Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
iv
TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES vii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Different shock absorbers in use 3
1.2 Types of suspension system 5
1.2.1 Rigid axle front suspension 5
1.2.2 Independent front suspension 6
1.2.3 Torque rod 8
1.2.4 Stabilizer 8
1.3 Permanent magnetic shock absorber 8
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12
3 PROBLEM STATEMENT 25
v
4 COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION 27
REFERENCES 60
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table Number TITLE PAGE
4.1 Physical properties of neodymium magnet 34
4.2 Battery specifications 39
5.1 Billing table 57
LIST OF FIGURES
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1
Fig No 1.1 Telescopic Shock Absorber
Shock absorbers or damper types for shock absorbers, linear dampers and
dashpots can be hydraulic, air, gas spring, or elastomeric. The absorption or
damping action can be compression or extension. Important parameters to
consider when searching for shock absorbers, linear dampers and dashpots include
absorber stroke, compressed length, extended length, maximum force, and
maximum cycles per minute. Absorber or spring stroke is difference between fully
extended and fully compressed position. Compressed length is the minimum
length of shock (compressed position). Extended length is the maximum length of
shock (extended position). The maximum rated force for shock absorber or
damper, referred to as the force. The maximum cycles per minute are the rated
frequency of compression or extension.
Important physical specifications to consider when searching shock
absorbers, linear dampers and dashpots include the cylinder diameter or maximum
width, the rod diameter, mounting, and body material. The cylinder diameter or
maximum width refers to the desired diameter of housing cylinder. The rod
diameter refers to the desired diameter of extending rod. Mounting choices
include ball and socket, rod end, clevis, eyelet, tapered end, threaded, and bumper
2
or rod end unattached. Choices for body materials include aluminum, steel,
stainless steel, and thermoplastic.
3
5. Fluid friction, for example the flow of fluid through a narrow orifice
(hydraulics), constitutes the vast majority of automotive shock absorbers.
An advantage of this type is that using special internal valving the
absorber may be made relatively soft to compression (allowing a soft
response to a bump) and relatively stiff to extension, controlling “jounce”,
which is the vehicle response to energy stored in the springs; similarly, a
series of valves controlled by springs can change the degree of stiffness
according to the velocity of the impact or rebound. Some shock absorbers
allow tuning of the ride via control of the valve by a manual adjustment
provided at the shock absorber. In more expensive vehicles the valves may
be remotely adjustable, offering the driver control of the ride at will while
the vehicle is operated. The ultimate control is provided by dynamic valve
control via computer in response to sensors, giving both a smooth ride and
a firm suspension when needed. Many shock absorbers contain
compressed nitrogen, to reduce the tendency for the oil to foam under
heavy use. Foaming temporarily reduces the damping ability of the unit.
Another variation is the magneto rheological damper which changes its
fluid characteristics through an electromagnet.
6. Compression of a gas, for example pneumatic shock absorbers, which can
act like springs as the air pressure is building to resist the force on it. Once
the air pressure reaches the necessary maximum, air dashpots will act like
hydraulic dashpots. In aircraft landing gear air dashpots may be combined
with hydraulic damping to reduce bounce. Such struts are called oleo struts
(combining oil and air).
7. Magnetic effects. Eddy current dampers are dashpots that are constructed
out of a large magnet inside of a non-magnetic, electrically conductive
tube.
8. Inertial resistance to acceleration, for example prior to 1966 the Citroen
2cv had shock absorbers that damp wheel bounce with no external moving
parts. These consisted of a spring-mounted 3.5 kg (7.75 lb) iron weight
inside a vertical cylinder and are similar to, yet much smaller than versions
of the tuned mass dampers used on tall buildings
4
9. Composite hydro-pneumatic devices which combine in a single device
spring action, shock absorption, and often also ride-height control, as in
some models of the Citroen automobile.
10. Conventional shock absorbers combined with composite pneumatic
springs with which allow ride height adjustment or even ride height
control, seen in some large trucks and luxury sedans such as certain lincoln
and most land rover automobiles. Ride height control is especially
desirable in highway vehicles intended for occasional rough road use, as a
means of improving handling and reducing aerodynamic drag by lowering
the vehicle when operating on improved high speed roads.
5
1.2.2 INDEPENDENT FRONT SUSPENSION
In the independent type of front suspension, a coil, torsion bar or leaf spring
independently supports each front wheel. Almost all the passenger cars now use
the independent front suspension, in which the coil spring arrangement is the most
common.
There are three types of coil spring front suspension:
1. In the first type, the coil spring is located in between the upper and lower
control arms. The lower control arm has one point attachment to the car
frame.
2. In the second type, the coil spring is located in between the upper and
lower control arms. The lower arms have two points to attachment to the
car frame.
3. In the third type, the coil spring is between the upper control arm and
spring tower or housing that is part of the front – end sheet – metal work.
Other types of front suspension, besides coil spring type, are also in use.
The twin I – beam construction is another type, used on some models of Ford
trucks. Each front wheel is supported at the end by a separate I – beam. The ends
of the I – beams are attached to the frame by pivots.
The wheel ends of the two I – beams are attached to the frame by radius
arms, which prevent backward or forward movement of the wheels. This type of
suspension provides more flexibility. Single I – beam front suspension is used in
larger trucks. The I-beam has a hole in each end through which a kingpin is
assembled to hold the steering knuckle in place. Each end of the I-beam is
supported by a leaf spring.
