher would the platform have to be in order for her velocity to be twice as
great?
56
4. If the spring in #3 were compressed twice as much, how many times greater would the velocity of the ball
be?
5. A bullet with a mass of 10. g is fired from a rifle with a barrel that is 85 cm long.
a. Assuming that the force exerted by the expanding gas to be a constant 5500 N, what
speed would the bullet reach?
b. Do an energy pie chart analysis of the situation, with the entire gun and bullet as the
system.
6. A 24 kg child descends a 5.0 m high slide and reaches the ground with a speed of 2.8 m/s.
a. How much energy was dissipated due to friction in the process?
b. Do a pie chart analysis of this situation, using an accurate % of the pie to represent the
amount of Ediss in the process.
7. Remember the Wylie Coyote shot from cannon problems? Suppose a scrawny 20. kg Wylie was shot
straight up with an initial velocity of +50 m/s.
a. Assuming that all his initial Ek was transformed into Eg, what is the maximum height he
could reach?
b. Suppose that 20% of his initial Ek were lost due to friction with the air (air resistance).
What is the maximum height he could reach?
57
8. A PV cell is powering an electric motor that is lifting a 10 gram mass. The PV cell has an efficiency rating of
24% and the motor has an efficiency rating of 20%.
a. Make a diagram of the system.
b. Make an energy pie chart showing representing the energy usage in the system.
c. Assuming that the motor is able to life the 10 gram mass a distance of 10 cm, compute the energy input by the sun
to the solar cell.
58
Name
Date Pd
Unit VII: Worksheet 5-PV

Consider a system that includes a photovoltaic cell and an electric motor. Solar energy strikes
the photovoltaic cell which creates electricity to power the electric motor. The motor in turn
lifts a mass.
System
Boundary
Mass, m, lifted a
height, h
1. List the energy transfers and storage mechanisms in the scenario depicted above.
2. If the incoming solar radiation has a power per area of 850 W/m 2, and the solar panel is 14 cm by 26 cm,
what is the power of the sunlight striking the solar panel (assuming the panel is directly facing the sun)?
59
3. What is the output power of the motor if it can lift a 120 gram mass 50 cm in 1.2 seconds?
4. What is the efficiency of this photovoltaic-electric motor configuration?
5. What percentage of the incoming solar energy is converted into gravitational potential energy while the
motor is lifting?
6. If all of the incoming solar energy is not converted into gravitational potential energy, list the specific
places where this incoming solar energy is lost.
60
Name
Date Pd
Unit VII: Review - PV

The following data were collected for two springs:
12.0 Spring 1
Spring 2
10.0
8.00
Force (N)
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0.00
0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.00 1.20 1.40
x (m)
Statistics: Slope Y Intercept C.O.R.
Spring 1 10.0±1.46E-18 2.00±8.85E-19 1.00
Spring 2 8.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 1.00
1. What are the spring constants of springs 1 and 2?
2. How much elastic potential energy would be stored if spring 2 were stretched from 0 to 0.40 meters?
3. How much additional energy would spring 2 store if stretched from 0.40 to 0.80 m?
4. A 1000 kg Toyota Prius is traveling at a constant speed of 30 m/s.
a. How much energy is transferred to internal energy as the Prius comes to rest?
b. If the car stops in 100 meters, what is the average force applied to the Prius?
61
5. A 1.5 kg kitten jumps down from a 2.0 meter high fence.
a. What is the kitten's Eg?
b. What will be the kitten's speed when it reaches the ground?
6. A 50. g dart rests up against a spring that has been compressed 0.050 meters.
a. If 1.25 J of work were required to compress the spring, what is its spring constant?
b. What is the maximum velocity of the dart after the spring has transferred its energy to it?
c. If the dart were fired vertically, what height would it reach?
d. Draw an energy bar graph for the above situation when the dart reaches a height of 1 m.
Include a graph for both the initial (y = 0m) and final states.
7. Assuming the solar flux at your location is 342 W/m 2, determine the amount of power a 4.0 cm x 8.0 cm solar
cell with a 20% efficiency rating can deliver to the electric motor it is driving.
62
Name
Date Pd
Unit VII: Test v 1 - PV

__ 1. A 2 kg mass is held 4 m above the ground. What is the approximate potential energy due to gravity of the
mass with respect to the ground?
a. 20 J.
b. 40 J.
c. 60 J.
d. 80 J.
e. none of these.
__ 2. It takes 40 J to push a large box 4 m across a floor. Assuming that the push is in the same direction as the
displacement, what is the size of the force on the box?
a. 4 N.
b. 10 N.
c. 40 N.
d. 160 N.
e. none of these.
__ 3. Which requires more energy: lifting a 50 kg sack vertically 2 meters or lifting a 25 kg sack vertically 4
meters?
a. lifting the 50 kg sack.
b. lifting the 25 kg sack.
c. both require the same amount of work.
__ 4. A Toyota Prius Hybrid moving at 15 m/s skids to a stop in 20m. If the Prius travels at 45 m/s, how far will
it skid, assuming the same constant braking force?
a. 20 m.
b. 50 m.
c. 90 m.
d. 120 m.
e. 180 m.
__ 5. Suppose W is the energy transferred stretching a spring from 0 to 0.10 m. The amount of work done
stretching the same spring from 0.10 m to 0.20 m is:
a. W
b. 2W
c. 3W
d. 4W
__ 6. A crate is dragged across a floor at constant speed. The work done on the system can be accounted for by
a. Eel
b. Ek
c. Eg
d. Eint
e. both b and d
7. What does the following series of energy pie charts tell you about the behavior of the object? Explain.
63
For questions 8-9, make quantitative comparisons, by determining the ratio called for in the question. Show work
or provide some argument for your answer.
8. Two balls, A & B, of equal mass are released from rest at the heights indicated at
left.
EgB
a. Determine the value of the ratio EgA
VB
b. Determine the value of the ratio VA at impact.
9. The solar flux at my house today is 340 W/m 2. I am using an 80 cm x 125 cm solar panel with 20%
efficiency rating to power the whole house fan in my attic. How many watts of power is the panel
delivering to my attic fan? (Before performing any calculations, make an energy flow diagram and a
quantitative bar graph to represent this situation.)
For questions 10-11 complete the energy bar graphs; be sure to define your system.
10. You pull a wagon, initially at rest, until it reaches constant velocity, along a level sidewalk.
Initial Energy Flow Final

