Limit State Design

Introduction
The object of reinforced concrete design is to achieve a structure that will result in a safe and
economical solution. For a given structural system, the design problem consists of the
following steps:-
i. Idealisation of structure for analysis
ii. Estimation of loads
iii. Analysis of idealised structural model to determine axial thrust, shears, bending moment
and deflection.
iv. Design of idealized structure for above forces.
v. Detail Structural drawings and schedule of reinforcing bar.
There are three philosophies for the design of R.C. structure, prestressed concrete and steel
structures:-
a) Working Stress Method
b) Ultimate Load Method
c) Limit State Method
The working stress method was the principal method prevalent in use from the early 1900’s
until early 1960’s. Later on the ultimate load method came into use because of its more rational
approach. Recently, there has been a transition to the limit state method because of its still
rational approach which has overcome one the most serious drawbacks of the ultimate load
method. IS 456:2000 is basically a limit state design code which has however retained the
working stress method for the time being. IS 1343: 2012 code for design of prestress concrete
structures is also based on limit state design philosophy. It is believed that the working stress
method will disappear from practice and elastic concept will be mainly used in the computation
of deflection etc. in working stress method.

Working Stress Method

 The basics of the method is that the permissible stress in concrete and steel are not
exceeded anywhere in the structure when it is subjected to worst combination of
working loads.
 The method can be expressed as

R
>L
μ

µ= Factor of safety (3 for concrete and 1.78 for Steel)

R= Resistance of structural element
L= Working load on the structural element

 The main drawbacks of the method are:

 i. Concrete is not elastic as assumed in the method. The actual stress distribution in a
concrete section can be described as a triangular stress diagram.
ii. Since F.O.S. is on the stresses under working loads there is no way to account for
different degree of uncertainty associated with different types of loads. With elastic
theory it is impossible to determine the actual F.O.S. with respect to loads.
iii. It is difficult to account for shrinkage and creep by calculation of elastic stresses.

Ultimate Load Method

 Working loads are increased by suitable factors to obtain ultimate loads. The factors
are called load factors. The structure is then designed to resist the desired ultimate load.
This method takes into account nonlinear behaviour of concrete.

Collapse Load or Ultimate load

 Load Factor =
Working Load

Yield Stress
Whereas; F.O.S. =
Permissible Stress

 The ultimate load design method can be expressed as;

R>λL
R = Resistance of structural element
λ = Load Factor (>1)
L = Working load on structural element

 The structure design by this method required less reinforcement bars than the design by
working stress method. However,
 The main drawbacks are :
i. Since Load factor is used on working loads, there is no way to account for different
degrees of uncertainty associated with variation of material stress, and
ii. There is complete disregard for control against excessive deflection.

Limit State Method

Limit state design has been originated from ultimate or plastic design. The object of design
based on the limit state concept is to achieve an acceptable probability that a structure will not
become unserviceable in its life time for the use for which it is intended, that is, it will not reach
a limit state. A structure with appropriate degree of reliability should be able to withstand safety
all loads that are liable to act on it throughout its life and it should also satisfy serviceability
requirement, such as, limitations on deflection and cracking. Further, it should be able to
maintain required structural integrity during and after accidents such as fire, explosion and
local failures. In other words all relevant limit states must be considered in the design to ensure
an adequate degree of safety and serviceability. The most important of these limit state which
must be examine in the design are:
 a) Limit State of Collapse
The limit state of collapse of the structure or past of the structure could be assessed
from rupture of one or more critical section and from buckling due to elastic or plastic
instability or overturning or fatigue etc. The resistance to bending, shear, torsion and
axial loads at every section shall not be less than the appropriate values at that section
produced by the probable most unfavourable combination of loads on the structure
using appropriate partial safety factors.
This state is corresponding to max. load carrying capacity. Violation of collapse
limit state implies failure in the sense that a clearly defined limit state of structural
usefulness has been exceeded. However, it does not mean a complete collapse. This
limit state may correspond to:
 Flexure
 Compression
 Shear
 Torsion

b) Limit State of Serviceability

This state corresponds to development of excessive deformation and is used for
cracking members in which magnitude of deformation may limit the use of the structure
or its components. The limit state correspond to:
 Deflection
 Cracking
 Vibration
The limit state concept of design of R.C. Structures takes into account the
probabilistical and structural variation in the material properties, loads and safety factor. This
state of collapse can be expressed as:

µ𝑅 > ∑ 𝜆𝑖 𝐿𝑖
𝑖=1

R = Resistance or Capacity of Structure

L = Characterises the load acting on it like D.L., L.L., W.L. etc.
µ<1
λ>1
i = Type of load
The randomness in the resistance are arise due to variation in material properties,
workmanship, and assumptions made in theory of design. The safety factor µ<1 reflects
uncertainties associated with R.
The randomness in the evaluation of different loads Li arise due to non-availability of
sufficient and reliable different data. λ.> 1 reflects uncertainties associated with different type
of loads.
In the limit state of concept of design of R.C. Structures the factors µ and λ are called partial
safety factors.
Typical stress strain distribution in a rectangular section are:

Stress Strain curve for Limit State Design

Where, σck = Characteristic strength of concrete

K = Safety Factor
The limit state of serviceability can be expressed as;
𝛿 1
≤
𝐿 𝛼
δ = deflection
L = Length or height or span of structural element
α = A non-dimensional number
For determining deformation, service loads are used i.e. load factor are not included. The
deflection are significance at service loads rather than at collapse.

Characteristic Strength
The characteristic strength σck means that value of strength of material below which not more
than 5% of the test result are expected to fall. The same definition is used for both concrete and
steel. The strength is usually expressed by the 28 days cube strength of concrete and yield or
0.2% proof stress σy of reinforcement.
Characteristic Load
It is that value of load which has a 95% probability of not being exceeded during the life of a
structure. Loads like D.L., L.L., W.L., and EQ.L. given by I.S. Codes regarded as characteristic
loads.
Design Values
a) Material
A factor is used to allow for the possible difference material strength obtained in the actual
structure and the characteristic strength. It allows for variation in workmanship or quality
control in the manufacture of material and reduces the characteristic strength to lower value
known as design strength. This design strength σd of the materials is given by;

𝜎𝑘
𝜎𝑑 =
µ𝑚

σk = characteristic strength of material

µm = partial safety factor appropriate to material

b) Loads
Factor are also used to allow for the possible difference in the loads that may actually come on
the structure as compared to their characteristic value. The design load wd is:
Wd = λ w k
Wk = Characteristic load
λ = Partial safety factor appropriate to nature of loading

Partial Safety Factors:

The value of partial safety factor µm for material strength take into consideration the following
factor:
a) Possibility of derivation of strength of material-
The material of actual structure may be weaker than the actual characteristic value.
b) Derivation of the sectional dimensions.
c) Accuracy of calculation procedure
d) Risk to life and economic consequences.
e) Constructional faults like inadequate curing or compaction, bad weather etc.
f) Corrosion during life time of a structure.
The value of µm = 1.5 for concrete and µm = 1.15 for steel are taken.
When a structure is designed for wind or earthquake, the permissible stresses in concrete and
1
steel may be increased by 33 3 %. This increase is applicable in elastic method and not in limit
state design.
The value of partial safety factor λ for loads takes into consideration factors like:
 i. Unusual increase in load beyond that used for deriving characteristic values.
ii. Unforeseen stress distribution.
iii. Inaccurate assessment of effect of loading.
iv. Importance of limit state considered.
The value of partial safety factor for loads under different conditions are given below:
Load Limit state of collapse Limit state of serviceability
combination D.L. L.L. W.L. D.L. L.L. W.L.
D.L.+ L.L. 1.5 1.5 - 1.0 1.0 -
D.L. + W.L. 1.5 - 1.5 1.0 - 1.0
D.L. + W.L. 0.9 - 1.5 - - -
D.L.+L.L.+W.L. 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8

This condition is considered when stability against overturning or stress reversal is critical.

Factored Loads
A factored load is obtained by multiplying a characteristic load by an appropriate partial safety
factor. This factored load is used to calculate factored B.M., factored S.F., factored thrust etc.
BM, SF and thrust can be calculated on the basis of characteristic load values and factored
values can be obtained by multiplying them by appropriate partial safety factor.

Stress Strain Relationship for Concrete

The mechanical properties of concrete and, thus, the stress-strain relationship is influenced by
factors like:
i. Type of aggregate and concrete mix
ii. Strength of concrete
iii. Age of concrete
iv. Shape and size of concrete specimen
v. Creep
The experimental stress strain curve for concrete is very complicated and code has idealised it
as shown in figure. For design purpose; the compressive strength of concrete is taken as 0.67
times the characteristic strength. The partial safety factor µm is then applied. The factor 0.67 is
introduced to account for the difference in strength indicated by a cube test and the strength of
concrete in the structure. The curve is parabolic upto 0.2 % strain. At 0.2% strain, the stress
remain constant with increasing load until a strain of 0.35% is reached when the concrete is
said to have failed.
 Idealised stress-strain curve for concrete