In this type of suspension system, a steel rod, known as a torsion bar, act
as a spring to hold the upper and lower control arms parallel under load. The front
end of the rod is of hexagonal shape to fit tightly into an opening in the lower
6
control arm. Its rear reaction is also of the hexagonal shape to fit tightly into an
opening in an anchor attached to the frame cross member.
A seal hides the hexagonal shaped end of the torsion bar. The torsion bar
twisted due to the forces on the wheel assembly outer end of the lower control
arm. The torsion bar is designed to balance these forces so that the lower arm is
kept at a designated height. The height can be adjusted by a tightening mechanism
at the anchor end, which twists the rod by means of an adjusting bolt and swivel.
A strut rod is used to keep the suspension in alignment.
This type of suspension is able to cushion road shocks by causing the
lower arm to twist the torsion bar. When the wheels are no larger under stress, the
arm returns to normal. It simplifies the independent front suspensions using coil,
torsion bar and leaf spring. Basically, the system is known as parallelogram type
independent front suspension. It consists of an upper and lower link connected by
the stub axle carrier. In general, the lower link is larger than the upper and they
may not be parallel. This arrangement maintains the track width as the wheel rise
and fall and so minimize tyre wear caused by the wheel scrubbing sideways.
Strut and link type suspension system is particularly for integral body
construction, because the loading points are widely spaced. The normal top link is
replaced by a flexible, mounting, and a telescopic damper acts as the kingpin. This
system, known as the Mac Pherson system has little rolling action and absorbs
shocks readily.
Trailing arm independent front suspension maintains constant track and
wheel attitude with a slight change in wheelbase and caster angle. A coil spring is
attached to the trailing arm which itself is attached to the shaft carrying the wheel
hub. When the wheel moves up and down, it winds and unwinds the spring. A
torsion bar has also been used in certain designs in place of the coil spring.
In sliding type suspension system, the stub axle can move up and down as
well as rotate in the frame members. Track, wheel attitude and wheelbase remain
unchanged throughout the rise and fall of the wheel.
In vertical guide suspension system, the kingpin is attached directly to the
cross member of the frame. It can slide up and down, thus compressing and
expanding the springs.
7
1.2.3 TORQUE ROD
The torque rod is used to maintain correct alignment of the axle with the frame. It
also serves to remove all the stresses on the springs. One end of the torque rod is
rigidly fixed to the axle or axle housing, and the other end is attached to the frame
by means of a pivoted mounting. The torque rod is also known as torque rod.
1.2.4 STABILIZER
A stabilizer or a sway bar, is necessarily is used in all independent front-end
suspension. It reduces the tendency of the vehicle to roll or tip on either side when
taking a turn. This tendency has been increased due to the use of softer springs
and independent front-end suspension.
A stabilizer is simply a bar of alloy steel with arms at each end connected
to the lower wishbone of the independent suspension or axle. It is supported in
bush bearings fixed to the frame, and is parallel to the cross member.
When both the wheels deflect up or down by the same amount, the
stabilizer bar simply turns in the bearings. When only one wheel deflects, then
only one end of the stabilizer moves, thus twisting the stabilizer bar, which acts as
a spring between the two sides of the independent suspension. In this way, the
stabilizer reduces heeling or tipping of the vehicle on curves.
8
couple to the second member. The support member extends within the case, with
the support member and the case being adapted for relative axial movement.
The sets of permanent magnets are arranged in bidirectional repulsion
configuration with additional magnet fixed within the case. The sets of permanent
magnets are being moved relative to the fixed permanent magnets, such that the
magnetic forces of repulsion produced by the permanent magnets are increased in
response to relative movement between the support member and the case, creating
dampening, cushioning, stabilizing, harmonic balancing, and/or re-centring forces.
9
cylindrical spacers positioned at each end of stacked central magnet array and
between adjacent stacked central magnets, and a magnet array support for
mounting magnets and spacers. An inner coil array comprising a plurality of
concentric cylindrical coil windings positioned adjacent to central spacers and
magnetic poles of central magnets, inner coil windings surrounding an outside
perimeter of central spacers. The inner coil array mounted on a movable coil
support, movable coil support providing for reciprocating linear motion of coil
array relative to magnet array.
And an outer magnet array assembly comprising an outer magnet array
comprised of a plurality of axially-aligned, stacked concentric toroidal magnets
having like magnetic poles facing each other, outer magnet array surrounding
inner coil array, stacked outer concentric magnets being aligned and positioned
essentially coplanar with stacked central cylindrical magnets with the magnetic
poles of outer magnets aligned with and facing opposing magnetic poles of central
cylindrical magnets, and a plurality of high permeability, high saturation
magnetization, outer concentric toroidal spacers positioned at each end of stacked
outer magnet array and between adjacent stacked outer magnets, outer magnet
array assembly attached to magnet array support; wherein a predetermined
location, configuration and orientation of central magnet magnetic poles, central
spacers, inner coil windings, outer magnet magnetic poles and outer spacers
provide for superposition of a radial component of a magnetic flux density from a
plurality of central and outer magnets to produce a maximum average radial
magnetic flux density in the inner coil windings; and a voltage conditioning
circuit electrically connected to coil windings, voltage conditioning circuit
providing an output voltage and output current to an electrical load.