EK Eg Eel Diagram EK Eg Eel Eint
0 0
11. A solar cell powers a motor that lifts a weight at a constant velocity.
51
0 0
64
For questions 12-14, consider the diagram representing a portion of an amusement park ride. A 100 kg car has
30,000 J of Potential Energy at point A. It moves down a frictionless track and comes to a stop as it compresses a
huge spring at point D.
12. On the axes below, sketch the energy bar graphs when the car is at the indicated points.
A B C D
EK Eg Eel EK Eg Eel EK Eg Eel EK Eg Eel
0 0 0 0
13. How much kinetic energy does the car have at point C? Explain or calculate.
14. How fast is the car moving at point B? Show work.
65
15. Suppose the spring below has a spring constant of 50. N/m. The box has a mass of 8.0 kg and rests on a surface
of negligible friction.
˜
a. In the diagram at left, the spring was compressed 4.0 m. How much energy does the
spring now store?
b. Suppose that all the elastic energy were transferred to the box when it was released
(diagram at right). How fast would the box be moving?
16. A 7500 kg 18-wheeler traveling at 20 m/s exits onto the runaway truck ramp on the freeway. When it comes to a
stop, it is 10 m higher than before. Complete the energy bar graph below. How much energy was dissipated by
friction?
Initial Final
EK Eg Eel EK Eg Eel Eint
0 0
17. Hulky and Bulky, two UPS workers, decide to race each other up a flight of stairs ( h = 4.0 m) at the warehouse.
Hulky, whose mass is 120 kg, makes the climb in 3.0 s; while Bulky, 150 kg, took 4.0 s to make the climb.
a. Who has more Eg at the top?
b. Who exerted more power getting there?
66
Name
Date Pd
Unit VII: Test v 2 - PV

__ 1. A 2 kg mass is held 4 m above the ground. What is the approximate potential energy due to gravity of the
mass with respect to the ground?
a. 20 J.
b. 40 J.
c. 60 J.
d. 80 J.
e. none of these.
__ 2. It takes 30 J to push a large box 4 m across a floor. Assuming that the push is in the same direction as the
displacement, what is the size of the force on the box?
a. 3 N.
b. 7.5 N.
c. 30 N.
d. 120 N.
e. none of these.
__ 3. Which requires more energy: lifting a 50 kg sack vertically 2 meters or lifting a 25 kg sack vertically 4
meters?
a. lifting the 50 kg sack.
b. lifting the 25 kg sack.
c. both require the same amount of work.
__ 4. A Toyota Prius hybrid moving at 15 m/s skids to a stop in 20m. If the Prius travels at 30 m/s, how far will
it skid, assuming the same constant braking force?
a. 20 m.
b. 40 m.
c. 60 m.
d. 80 m.
e. 120 m.
__ 5. Suppose W is the energy transferred stretching a spring from 0 to 0.10 m. The amount of work done
stretching the same spring from 0.10 m to 0.20 m is:
a. W
b. 2W
c. 3W
d. 4W
__ 6. A crate is dragged up a ramp at constant speed. The work done on the system can be accounted for by
a. Eel
b. Ek
c. Eg
d. Eint
e. both c and d
7. What does the following series of energy pie charts tell you about the behavior of the object? Explain.
67
For questions 8-9, make quantitative comparisons, by determining the ratio called for in the question. Show work
or provide some argument for your answer.
8. Two balls, A & B, of equal mass are released from rest at the heights indicated at
left.
EgB
a. Determine the value of the ratio EgA
VB
b. Determine the value of the ratio VA at impact.
10. The solar flux at my house today is 340 W/m 2. I am using an 80 cm x 125 cm solar panel with 20%
efficiency rating to power the whole house fan in my attic. How many watts of power is the panel
delivering to my attic fan? (Before performing any calculations, make an energy flow diagram and a
c. How does the
quantitative baracceleration of B compare
graph to represent to that of A?
this situation.)
68
For questions 10-11 complete the energy bar graphs; be sure to define your system.
10. Your friends push your car in the parking lot, so you can jump-start the battery.

0 0
11. A solar cell powers a motor that lifts a weight at a constant velocity.
0 0
For questions 12-14, consider the diagram representing a portion of an amusement park ride. A 100 kg car has
30,000 J of Potential Energy at point A. It moves down a frictionless track and comes to a stop as it compresses a
huge spring at point D.
12. On the axes below, sketch the energy bar graphs when the car is at the indicated points.
A B C D
EK Eg Eel EK Eg Eel EK Eg Eel EK Eg Eel
0 0 0 0
13. How much kinetic energy does the car have at point C? Explain or calculate.
14. How fast is the car moving at point B? Show work.
69
15. Suppose the spring below has a spring constant of 80. N/m. The box has a mass of 5.0 kg and rests on a surface
of negligible friction.
˜
a. In the diagram at left, the spring was compressed 4.0 m. How much energy does the
spring now store?
b. Suppose that all the elastic energy were transferred to the box when it was released
(diagram at right). How fast would the box be moving?
16. A 7000 kg 18-wheeler traveling at 20 m/s exits onto the runaway truck ramp on the freeway. When it comes to a
stop, it is 10 m higher than before. Complete the energy bar graph below. How much energy was dissipated by
friction?
Initial Final
EK Eg Eel EK Eg Eel Eint
0 0
17. Hulky and Bulky, two UPS workers, decide to race each other up a flight of stairs ( h = 4.0 m) at the warehouse.
Hulky, whose mass is 120 kg, makes the climb in 3.0 s; while Bulky, 150 kg, took 4.0 s to make the climb.
a. Who has more Eg at the top?
b. Who exerted more power getting there?
70
1
UNIT THREE
Circuits
Energy stored in an electric field can cause bulk charge flow through conducting materials
Instructional Goals
1. The electric field model developed in earlier units is the agent for charge flow in a conductor.
• A charge imbalance produces an electric field. The resulting potential difference can be
measured with a voltmeter.
• Without an external source of energy, charges move in such a way to restore the balance of
charge. (transient condition)
• With an external device (battery or generator) a charge imbalance can be sustained. (steady
state condition)
2. Current is the “flow rate of charge” or quantity of charge per unit time passing a cross-sectional
area in the conductor
• The ammeter is a device to measure flow rate.
UNIT THREE
• By contrast, drift velocity is the average speed of the individual charge carriers in the
3
conducting medium.
• Current is constant in a steady-state circuit.
Unit 3: Circuits
71
3
UNIT THREE
3. The internal structure of a material hinders the flow of charge driven by the electric field. This is
known as resistance.
• Despite the force applied by the electric field, charge quickly reaches a terminal velocity in a
steady-state circuit due to the interactions between the charge carriers and the atoms in the
conducting material.
• The amount of resistance is a function of the material (resistivity), the cross-sectional area and
the length of the conducting material; resistivity increases with temperature.
• In ohmic materials, resistance is the constant of proportionality between potential and current
(V α I).
• In a non-ohmic material, potential is no longer directly proportional to current. (For example: for
a light bulb filament, (V α I2).
4. For simple series and parallel circuit arrangements, conservation of energy and charge can be
demonstrated.
• The energy dissipated by resistive elements in a circuit equals the energy provided by the
external source.
• The total quantity of charge moving in a circuit remains constant. The quantity of charge in a
given branch is inversely proportional to the resistance in that branch.
5. The power dissipated by resistive elements is a function of both potential difference and current.
6. Representational tools include:
• maps of surface charge distribution
• schematic diagrams to represent circuits.
Unit 3: Circuits
72
3
UNIT THREE
Sequence
1. Lab 1- What's happening in the wires?
2. Worksheet 1: Fields and potential difference in circuits
3. Lab 2: Charge distribution and potential difference
4. Reading: Surface charge distribution
5. Worksheet 2
6. Quiz 1
7. Lab 3: Ohm’s law
8 Lab 4: Series & Parallel Circuits
9. Worksheet 3:
10. Quiz 2
11. Worksheet 4
12. Review
13 Test
Unit 3: Circuits
73
3
UNIT THREE
Overview
Traditionally, circuits are treated as a separate case from electrostatics. When circuits are
introduced, the somewhat elusive concept of "potential difference" becomes even more obscure
and the meticulously developed concept of the electric field is abandoned altogether. Students
are left memorizing several "rules" (Kirchoff's laws, Ohm's law) with little comprehension of the
underlying physics. Vague thoughts of "voltage" as some kind of "pressure" may be
introduced, which not only confuses the cause of charge motion with its effect, but is also utterly
disconnected to prior treatments of electrical potential.
The material developed here is an attempt to strongly bridge circuits with electrostatics. Starting
with the ideas (developed in Unit 2) that a separation of charge (the presence of a net + or -
charge) results in an electric field and in response to this field, mobile charge carriers move,
students develop a more consistent model of circuits. In a circuit, the battery (or other emf
source) does work to maintain a charge separation, and thus creates an electric field within the
conducting elements ("conductors" or wires, and resistors).
At the resistors, mobile charges accumulate at one side, resulting in a charge separation that
produces a relatively large field compared to that within the conductor. Thus, charge carriers
experience most of their drop in potential at the resistors.
The rate of charge flow (current) is emphasized as a flow rate, or quantity of charge moving
through a cross-sectional area per unit time. This is distinguished from drift velocity or average
speed of a charge through a conductor. In a simple circuit, current is the same in conductors
and (series) resistors; drift velocity is not. In response to the stronger electric field in resistors,
drift velocity increases. Resistance in effect restricts the area through which charge can flow.
Thus, the restricted area through which charge can flow effectively "evens out" the current.
Students develop a mathematical model for resistance by conducting a more-or-less "typical"