Stress-strain relationship for steel

For mild steel, stress is proportional to strain upto yield point and there after strain increases
at constant stress as shown. The E-value of steel is given by slope and is equal to 200
kN/mm2. For mild steel, the change from elastic to plastic condition is abrupt, whereas, for
high strength bars, the change is quite gradual. The stress is proportional to stain upto a stress
0.8σd.
Recently, SAIL has introduced a new high strength micro alloy steel being marked as SAIL-
MA, having a definite yield point;
Yield Stress (N/mm2)
SAIL-MA: 300 Hy 300
SAIL-MA: 350 Hy 350
SAIL-MA: 410 Hy 410
SAIL-MA: 450 Hy 450
 Limit State of Collapse: Flexure

Bending of Beams
If a reinforcement concrete beam is subjected to a monotonously increasing load, it will
undergo three distinct stages before complete failure, as
i. Uncracked concrete stage- elastic stress
ii. Cracked concrete stage – elastic stage
iii. Ultimate strength stage

Moment curvature relation at a section

Uncracked Concrete Stage

At, small loads, the maximum tensile stress in concrete is less than its modulus of rupture.
The entire section behaves as a homogeneous section with compression on one side and
tension o other. Bending stress can be calculated as
σ M E
= =
y Iyr R

M = BM which is less than or equal to cracked moment of section

bD3
Iyr = gross moment of inertia = 12

Similarly, cracking moment can be obtained using a maximum tensile stress equal to modulus
of rupture of concrete i.e.
 σcr Igr
Mcr =
yt

σcr = 0.7√fck

Curvature at cracking can be obtained from strain diagram as shown

Cracking Concrete Stage:

When the load is gradually increased such that bending moment > cracking moment of the
section; it is assume that all of the concrete on tension side has cracked and reinforcing bars
begins to take tensile stresses induced by applied moment. Since, bond between concrete and
steel at, a given level, strains in concrete and steel are equal and their stresses are in
proportion to ratio of their E value search sections are designed by working stress design
method.

Ultimate strength Stage:

When the load is further increased such that stress in tensile steel exceeds its field stress at a
given section, it is assumed that section is reached to its ultimate or collapse stage. The
failure occurs as soon as concrete strain in compression becomes equal to the analysis of such
a section is carried out using the ultimate strength or limit state design method.

Assumptions:
The design of RC section for limit state of collapse in bending is based on the following
assumptions

(a) Pain section normal to the axis remain plane after bending
(b) The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression fibre is taken as 0.35
present in bending regardless of strength of concrete.
(c) The relationship between stress-strain distributions in concrete is assumed to be parabolic
as shown the maximum compressive stress is equal to 0.67fck/1.50 or 0.446fck.
(d) The tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
(e) The stress in reinforcement is derived from the representative stress strain curve for the
type of Steel used.
(f) The maximum strain in tension reinforcement in the section at failure should not be less
than following:

𝜎𝑦
ε𝑠 ≥ + 0.002
1.15 𝐸𝑠
σy = Characteristic stress in steel
Es = Modulus of elasticity of steel
εs = Strain in steel at failure

Moment of resistance-
Referring above figure:
Maximum compressive stresses in concrete without partial safety factor = k1*σck
= 0.67σck
The death of parabolic portion of stress block can be obtained as;

0.0035 0.002
=
𝑥 𝑥1

Or
0.002 × 𝑥 4𝑥
𝑥1= =
0.0035 7
Similarly; depth of rectangular portion of stress block is
0.0035 0.0035 − 0.002
=
𝑥 𝑥2
Or
0.0035 − 0.002 3𝑥
𝑥2 = 𝑥=
0.0035 7

Force in compression in parabolic stress block

 2
𝑐1 = × 𝑥1 𝑘1 𝜎𝑐𝑘 𝑏
3
2 4𝑥
= × 0.67𝜎𝑐𝑘 𝑏
3 7
= 0.255 σck b 𝑥
Force of compression in rectangular stress block
𝑐2 = 𝑥2 × 𝑘1 𝜎𝑐𝑘
3𝑥
= 0.67𝜎𝑐𝑘 𝑏
7
= 0.278𝜎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥
Total force of compression in concrete
𝑐 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2
(0.255 + 0.278)𝜎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥
If partial safety factor µm on concrete = 1.5;
Design force of compression
𝑐𝑜 0.542 𝜎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥
𝑐= =
𝜇𝑚 1.5
𝑐 = 0.36 𝜎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥
If ‘a’ be the distance of line of action of force of compression from extreme top fibre;
3 𝑥
𝑐1 (8 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) + 𝑐2 22
𝑎=
𝑐𝑜
3 4 3 1 3
[0.255 (8 × 7 + 7) + 0.287 × 2 × 7] 𝜎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥 2
=
0.542𝜎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥
= 0.416x
= 0.42x
x = depth of neutral axis from extreme compression fibre
The depth of neutral axis can now be calculated by considering equilibrium of normal forces
i.e. equating resultant force of compression to resultant force of tension.
⸫ Resultant force of compression = resultant force of tension
Average stress × area = 0.87 σy At
0.36 σck b x = 0.87 σy At
 0.87 𝜎𝑦 𝐴𝑡
𝑥=
0.36 𝜎𝑐𝑘 b
Now; Lever arm z = d- 0.42x