10
Fig No 1.3 Magnetic Shock Absorber with Regeneration
11
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A bypass valve with a cylindrical gap was mounted on the interface plate. The
complete shock absorber is approximately 310 mm long and contains
approximately 0.05 dm3 of the MR fluid. An electro-hydraulic servo drive was
applied to control the velocity of the piston. The MR shock absorber and the drive
were attached to a plate that was mounted on a strong floor. A Linear Variable
12
Differential Transducer (LVDT) was used to measure the displacement (linearity
0.5%) and an HBM 5 kN transducer was used to measure the braking force. The
measured signals (force and displacement) were transformed into a digital form by
a 16-bit analogue/digital (ADC0 and ADC1) converter placed in an input/output
card, and then sent to the computer and recorded in its memory. The displacement
signal was differentiated in order to obtain the piston velocity. The same computer
was used to control the electro-hydraulic servo system velocity (DAC1) and the
MR shock absorber coils current (DAC0).
13
the magnetic spring–damper design for vehicle suspension systems, since the
damper is oil free, inexpensive, requires no external power, and is simple to
manufacture.
14
Due to the change in vehicle concepts to the more electric car, the suspension
system becomes ever more important due to changes in the sprung and unsprung
masses. Active electromagnetic suspension systems can maintain the required
stability and comfort due to the ability of adaptation in correspondence with the
state of the vehicle. Specifications are drawn from on-and off road measurements
on a passive suspension system, and it can be concluded that, for ARC, a peak
force of 4kN and an RMS force of 2kN (dutycycleof100%) are necessary for th
front actuators. Furthermore, the necessary peak damping power is around 2kW;
however, the RMS damping power is only 16W during normal city driving. The
maximum bound and rebound strokes are 80 and 58mm, respectively. The on road
measurements, which are mimicked on a quarter car setup by means of
electromagnetic actuation, a good tracking response, and measurement of the
frequency response of the tubular actuator, prove the dynamic performance of the
electromagnetic suspension system
15
currents flow. The Lorentz force on these eddy currents, due to the external
magnetic field, opposes the motion, and one speaks of magnetic braking/damping.
This effect is (ultra) relativistic, being of order v2/c2, where v is the speed of the
conductor and c is the speed of light in vacuum. While such relativistic effects are
generally small for “ordinary” velocities, the eddy current density obeys J=σE,
where the conductivity σf or good conductors approaches c2/v2 when measured in
Gaussian units, such that eddy current braking is a rare example of an important
(ultra) relativistic correction at low velocities. In the present problem the magnetic
field is spatially uniform, so the magnetic flux through a moving loop does not
change, and no eddy currents develop. Yet, there exists a very weak magnetic
damping effect.
16
2.2 MR FLUIDS
When a magnetic field is applied to the fluid, particles in the fluid form
chains, and the suspension becomes like a semi-solid material in a few
millisecond. Under the magnetic field, an MR fluid behaves as a non-Newtonian
fluid with controllable viscosity. However, if the magnetic field is removed, the
suspension turns to a Newtonian fluid and the transition between these two phases
is highly reversible, which provides a unique feature of magnetic field
controllability of the flow of MR fluids. The chains form causes about 50 kPa of
yield stress depending on type of MR fluids in a few millisecond, the case creates
a resistance against the fluid flow. If a force is applied on the chains form, the
shape of the form changes in terms of magnitudes of the force and magnetic field.
The pressure reaction on MR fluid is called ‘‘MR effect’’. In figure as can be seen
that the particles are scattered randomly in the liquid carrier, when magnetic field
applied, the particle array in the direction of the magnetic flux lines to resist the
flow, and the chains form is changed in term of force applied to the particles.
Magnetic field in the gap, the fluid acts like a rigid body below dynamic
yield stress considering the Bingham plastic model. This plug region is called the
pre-yield. In the pre-yield region, the local shear stresses have not yet exceeded
17
the dynamic yield stress. When the local shear stresses exceed the dynamic yield
stress, these regions are called the post-yield region and then the fluid acts like a
viscous fluid. The pre- and post-yield regions are shown in figure with the
velocity profile. As can be seen in figure, the velocity profile is divided into three
regions.
Lei Zuo, Xiaoming Chen, Samir Nayfeh, 2011,Design And Analysis Of A New
Type Of Electromagnetic Damper With Increased Energy Density, learned:
In this section, we first present the concept of the proposed eddy current dampers,
and then derive an analytical model for its damping coefficient. Concept
Illustration: Alternative Arrangement of Magnetic Poles.
It is a common practice in the design o transformers or electromagnetic
motors to use laminated steel to reduce the eddy current losses. The reason is that
by splitting the conductor, we can increase the electrical resistance of the current
loops. In an eddy current damper, we would like to reduce the loop electrical
resistance; that is why the area of conductors is usually several times larger than
the area of the magnetic field. Inspired by the approach of “splitting the
conductor” to reduce the eddy current in transformer design, we can “split the
magnets” to increase the eddy current via alternating the magnetic poles. To
illustrate this idea, consider two extreme cases as follows. Figure1 as how’s a
moving conductor in a uniform magnetic field of the same width. In figure the
magnetic field is split into two with alternative pole directions. When the
18
conductor is moving at position as shown in the figure, instantaneous electric
charges are induced in both cases, as indicated in figure. However, eddy current
loop and damping exist only in second case, but not in first case. It is similar to
two identical batteries connected
Fig No 2.4 Illustration of two types of arrangements of magnetic field for eddy
current dampers: case a uniform magnetic field and case b alternating magnetic
field
19
Michael James Atherden,2004, Formula Sae Shock Absorber Design, The
University Of Queensland, discussed:
2.4.1 Manufacturability
For the design of the new damper to be feasible, the design must be such that it
can be manufactured, preferably in house at the university. As expressed
previously, dampers require exacting tolerances to be adhered to if quality items
are to be produced. The mechanical engineering workshop has the ability to
machine parts to average accuracy, such that I believe it would be possible to
manufacture a set of dampers with the current tooling.