Ohm's Law Lab. They vary voltage supplied to a circuit containing an ohmic (ceramic power
resistor) and from the linear graph of V vs. I derive the mathematical model for resistance. The
conceptual model for resistance can be developed through an analogy. Marbles rolling down
an inclined pegboard studded with dowels or nails model charge carriers traveling under the
influence of a uniform field, encountering hindrance from other material elements. The more
hindrance, the lower the flow rate (for a given field → tilt of the ramp).

74
3
UNIT THREE
Finally, students explore more complex circuits, containing two or more resistors in series
and/or parallel arrangement. Students are challenged to identify patterns relating an overall
quantity (e.g. voltage supplied) to resistor-specific quantities (e.g. voltage drop across each
resistor). With the ammeter and voltmeter, they collect data, and through whiteboarding and
discussion, the patterns are delineated. These patterns are then checked against the models
developed throughout to drive home the overall consistency.
NOTES ON CIRCUITRY CONVENTIONS
Charge Flow Conventions:

The choice of direction of charge flow is left to the instructor. While we recognize that
electrons are the mobile charge carriers, the convention of discussing current in terms of
the flow of positive charge carriers (or holes) is favored by many physics texts and is the
preferred convention in electronics. The use of this convention is due not only to the
historical development but also to the fact we more naturally associate the term "positive"
with a surplus and "negative" with a deficit of charge. The way we have defined the
direction of the electric field and our designation of the positive terminal of a battery as
having greater electric potential favors the use of the Franklin convention.
Resistance in the wires of a circuit

During the introductory activities to this unit, it is not assumed that wires are ideal
conductors. (R = 0). The resistance (a term not used until the second lab) is found to be
small, as seen in small potential changes across the wires in the closed circuit of Lab 1.
Later in the unit, this small resistance is ignored in analyzing circuits. Each teacher will
have to decide how far to go in addressing the internal resistance of the connecting wires.
This can be circumvented, in the Ohm's Law Lab, by having the students measure the
potential across the resistor in the circuit, instead of across the battery.

75
3
UNIT THREE
Lab 1–
What’s happening in the wires?
This lab is divided into two sections; please refer to student lab sheets included in materials.
Part I – Students monitor voltages in several parts of a circuit containing a charged