0.87 𝜎𝑦 𝐴𝑡
= 𝑑 − 0.42 ( )
0.36 𝜎𝑐𝑘 b
Or
𝜎𝑦 𝐴𝑡
𝑧 =𝑑−
𝜎𝑐𝑘 𝑏
⸫ Moment of resistance w. r. t. concrete
= compression force × Lever arm
= 0.36 σck b x z
Moment of resistance w.r.t. steel
= Tensile stress × Lever arm
= 0.87 σy At z

Modes of Failure;
i. Balance reinforced beam = Sudden failure
ii. Under reinforced beam = Amount of steel is less than that in case of balance section
Tension failure
iii. Over reinforced beam = Amount of steel is more than in balanced conditions
Compression failure

Maximum depth of neutral axis

A compression failure is a brittle failure. The maximum depth of neutral axis is to be limited
to ensure that tensile steel will reach its yield stress before concrete fails in compression, thus
a brittle failure is avoided. The limiting value of depth of neutral axis xm for different grades
of steel can be obtained from strain diagram as;
𝑥𝑚 0.0035
=
𝑑 − 𝑥𝑚 0.87𝜎𝑦
𝐸𝑠 + 0.002
Or
0.87𝜎𝑦
𝑑 − 𝑥𝑚 𝐸𝑠 + 0.002
=
𝑥𝑚 0.0035
 0.87𝜎𝑦
𝑑 𝐸𝑠 + 0.002
=1+[ ]
𝑥𝑚 0.0035

0.87𝜎𝑦
𝑑 𝐸𝑠 + 0.0055
=
𝑥𝑚 0.0035
Or
𝑥𝑚 0.0035
=
𝑑 0.87𝜎𝑦
𝐸𝑠 + 0.0055
The value of xm for these grades of steel are:
σy (N/mm2) xm
250 0.53d
415 0.48d
500 0.46d
Since the maximum depth of neutral axis is limited; the maximum value of moment of
resistance is also limited. For a singly reinforced section;
Mlim w.r.t. concrete = 0.36 σck b x z
= 0.36 σck b xm (d-0.42xm)

Mlim w.r.t. steel = 0.87 σy At (d- 0.42 xm)

⸫ For Fe250 steel;
Mlim = 0.36 σck b × 0.53 d × d (1-0.42×0.53)
= 0.148 σck bd2
Similarly: For Fe 415; Mlim = 0.138 σck bd2
For Fe 500; Mlim = 0.133 σck bd2
The percentage of tensile reinforcement corresponding to limiting moment of resistance as;
0.87 σy At = 0.36 σck b xm

0.36 𝜎𝑐𝑘 b 𝑥𝑚
At =
0.87 𝜎𝑦
Minimum and Maximum Tension Reinforcement
Clause 25.5.1.1 of IS:456 specifies that the minimum area of tension steel Ao and the
following;
𝐴𝑜 0.85
=
𝑏𝑑 𝜎𝑦

Further, maximum Ast ≯ 4% of gross area

Types of Problems
𝑥 𝑥𝑚
a) For under reinforcement section; < i.e. x< xm
𝑑 𝑑
The MR is calculated as;

0.87 𝜎𝑦 𝐴𝑡
i. 𝑥= 0.36 𝜎𝑐𝑘 𝑏
𝜎𝑦 𝐴𝑡
ii. 𝑧 =𝑑−𝜎
𝑐𝑘 𝑏
iii. 𝑀𝑢 = 0.87 𝜎𝑦 𝐴𝑡 𝑧

𝜎𝑦 𝐴𝑡
Or 𝑀𝑢 = 0.87 𝜎𝑦 𝐴𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝜎 )
𝑐𝑘 𝑏

b) For balance section; x = xm

The MR is calculated as;

i. x = xm
ii. z = d- 0.42 xm
iii. Mu= 0.36 σck b xm (d-0.42xm)
Or Mu = 0.87 σy At (d- 0.42 xm)

𝑥 𝑥𝑚
c) For over reinforced section; 𝑑 > 𝑑
The MR is calculated on the basis of concrete
i. x = xm
ii. z = d- 0.42 xm
iii. Mu= 0.36 σck b xm (d-0.42xm)