2.4.2 Cost
The overall cost of the dampers can be reduced if careful consideration is given to
the component designs. One area where potential savings exist over purchased
dampers is in assembly, with students being able to assemble to units when the
components have been manufactured. An actual costing analysis of the damper
production will be performed after the design has been presented.
In Formula SAE competition, teams are required to complete a cost report
based on the competition rules. To summarize, purchased items must be costed at
recommended retail price, regardless if the team received a discount from the
supplier. For a manufactured item however, the cost of the item includes the raw
cost of the material, the machining operations included and the labour to machine
and assemble the component. If the team were to manufacture its own set of
dampers, significant savings could be made to the final cost of the car, a figure
worth 30/100 points for the cost event.
20
2.4.3 Durability
Dampers need to be designed with durability in mind as they from the compliant
link between the suspension and the chassis. As dampers are usually one of the
most expensive items on the vehicle, it is beneficial to be able to re-use them. To
be able to reuse the dampers, they should be designed such that major components
do not wear to the point where replacement is necessary. This may mean
increasing the weight of some components to extend their fatigue life and exerting
higher tolerances on machined parts, both of which increase the cost of the
damper.
2.4.6 Sealing
21
provided. Static seals usually consist of rubber O-rings fitting into machined
groves with specific dimensions as to provide sufficient ‘squish’ to form a seal.
Another type of seal often found in dampers is the sliding seal. Sliding seals are
used around the piston, the main shaft and possibly in the external reservoir. These
sliding seals usually perform dual functions, providing both a sealing surface and
axial support for the particular component.
22
relatively stiff to extension, controlling "rebound", which is the vehicle
response to energy stored in the springs; similarly, a series of valves
controlled by springs can change the degree of stiffness according to the
velocity of the impact or rebound. Specialized shock absorbers for racing
purposes may allow the front end of a dragster to rise with minimal
resistance under acceleration, then strongly resist letting it settle, thereby
maintaining a desirable rearward weight distribution for enhanced traction.
Some shock absorbers allow tuning of the ride via control of the valve by a
manual adjustment provided at the shock absorber. In more expensive
vehicles the valves may be remotely adjustable, offering the driver control
of the ride at will while the vehicle is operated. The ultimate control is
provided by dynamic valve control via computer in response to sensors,
giving both a smooth ride and a firm suspension when needed. Many
shock absorbers are pressurized with compressed nitrogen, to reduce the
tendency for the oil to cavitate under heavy use. This causes foaming
which temporarily reduces the damping ability of the unit. In very heavy
duty units used for racing or off-road use, there may even be a secondary
cylinder connected to the shock absorber to act as a reservoir for the oil
and pressurized gas.
5. In electrorheological fluid damper, an electric field changes the viscosity
of the oil. This principle allows semi-active dampers application in
automotive and various industries.
6. Other principles use magnetic field variation magneto rheological damper
which changes its fluid characteristics through an electromagnet.
7. Compression of a gas, for example pneumatic shock absorbers, which can
act like springs as the air pressure is building to resist the force on it. Once
the air pressure reaches the necessary maximum, air shock absorbers will
act like hydraulic shock absorbers. In aircraft landing gear air shock
absorbers may be combined with hydraulic damping to reduce bounce.
Such struts are called oleo struts (combining oil and air).
8. Inertial resistance to acceleration, for example prior to 1966 the Citroën
2CV had shock absorbers that damp wheel bounce with no external
23
moving parts. These consisted of a spring-mounted 3.5 kg (7.75 lb) iron
weight inside a vertical cylinder and are similar to, yet much smaller than
versions of the tuned mass dampers used on tall buildings.
9. Composite hydropneumatic devices which combine in a single device
spring action, shock absorption, and often also ride-height control, as in
some models of the Citroën automobile.
10. Conventional shock absorbers combined with composite pneumatic
springs which allow ride height adjustment or even ride height control,
seen in some large trucks and luxury sedans such as certain Lincoln and
most Land Rover automobiles. Ride height control is especially desirable
in highway vehicles intended for occasional rough road use, as a means of
improving handling and reducing aerodynamic drag by lowering the
vehicle when operating on improved high speed roads.
24
CHAPTER 3
PROBLEM STATEMENT
The automobile chassis is mounted on the axles, not direct but through some form
of springs. This is done to isolate the vehicle body from the road shocks which
may be in the form of bounce, pitch, roll or sway. These tendencies give rise to an
uncomfortable ride and also cause additional stress in the automobile frame and
body. All the parts which perform the function of isolating the automobile from
the road shocks are collectively called a suspension system. It includes the
springing device used and various mountings for the same.
Broadly speaking, suspension system consists of a spring and a damper.
The energy of road shock causes the spring to oscillate. These oscillations are
restricted to a reasonable level by the damper, which is more commonly called a
shock absorber.