capacitor, and witness the transient field within the conductors during discharge.
Part II – Students discharge the capacitor through long and round bulbs. They notice that
the transient field takes significantly longer to disappear. The implication is that the
bulb “interferes” with the redistribution of charge carriers and the restoration of
the balanced distribution. This is visualized as the bulb filament acting as a
“bottleneck”, causing charge carriers to “pile up” as they pass through the
filament. These points should be drawn out of the discussion of student models that
should follow part II.
PURPOSE(S)
This introductory activity and the accompanying two-part lab is designed to lead students from
the concept of the electric field and electric potential to a more dynamic system involving bulk
motion of charge carriers within a conductor (current). By the end of this lab, the students
should be able to:
1. Recognize that charge carriers move in conductors as a result of electric fields set up by
an unbalanced distribution of charge within the conductors. In the case of the
discharging capacitor, this imbalance is short lived, as charge is quickly redistributed.
2. Recognize a light bulb or other resistor constitutes a “bottleneck” that reduces the flow
of charge carriers, and “piles up” mobile charge on one side. As a result of the
unbalanced charge distribution across a resistor, a strong electric field exists in it.
3. Recognize that the fields in the circuit (wires and resistors) do work on the charge
carriers, transferring their potential energy to other modes such as heat and light (and
charge carriers’ kinetic energy). Because the field in the resistors is so much stronger
than in the wires, almost all of the energy transfer (working) done in the circuit occurs in
the resistors. The case of the steady state circuit with a battery will be addressed in the
following lab.
Unit 3: Lab 1
76
3
UNIT THREE
APPARATUS
• battery pack with three D cells
• voltage probes with computer interface
• data collection software (Vernier Logger Pro, PASCO Science Workshop)
• capacitor (CASTLE 25,000 uF blue or 100,000 uF silver is ideal)
• mini light bulbs (#14 and #48)
PRE-LAB DISCUSSION
NOTE: Conventional current — motion of positive charge—will be used throughout this lab. If
you prefer, you can cast all that is to follow in terms of electron flow.
The pre-lab discussion begins with the review of a capacitor made of two aluminum pie pans
separated by about 2 inches of air as first shown in unit 1.
Remind students that the uneven charge distribution produced an electric field which exerted a
force on the pith ball suspended between the plates. The excess charge on one plate was
transferred to the other by the action of the pith ball shuttling back and forth between the
plates. Now point out that we’ve only examined the field between the plates. What would
happen if the two plates were connected by a wire? Would a field exist in the wire? Lacking
the ability to place a test charge within wires can we deduce the presence of a field within
them? This lab should help students get a sense of what is taking place in the wires.
2 According to Sherwood and Chabay, the charge distribution responsible for the electric field is actually on the
surface of the conductor and forms a gradient along the length of the conductor proportional the magnitude of
the field. Additional information can be found in their textbook, Electric and Magnetic Interactions, published by
Wiley and Sons, 1995. A simplified treatment can be found in the optional reading.
Unit 3: Lab 1
77
3
UNIT THREE
LAB PERFORMANCE NOTES – PARTS I AND II
This lab can be performed as a teacher-led interactive demonstration, or with groups of two
or three students (preferable), depending on the availability of materials. It consists of two
parts, and a class-wide discussion is recommended, using whiteboards or other similar
devices, to pull the salient features out of each part. This may need to be done after each part
of the lab to be sure students are developing the concepts adequately.
Students will be using a voltmeter to detect the presence or absence of a field (stress the
concept developed at the end of Unit 2 that changes in electric potential only occur along or
against electric field lines). It is stated in the student materials, but worth reiterating, that the
existence (and relative strength) of an electric field will be qualitatively inferred by the
presence of a difference in potential. They can, however, collect quantitative data on
differences in potential, and indeed it is important that they do so.
The ideal voltmeter for this activity is a set of voltage probes connected via an interface (e.g.
Vernier’s Lab-Pro or ULI or PASCO’s Science Workshop interface). This allows for real-time
collection of sometimes very transient (≈ 0.05 seconds) changes in potential, and allows them
be saved and later quantitatively examined. The potentials in this activity range widely, from
about 5 V to about 0.05V, easily dealt with by zooming in and out of a potential-time graph.
For the first part, sampling rates of 250 Hz works well, but to consistently observe the
transient potential drop in the wire (see Fig 2) a higher sampling rate of 2000 Hz is needed.
The down side of this modification is that students will not be able to see the potential change
in real time, but the shape of the curve is more readily apparent when more data points are
collected.
Fig 1 – Discharge of
capacitor through
connecting wires.
Unit 3: Lab 1
78
3
UNIT THREE
A digital voltmeter can work, but the transient voltages are difficult to read. The meter will flash
a value but neither the time for the voltage “spike” nor its “shape” can be appreciated by the
student. An analog meter will twitch, but that is even harder to read, and the range of
sensitivity required call for at least two meters (volts and millivolts).
It is imperative to place the black lead of the voltmeter or voltage probe at the starting or
reference point and to “lead with the red probe”. In this way, increases in potential are
indicated by (+) voltmeter readings; (-) readings indicate that potential decreases. Teachers are
strongly encouraged to work through this lab prior to having the students perform it in class
Fig 2 – Change in
potential of connecting
wire when circuit is
completed.
Unit 3: Lab 1
79
3
UNIT THREE
POST-LAB DISCUSSION
The lab parts are guided, but there should be some closure with the entire group. Groups
should prepare whiteboards of their final explanations of what is going on in the circuit with
the capacitor in it. In the ensuing discussion, it should be brought out that:
1. The battery does working on the charge carriers when ”charging” the capacitor. This
moves charge from one plate to the other, creating an unbalanced distribution until it is
discharged.
2. The transient drop in potential from B to C needs to be accounted for. Note that at C in
the left diagram, the charge density is somewhat less than at B due to the migration of
charge across the boundary. This difference in charge density sets up the field that
drives the charge through the wires. When the charge is distributed equally, the
difference in potential between B and C returns to zero.
3. The "bottleneck" at the resistor results in a much, much stronger field (as measured by a
larger decrease in potential) than in the wires.
4. The field strength at different points within the circuit is a result of the distribution of the
charges at those points.
2. Worksheet 1:
Fields and potential difference in circuits
Unit 3: Lab 1
80
Lab 2–
3
UNIT THREE
Charge distribution and
potential difference in circuits
PURPOSE(S)
This activity clarifies how a battery can maintain a constant charge flow
(current) through a simple circuit containing a resistor by working. It also
develops charge distribution mapping techniques as a tool for describing
and predicting the fields within elements of the circuit.
APPARATUS
• one battery pack with 3 D-cell batteries
• 6 Wires (2 of them with no insulation)
• mini light bulbs (#14 and #48)
• two bulb holders
• digital voltmeter
PRE-LAB DISCUSSION
Students should be reminded that in the previous lab they learned that the charge distribution
throughout the circuit is responsible for the field that drives the current within the circuit.
This lab is an extension of lab 1, where the students used capacitors within a single resistor
circuit to describe the flow of charge due to separation of charges and the resulting fields. In
this activity students will use a battery pack to replace the charged capacitor from lab 1.
Unit 3: Lab 2
81
3 LAB PERFORMANCE NOTES – PARTS I AND II
UNIT THREE
Again, it is important to remind students that they should measure potential differences “from
black to red.” At this stage, it has not yet sunk in that (+) differences represent gains and (-)
differences represent losses in energy of the charge carriers. Remind them that sign is as
important as the reading of the magnitude on the multimeter.
POST-LAB DISCUSSION
After lab 1 and worksheet 1, the capacitor

in the circuit is replaced by a battery.
Students will notice that the transient field
observed in the conductor during the
discharge of the capacitor is replaced by a
sustained field. The strong implication is that
the imbalance in charge carrier distribution
is being actively maintained. The only
“culprit” possible for this is the battery. A
quick “tour” of the circuit with the voltmeter
reveals an increase in electric potential
across the battery (accompanied by a
relatively strong electric field), small
decreases (and thus weak fields) in the
conductors, and a large decrease (and large
field due to charge “pile up”) at the bulb(s).
The use of different bulbs will result in different drops in potential across the bulbs. At right is a
sample graph for a circuit in which the charge moves first through a round (#48) bulb before it
moves through a long (#14) bulb. Slight, but not negligible decreases in potential should be
observed in the wires as well. Students may be perplexed by the fact that the round (#48) bulb
will fail to light (or barely glow) while the long (#14) bulb is bright. The explanation lies in the
much lower drop in potential across the filament of the round bulb — the energy lost by the
charge carriers is insufficient to heat the filament to incandescence. The placement of the circuit
diagram below the graph is intended to reinforce the connection between the change in electric
potential and the strength of the electric field in a portion of the circuit.
Unit 3: Lab 2
82
The final picture to be painted is that of the battery doing active work to maintain an
3
UNIT THREE
unbalanced charge distribution. This results in a continuous electric field that causes mobile
charge carriers to move in the conductors. The battery does work on the charge carriers
against an electric field, increasing the charges’ potential energy at the expense of the battery’s
chemical energy. One should make sure that students take note of this. Batteries don’t run out
of charge, but the ability to move the charge carriers up-field. (If a Genecon or other hand-
cranked generator is used, the charge carriers’ potential energy is increased at the expense of
the “cranker’s” mechanical energy). Have the students add the potential differences moving
around the circuit in steps 6 and 7. If they made their measurements carefully, they should find
that the sum of the ΔV’s is nearly zero.
This would be a reasonable place to introduce the idea that surplus charge resides on the
surface of the conductor. Reading 1: charge distributions, which describes the charge
mapping, provides an excellent resource for students.
Because charge motion is present, it would be appropriate at this time to develop a model of
current. (This foundation needs to be laid before the activity developing Ohm's Law.) One way
to do this is to have students predict/describe the motion of charge carriers in the wires as
opposed to in the bulb filament. Their prediction should be along the lines of “less motion in
the wires”, due to the weaker field present there. Ammeters can be introduced as a “device to
measure the motion of charge”, and students can use them to measure the current leaving the
battery vs. the current leaving the bulb filament. Students may be surprised to see it is the same.
Assure students their intuition is right on one count: the charge carriers must (on average) be
moving faster in the stronger field in the filament. Introduce the idea that the motion of the
charge carriers will be interfered with by the other components of the conductors (atoms, other
mobile charge carriers, etc.), but that in a stronger field, their average drift velocity should be
greater.
Point out that the wires are effectively much wider than the filament: the represent a “wider
hallway.” Have students consider the quantity of charge carriers passing a particular point in
the wires during one second. They are moving slowly, but the hall is wide. Now consider the
quantity of charge carriers moving through the filament. They are moving much faster, but their
“hallway” is much narrower. Thus it is possible that in both cases, the same number of charge
carriers pass a point each second. Define this “flow rate” as current: the quantity of charge
passing a point each second. I = Δq/Δt. In a resistor, the drift velocity is greater, but the
current is the same as that in the wires. The rate of charge flow (current) is emphasized as a
Unit 3: Lab 2
83
3 flow rate, or quantity of charge moving through a cross-sectional area per unit time. This is
UNIT THREE
distinguished from drift velocity or average speed of a charge through a conductor. In a simple
circuit, current is the same in conductors and (series) resistors; drift velocity is not. In response
to the stronger electric field in resistors, drift velocity increases. The increased velocity of the
charge carriers produces more collisions with the atoms in the conducting material, accounting
for the increase in temperature of conductors when charge passes through them. Resistance, in
effect, restricts the area through which charge can flow. Thus, the restricted area through which
charge can flow effectively “evens out” the current. The conceptual model for resistance can be
developed through an analogy. Marbles rolling down an inclined pegboard studded with
dowels or nails model charge carriers traveling under the influence of a uniform field,
encountering hindrance from atoms in the material. The more hindrance, the lower the flow
rate (for a given field).
This can be further demonstrated by a line of five students standing abreast (large area for
charge flow: a conductor) who move slowly to cross a line in one second, while five students
one behind the other (small area for charge flow: a resistor) must move quickly. The flow rate is
the same, while the drift velocity (people per second) differs greatly.
4. Reading: Surface charge density

This reading introduces a representational tool that accounts for differences in electric potential
in wires and across resistive elements.
5. Worksheet 2
This worksheet gives students the opportunity to employ yet another representational tool to
account for potential differences in wires and across bulbs both in series (as seen in the lab)
and in parallel. Students use this tool to explain why the current is the same in series and the
difference in potential is the same across both bulbs in parallel.
6. Quiz 1
Unit 3: Lab 2
84
3
UNIT THREE
7. Lab 3 – Ohm’s Law lab
PURPOSE(S)
To investigate the relationship between voltage and current for a simple circuit with constant
resistance.
APPARATUS
• Variable voltage power supply or four D-cell and battery holder
• Ceramic power resistors (5-50 Ω) or rheostat (different groups should have different
value resistors)
• Connecting wires
• Milliammeter and voltmeter or multi-meter or appropriate computer probes
• One CASTLE “long” bulb (for optional extension)
• Diode (for optional extension)
PRE-LAB DISCUSSION
Show students a simple circuit (bulb, battery and wire), and pose the question, “What do you
suppose is the relationship between the current and the potential difference that causes the
charge to move through the circuit?” Review the role of the battery: it does work to maintain
an imbalance of charge in the circuit. The greater the imbalance, the stronger the field in the
wires and the resistor, resulting in a stronger force on the mobile charge carriers in the circuit.
The stronger the force, the greater the flow rate.
Unit 3: Lab 3
85
3 LAB PERFORMANCE NOTES
UNIT THREE
If your students use the power supply, it is easy for them to adjust the voltage until the ammeter
reads a given value, and then determine the potential drop across the resistor with a multimeter.
If they use a 4-cell battery pack, even though students will vary the potential difference, making
it the independent variable, you should encourage students to plot “V” on the vertical axis.
Indicate that if the graph is made this way it will provide more useful information, not unlike
the way we placed time on the horizontal axis in the ball on an incline lab. Students can easily
collect data on two different resistors, allowing them to plot both sets of data on the same set
of axes.
OPTIONAL EXTENSION – FLASHLIGHT BULB
Have students perform the experiment again, this time with a long (#48) bulb instead of a
resistor.
POST-LAB DISCUSSION
Most students readily see that the potential difference is proportional to the current and that the
slope is very nearly equal to the rated resistance of the resistor. Through a discussion of the
meaning of the slope, suggest that it represents the amount of energy transferred to each
coulomb of charge to result in a one ampere current. The greater the value, the more the
battery (or power supply) has to work for each ampere of current. Thus, the slope is a measure
of the circuit’s resistance to charge carrier motion. Introduce “Ohm’s Law” as a re-arrangement
of the V = RI equation they obtain from the graph. Use the term “ohmic” to describe a resistor
with a linear dependence of current on voltage.
If students collect data with the light bulb they will find that they will have to square I to get a
linear graph (V α I2). In the post lab discussion, challenge the students to account for the
difference in behavior between the bulb and the resistor. The thermal motion of the filament’s
atoms increases with the current, increasing the resistance to the movement of charge carriers.
Thus as the potential difference is increased, the increase in current lags behind. Resistive
elements that do not yield a linear plot are labeled “non-ohmic.”
Unit 3: Lab 3
86
3
UNIT THREE
These data can also be used to develop the concept of electric power. Remind students that in
the past we've seen that the area under a graph can have physical significance. Ask them to
consider the meaning of the area under the V vs. I graph. Remind them that the volts is a
joule/coulomb, and the ampere is a coulomb/second. An examination of the units obtained
when potential difference and current are multiplied reveals the units of power.
joule coulomb joule

x = = watt
coulomb s s
1
The area under the Ohm's law curve is thus: P = 2 Vfinal . I Note that this is average power
1
dissipated by the resistor as the voltage increased (since V = 2 Vf ). In circuits where V doesn’t
change, P = VI. Manipulation of these two equations obtained from the graph allows one to
write the power equation in terms of I or V.
P = IV P = IV
V V
P = I . IR substituting IR for V P = RV substituting R for I
V2
P = I2R P=R
8. Understanding the Photovoltaic Effect