A springing device must be a compromise between flexibility and
stiffness. Springs are placed between the road wheels and the body. When the
wheel comes across a bump on the road, it rises and deflects the spring, thereby
storing energy therein. On releasing, due to the elasticity of the spring material, it
rebounds thereby expending the stored energy. In this way springs starts vibrating,
of course, with amplitude decreasing gradually on account of internal friction of
the spring material and friction of the suspension joints, till vibrations die down.
The name Shock absorber is rather misleading since it is the spring and not
the shock absorber that initially absorbs the shocks. The ‘Shock Absorber’ absorbs
the energy of shock converted into vertical movement of the axle by providing
damping and dissipating the same into heat. Thus it merely serves to control the
amplitude and frequency of spring vibrations. It cannot support weight and has
zero resilience. Therefore, ‘Damper’ is a better term technically to describe the
‘Shock Absorber’.
In Magneto-rheological fluid type suspension system, fluid passes through
an orifice, which can be restricted by applying an electrical field across it. The
fluid consists of magnetically soft particles suspended in a synthetic fluid. When
current is applied to an electromagnetic coil inside the shock absorbers piston, the
25
resulting magnetic field changes the resistance of flow (rheology) of the fluid
which produces a very responsive and controllable damping action without any
valves. In the Magneto-suspension system, the damping effect is produced by the
theory of magnetic repulsion.
The fluidized damping system in the ‘Telescopic- shock absorbers’, is
replaced by the introduction of magnetic field. The magnets are placed in such a
way that, the mating surfaces are fitted with the same poles of magnet, thereby
producing the repulsive effect on the damper system
26
CHAPTER 4
COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION
1. Mechanical Component
2. Electrical Component
1. Frame Structure
2. Cylinder and Piston
3. Permanent Magnet
4. Coil Spring
4.1.1Frame Structure
It is just to support the shock absorber arrangement. The whole parts are fixed in
to this frame stand with suitable arrangement. It is made up of hollow MS pipes
which are cut and welded at desired positions.
A cylinder is the central working part of space in which a piston travels. It has two
heads. The top head accommodate the electromagnetic coil and core, which will
produce the repulsive force when excited. At the top head its just bored to increase
diameter, that will help to accommodate the electromagnet. Connection to the coil
is passed through the top hole that is drilled at the top.The material of cylinder is
usually mild steel, due to easy for machining
27
Fig.No 4.1 Cylinder top view
28
The piston is a cylindrical member of certain length which reciprocates
inside the cylinder. The diameter of the piston is slightly less than that of the
cylinder bore diameter and it is fitted to the top of the piston rod. It is one of the
important part which converts the pressure energy into repulsive force in this
shock absorber.
The piston is equipped with a ring suitably proportioned and it is relatively
soft rubber which is capable of providing good sealing with low friction at the
operating pressure. The purpose of piston is to provide means of conveying the
pressure.
The piston is double acting type. The piston moves forward when the high-
pressure air is turned from the right side of cylinder. The piston moves backward
when high pressure acts on the piston from the left side of the cylinder. The piston
should be as strong and rigid as possible.
The efficiency and economy of the machine primarily depends on the
working of the piston. It must operate in the cylinder with a minimum of friction
and should be able to withstand the high compressor force developed in the
cylinder and also the shock load during operation.
The piston should posses the following qualities.
1. The movement of the piston not creates much noise.
2. It should be frictionless.
3. It should withstand high pressure.
29
4.1.3 Permanent Magnet
30
Magnetic field: The magnetic field (usually denoted B) is a vector field. The
magnetic field vector at a given point in space is specified by two properties:
31
2 3
have a magnetic moment of magnitude 0.1 A·m and a volume of 1 cm , or
−6 3
1×10 m , and therefore an average magnetization magnitude is 100,000 A/m.
Iron can have a magnetization of around a million amperes per meter. Such a large
value explains why iron magnets are so effective at producing magnetic fields.
The permanent magnet used in this shock absorber is Neodymium magnet.
A neodymium magnet (also known as NdFeB, NIB or Neo magnet), the most
widely used type of rare-earth magnet, is a permanent magnet made from
an alloy of neodymium, iron and boron to form the
Nd2Fe14B tetragonal crystalline structure. Developed in 1982 by General
Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals, neodymium magnets are the strongest type
of permanent magnet commercially available. They have replaced other types of
magnet in the many applications in modern products that require strong permanent
magnets, such as motors in cordless tools, hard disk drives and magnetic fasteners.
product (BHmax), the density of magnetic energy; and Curie temperature (TC), the
temperature at which the material loses its magnetism. Neodymium magnets have
higher remanence, much higher coercivity and energy product, but often lower
Curie temperature than other types. Neodymium is alloyed
with terbium and dysprosium in order to preserve its magnetic properties at high
temperatures. The table below compares the magnetic performance of neodymium
magnets with other types of permanent magnets.
Fig. No 4.4 Neodymium magnet
32
Neodymium magnets are graded according to their maximum energy product,
which relates to the magnetic flux output per unit volume. Higher values indicate
stronger magnets and range from N35 up to N52. Letters following the grade
indicate maximum operating temperatures.