See Powering Our Future High School Module Lesson 1.
Unit 3: Lab 3
87
3 9. Lab 4
UNIT THREE
Power and Efficiency of

PV cell revisited
PURPOSE
Now that students know power is equivalent to current multiplied by voltage they can find the
efficiency of the motor AND the photovoltaic cell. The lab will be identical to the efficiency lab in
the energy unit except now students will record the current and voltage of the photovoltaic cell at
each angle. The purpose of this lab is to determine the efficiency of photovoltaic cells and
electronic devices when transferring solar energy into other useful forms of energy.
APPARATUS
• Photovoltaic cell
• DC motor
• Mass tied to string that will be pulled up when the motor is on
• Stand
• Stopwatch
• Protractor
• Ruler
Unit 3: Lab 4
88
3
UNIT THREE
PRE-LAB DISCUSSION
• Hold a photovoltaic cell wired to a ammeter, a voltmeter, and an electric motor like in
Figure 1 and ask students for observations as you move the photovoltaic cell and use
different light sources. Record all observations.
• To obtain a finer description ask students which observations they measured last time,
and which observations are new and quantifiable. Ask students which variable they
manipulated last time and what changed when they did so. Have them predict results of
the new observables and determine how they can record their experiment.
• Lead the discussion to energy usage per unit of time and you will get to a discussion of
power.
• Ask students how they can measure power. Lead the students to the conclusion that the
current multiplied by the voltage is the power of the photovoltaic cell.
• From there you can talk about power available compared to power used which will lead
to a discussion on efficiency. Ask students for the operational definition of efficiency from
the energy unit.
Unit 3: Lab 4
89
3
UNIT THREE
• Students should look back at their energy efficiency lab as a resource.
• Students should still be cautioned that PV cells are fragile.
• Have students pay close attention to the circuit diagram emphasizing that the voltmeter
should be connected to both sides of the PV cell and that the ammeter should be
connected in line from the PV cell to the motor. It is recommended that series and parallel
are not mentioned in this lab because that will come out in the next lab.
• Power should be plotted as the dependent variable and angle should be plotted as the
independent variable and with a range of 180° a Gaussian curve should be observed but
do not mention this to students. Instead discuss the non linearity of the curve.
• There should be a plot for the power of the photovoltaic cell and a plot for the power of
the electric motor.
Solar radiation power can be found using the tutorial titled SRCalculation. This is meant to be
used as teacher notes but may be revised to be a student handout when they begin to interpret
their data.
Unit 3: Lab 4
90
3
UNIT THREE
POST-LAB DISCUSSION
• Compare students’ perceptions of what the system was and how that impacted their
energy flow diagrams, what their efficiencies were and how they found those values.
Also, some attempt should be made to explore if their operational definition of power has
changed (as the rate of energy transferred per unit time).
• It will be important for students to discuss the implications of how they define their system,
i.e., whether or not the sun is inside or outside the system.
• Discuss the practicality of using solar energy in today’s society. Supplemental information
for this discussion can be found in SRP’s Powering Our Future.
• Lead students to think about where all of the solar energy is going and students should
conclude that for all energy transfers there is entropy. This discussion will (hopefully) lead
to them articulating the 2nd law of thermodynamics.
EXTENSION DISCUSSION
• How does a photovoltaic cell work? Show structure of PV cell with SRP’s Powering Our
Future materials. There is a transparency titled The Parts of a PV Cell.
• Have students model electron flow with a kinematic activity titled Modeling How PV Works
in Lesson 1 Part 2 of SRP’s Powering Our Future materials.
• Discuss the P-N junction and electric field. For additional information on how the electrons
move see Lesson 5 Part 2 in SRP’s Powering Our Future materials.
Unit 3: Lab 4
91
3
UNIT THREE
10. Lab 5
Series and parallel arrangements
PURPOSE
After students have determined the relationship between potential difference, resistance and
current for a single resistor they examine these relationships with combinations of resistors in
series and parallel.
APPARATUS
• Variable voltage power supply or three D-cell and battery holder
• Ceramic power resistors (5-50 Ω - two per group)
PRE-LAB DISCUSSION
Sketch the circuit schematic above and ask what measurements could be made to study how
the combination of resistors might affect the current and potential difference at different parts
of the circuit. Students should be induced to measure the current before R1, between R1 and
R2, and after R2. They should measure the potential difference across the battery, ΔVT , and
across each resistor.
Unit 3: Lab 5
92
3
For the parallel circuit, they should measure the current in four places: before and after the
UNIT THREE
branches as well as in each branch.
Due to the number of rearrangements of the connecting wires that have to be made, it is
recommended that part of the class examine the series combination of resistors, while the
remainder examines the parallel combination. As an alternative procedure, the instructor could
assemble the circuit and make the measurements using current and voltage probes connected
to a computer with projection capability. The paired resistors should have resistances that are
simple integer multiples of one another (e.g., 5 and 15 Ω, or 10 and 50 Ω).
POST-LAB DISCUSSION
When students compare the data for the series circuit, they should be able to see charge is
conserved in its journey through the circuit, I1 = I2 = I3, and that energy is conserved as well
ΔVT = ΔE1 +ΔV2 = 0. Furthermore, the potential difference across each resistor is
proportional to the resistance:
ΔV2 R
= 2
ΔV1 R1
Since the magnitude of the gain in potential across the battery is equal to the sum of the loss in
potential across the two resistors, it follows that the equivalent resistance of the circuit is simply
the sum of the resistance offered by the two resistors.
|ΔVT| = V1 + V2 + K
ITRT = I1R1 + I2R2 + K Substitute IR for V