1. N35-N52
2. 33M-48M
3. 30H-45H
4. 30SH-42SH
5. 30UH-35UH
6. 28EH-35EH
Property Neodymium
33
Relative permeability 1.05
3
Density (g/cm ) 7.3–7.5
−6
CTE, magnetizing direction (1/K) 5.2×10
−6
CTE, normal to magnetizing direction (1/K) −0.8×10
2
Flexural strength (N/mm ) 250
2
Compressive strength (N/mm ) 1100
2
Tensile strength (N/mm ) 75
−6
Electrical resistivity (Ω·cm) (110–170)×10
34
4.1.4 Coil Spring
One type of coil spring is a torsion spring: the material of the spring acts in
torsion when the spring is compressed or extended. The quality of spring is judged
from the energy it can absorb. The spring which is capable of absorbing the
greatest amount of energy for the given stress is the best one. Metal coil springs
35
are made by winding a wire around a shaped former - a cylinder is used to form
cylindrical coil springs.
36
This spring is obtained from a dismantled fluid shock absorber. Two end
caps are made with sheets two cover the ends and attach with the piston rod. The
properties of the spring taken are follows:
37
4.2 ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
Electrical components are the other important parts of this system. These include:
1. Battery
2. Electromagnet
4.2.1 Battery
In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of
excess solar energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are
isolated sunshine load such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for
storage. In fact for small units with output less than one kilowatt. Batteries seem
to be the only technically and economically available storage means. Since both
the photo-voltaic system and batteries are high in capital costs. It is necessary that
the overall system be optimized with respect to available energy and local demand
pattern. To be economically attractive the storage of solar electricity requires a
battery with a particular combination of properties:
1. Low cost
2. Long life
3. High reliability
4. High overall efficiency
5. Low discharge
6. Minimum maintenance
a. Ampere hour efficiency
b. Watt hour efficiency
We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar
panel for lighting the street and so about the lead acid cells are explained below.
Since the shock absorber is installed in automobile, the easy power source
will be the rechargeable battery. It will recharge automatically when engine is on.
Usually 12V batteries are available for the use. And current will vary. Two
wheelers have 7A and four wheelers have 40A. We use a 7a battery for this
demonstration purpose.
38
Fig. No 4.6 Battery
Feature Data
Voltage 12V
Current 40A
Type 50B20R
Table No 4.2 Battery Specifications
39
4.2.2 Electromagnet
The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found
from a form of the right-hand rule. If the fingers of the right hand are curled
around the coil in the direction of current flow (conventional current, flow of
positive charge) through the windings, the thumb points in the direction of the
field inside the coil. The side of the magnet that the field lines emerge from is
defined to be the North Pole.
40
The cost of an electric machine depends upon its size and weight and
primarily on the weight of magnetic and conducting materials as these being most
costly ones. The weight of the magnetic materials is influenced by the size of the
magnetic circuit of the machine. To a great extent, the size and the weighty of the
machine depends upon the assigned values of specific magnetic loading, which is
limited by the saturation and core losses of the magnetic materials used in the
machine. However an increased value of specific magnetic loading could be
assigned for designing an electrical machine, provided the magnetic materials has
a comparatively higher saturation limit and lower core losses per kg of the
material.
The wire itself is most often fully annealed, electrolytically refined copper.
Aluminium magnet wire is sometimes used for large transformers and motors. An
aluminium wire must have 1.6 times the cross sectional area as a copper wire to
41
achieve comparable DC resistance. Due to this, copper magnet wires contribute to
improving energy efficiency in equipment such as electric motors. Smaller
diameter magnet wire usually has a round cross section. This kind of wire is used
for things such as electric guitar pickups. Thicker magnet wire is often square or
rectangular (with rounded corners) to provide more current flow per coil length.
Although described as "enameled", enameled wire is not, in fact, coated with
either a layer of enamel paint nor with vitreous enamel made of fused glass
powder. Modern magnet wire typically uses one to four layers (in the case of
quad-film type wire) of polymer film insulation, often of two different
compositions, to provide a tough, continuous insulating layer. Magnet wire
insulating films use (in order of increasing temperature range) polyvinyl formal
(Formvar), polyurethane, polyamide, polyester, polyester-polyimide, polyamide-
polyimide (or amide-imide), and polyimide. Polyimide insulated magnet wire is
capable of operation at up to 250°C. The insulation of thicker square or
rectangular magnet wire is often augmented by wrapping it with a high-
temperature polyimide or fiberglass tape, and completed windings are often
vacuum impregnated with an insulating varnish to improve insulation strength and
long-term reliability of the winding.
For ease of manufacturing, most new magnet wire has insulation that acts
[1]
as a flux (metallurgy) when burnt during soldering. This means that the
electrical connections at the ends can be made without stripping off the insulation
first. Older magnet wire is normally not like this, and requires sandpapering or
scraping to remove the insulation before soldering.
42
Why must use an insulated copper wire for coils of an electromagnet? A
single coil of wire produces an electromagnetic field. Multiple coils add their
electromagnetic fields together for a stronger field. Using uninsulated copper wire
in the coils would resemble a single large coil because current would not flow
evenly through all the copper wires. Also, without insulation the resistance to the
flow of electricity would be reduced to near zero drawing too much current and
perhaps blowing a fuse or tripping a circuit breaker. E = IR and I = E/R, I
(current) is equal to E (voltage)/R(resistance) and I is large if R is small for a
given voltage.
The use of a magnetic core can enormously concentrate the strength and
increase the effect of magnetic fields produced by electric currents and permanent
magnets. The properties of a device will depend crucially on the following factors:
43
energy losses in applications such as transformers. Therefore 'soft' magnetic
materials with low hysteresis, such as silicon steel, rather than the 'hard' magnetic
materials used for permanent magnets, are usually used in cores.