Divide through by I since the current is the same everywhere
RT = R1 + R2 + K
Unit 3: Lab 5
93
3
UNIT THREE
For the parallel circuit, students should also find that charge is conserved Ibefore = I1 + I2 = Iafter
and that the current in each branch is inversely proportional to the resistance
Ι2 R1
=
Ι1 R2
Students will also see that the potential differences across each branch are equal, but will usually
find that they are smaller than the terminal voltage provided by the battery. At first, they are
troubled by this apparent non-conservation of energy, but if they consider what happened in the
first lab, they should realize that the losses in potential in the connecting wires are not negligible.
This is especially true if the resistors used have relatively small resistance. The losses are more
noticeable here than in the series circuit since the current through the circuit is so much greater due
to the greatly reduced effective resistance.
In any event, below is a derivation for the expression for equivalent resistance for resistors in
parallel.
ΙT = I1 + I2
VT V1 V2
= + +K
RT R1 R2 Substitute V for I
R
1 1 1
= + +K
RT R1 R2 Divide out the V’s since VT = V1 = V2 =...
Unit 3: Lab 5
94
3
UNIT THREE
11.Worksheet 3
This worksheet serves to deploy the relationship developed in labs 3 and 4.
12.Quiz 2
13.Worksheet 4
This worksheet gives students opportunities to apply the concepts to combination circuits, as well
as solve more complex AP-type problems.
14. End of Unit Extension Lessons.

• Assessing the Benefits and Costs of PV: Powering Our Future High School Module
Lesson 3.
• PV Review and/or Field Trip: Powering Our Future High School Module Lesson 6.
15.Unit review
16.Test
Unit 3: Lab 5
95
96
Appendix A
To find the solar radiation in your area while doing the efficiency lab follow these instructions to
use the site http://ag.arizona.edu/AZMET/azdata.htm.
It always takes two days to post the data on the website so you can have students do the lab and
find the solar radiation value two days later or use the solar radiation value from two days before
the lab and discuss the possible differences in solar radiation value.
When going to the link you will first see this
AZMET
AZ
ZMET W
Weather
eea
ather Data
New Raw
R Hourly/Daily
y y For
Format
rmat for 2003 ! !
Stations : Curr
All Stations ent Dataa Files
Current
All Stations
Stations : Y
Yesterday's
eesterday's
y Su
Summary,
ummary,y, Heat Units,, ETo
y, To Reports
p
Normal
Normmal Data Files ((Historic
(Historical
cal Averages)
Av g )
Deactivated
D
A
Active Stations
Statio
ons Stations
Aguil
Aguila
g la Maricopa
p Queen Creek
Q C eek
Cr
Bonita
Bonitta Mesa Roll Dateland
Bowie
Bowiie Mohave Safford Eloy
y
Buckeye
Buckkeye
y Mohave #2 Tucson
Tucson
u Laveen
Coolidge
Cooliidge
g Paloma Waddell
W addelll Litchfield
Desert
Deserrt Ridge
g Parker Yuma
Yuma
u North
N Gila Scottsdale
Flagstaff
Flags
gstaff Payson
y Yuma
Yuma
u Mesa
M Ciudad
Harquahala
Har q
quahala Prescott
Prescott Yuma
Yuma
u V
Valley
alleyy Obregon
g
Kansas
Kanssas Settlement Phoenix Encant
Encanto
to
Marana
Maraana Phoenix Greenway
Greenw
wayy
Appendix A
97
Phoenix
Ph
hoenix Green
hoenix Greenway
n a
nway
S
Station Data
Datta and Reports
Rep
ports
Statioon Status Report
Station p
o line : July 29 1987 (Day
Date on ( of Year
Yeear = 210 )
Count
County ty : Maricopa (northeas st central)
(northeast
Locat
Location C
ion : North Phoenix, Cave Creek Golf Coursee (northwest corner).
Southe east of intersection of Greenway
Southeast G Rd. & 23rd Avve.
Ave.
Elevat tion : 401 meters ( 1316
Elevation 1316 ft)
Coord dinates : Latitude = 33°° 37' 17" N Longitude = 112°
Coordinates 112° 06' 30" W
USGS S Map : Sunnyslope 7.5 5' Series Map
7.5'
Maps : Phoenix Ar ea
Area
erator: City of Phoenix,
Cooperator:
Coope Phoenixx, Water
Water
a Conservation anda Resources Divisionn
Explanations
Expl anations of Raw Data
D File Formats :
22003 - Present
Present : Raw H
Hourlyy and Dailyy Dataa Formats
1
1987 - 2002 : Raw Hou
Hourly
urlyy and Dailyy Data Formats
F
Data
a Files :
Most
Mo
ost Recent : Month
Monthly
hlyy W
Weekly
eeekly
y Dailyy Station Status
Year
Yea
ear Raw Data Standard Reportss Special Rep
Reports
ports
20099 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y Weekly
Weekly
y Da
Daily
ailyy Heat Units ET
ETo
To Notes
20088 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y Weekly
y Da
Daily
ailyy Heat Units ET
ETo
To Notes
20077 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y Weekly
y Da
Daily
ailyy Heat Units ET
ETo
To Notes
20066 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y Weekly
y Da
Daily
ailyy Heat Units ET
ETo
To Notes
20055 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y Weekly
y Da
Daily
ailyy Heat Units ET
ETo
To Notes
20044 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y Weekly
y Da
Daily
ailyy Heat Units ET
ETo
To Notes
20033 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y Weekly
y Da
Daily
ailyy Heat Units ET
ETo
To Notes
20022 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y Weekly
y Da
Daily
ailyy Heat Units ET
ETo
To Notes
20011 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y Weekly
y Da
Daily
ailyy Heat Units ET
ETo
To Notes
20000 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y Weekly
y Da
Daily
ailyy Heat Units ET
ETo
To Notes
19999 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y Weekly
y Da
Daily
ailyy Heat Units ET
ETo
To
19988 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y Weekly
y Da
Daily
ailyy
19977 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y Weekly
y Da
Daily
ailyy
19966 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y
19955 Daily
y Hourly
y Monthly
M y
of 2 2/4
Appendix A
98
AZMET Hourly Weather Data : PHOENIX GREENWAY : Jan 1 2009
HR AT TD RH VPD SR PPT ST4 ST20 WS WSX WVM WVD

1 47.7 40.1 74.8 0.3 0.0 0.00 49.1 55.0 1.6 3.6 1.3 20
2 45.7 39.4 78.2 0.2 0.0 0.00 48.7 55.0 1.3 3.1 1.1 14
3 43.9 38.7 81.8 0.2 0.0 0.00 48.4 55.0 0.9 2.2 0.7 47
4 43.0 37.9 82.6 0.2 0.0 0.00 47.8 55.2 0.9 3.4 0.7 3
5 41.5 37.6 85.8 0.1 0.0 0.00 47.5 55.2 1.3 2.7 0.9 17
6 40.6 37.0 86.9 0.1 0.0 0.00 47.1 55.2 0.9 2.0 0.7 10
7 40.1 36.7 87.2 0.1 0.0 0.00 46.8 55.2 0.7 2.2 0.7 1
8 39.7 36.0 86.4 0.1 0.7 0.00 46.4 55.2 0.9 2.5 0.7 10
9 44.1 37.2 77.1 0.2 10.3 0.00 46.2 55.2 1.1 2.9 1.1 19
10 51.8 38.1 59.8 0.5 25.3 0.00 46.8 55.2 1.6 4.7 1.3 6
11 58.3 37.6 45.9 0.9 37.8 0.00 48.4 55.2 1.6 4.5 1.1 220
12 61.5 37.4 40.7 1.1 45.6 0.00 50.5 55.0 2.5 5.4 2.0 191
13 64.0 35.6 34.6 1.3 48.5 0.00 52.3 55.0 2.0 5.4 0.7 189
14 67.1 34.5 29.9 1.6 46.1 0.00 54.0 55.0 2.0 4.9 1.3 143
15 68.4 34.0 27.9 1.7 38.5 0.00 54.9 55.0 2.5 5.6 1.8 164
16 69.1 32.7 26.0 1.8 26.8 0.00 54.9 55.0 2.0 4.5 1.3 265
17 68.4 33.1 27.1 1.7 10.8 0.00 54.5 55.0 1.6 3.8 1.3 282
18 63.3 35.6 35.9 1.3 1.0 0.00 53.8 55.0 0.4 1.8 0.4 240
19 55.8 39.0 53.2 0.7 0.0 0.00 52.9 55.0 0.4 1.6 0.2 226
20 53.2 40.5 61.7 0.5 0.0 0.00 52.0 55.0 0.7 2.0 0.7 23
21 50.7 40.5 67.8 0.4 0.0 0.00 51.4 55.0 0.9 2.0 0.9 6
22 49.5 40.5 71.0 0.3 0.0 0.00 50.7 55.0 1.3 2.5 1.1 11
23 48.4 40.1 73.2 0.3 0.0 0.00 50.2 55.0 1.3 2.9 1.3 6
24 47.3 40.1 76.1 0.3 0.0 0.00 49.6 55.2 1.8 4.3 1.8 7
AZMET Daily Weather Data : PHOENIX GREENWAY : Jan 1 2009
MAX. MIN. MEAN TOTAL UNITS

TEMPERATURE 69.8 39.0 52.7 DegF
RELATIVE HUMIDITY 89.1 24.9 61.3 %
DEWPOINT 37.4 DegF
ACTUAL VAPOR PRESS. 0.8 KPas
VAPOR PRESS. DEF. 0.7 KPas
SOIL TEMP. 4 in 55.0 46.2 50.2 DegF
SOIL TEMP. 20 in 55.2 55.0 55.0 DegF
WIND SPEED 5.6 1.3 MPH
WIND VECTOR MAG. 0.4 MPH
WIND VECTOR DIR. 1 Degrees
SOLAR RADIATION 291.5 Langleys
PRECIPITATION 0.00 Inches
Scroll to the desired date and look for the SR column. The SR value is the solar radiation given
in Langleys. Use the HR column to see the solar radiation for each hour of the day.
Langley is a unit that can be converted to joules/m2 with an online converter like
http://www.unitconversion.org/heat-density/langley-to-joules-per-square-meter-
conversion.html
A useful unit when talking about power however is watts/m2. The SR value is over a one hour
time interval so to find the SR value for one second the value calculated on the website must be
converted from joules/m2/hr to joules/m2/s. This will give students a more appropriate value
for solar radiation power that they can use to find the efficiency of the system.
Appendix A
99

Modeling Instruction - Power of Our Future

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Modeling Instruction - Power of Our Future

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

RENEWABLE ENERGY EDUCATION

PRACTICAL MODELS OF ENERGY

An SRP-sponsored Modeling Instruction* supplement for

Visit the Powering Our Future website at http://www.poweringourfuture.com.

Printed on 100% post-consumer recycled paper.

With your help, we can be successful in Powering Our Future.

Unit 1: Scientific Thinking in Experimental Settings, Teacher notes .................. 4

Unit 1: Review: Scientific Methods ...................................................................... 12

Unit 1: Test ..............................................................................................................15

Unit 7: Energy (with less work), Teacher Notes .................................................. 20

Unit 7: Objectives .................................................................................................. 36

Unit 7: Worksheet 1 -Analyzing Energy changes in a system ............................ 37

Unit 7: Worksheet 3a – Qualitative energy graphing .......................................... 40

Unit 7: Worksheet 4 - Energy transfer application problems.............................. 44

Unit 7: Worksheet 5 - Power and efficiency ........................................................ 47

Unit 7: Review ........................................................................................................ 49

Unit 7: Test, version 1 ............................................................................................ 51

Unit 7: Test, version ................................................................................................ 2

Powering Our Future: Renewable Energy Education

Unit III: Circuits, Teacher notes ............................................................................ 59

Powering Our Future: Renewable Energy Education

We often engage in this process implicitly in the pre-lab discussion when we

Build a qualitative model.

Scientific Thinking in Experimental Settings

Recognize when linearization is not possible or appropriate (PV activity)

Relate mathematical and graphical expressions.

Present and defend interpretations.

Scientific Thinking in Experimental Settings

Lab Notes and

SYSTEM ACTIVITY OVERVIEW

Lab Notes and Instructional Comment

Have 2 students stay outside the room during instructions.

Lab Notes and Instructional Comment

ANALYSIS AND POST-ACTIVITY DISCUSSION

NOTES ON POST-ACTIVITY DISCOURSE MANAGEMENT:

Lab Notes and Instructional Comment

APPARATUS Request a list of factors that might

• balance for mass measurement Make a system diagram.

• Graphical Analysis (optional) • The dependent variable is the period

• Ask the students to make tentative

LAB PERFORMANCE NOTES

• This is a teacher-directed activity. Each student, however, will

• Pass out stopwatches to as many students as possible to

Figure 1 • Select a “data recorder” to work at the board.

• Emphasize that there must be separate experimental designs for

• Use at least three pendulums of different mass, keeping the

• Record data involving each variable separately. This is the time

• PERIOD VS AMPLITUDE: record amplitude in meters or degrees.

• PERIOD VS LENGTH: record length in meters. Select a wide range

• Discuss graphical versus

The Photovoltaic (PV)

The Photovoltaic (PV) Option

The Photovoltaic (PV) Option

READING: Graphical Methods

READING: Significant Figures

a. What are the units of slope for this graph?

Unit 1 Review: Scientific Methods – PV

Mass (kg) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4

5 10.2 9.5 10.5 10.3

10 15.3 15.6 15.2 15.4

15 23.4 24.5 23.8 23.1

20 35.0 35.8 35.2 35.4