Air core: A coil not containing a magnetic core is called an air core coil. This includes
coils wound on a plastic or ceramic form in addition to those made of stiff wire that
are self-supporting and have air inside them. Air core coils generally have a much
lower inductance than similarly sized ferromagnetic core coils, but are used in radio
frequency circuits to prevent energy losses called core losses that occur in magnetic
cores. The absence of normal core losses permits a higher Q factor, so air core coils
are used in high frequency resonant circuits, such as up to
a few megahertz. However, losses such as proximity effect and dielectric losses
are still present.
The presence of the high permeability core increases the inductance but
the field must still spread into the air at the ends of the rod. The path through the
air ensures that the inductor remains linear. In this type of inductor radiation
occurs at the end of the rod and electromagnetic interference may be a problem in
some circumstances.
Single "I" core: Like a cylindrical rod but square, rarely used on its own. This type
of core is most likely to be found in car ignition coils.
"C" or "U" core: U and C-shaped cores are used with I or another C or U core to
make a square closed core, the simplest closed core shape. Windings may be put
on one or both legs of the core.
"E" core: E-shaped core are more symmetric solutions to form a closed magnetic
system. Most of the time, the electric circuit is wound around the center leg,
44
whose section area is twice that of each individual outer leg. A core shape derived
from E shape is used in this model.
1. Hysteresis - When the magnetic field through the core changes, the
magnetization of the core material changes by expansion and
contraction of the tiny magnetic domains it is composed of, due to
movement of the domain walls. This process causes losses, because the
domain walls get "snagged" on defects in the crystal structure and then
"snap" past them, dissipating energy as heat. This is called hysteresis loss.
It can be seen in the graph of the B field versus the H field for the material,
which has the form of a closed loop. The amount of energy lost in the
material in one cycle of the applied field is proportional to the area inside
the hysteresis loop. Since the energy lost in each cycle is constant,
hysteresis power losses increase proportionally with frequency.
2. Eddy currents - If the core is electrically conductive, the changing
magnetic field induces circulating loops of current in it, called eddy
currents, due to electromagnetic induction. The loops flow perpendicular
to the magnetic field axis. The energy of the currents is dissipated as heat
in the resistance of the core material. The power loss is proportional to the
area of the loops and inversely proportional to the resistivity of the core
material. Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core out of
thin laminations which have an insulating coating, or alternately, making
the core of a nonconductive magnetic material, like ferrite.
45
Having no magnetically active core material (an "air core") provides very low
inductance in most situations, so a wide range of high-permeability materials are
used to concentrate the field. Most high-permeability material are ferromagnetic
or ferrimagnetic. The most common core materials are follows:
It is also used because, unlike "hard" iron, it does not remain magnetized
when the field is removed, which is often important in applications where the
magnetic field is required to be repeatedly switched. Unfortunately, due to the
electrical conductivity of the metal, at AC frequencies a bulk block or rod of soft
iron can often suffer from large eddy currents circulating within it that waste
energy and cause undesirable heating of the iron.
Two techniques are commonly used together to increase the resistivity of iron:
lamination and alloying of the iron with silicon.
Lamination:
46
Laminated magnetic cores are made of thin, insulated iron sheets, lying, as much
as possible, parallel with the lines of flux. Using this technique, the magnetic core
is equivalent to many individual magnetic circuits, each one receiving only a
small fraction of the magnetic flux (because their section is a fraction of the whole
core section). Because eddy currents flow around lines of flux, the laminations
prevent most of the eddy currents from flowing at all, restricting any flow to much
smaller and thinner and thus higher resistance regions. From this, it can be seen
that the thinner the laminations, the lower the eddy currents. This type of plates
are used here to make the core materials.
Among the two types of silicon steel, grain-oriented (GO) and grain non-
oriented (GNO), GO is most desirable for magnetic cores. It is anisotropic,
offering better magnetic properties than GNO in one direction. As the magnetic
field in inductor and transformer cores is static (compared to that in electric
motors), it is possible to use GO steel in the preferred orientation.
Carbonyl iron: Powdered cores made of carbonyl iron, a highly pure iron, have
high stability of parameters across a wide range of temperatures and magnetic flux
levels, with excellent Q factors between 50 kHz and 200 MHz. Carbonyl iron
powders are basically constituted of micrometer-size spheres of iron coated in a
thin layer of electrical insulation. This is equivalent to a microscopic laminated
magnetic circuit (see silicon steel, above), hence reducing the eddy currents,
particularly at very high frequencies.
Iron powder: Powdered cores made of hydrogen reduced iron have higher
permeability but lower Q. They are used mostly for electromagnetic
47
interference filters and low-frequency chokes, mainly in switched-mode power
supplies.
Ferrite: Ferrite ceramics are used for high-frequency applications. The ferrite
materials can be engineered with a wide range of parameters. As ceramics, they
are essentially insulators, which prevents eddy currents, although losses such as
hysteresis losses can still occur.
Soft iron has a far greater magnetic permeability than steel. Meaning it
provides a stronger magnetic field for a given magnetization current (up to
saturation).
It has a much lower retentivity than steel - when the current is switched off the
remaining field strength is very weak (objects held by iron will be released , but
probably held by the significant 'permanent' field retained by steel). That’s why
soft iron core is used for core material.
During the last few years, considerable developments have place in the
field of magnetic materials. Presently magnetic materials having very high
permeability’s and low specific iron losses are available. These materials are much
superior and result into a reduced size of the machine with a lower overall cost. As
such they are replacing the poor magnetic materials previously used in electrical
machines. The most suitable magnetic materials for electrical machines, which
give a considerable reduction in size and cost, are silicon steel of various grades.
48
Fig No 4.9 Electromagnet
F= (B²A)/ (2μₒ)
magnetic field path is in the core material and length L gap is in air gaps, Ampere's
Law reduces to:
Where
For a closed magnetic circuit (no air gap), such as would be found in an
electromagnet lifting a piece of iron bridged across its poles, equation becomes:
B= (NIμ)/L
49
F= (μ²N²I²A)/(2μₒL²)
The above methods are inapplicable when most of the magnetic field path
is outside the core. For electromagnets (or permanent magnets) with well defined
'poles' where the field lines emerge from the core, the force between two
electromagnets can be found using the 'Gilbert model' which assumes the
magnetic field is produced by fictitious 'magnetic charges' on the surface of the
poles, with pole strength m and units of Ampere-turn meter. Magnetic pole
strength of electromagnets can be found from:
50
Calculating the attractive or repulsive force between two magnets is, in the
general case, an extremely complex operation, as it depends on the shape,
magnetization, orientation and separation of the magnets. The Gilbert model does
depend on some knowledge of how the 'magnetic charge' is distributed over the
magnetic poles. It is only truly useful for simple configurations even then.
Fortunately, this restriction covers many useful cases.
For two cylindrical magnets with radius , and height , with their
magnetic dipole aligned and the distance between them greater than a certain
limit, the force can be well approximated (even at distances of the order of ) by,
51
CHAPTER 5
Electromagnet is made by winding the insulated copper coil around the soft iron
piece. To end of the coil is leads to connections. The permanent magnet is
attached at the centre of piston head, with adhesives. According to the outside pole
of the permanent magnet electromagnet is connected to the battery, such that the
poles are identical and repel each other when comes closer. After that cylinder and
piston are arranged. Then the spring is aligned on the piston rod with end covers.
And fixed on the frame.
52
Since we have no exact equation to find the repulsive force between two
non identical magnet, its assumed that both magnets have shape, size, magnetic
force approximately same. For two cylindrical magnets with radius , and height
, with their magnetic dipole aligned and the distance between them greater than a
certain limit, the force can be well approximated (even at distances of the order of
) by,
53
Length of core, L = 6cm
Force, F = 300.48N
When x =x1
i.e., x =3cm, Repulsive force will be maximum
Fmax = 4.23×10^-6 N
When x =x2
i.e., x =10 cm, Repulsive force will be minimum
Fmin = 3.748×10^-7 N
54
5.3 CRITICAL DAMPING COEFFICIENT
=2 ( )
=329.35
55
Fig No 5.4 Damper
56
5.5 BILLING
1
Cylinder & Piston 1 650
2
Coil Spring 1 250
3
Neodymium Magnet 1 350
4
Copper Coil 10mtrs 100
5
Insulated plate 15 30
6
Wire 3mtrs 20
7 100
Machining cost
Total, ₹ 1500
57
CHAPTER 6
SCOPE AND FUTURE OF PROJECT
The riding comfort ability is one of the main factors that considered in designing.
Shock absorbers, linear dampers, and dashpots are devices designed to provide
absorption of shock and smooth deceleration in linear motion applications. The
road conditions are different at places. An automobile is designed to perform best
at all places. Suspension system will help to maintain better stability at any state.
Hydraulic and gas charged shock absorbers are commonly used now a days. But at
severe shock load the hydraulic shock absorbers may fail. The fluids get leaked.
So in introducing magnets in the shock absorber to provide damping effect is an
efficient method.
During the shock loads the damper will absorbs the energy, in case of the
fluidic type it take time. These create an unstable condition. And the passengers
want to suffer its after effects. In case of racing cars, the loads are suddenly
fluctuating type and the vibrations wants to remove as soon as possible. General
principle similar poles deflect; can be applied to absorb the damping effect by
providing the magnets. And there is no contact between parts inside the damper,
so the friction is negligible.
The absence of conductive medium will also help to remove hysteresis
effect. The design can be varied to the required conditions and the component
such as electromagnets are available on the requirement. While considering the
additional cost for fabrication it’s not large when compared with the performance.
The levitation based researches are presently takes place. So more improved
magnetic parts will be available easily in future.
Actually now it’s a conceptual model. We are not included the features
such as sensor to detect the deflection of the coil spring. Depending on the
deflection magnetic field with required strength can be induced, that will help to
make the repulsive force to dampen the shock loads in few seconds. During this
project we had studied various method of suspension system, using the magnetic
properties.
58
We had noticed that when any two leads of the three phase induction
motor were shorted then we had to apply more force to rotate the shaft. If it is
coupled with the suspension system like a torque arm suspension system, we can
damper the force without any expenditure of energy. The only requirement will be
the shorting circuit. We hope these high performance suspension systems will
incorporate in coming generation vehicles, which will remove the defects caused
by the current models.
59
REFERENCES
60
11. Michael James Atherden,2004, Formula Sae Shock Absorber Design, The
University Of Queensland, BE thesis, 51-54
12. Bogdan Sapinski,2009, Magnetorheological Damper in Vibrational
Control of Mechanical Structures, Mechanics,Vol 1, No 1,18-25
61